What Is Vibration? Explained

What Is Vibration?
Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It can also be

referred to as a "cyclical" movement
What Is Vibration Caused By?

Imperfections in the Machine:
Design Assembly
Manufacture Operation
Installation Maintenance
What Are Some Common Machine Problems
That Generate Mechanical Vibration:
Misalignment Unbalance
Worn belts & pulleys Bearing Defects
Hydraulic Forces Aerodynamic Forces
Reaction Forces Reciprocating Forces
Bent Shafts Rubbing
Gear Problems Housing Distortion
Certain Electrical Problems Frictional Forces
What Are Some Common Machine Problems
That Amplify Mechanical Vibration (But Don't Cause It):
Resonance Looseness
Why Do We Measure Vibration ?

1. Assess the condition (primarily the bearings) of a machine.
By performing this task effectively, we can eliminate
catastrophic failures due to component degradation.
2. Diagnose the root cause(s) of any excessive (destructive)
vibration. By performing this task effectively, we can extend the
life of bearings and other components that are absorbing the
stresses and fatiguing forces that are causing the symptom of
excessive vibration.
It should be understood that short-term event-based failures
(i.e. loss of lubrication, sudden fracture of a component, etc.)
are not protected against via any program that only collects
data periodically. The time between onset and failure in these
cases - which are rare - may take only minutes (in extreme
cases), hours, days or weeks. For example, many programs are
based on monthly data collection. Any event occurring during
that month interval may cause failure prior to the next data
collection. This is not a failure of the program or the technology
any more than driving a fork truck into a machine and
destroying it is. The good news is that the vast majority of
potential and actual failures will NOT fall into this category and
DO lend themselves to being detected, monitored and corrected
through a well-run vibration program.
What Does The Transducer Actually Detect ?
Actual Bearing A Transducer Mounted

A Transducer Mounted
Movement:
Horizontally "Sees" Only
Elliptical Vertically "Sees" Only
Horizontal Movement
Vertical Movement
What Vibration "Characteristics" Do
We Measure ?
Amplitude Tells Us:
How Much Movement Occurs

What Vibration "Characteristics" Do We
Measure ?
Frequency Tells Us:
How Often The Movement Occurs

(How many "cycles" in a period of time: a second or a minute)
What Vibration "Characteristics" Do We
Measure ?
Phase Tells Us:
In What Direction Is The Movement

(Relative To Other Locations On The Machine At A Given
Moment In Time)
Conventions
What Are "Conventions" ?
Bearing Nnumbering (Position) Conventions
Position Naming Conventions
Directional Conventions
o Belt Drives
o Vertical Units
What Are "Conventions" ?
Conventions are standards that you set or adopt that apply to
every machine and application in the program. These
conventions simplify training of new personnel and make sure
everyone involved in the program is on the same page. There
are at least three basic conventions that should be set up. They
are:
1. Bearing Numbering ("Positions")
2. Position Naming
3. Direction Definitions
Common Bearing Numbering Conventions
Most programs use numbers to identify bearings. Some
use letters instead. By FAR the most common convention
is to begin the numbering (or lettering) on the non-drive
end of the "driver" component (motor, turbine, etc.). That
bearing will be denoted as Position "1", or Position "A".
Following the drive train in a logical manner, the next
bearing reached will be Position "2" or "B". That bearing
will be found at the drive end of the motor or turbine (the
driver component).
Continuing to logically follow the drive train, the next
bearing reached will be Position "3" or "C". This bearing
will almost certainly be on the "driven" component.
With a typical 4-bearing machine, the last bearing reached
would be Position "4" or "D".
The image below shows a typical 4-bearing, belt driven fan with
the bearings numbered.
Common Bearing
Numbering
Conventions
What about components that
have more than 2 bearings such
as gearboxes. The image at right
(which does NOT show the motor
containing bearings 1 & 2) shows
a typical numbering convention
for components with more than 2
bearings. Again, it is based on
following the drive train in a
logical manner. The important
thing is to set up a simple,
straight forward convention and
adhere to it consistently. You can
use other people's ideas and
conventions or develop one
yourself that makes sense to
your people for your machines.
The gearbox shown here is a
"double reduction" gearbox (it
has two separate gearmeshes).
This gearbox has three (3) shaft
speeds (the input shaft speed,
the speed of the shaft supported
by bearings 5&6 and the output
shaft speed) and two (2) gear
mesh frequencies.
Common Position Naming Conventions

Although bearing numbering is (and should be) the primary
identifier of the position of the reading, bearing names are often
used as well. Since there are a variety of common names used
for naming the different bearing positions - several for each
position, in fact - a list of the common ones is put forth here.
There are no right or wrong ones - the only important aspect is
complete consistency in your usage.
Common Position 1 Names
o Outboard motor bearing
o Opposite drive end motor bearing
o Opposite shaft end motor bearing
o Inboard motor bearing
o Drive end motor bearing
o Shaft end motor bearing
o Inboard ?? bearing (the "??" will be fan, pump, etc.
depending on what the driven component is)
o Drive end ?? bearing
o Shaft end ?? bearing
o Outboard ?? bearing
o Opposite drive end ?? bearing
o Opposite shaft end ?? bearing
You may have applications that do not fall neatly into the 4-
bearing machine category. Long drive lines with dozens of
bearings, gearboxes like the one shown on the previous page,
multi-stage machines, etc. may each require their own unique
solution for bearing naming. In the case of a long drive line, the
bearing may be named to coincide with the piece of equipment
along that drive line that bearing is closest to. Conversely, you
may decide to rely strictly on position numbers in that case and
not use position names at all. Terms such as "Intermediate
Shaft" may be used. There is no single, universal naming
convention that will apply to all machine configurations.
Remember the objective:
Consistency Is The Key

Common Direction Naming Conventions
Directional conventions are also of the utmost importance to set
up and use. A simple, common sense convention insures that
whomever is collecting the data is aware of the correct
transducer location and direction. It also means the analyst, if
different than the data collection technician, can analyze the
data with confidence. This convention goes to the heart of one
of the most important aspects of a vibration program - the
repeatability of readings from one data collection to the next
(what good is a trend without good repeatability ?). Its
importance goes hand-in-hand with the importance of making
sure the exact transducer locations are clearly marked. The
convention begins with ONE hard rule:
Axial Direction is always, Always, ALWAYS parallel to shaft

axis
Let's start with horizontal, direct drive machines. These

machines are the most simple to define.
1. Axial Direction - Runs along the axis of the machine's shaft
(parallel to the shaft & ground).
2. Vertical Direction - The shortest line possible connecting the
machine shaft and the machine base.
3. Horizontal Direction - A line drawn out from the machine
shaft that runs exactly parallel to the ground.
Common Direction Naming
Conventions
Belt drives can be oriented in any direction and thereby require

a directional convention. The convention shown here has been
adopted for some very simple reasons which help illustrate not
only its usefulness but the importance of conventions in
general:
Reason #1: The belt (reaction) forces are usually directed
in-line (parallel) with the belts.
Reason #2:In order to capture these belt related
vibrations and separate closely matched frequencies,
higher resolution readings are set up in the database
parallel to the belts. Details of this subject - spectrum
resolution - are covered in the "Spectrum" section.
Reason #3: To make it easier to both set up the database
and to analyze collected data, these higher resolution
readings are always taken horizontally.
For these reasons, a convention is used that defines "parallel to

the belts" as horizontal is used. By default, that leaves the
measurement taken perpendicular to the belts defined as
Vertical. By adopting this convention, both collection and
analysis are simplified - a stated objective of using conventions.
Common Direction Naming Conventions

Vertical machines present another opportunity to assign a
directional convention since parallel to the shaft (axial) is now
straight up out of the ground. Since we must adhere to our one
hard and fast rule for directional conventions, the axial direction
remains parallel to the shaft (perpendicular to the ground; what
would be defined as vertical on a typical, horizontal direct-drive
machines).
That leaves vertical and horizontal to be defined. For reasons
similar to those discussed previously for the belt drive
convention, it is recommended that horizontal be defined as
parallel to the discharge of the machine. That would leave
vertical as being defined as perpendicular to the discharge (and
parallel to the ground).
Vibration Characteristics:
Amplitude
What Does Amplitude Tell Us ?
What Are Amplitude "Units" ?
Measuring Displacement Units
The Displacement "Sine Wave"
Measuring Velocity Units
Velocity vs. Displacement
The Velocity Sine Wave
Measuring Acceleration Units
Acceleration vs. Displacement
The Acceleration Sine Wave

What Does Amplitude Tell Us ?
Before we answer that question, let's keep in mind what

exactly we are measuring. Everyone taking this class has
touched a part of an operating machine (even if it is your car
or even your lawn mower) and felt the back and forth
movement. Because that movement is back and forth, it is
defined as "cyclical", or "sinusoidal", and we call it "vibration".
Obviously, we would want to quantify the amount of
movement. That measurement is known as "amplitude".
However, there are several different ways of quantifying the
amount and that is what we will discuss in the following pages.
What Does Amplitude
Tell Us ?
The 'amplitude' is a measure of the amount of

movement.
The amount of movement is related to the severity of the
vibration.
Simply put, it measures:

How Much ?
What Are Amplitude
"Units" ?
There are several different ways to measure "how much".
These different ways are known as amplitude "units". The
transducer is the mechanism we use to measure vibration and,
in the case of rolling element bearings (i.e. ball bearings, etc.),
we can assume the transducer, being affixed to the bearing
housing, is going to move very close to the same amount as
the shaft itself since a rolling element bearing has very small
internal clearances. The first amplitude unit is the simplest to
visualize and understand:
Displacement - measures the total distance the
transducer (bearing) travels back and forth during one
'cycle' of movement (a 'cycle' is the process of moving
from one extreme to the other and back again to the
starting point).
To understand the second amplitude unit, you must first

understand that if a bearing is going to move back and forth a
certain distance in a certain amount of time (the 'period'), it is
going to achieve a certain maximum, or 'peak', speed
(velocity) during that cycle. That speed is constantly changing
as it goes from 0 (when the bearing is displaced a maximum
amount in one direction and has stopped momentarily to
reverse direction) to some maximum value it achieves as it
passes the center point in the movement. Once it passes that
center point, the bearing starts slowing down until the speed
again reaches 0 as it reaches the maximum displacement in
the opposite direction.
Velocity - measures the maximum speed the transducer
achieves during a cycle.
To understand the third amplitude unit, you must understand

that to change velocity, a body must be accelerated or
decelerated. To speed a car up, you press the "accelrator"
pedal. To slow it down, you remove your foot from the
accelerator and let frictional forces (wind resistance, road
surface, brakes) take over. On machines, this "acceleration
force" can be visualized as the reaction of the bearing housing
and surrounding structure to being pushed (displaced) in one
direction - the housing pushes back because it wants to
assume a neutral, or "at-rest", position.
Acceleration - measures the force(s) that are causing the
back and forth movement.
Now let's look at each of these units more in-depth and see
how they are inter-related.
Measuring "How Much" in Displacement Units
Displacement measures the length of the "trip" back and forth
from (in this case) +X to -X (2X would be the total distance
travelled - the "peak-to-peak displacement"). One of these
"trips" is known as a "cycle" of vibration. The sequence of
images about to be presented show the bearing at various
important points during a single cycle with the transducer
oriented vertically (remember, the transducer only "sees"
movement in the direction of its orientation, or axis).
Since this movement must occur over time, when we measure
it we plot the amount (amplitude) on the y-axis and the time
taken (period) on the x-axis. The resulting shape, in its
simplest form, is called a "periodic signal", a "sinusoid" or a
"sine wave". That is the S-shape you see below the word
"cycle" in the image at right. Mechanical vibration generates a
wave shape that is rarely as simple as what we see here but
the intricacies of processing more complex data will be covered
in later sections.
The "At-Rest" position ("0") is the
position the bearing would assume
if the machine was not running.
During a single (1) cycle, the
bearing passes this position twice -
once travelling towards +X and
once travelling towards -X.
We'll begin our sequence of images
with the bearing just passing the
'0' point moving towards '+X'.
The red ball (seen at the very ends

of the sine wave) indicates the
amplitude level during the cycle.
Measuring "How Much" in Displacement
Units
The bearing has just reached the '+X' position and has
stopped momentarily to reverse direction.
The bearing is 1/4 of the way through the cycle (1/4 of a

shaft revolution).
Measuring "How Much" in
Displacement Units
The bearing is now passing the '0' position again moving

towards '-X'.
The red ball has completed 1/2 cycle (1/2 shaft revolution).
Displacement Units
The bearing has now reached the '-X' position - its
maximum displacement in the '-' direction.
The bearing has again stopped to reverse direction.
The red ball has completed 3/4 of a cycle (3/4 of a shaft

revolution).
Displacement Units
The bearing is now back where it started, having

completed one "cycle" of movement.
We want to know the total length of the "trip" being made
by the bearing.
Travelling from the "+X" position to the "-X" means the
total distance travelled = 2X). That is known as Peak-to-
Peak signal detection and that is how displacement
amplitudes should be measured.
Since displacement measures the amount a component is
being bent back and forth, it is a measure of the STRESS
that the bearing structure is being subjected to. It is, in
other words, an amplitude unit that is particularly sensitive
to the likelihood of a stress failure occurring.
Stress failures are most likely to occur on slow speed

equipment and are not a very common failure mode
(hence we do not normally use displacement amplitudes as
a primary monitoring tool).
The "Displacement Sine
Wave"
English or 'Imperial' Units: Mils (1 mil = 0.001")
Metric Units::Microns (1 um = 0.001 mm)
Conversion::1 Mil = 25.4 um
Measuring "How Much" In
Velocity Units
What is a "velocity" amplitude ? Technically, velocity
measures how much the displacement is changing over a
period of time.
The units of measure are inches per second or millimeters
per second.
With sinusoidal motion the velocity constantly changes as
the displacement changes.
Since the velocity is constantly changing over time,

measuring velocity amplitude over time generates a sine
wave just as measuring displacement amplitude does.
Measuring "How Much" In Velocity Units
The "Velocity Sinusoid" vs. The "Displacement Sinusoid"
As we began discussing the relationship between velocity and

displacement on previous pages, let's now look at a direct
comparison between the two and see how they relate to one
another at the most significant points in the cycle:
The bearing is shown here at its maximum displacement of
'-X'.
Velocity must be zero at this moment since the bearing
must stop momentarily to reverse direction.
From this moment until the bearing passes the "at-rest"

(0) position, the bearing will be speeding up (the velocity
amplitude will be increasing).
The bearing is now passing the "at-rest" position as it moves

towards the "+X" position:
The displacement amplitude is '0'.
Velocity is at a '+' peak since the bearing has reached its
maximum speed (remember, it has been accelerating
since leaving the "-X" position.
From this moment until the bearing reaches the "+X"

position, the bearing will be slowing down (velocity
amplitude will be decreasing).
The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

direction:
The displacement is "+X".
The speed (velocity) is 0 since it has (again) momentarily
stopped to reverse direction.
From this moment until the bearing passes the 'at-rest'

position, the bearing will be speeding up (accelerating -
the velocity amplitude will be increasing).
The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position again moving

moving in the "-" direction:
The displacement amplitude is "0".
Velocity is at a "-" peak since the bearing has reached its
maximum speed (the speed is the same as previously
reached when travelling in the "+" direction - only the
direction has changed).
From this moment until the "-X" position is reached, the

bearing will be slowing down ("decelerating" - the velocity
amplitude will be decreasing).
With displacement, we were concerned with the total

distance travelled (stress-related failures).
With velocity, we are only concerned with the maximum
speed (velocity amplitude) reached during that trip. It
matters not which direction the bearing is moving in.
Since we are concerned only with the maximum velocity
reached, we use Peak signal detection (not Peak-to-Peak).
Velocity measures the how often (frequency) the stress
(displacement) is being applied.
Velocity is measure of the likelihood of FATIGUE being the
mode of failure.
Fatigue failures are by far and away the most common
cause of general machinery failures.
Velocity is the best monitoring tool for general machines.
Speciality machines, components or specific problems may
not be best monitored by velocity.
Examples of machines, components and problems not
suited to velocity are gears and certain electrical symtoms
(i.e. very high frequency vibration: >120,000 cycles per
minute) and very slow-speed equipment (< 100 rpm).
It should be noted that even though velocity is suited to

monitor problems in the 60kcpm - 150kcpm range, it may
be advantageous to use our third amplitude unit -
acceleration - in those cases.
The "Velocity Sine Wave"
English or "Imperial": Inches per Second (ips -or- in/sec)

Metric: Millimeters per Second (mm/sec)
Conversion::1 ips = 25.4 mm/sec
Measuring "How Much" In Acceleration Units
What exactly is "acceleration" ? Acceleration measures the rate
of change of velocity (how quickly the velocity is changing).
There are two methods of applying an acceleration force
(deceleration is simply a negative acceleration):
1. A Pushing Action similar to you compressing a spring
between your hands. The more you compress a spring, the
more force it pushes back with. If you were to push a pillow
block bearing away from its "at-rest" position, it would push
back. If you went farther, it would push back more. That is a
simple way to visualize the acceleration force we are
measuring. The amount of movement at a particular frequency
is a combination of the force being generated by the rotation of
the rotor (unbalance, for intsance, is simply a centrifugal force
due to a heavy spot on a rotor), the stiffness and masses of the
materials and structure involved and other variables that are
structure related.
2. A Striking Action similar to you hitting a nail with a hammer.
This action can be extremely destructive since it can cause
structural flaws (cracks, for instance) to develop. Consider a
jack hammer. It is the striking action that breaks up the
cement. One example In the case of a rolling element bearing,
a rolling element may pass a defect on one of the races and an
impact results similar to hitting a pothole with your car.
What Is The Difference Between
Pushing Forces And Striking Forces ?
1. Both are destructive but one is far more destructive - the
striking action.
2. The Pushing Action causes sinusoidal motion. Since the
velocity changes steadily (creates a sine wave), the acceleration
also changes steadily and plotting it generates a sine wave just
as displacement and velocity do. This is the type of acceleration
we will be discussing in the following pages.
3. The Striking Action causes instantaneous, transient motion.
Consider striking something with a hammer. The velocity
undergoes a nearly instantaneous increase when the hammer
strikes. Any movement then dampens out until the next impact.
This type of acceleration must be measured differently and will
be covered in a later section on "enveloping signals".
The "Acceleration Sinusoid" vs. The "Displacement Sinusoid"
Let's see how displacement and acceleration relate to one
another at the significant points in the cycle:
The bearing is shown here at its maximum displacement of
"-X". If you were pushing the bearing housing down to this
position, in which direction would the bearing housing be
pushing back ?
The housing structure in this position will be pushing back
in the "+" direction since it is trying to return the bearing
to the "at-rest" position.
As mentioned before, the "amplitude" we measure is a
combination of many variables but what do we actually
measure ?
The bearing is achieving a certain peak velocity once per
cycle. That velocity is a combination of the amount of
movement (displacement) and the time it takes for one
complete cycle (from which we calculate frequency). The
less time a cycle takes, the higher the frequency of the
vibration and the more force it requires to generate a
particular peak velocity. In other words, going from 0
velocity to 1 in/sec (25 mm/sec) 1000 times a minute
requires a lot less force than doing it 100,000 times per
minute. The forces being applied to make that happen
may destroy a component before metal fatigue (what
velocity is sensitive to) even becomes a factor.
That makes acceleration an amplitude unit that is
particularly sensitive to the likelihood of a component
failing due to the forces being applied to it due to the
machine's operation.
When either displacement peak is reached, an acceleration
peak is reached in the opposite direction.
From the moment shown until the '0' position is reached,

the acceleration amplitude decreasing.
The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position moving in the "+"

direction.
At the instant the bearing passes "0", the acceleration
force (amplitude) is 0 since the bearing is located in its at-
rest position.
From this moment until the "+X" position is reached the

bearing acceleration amplitude is increasing to a peak
value in the "-" direction (remember, as it is being
displaced increasingly in the "+" direction, it is increasingly
pushing back towards the at-rest position).
The bearing has reached the "+X" position (the "+"

displacement peak):
The acceleration force (amplitude) is at a maximum (peak)
pushing DOWN towards the "0" position (it has reached its
maximum value in the "-" direction).
From this moment until the "0" position is reached the

bearing acceleration amplitude is decreasing as the
bearing approaches its at-rest position
The bearing is passing the at-rest position moving in the "-"

direction.
At the moment the bearing passes the at-rest position, the
acceleration force (amplitude) is 0.
From this moment until the "-X" position is reached the

bearing acceleration amplitude is increasing to a peak
value in the "+" direction (remember, as it is being
displaced increasingly in the "-" direction, it is increasingly
pushing back towards the at-rest position).
As with velocity, we were concerned only with the

maximum value reached - not the direction.
As with velocity, we use Peak signal detection.
Acceleration measures how rapidly the velocity is
changing.
Acceleration is measure of the likelihood of APPLIED
FORCE being the mode of failure.
Applied force failures occur at higher frequencies - almost
invariably 60,000 cycles per minute and higher. There are
a limited number of high frequency generating machinery
problems.
Those problems include primarily rolling element bearing

defects and gears.
The "Acceleration Sine
Wave"
English or Metric - G's (1 g = force of gravity)

Frequency
What Does Frequency Tell Us ?
How Does Frequency Relate To Amplitude ?
How Do Displacement, Velocity & Frequency Relate ?
Practical Effect On A Bearing Of Velocity Vs. Displacement
How Amplitude Units Relate to Different Failure Modes
Stress Failures vs. Fatigue Failures
What Failure Mode Are Acceleration Units Sensitive To
Where Are Acceleration Amplitudes Useful
Recommended Frequency Ranges For Different Amplitude
Units
When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s)
Formulas Relating Amplitude & Frequency
Examples Of When To Use Which Unit(s)
General Equipment Amplitude Guidelines
Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment

What Does Frequency Tell Us ?
By taking the reciprocal of how many seconds a single
cycle takes (reciprocal of "seconds per cycle" is "cycles
per second"), the number of cycles occurring in a given
period of time such as a second or minute can be
calculated.
For example, if a cycle takes 1/50th of a second, the
frequency is 50 cycles per second (50 "Hertz"), or 3000
cycles per minute (3000 cpm or 3kcpm).
That number - how many cycles occur in a given time

period - is known as the vibration "frequency".
Simply put, it measures:
How Often ?
What Does Frequency
Tell Us ?
Machines will generate mechanical vibration at multiples
(harmonics) of their running speeds. This type of vibration
is called "synchronous" vibration.
For example, unbalance causes a force that moves the
bearing (causes vibration) in any direction (plane) at a
rate of once per revolution (1x RPM). That movement
occurs at exactly once per rev - not 1.1x per rev, not 0.9x
per rev - ONCE per revolution.
A pump with 5 vanes on the impeller can generate
hydraulic pulses (which can be measured as mechanical
vibration) at 5 times per rev (5x rpm) - not 4.9x per rev,
not 5.1x per rev - exactly 5 times per revolution.
Different mechanical problems (unbalance, misalignment,
etc.) tend to generate their own characteristic vibration
'patterns'. Because the effect each problem has on the
vibration signal we measure, they each tend to generate
vibration at specific (rpm related) frequencies that the
analyst learns to recognize and look for.
Other vibration generators may not be tied specifically to
the machine's rotational speed.
Bearing problems and electrical problems, for example,
tend to generate vibrations at specific frequencies other
than exact multiples (harmonics) of running speed. This
type of vibration is referred to as "non-synchronous" or
"sub-synchronous" (below 1x rpm) vibration.
By correctly linking the frequency to the various possible

sources, the source of the problem can be identified.
Frequency Identifies The Vibration Source
How is Frequency Calculated ?
Measure the time it takes for 1 cycle:
(Seconds / Cycle)
Take the reciprocal of that to get the frequency:
Cycles / Second (Hertz)
Hertz x 60 = Cycles / Minute (CPM)
Since cpm is easier to relate to RPM, it is more commonly used
and recommended for ease of use.
How Does Frequency Relate to Amplitude ?
The frequency of any periodic signal is mathematically related

to each of the amplitude units: displacement, velocity and
acceleration - if you know any two of these variables, you can
mathematically calculate the other two. For instance, if you
know:
1. How far a bearing is moving back and forth (the
displacement amplitude), and
2. How much time it takes to complete the trip (the 'cycle', from
which the frequency is derived)
Then armed with the proper mathematical formula, you can
calculate the peak velocity reached during that trip. For
instance:
A bearing vibrates 10 mils (254 microns) in 0.1 seconds.
We know two of the variables:
o The pk-pk displacement is 10 mils.
o The period is 0.1 seconds (time required for 1 cycle).

Frequency is represented as the number of cycles during a
certain period - a second or a minute. The bearing will make 10
of these trips in one second. Since the total distance travelled in
one second is 100 mils, your average speed is 100 mils/sec (0.1
inches per second or 2.5 mm/sec). Of course, that is the
average speed. Since you are constantly speeding up or slowing
down, your peak speed would be about twice that average
speed (0.2 in/sec or 5 mm/sec).
Let's look more closely at the relationship between these 4
variables.
How Do Displacement, Velocity & Frequency

Relate ?
As stated, there are some simple mathematical formulas that
relate the frequency of the vibration, the amount of movement
(displacement), the speed of movement (velocity) and the force
generated during the movement (acceleration). The
mathematics involved is always handled by the software and
hardware but it is illustrative to understand the simple
principles involved. Let's first look at the relationship between
frequency, displacement amplitude and velocity amplitude.
Consider:
A bearing moves back and forth 10 mils (pk-pk
displacement).
The bearing moves at 10 cycles per minute (the
'frequency).
By setting those two variables, you establish a third -

namely the speed at which the bearing must travel to
satisfy those two conditions.
Consider:
Another bearing is moving at 10 mils pk-pk.
This bearing moves at 70 cycles per minute.
What is the speed of this bearing vs. the first bearing to satisfy
those conditions ?
This bearing must have a peak speed of 7x the first
bearing. The relationship between the 3 is linear (e.g. if
the frequency increases 7x and the displacement remains
same, the velocity must increase 7x).
So increasing the frequency 7x while leaving the displacement

the same results in increasing the velocity at which the bearing
must move by 7x.
The point here is simple. There is a direct relationship between
the frequency, the displacement and the velocity. Knowing two
- any two - allows the third to be mathematically calculated
(along with a constant value). Without getting into further
examples, the same direct relationship exists between
frequency, velocity and acceleration. Therefore, all four of these
variables are related - knowing any two allows the other two to
be calculated.
Let's look at the practical aspect of the relationship in a more
graphic way.
Practical Effect On A Bearing Of Velocity Vs.
Displacement
These animations graphically illustrate the previous example.
The displacement in each is the same but the bearing on the
right is completing 7 cycles for each cycle completed by the
bearing on the left.
But what we are really interested in, of course, is the effect of
the vibration on the bearing's life and the machine's health.
Again, knowing nothing about vibration analysis and using only
your common sense and knowledge of machines, which bearing
will fail in a shorter period of time ? It doesn't take a vibration
'expert' to recognize that it will be the bearing on the right. But
since the displacement (a measure of stress) is constant, the
determining factor must be something else.
It is actually two failure modes that are increasing in likelihood
with the frequency:
The fatiguing effect on the bearing components.
The forces being applied to make the bearing move.

But since the units are all related, why don't we just use a
single amplitude unit and simplify things ?
How Amplitude Units Relate to Different Failure
Modes
The reason has to do with each amplitude unit's sensitivity to
different modes of machinery failures. In other words, each
unit has a specific usefulness in monitoring machinery health.
There are three types of failure causing effects that we are
monitoring with vibration:
Stress (bending a component excessively causes it to fail)
Fatigue (something simply wears out over time)
Force (the 'pushing' and/or 'striking' actions being applied
to cause the movement)
The graph below shows the sensitivity of each amplitude unit to

the likelihood of a failure over a wide range of frequencies.
Notice that at low

frequencies (primarily
below 300 cpm or 5
Hz), displacement is
the most sensitive
unit to the likelihood
of a failure. That is
due to the fact that a
stress failure
(something being bent
back and forth until it
breaks) is the most
likely failure mode at
those low frequencies
- the fatigue and
applied forces
become, as frequency
approaches 0, simply
too low to cause a
failure.
Once you get above

300 cpm, the most
likely failure mode
increasingly becomes
the 'fatigue' mode (to
which velocity is the
most sensitive unit).
Fatigue failures basically occur when a component
simply wears out - it tires of the repeated back and
forth movement (even a relatively small total
distance) over an extended period of time and many,
many cycles. Between about 300 cpm and 120,000
cpm (5 - 2000 Hz), fatigue is the most likely failure
mode and therefore velocity is the most effective and
reliable amplitude unit to monitor with.
Once you reach 120,000 cpm (2000 Hz), the most likely
failure mode is 'force'-related. What is a force-related
failure ? When you reach these very, very high
frequencies (remember, you are dealing with moving an
entire rotor structure back and forth 2000 times per
second or more), you are dealing with massive amounts
of force to move that structure back and forth even a tiny
distance at such a tremendously high frequency.
Therefore, it is that tremendous pushing or striking action
that causes the failure.
It must be understood that there are areas of the chart where
the units overlap and two conditions (stress and fatigue effects,
for instance) exist.
Stress Failures vs. Fatigue Failures
The chart at right shows the
number of failures vs. the
number of running hours.
Notice that a relatively high
number of failures occur
during the first hours of
runtime. These failures are
known as 'infant mortality'
because they occur shortly
after start-up. In other
words, a machine that is new
or rebuilt is started up and
has severe problems. Within
a few hours, days or possibly
weeks, a catastrophic failure
occurs. If the failure is
mechanical in nature (it
could also be electrical or
lubrication related), stress
will often be a primary cause
of failure - components being
bent back and forth so much
that something simply
breaks.
However, once a machine runs for a certain number of hours
(rotations), it becomes stress relieved and the likelihood of
failure changes to fatigue - a component wearing out. Of
course, if the movement (vibration) is high but not quite high
enough to cause an 'infant mortality' stress failure, the fatigue
failure will still occur in a relatively short period of time (which
is one reason why the number of failures on the curve doesn't
ever quite get to zero).
So if displacement is sensitive to stress, and velocity is
sensitive to fatigue, where do the acceleration amplitude units
fit in ?
What Failure Mode Are Acceleration Units
Sensitive To ?
Acceleration amplitude is the trickiest to understand. To begin
with, you must understand that due to the nature of sinusoidal
motion (the back and forth action), the velocity is constantly
changing. It goes from zero to a peak back to 0 back to the
peak and so on. To change the velocity of something,
acceleration must be applied. To speed your car up, you apply
the accelerator. To slow your car down, you apply the brake.
Acceleration measures the rate of change of velocity.
Velocity is changed when a PUSHING or STRIKING action
is applied.
Pushing or striking something is applying a 'force' and
acceleration is, of course, force.
So why is acceleration used in the high frequency range ?

The rate of change in velocity (acceleration) is more
affected by frequency - how often something is changing
direction - than displacement - how far it is moving.
Components moving at high frequencies will never fail
due to stress (displacement) because the displacement
amplitude is very small.
Although there are frequencies where velocity and
acceleration overlap in their sensitivity to failures, the
higher the frequency involved (especially above about
120,000 cpm), the less likely a fatigue failure is and the
more likely it is that the forces being applied that are
causing the movement will be responsible for any failure
that might occur.
Acceleration is sensitive to the likelihood of a FORCE

related failure. In other words, a failure due to the
pushing and/or striking action the component is being
subjected to.
Let's look at one simple example to illustrate where
acceleration is of use.
Where Are Acceleration
Amplitudes Useful ?
Consider a high speed centrifugal compressor. This machine,
through its normal operation, generates some incredibly high
vibration frequencies - well over 1,000,000 cpm (16.67kHz) in
certain cases depending on the specifics of the machine
components. These vibrations are generated by the gear teeth
meshing together and referred to as gear mesh frequency.
Let's briefly look at the following example:
Consider a machine that generates a gear mesh
frequency of 1,080,000 cpm (18kHz).
Let's assume that there is some vibration (movement)
occurring at the gear meshing frequency due to the
interaction of the gear teeth.
Let's further assume that the amount of physical
movement - the distance back and forth, so to speak - is
3 millionths of an inch (0.003 mils, or 0.076 um).
Everyone can visualize the tiny, tiny amount of
movement generated.
However, to cause the structure (rotor) to move back
and forth even such an incredibly tiny amount 18,000
times per second requires a force equal to 50x the force
of gravity. That's right, 50 g's.
The failure will occur due to that force being applied

repeatedly.
Let's look at some examples relating the different amplitude
units to the likely failure mode.
Recommended Frequency Ranges for Different
Amplitude Units
Displacement Units: < 600 cpm (< 10 Hz)
There are instances where the use of displacement amplitudes is essential
even at very high frequencies.
Velocity Units: 300 - 120,000 cpm (5 - 2,000 Hz)

Acceleration Units: > 60,000 cpm (> 1,000 Hz)
When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s)

Every machine has certain operational characteristics which
must be considered when creating the database. Similar
machines have similar characteristics and similar (many times
identical) database point set-ups. The critical question that
must be asked for every machine for which you are creating a
database is simply what problems may develop on this machine
and what vibration frequencies will be generated by each of
these problems.
You may need multiple measurements on a

particular location to get the level of
protection you would like.
In other words, you must create each database point with a

specific purpose in mind.
Consider a motor driving some component connected with a
coupling. What problems may occur on the motor and what
vibration frequencies will each generate ?
Mechanical influences (unbalance, misalignment, etc.) at
1x, 2x, and 3x rpm (also be referred to as orders).
Pumps can generate hydraulically-related vibration at the
number of vanes x rpm - vane pass frequency.
Compressors do likewise at lobe pass and vane pass
frequencies (to name only 2 types).
Fans can generate at blade pass frequency.
With rolling element bearings, vibration at 30kcpm - 50 x

rpm (up to 150kcpm) is typically generated during stages
leading up to failure.
When To Use Which Amplitude Unit(s) ?
Compressor Example
Consider the following example for which we will discuss the
frequencies encountered: a direct driven screw compressor with
an input speed of 3580 rpm. The motor directly drives a bull
gear with 48 teeth which drives a pinion gear with 36 teeth. The
rotor being driven by the pinion gear has 4 lobes while the
driven rotor has 6 lobes. To determine what frequencies the
potential problems may create, we need to specifically lay out
the frequencies that will be generated on this machine and
consider what problems can develop from the machine
components. The machine schematic is shown here:
Lets calculate exactly what
frequencies need to be monitored
on the compressor end only:
Frequency
Calculation Frequency
Name
4-Lobe
3580 x
Rotor 4773 rpm
48T/36T
Speed
Compressor Schematic
4-Lobe Motor Speed = 3580 rpm
19092
Pass 4773 x 4
cpm
Frequency
6-Lobe
4773 x
Rotor 3182 rpm
4T/6T
Speed
6-Lobe
19092
Pass 3182 x 6
cpm
Frequency
Bull Gear
3580 rpm 171,840
Mesh
x 48T cpm
Freq:
Pinion 171840
4773 x 36T
GMF cpm
343,680
2x GMF 2 x GMF
cpm
515,520
3x GMF
cpm
So we need to monitor the compressor bearings over a range of
frequencies spanning 3182 cpm (1x 6-lobe rotor) to 515,520
cpm (3x gear mesh frequency). Although it can technically be
done with a single reading, using only one amplitude unit would
be a problem since velocity is no good at 515,520 cpm and
acceleration is no good at 3182 cpm.
But why would using only one amplitude unit be a problem ?
The answer goes back to the relationship between the units and
their sensitivity to different failure modes.
Let's look at some examples.
Formulas Relating Amplitude & Frequency
As stated earlier, there are formulas that relating each of the
amplitude units to one another through the vibration
frequency. The following just lists a few of the possible
variations. You should note that the software carries out the
formulas - the following pages attempt to illustrate the concept
only.
Imperial Units: Metric Units:
Displacement = mils Displacement = um
Velocity = in/sec Velocity = mm/sec
Acceleration = g's Acceleration = g's
Frequency = cycles/min Frequency = cycles/min
Displacement = (19,231 x V) / Displacement = (19,231 x V) /
F F
Velocity = 0.000052 x D x F Velocity = 0.000052 x D x F
Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V x
Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F
F
Example #1:
A Bearing Vibrates 100 Mils
Pk-Pk @ 30 cpm
Displacement @ 1x rpm = 100 Displacement @ 1x rpm =
mils 2540 um
English Units: Metric Units:
V = 0.000052 x 100 mils x 30 V = 0.000052 x 2540 um x 30
cpm cpm
V = 0.16 ips V = 4 mm/sec
F
A = 0.00027 x 0.16 x 30
A = 0.0000107 x 4 x 30
A = 0.0013 g's A = 0.0013 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = HIGH
Fatigue = Low
Force = None
What unit is best to monitor with at this frequency ?
Displacement
Example #2:
A Bearing Vibrates 10 Mils Pk-Pk
At 1000 cpm
Displacement @ 1x rpm = 10 Displacement @ 1x rpm = 250
mils um
V = 0.000052 x 10 mils x 1000 V = 0.000052 x 250 um x 1000
cpm cpm
V = 0.52 ips V = 13 mm/sec
F
A = 0.00027 x 0.52 x 1000
A = 0.0000107 x 13 x 1000
A = 0.14 g's A = 0.14 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = MODERATE
Fatigue = MODERATE
Force = None
Velocity
Why not displacement ?
Because it can also be used to monitor higher frequencies on
this machine.
Example #3:
A Bearing Vibrates 3 Mils Pk-Pk At 9,000 cpm
Displacement @ 9,000 cpm = Displacement @ 9,000 cpm =
3 mils 75 um
V = 0.000052 x 3 mils x 9,000 V = 0.000052 x 75 um x 9,000
cpm cpm
V = 1.404 ips V = 35.1 mm/sec
F
A = 0.00027 x 1.404 x 9,000
A = 0.0000107 x 35.1 x 9,000
A = 3.41 g's A = 3.41 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = None
Fatigue = HIGH
Force =Low
Velocity
Example #4:
A Bearing Vibrates 0.2 Mils Pk-Pk At 60,000
cpm
Displacement @ 60,000 cpm Displacement @ 60,000 cpm
=0.2 mils = 5 um
V = 0.000052 x 0.2 mils x V = 0.000052 x 5 um x
60,000 cpm 60,000 cpm
V = 0.62 ips V = 15.6 mm/sec
Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V
Acceleration = 0.00027 x V x F xF
A = 0.00027 x 0.62 x 60,000 A = 0.0000107 x 15.6 x
60,000
A = 10 g's A = 10 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress =None
Fatigue =Moderate
Force = Moderate
Velocity or Acceleration
Choice will be determined by what other problems (frequencies)
need to be monitored for developing problems.

Example #5:
A High Speed Compressor Rotor Shaft
Vibrates 0.003 Mils Pk-Pk At 1,080,000 cpm
Displacement @ 1,080,000 Displacement @ 1,080,000
cpm = 0.003 mils cpm = 0.077 um
(3 millionths of an inch) (7.7 millionths of a centimeter)
V = 0.000052 x 0.003 mils x V = 0.000052 x 0.077 um x
1,080,000 cpm 1,080,000 cpm
V = 0.17 ips V = 4.32 mm/sec
Acceleration = 0.0000107 x V
xF
A = 0.00027 x 0.17 x
A = 0.0000107 x 4.33 x
1,080,000
1,080,000
A = 50 g's A = 50 g's
Failure Likelihood:
Stress = None
Fatigue = Low
Force = REALLY HIGH
Acceleration
General Equipment Amplitude Guidelines:

Before discussing amplitude guidelines it should be clearly
understood that these are only guidelines - a starting point to
begin from. The best vibration analysts get to know the normal
vibration characteristics of their machines and look for deviation
from that norm. The values that follow here are generally
regarded in the categories shown but they are and should be
considered guidelines.
Displacement Units:
All Must know frequency to assess severity. At very
Frequencies: low frequencies, even displacement amplitudes
of 40 or 50 mils pk-pk or even more can be only
moderately harmful to the bearing and the
structural components affected.
Note: The values listed here as guidelines for velocity and
acceleration are 'peak' amplitudes. Equivalent RMS values are
30% lower.
Velocity Units:
Within Frequency Range: 300 - 120,000 cpm
Hard Supports Condition Soft Supports
English Metric English Metric
< 0.10 < 2.5 Very Good < 0.15 <4
in/sec mm/sec in/sec mm/sec
0.10 - 0.30 2.5 - 7.5 0.15 - 0.45 4 - 12
Satisfactory
ips mm/s ips mm/s
0.30 - 7.5 - 11.5 0.45 - 0.67 12 - 17

Fair
0.45 ips mm/s ips mm/s
0.45 - 0.60 11.5 - 16 0.67 - 0.90 17 - 23
Rough
ips mm/s ips mm/s
> 0.90 > 23
> 0.60 ips > 16 mm/s Destructive
ips mm/sec
Acceleration Units:
Frequencies: <Below 30kcpm, the problem will be better
30,000 kcpm:monitored with velocity as the amplitude unit
of choice.
Frequencies:Between 30kcpm and 120kcpm, you must
30k-120kcpm:know frequency to fully judge the severity.
Velocity can confidently be used as a partner
unit in this range.
Frequencies: > < 2.00 g's Good
120kcpm:
2.0 - 5.0 g's Fair
5.0 - 10.0 g's Rough
> 10.0 g's Very Rough
Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment

Types:
Slow Speed: Typically generates lower amplitudes. For shafts <
300 rpm, Time Domain plots should be used.
Machine Tool or "Precision" equipment: Typically tolerates much
lower amplitude levels. Guidelines (vibration alarms) for each
machine must be established. Since this equipment usually
involves keeping the finish quality within certain tolerances or
specifications, establishing a vibration level just below which
those machines go "out-of-tolerance" can be a very effective
method. Bearings should be monitored regardless of the overall
machine condition.
Complex Vibration Generators: Typically generates higher
amplitude levels: Refers to machines that have large forces
normally or a lot of vibration sources. High pressure, lobe-type
blowers (Roots, for instance) often involve motor frequencies,
belt frequencies, lobe pass frequencies, 2-rotor speeds, gear
frequencies and aerodynamic forces as well as loaded and
unloaded conditions. The resulting vibration patterns can be
high relative to the General Machine amplitude references and
yet normal for your machine. Be careful in over-reacting. At
least one manufacturer's vibration guidelines are as follows:
English Units: in/sec Metric Units: mm/sec Classification:
< 0.45 < 11.4 Excellent
0.45 - 0.90 w / no 11.4 - 22.8 w / no
Good
peak > 0.45 peak > 11.4
0.45 - 0.90 w / 1+ 11.4 - 22.8 w / 1+
Fair
peaks > 0.45 peaks > 11.4
> 0.90 w / no peak > > 22.8 w / no peak >
Rough
0.90 22.8
Peak(s) > 0.90 Peak(s) > 22.8 Very Rough
Program Needs: Programs must be set up based on the needs

of the individual pieces of equipment. Unless your program has
loads of similar or identical pieces of equipment, a broad brush
cannot necessarily be used. The actual frequencies being
generated on the machines must be determined or at least
estimated reasonably well. That information should then be
used to specify the plots and data collected based on that. The
successful analyst will also get to "know" the machines and
their typical vibration patterns. That knowledge is possibly the
analyst's strongest line of defense against unexpected failures.
Phase
What Does Phase Tell Us ?
What Is Meant By "Direction" ?
Rules For Measuring Phase And Phase Data Convention
What Methods Are Used For Measuring Phase ?
How Is Phase Measured With A Strobe Light ?
What Is Phase Telling Us ?
Radial Phase Analysis On A Single Bearing
o What Do These "Phase Angles" Mean ?
o Facts Established By Phase: Frequency Confirmation
o Facts Established By Phase: Rough Orbit Shape
o What Is The Significance Of "Orbit Shape"
Radial Phase Analysis Across Adjacent Bearings
Axial Phase Analysis On A Single Bearing: Planar vs.
Twisting Motion
Complete Axial Phase Analysis
Understanding Transducer "Orientation"
Most Common Use Of Phase: Diagnosing Misalignment
How Amplitude Units Affect Phase
How Is Phase Measured With A Photoeye
What Is Time Synchronous Averaging ?

What Does "Phase" Tell Us ?
Phase enables us to compare the relative direction of

movement of various locations on a machine.
Simply put, phase tells us:
What Direction ?
Still not clear ?
What Is Meant By What Direction ?
Imagine a snapshot of a machine operating. In the
snapshot, imagine being able to see arrows drawn at each
bearing indicating what direction that bearing was moving
in at that moment in time.
From the snapshot, you can thereby determine if the

bearings are moving in the same direction at the same
time (in unison or 'in phase') or not.
Phase helps determine how different locations on the machine
(different bearings, usually) are moving relative to one another
Rules For Measuring Phase
Rule #1: Phase is a relative measurement.
Readings at different locations on a bearing are analyzed
relative to one another.
Readings at the same angle (direction) on adjacent
bearings are analyzed relative to one another.
Readings at different times at the same exact location are
analyzed relative to one another.
These comparisons give us information on how the
components behavior - namely how they are moving
relative to one another.
There is only one use for a single phase reading which we
will discuss shortly.
Rule #2: Phase is collected at ONE frequency at a time.

The analyzer must be told what frequency. This is done by
tuning the analyzer with either a strobe light or a tach
pulse from the shaft.
Rule #3: The analyzer must be able to detect a vibration signal

at that frequency.
Since the angle is calculated based on the arrival of a
sinusoidal peak from the vibrating component, there must
be an amplitude peak to get a phase angle.
Simple Phase Analysis
Data Conventions
In order to discuss
phase at the most
basic level, we
need a convention
to use. Phase is
represented by
the 360 of a
circle. Since a
high degree of
accuracy is not
required in a
simple, general Clock Face Numbers Use For Simple
phase analysis Phase Analysis
(what we will be
discussing here),
phase is most
easily referred to
in terms of clock
face numbers: 1
o'clock through 12
o'clock. The phase
"angle" is based
on where the
mark appears (the
red key in the
example shown
here) on the clock
face. It is shown
here at 12 o'clock
but could appear
at any angular
location.
Applications
requiring more
precise detail (i.e.
balancing or
phase monitoring
on a turbine) will
require the use of
specific angular
references (0 -
359).
What Methods Are
Used for Measuring
Phase ?
A 'Phase-Triggering' Strobe Light. This type of strobe light
differs in two ways from a conventional, hand held strobe
light:
o It either feeds frequency information (its flash rate)
into the analyzer or has its flash rate set by the
analyzer.
o It can be triggered by a vibration signal from the
analyzer.
A Photoelectric Eye (or related mechanism that provides a

1x rpm pulse from the shaft).
How Is Phase Measured With A Strobe Light ?
This involves several steps - each one designed to satisfy one
of the rules for measuring phase. We must start with a couple
of assumptions.
We have a machine with a 'problem' - higher than desired
amplitude at a particular frequency.
The frequency we are concerned with in this case (for

simplicity sake) is 1x rpm.
Step #1 - Mount Transducer
The first step in collecting a phase
reading is to place the transducer
on the bearing in the direction
desired.
The transducer provides the
analyzer with the vibration signal
necessary (as per Rule #3).
Step #2 - Locate a Reference Mark

Commonly a key or keyway, this
mark is what we will be using as
our 'clock face' reference when it
shows up under the strobe flash
(as per Rule #4).
Step #3 - Tune the strobe to 1x rpm
(the pertinent frequency)
Tuning the strobe light properly
will freeze the shaft with 1 mark as
shown here. Be careful you haven't
tuned it to 1/2 rpm since that will
also show 1 mark.
By tuning the strobe light, you
have told the analyzer at which
frequency we will be measuring
phase (as per Rule #2).
With a strobe light (as opposed to
a photoeye). This allows the
analyzer to focus on a specific
vibration signal - a relatively clean
sinusoid (since all other
frequencies are being filtered out)
that is occurring at or very close to
(+/- 0.75%) the tuned frequency.
You can compare this to what a

radio does - it tunes to one
frequency and filters all others out.
What Is Phase Telling Us ?
So far, nothing. The strobe light is being triggered by an
internal trigger on either the analyzer or the light itself - it is
acting exactly like a typical, hand-held strobe light. There is
one final step which must be performed:
A switch (or keystroke) on either the analyzer or the
strobe can be activated which changes how the strobe is
being triggered.
Once this switch activated, the strobe stops to using its internal
trigger to flash and starts to use the vibration sinusoid being
detected. Therefore:
Every time a peak signal is detected by the analyzer, it
sends a signal to the strobe light to flash.
The strobe light therefore flashes at exactly the frequency
of the vibration being detected.
If the vibration is being mechanically generated by the
shaft (rotor), the strobe will flash at an exact harmonic of
running speed (1x rpm in our example but it could be 2x,
3x or any higher harmonic) and the shaft (mark) will
freeze under the strobe flash.
If the vibration is being generated by some other source -
any other source (bearings, electrical, other machines
nearby, etc.), it will not flash at an exact harmonic of
running speed and the shaft will (mark) will not freeze
under the strobe flash.
Let's look at a graphic example of how this process works and

why it is important.
Radial Phase Analysis Around A Single Bearing
Phase Angle #1
What is happening in the animation here ?
The transducer is mounted vertically so the movement
(vibration) being measured is vertical only.
The red dot represents the "at-rest" position of the shaft.
The black dot represents the center point of the shaft.
There is a "heavy" spot on the rotor that causes a
centrifugal force to be generated that results is causing
the shaft center point (the black dot) to rotate around the
'at-rest' center point (the red dot).
The "+"peak' occurs when the bearing is displaced the
maximum amount towards the transducer. In other words,
as the black dot passes the 12:00 position (passes the
transducer).
The location of the heavy spot can be determined at any
moment in the shaft's rotation by imagining a line drawn
from the red dot directly through the black dot. This is, of
course, not able to be seen in real life on a real machine.
What we can see is some "mark" (usually a key) that
becomes visible under the flash of the strobe light once
per revolution (the yellow dot). This is our reference mark.
The mark is 45 behind the heavy spot.
In real life, we would not know where the mark is located

relative to the heavy spot. However, we do know that
unless we do something to change the location or size of
the heavy spot, those two positions will not change
relative to one another as we move the transducer. They
will remain 45 apart.
Radial Phase Analysis Around A Single
Bearing
Phase Angle #1
With the transducer mounted vertically, the peak signal
arrives when the black dot is at the 12:00 position (0).
The strobe light is set up to flash when an amplitude peak
arrives so it will flash at that moment.
When the strobe flashes, the key shows up at 10:30
(315).
We now have 1 piece of phase data on this bearing at a

frequency of 1x rpm:
With the transducer mounted vertically, our phase angle is
10:30 (315).
Radial Phase Analysis Around A Single
Bearing
Phase Angle #2
What has been changed in this animation ?
The transducer is mounted horizontally so the movement
being measured is horizontal only. Another way to say this
would be that the transducer has been moved 90.
So now what is happening ?

The peak signal will still be detected when the bearing is
displaced the maximum amount towards the transducer -
as the black dot passes the 3:00 position (90).
The strobe light is set up to flash when an amplitude peak
arrives so it will flash at that moment.
The mark remains 45 behind the heavy spot so when the
strobe flashes, the mark will show up at about 1:30.
We now have 2 pieces of phase data on this bearing at a

frequency of 1x rpm:
With the transducer vertical, our phase angle is 10:30
With the transducer horizontal, our phase angle is 1:30

What Do These Phase Angles Mean ?
We have checked the radial vibration at 2 angular locations
around a single bearing. This has provided us with two valuable
pieces of information. The first is:
When triggering the strobe light from the vibration signal,
the shaft appeared frozen. In other words, the mark was
not rotating - it remained stationary (even if it wobbled
back and forth a bit).
What does this mean ?

It means the vibration IS coming from this shaft. This is
now established as FACT - something only a phase reading
can do (as we will see later in the 'Plots' section).
What is the second piece of information ?

When moving the transducer to a new angular location
(moving from horizontal to vertical is 90), the location of
the mark (the phase angle) shifted the same amount
(90).
What does this mean ?

The shaft is vibrating in a more circular orbit that typically
indicates unbalance.
Let's examine each of these facts more closely and see how
they were arrived at from the phase measurements we
recorded.
Facts Established by Phase:
Frequency Confirmation
Fact #1: The vibration IS (or IS NOT) coming from the shaft
First, you must remember that the strobe light is actually
being triggered by the vibration signal. Every time the
analyzer detects a peak signal from the transducer, it
instructs the strobe light to flash. The strobe flash will,
therefore, flash at exactly the same rate as the vibration
is occurring.
Second, mechanical vibration - i.e. vibration being
generated by the rotation of the rotor - occurs only at
exact multiples (harmonics) of the rotational speed (rpm).
These vibrations are known as synchronous vibrations.
Third, sources of vibration other than the rotor - belts,
bearings, electrical vibrations and other non-synchronous
vibration sources will not generate vibration at exact
multiples of the rotational speed. This is true regardless of
how close they are to being synchronous. Even if the
adjacent machine is running at 0.1 rpm different speed, it
is still a different speed - it is still non-synchronous.
Since the strobe is flashing at exactly the vibration frequency

being generated, whether or not the mark (shaft) appears
frozen under the strobe light reveals whether the vibration is
synchronous or non-synchronous. This test will be referred to
as a:
Frequency Confirmation
Frequency confirmation simply means you are confirming the
source of the vibration is the rotor that appears frozen under
the strobe flash and it is the ONE use for a single phase
reading.
Frequency confirmation is a simple test that requires only a few
seconds to perform but can be crucially important to the
successful diagnosis of a machine's problem.
Rough Orbit Shape
Fact #2: Comparing the phase angles at 2 separate transducer
locations (vertical and horizontal in our example) allows you to
make the rough judgement of the shape of the orbit - one that
is more circular or one that is flatter in shape.
Before explaining this, you must
understand what is meant by the
'shaft orbit'. Consider the following:
A shaft is generating vibration at
only 1x rpm.
The amplitude horizontally is 'X'
ips or mm/sec.
The amplitude vertically is
exactly the same - 'X' ips or
mm/sec. Figure 1
In fact, no matter what direction
the transducer is oriented
(pointed), the amplitude at 1x
rpm is 'X' ips or mm/sec.
By plotting the recorded
amplitude values in the
appropriate direction (Figure 1),
you can plot the 'orbit', or
shape, of the shaft center point.
In this particular example, the

orbit is a circle. In the 'real'
world, this would be virtually
impossible.
Another shaft is generating
vibration at only 1x rpm.
ips or mm/sec.
The amplitude vertically is 80%
of the horizontal amplitude -
0.8(X) ips or mm/sec.
appropriate direction (Figure 2), Figure 2
you can again plot the 'orbit', or
In this example, an elliptical

orbit is plotted. These relative
amplitudes would not be
considered unusual.
A third shaft is generating
vibration at only 1x rpm.
ips or mm/sec.
The amplitude vertically is 50%
of the horizontal amplitude -
0.5(X) ips or mm/sec.
appropriate direction (Figure 3), Figure 3
you can again plot the 'orbit', or
In this example, an elliptical

orbit is plotted. These relative
amplitudes would not be
considered unusual.
When the amplitudes are relatively equal, you can see how the
'orbit' approaches a circle. But let's look at the other extreme.
What if the horizontal amplitude were 'X' and the vertical
amplitude were very, very low - even 0.00 ips or mm/sec. That
'orbit' would be a straight line - linear movement (vibration).
Rough Orbit Shape
locations (vertical and horizontal in our
example) allows you to make the rough judgement of the
shape of the orbit - one that is more circular or one that is
flatter in shape.
So we have examined the extremes that are possible:
Circular orbits (where the amplitudes are exactly the

same regardless of transducer direction)
Linear orbits (where the amplitude is zero in one

direction).
These extremes are equally unlikely. Everything in between is
an ellipse. We can therefore realistically use the rule of thumb
that all orbits are elliptical.
However, it can be helpful in
determing the nature of the
problem to know whether the orbit
is approaching circular or linear
(which, it should be noted, can be
better "quantified" by plotting
amplitude values).
When the transducer was in
the vertical position, the peak
signal arrived at a specific
moment and caused the
strobe to flash at that Vertical Transducer Location
moment. Under this strobe
flash, the key showed up ay
the 10:30 position (315).
When shifted to the

horizontal position - 90
away - the moment the peak
signal arrived changed by 1/4
rotation - the same 90.
Under this strobe flash, the
key shows up at 1:30 (45) -
a shift of 90 from the first
phase reading.
Because the movement shown
here is very circular in nature, the
phase angle will change based on
the angular location of the
transducer. Regardless of the
angular location you place the
tranducer at, the peak signal will
arrive as the black dot passes the
transducer location.
This type of orbit - an ellipse that
approaches circular - is
characteristic of one of the most Horizontal Transducer Location
common vibration problems:
unbalance. When excessive
vibration is detected at 1x rpm
(the only frequency unbalance
generates vibration at), unbalance
is one of several possible sources.
This type of phase test can help
differentiate between unbalance
and the other potential sources of
the high vibration levels.
Facts Established by
Phase:
Rough Orbit Shape
locations (vertical and horizontal in our
example) allows you to make the rough judgement of the
shape of the orbit - one that is more circular or one that is
flatter in shape.
We have discussed what it means when the phase shifts
an angular amount very close to the angular amount you
move the transducer - a rounder elliptical orbit.
Now let's examine what a 'flatter' (more
linear) orbit might reveal during a phase
analysis:
The animation at right is similar to the
previous without the 'strobe flashes'.
The red dot still represents the 'at
rest' shaft center point and the black
dot is still the actual shaft center point
during operation.
Note the black dot passes just above Linear Vibration

and below the red dot. The amplitude
difference is on the scale of 10:1 with
horizontal being higher.
The red arrow actually represents the phase angle. It
follows the direction of displacement and is always
pointing from the red dot towards the black dot. In the
previous animation (where we had a circular orbit), we
didn't show an arrow from the red dot to the black dot -
we showed a once per revolution 'flash' that occurred
based on where the transducer was but the flash occurred
only when the red dot, black dot and transducer were in
that order in a straight line.
You can see that the arrow remains relatively steady for
relatively long periods of time (as it passes 3:00 and
9:00) during the revolution.
Under this condition, you could place a transducer
anywhere between about 1:00 and 5:00 and observe
basically the same phase angle - the arrow moves very
little as the black dot passes that area.
Likewise, you could place a transducer anywhere between
about 7:00 and 11:00 and observe basically the same
phase angle but it would be 180 different than if the
transducer were between 1:00 and 5:00.
If the transducer were located between 5:00 and 7:00

(150-210) or between 11:00 and 1:00 (330-30), you
would get an unsteady phase reading although it would
NOT rotate - only wobble back and forth.
What Is The Significance Of The Orbit Shape ?
A more circular ellipse (i.e. when you move the transducer a
certain angular amount, the mark shifts an equal amount)
usually indicates:
More of an 'unbalance' type vibration force (centrifugal
force that is fairly equal all the way around)
A flatter ellipse (i.e. when you move the transducer a certain

angular amount, the mark either does not shift or shifts 180)
usually indicates:
Flatter, more 'linear' motion indicates problems that affect
a specific direction such as looseness, resonance, and (on
belt or chain drives) bent shafts or eccentricity.
These are Rules of Thumb and a number of variables such as

structural strength (which can influence amplitude values in
one direction versus another) much be considered. Phase
analysis, however, can provide some important information
related to how the components are moving.
Radial Phase Analysis Across Two Adjacent
Bearings
Up to now, we have only analyzed
radial phase readings taken on a
single bearing at different angular
locations. What about comparing
adjacent bearings ? Phase is still
used as a "relative" reading.
When comparing phase
angles between bearings, you
compare phase angles with
the transducer mounted in
the same angular location
(vertical to vertical,
horizontal to horizontal, etc.).
Analysis will reveal how the

bearings are moving relative to
one another at the frequency being
measured. Bearings "In-Phase"
In the animation here, the yellow balls represent heavy

spots on the rotor. Since they are located at similar
angular locations, the forces generated will cause the
bearings to move together, or "in-phase".
If a transducer were mounted vertically on either of the
two bearings, the strobe would flash as the heavy spot
passes the 12:00 position since the peak signal arrives at
that moment.
Our mark (the red key on shaft) is in the same position
(i.e. same phase angle) regardless of which bearing the
transducer is mounted on.
The bearings are in-phase.

Radial Phase Analysis Across Two Adjacent
Bearings
In the animation shown here,
the heavy spots are opposite
one another.
The heavy spot on the left
hub affects the left bearing
more than the right.
The heavy spot on the right
hub affects the right bearing
more than the left.
If the transducer were Bearings "Out-of-Phase"
mounted vertically on the
right bearing, the strobe
would flash as the heavy spot
on the right passed the 12:00
position. That occurs when
the key is just past 12:00.
If the transducer were
mounted vertically on the left
bearing, the strobe would
flash as the heavy spot on
the left passed the 12:00
position. That occurs when
the key is just past 6:00.
The bearings, therefore, are

180 'out-of'phase'.
What is the significance of this ?
The significance is in balancing the rotor. Unlike the
previous example, a 2-plane balance such as this requires
2 separate corrections (solutions) - one for the left side
heavy spot and one for the right side heavy spot - while
the 1-plane (the previous example) requires only 1
correction.
Axial Phase Analysis Around A Single Bearing
Phase analysis can also reveal some
important information when performed in the
axial direction. Let's examine what is
happening in the animation here:
There are 6 transducers mounted axially
- the movement being measured is axial
only.
"Planar" Motion
We are measuring phase in the same
manner as for radial phase - namely
triggering the strobe light at a peak
amplitude and freezing some reference
mark (a key ?).
With the transducers mounted in this manner, the peak
signal will arrive when the bearing is displaced its
maximum to the right.
Each of the 6 transducers are displaced the maximum
amount to the right at the same moment.
Therefore, regardless of which transducer you are
analyzing from, the phase angle (location of the mark) will
be the same.
Just as our radial phase analysis provides important information

on the 'shape' of the movement radially, an axial phase analysis
provides important information on the 'shape' of the movement
axially. In the above animation, we have found there is no
phase shift as we move the transducer around the face of the
bearing. But how else could it be moving ?
The Bearing Is Moving Axially In A "Planar" Motion (Not

Twisting On The Shaft)
What is the significance of this ?
The Source Of The High Axial Vibration Is Not Caused By

Incorrect Installation Of This Bearing
Axial Phase Analysis Around A Single Bearing

The bearing could be moving as shown here -
a 'twisting' action on the shaft or in the
housing. Let's examine this animation:
The transducers are mounted in identical
positions to the last animation.
The peak signal will arrive at each
individual transducer location when the
"Twisting" Motion
bearing is displaced its maximum to the
right at that location.
That peak arrives at a different moment
for each transducer.
Since the transducers are 60 apart, the
phase angle measured at each will be
60 different than the adjacent
transducers.
How can this information help the analysis ?

The most likely source of 'planar' axial motion (as in the
previous animation) is:
Misalignment
The most likely sources of 'twisting' axial motion (as shown

above) are:
A bearing cocked on the shaft
A bent shaft through the bearing
Housing distortion (i.e. soft foot) causing twisting motion
The phase analysis thereby helps in differentiating between

machine problems that cause similar vibration symptoms (aids
in diagnosis of root cause).
Axial Phase Analysis Across Adjacent Bearings
An 'axial phase analysis' is a procedure that is conducted one
bearing at a time. On a smooth running machine, all axial
phase readings (on any bearing at any angular location) will be
similar. On a machine with high axial vibration, the following
procedure should be used if possible:
Each bearing should be checked for planar vs. twisting
motion. Any twisting motions detected should be
corrected.
The bearings should be compared to one another. Any
significant (> 60) phase shift should raise a flag that
something is not right.
Most commonly, a phase shift >60 will be detected when
comparing the bearings closest to the coupling and will
typically indicate misalignment.
When a phase shift is detected between bearings on the
same component (i.e. motor), housing distortion such as
soft foot should be checked.
However, transducer orientation must be accounted for (see the

next page).
Understanding Transducer Orientation
The "orientation", or direction, of the transducer is extremely
important. The reason for this is simple.
The '+' and '-' directions are defined by the transducer.
Either '+' is towards the transducer or away from it.
The strobe will be triggered by a '+' signal.
If you change the orientation, you change the definition of
'+'.
The animation here shows

both transducers oriented
(pointed) in the same
direction:
The '+' direction is
defined as 'towards' the
transducer.
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ?
The strobe will trigger
on a '+' peak so each
transducer will cause
the strobe to flash
when they reach their
maximum displacement
to the left (towards the
transducer).
The strobe flashes

when the reference
mark is just past 6:00.
The transducers have the same orientation and generate
the same phase angles so they are in-phase.
It is common to collect phase readings across a coupling. In
that case, you will almost always have the transducer
orientation shown below - the transducers are oriented in
opposite directions.
The transducer
mounted on the left
bearing will cause the
strobe to trigger when
the bearing is at
to the right (towards
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ?
that transducer). At
that moment, the
reference mark is
approaching the 12:00
position.
The transducer
mounted on the right
bearing will cause the
strobe to trigger when
the bearing is at
to the left (towards that
transducer). At that
moment, the reference
mark is approaching the
6:00 position (just out
of sight).
Since they have phase angles 180 different, the bearings
may appear out of phase - but are they?
The bearings are moving in the identical fashion as the
previous page and we established they are 'in-phase'.
The difference is the transducer orientation. It must be
accounted for in the final readings.
Since the orientation of the two transducer is 180
different, a 180 adjustment must be made to one of the
measured phase angles. Once that adjustment is made,
the phase angles become equal - the bearings are moving
"in-phase" with one another.

In the animation at left,
the peak signal is
arriving at each
transducer
simultaneously.
Regardless of which
transducer orientation is
being used, the strobe
is being triggered with
the mark approaching
12:00. But are they "in-
phase" ?
Of course not - not if
Are These Bearings "In-Phase" ? you make the required
180 adjustment to one
of the angles to account
for transducer
orientation.
The bearings are 180

'out-of-phase'.
The Most Common Use
of Phase:
Diagnosing
Misalignment
Phase is a common and
reliable way to diagnose
misalignment.
The procedure involves
conducting an axial
phase analysis around
bearing faces as well as
from bearing to
bearing.
Are the machine faces "in-phase" or The point at which you
"out-of-phase" with one another ?
find a phase shift of >
30 is typically the
source of a problem
(possibly not the only
problem).
Note in high axial
vibration in the
animation shown here.
These components are
'angularly misaligned'.
Are the faces of the

machine "in-phase" or
"out-of-phase" with one
another ?
How would the transducers be oriented in this case ? Almost
certainly 180 opposite (one pointing left and one pointing
right). You will have to make an adjustment for transducer
orientation.
How Amplitude Units
Affect Phase Angles
Once you start a
phase analysis,
you should never
change the
amplitude units
you are using.
Although we have
been creating
examples using
displacement
units, velocity
units are the most
versatile and
commonly used.
Let's review how
phase angles are
determined:
The strobe
flash is
triggered by
the arrival of
the peak
amplitude
signal from
the
transducer.
The location
of the
reference
mark is
determined
by the
moment of
the strobe
flash.
The timing of
the arrival of
the peak
amplitude
signal
determines
the location
of the mark.
The key to why

amplitude units
affect phase
angles is that:
The moment
the peak
signal arrives
is
determined
by which
amplitude
unit is being
used.
Using displacement units, the peak will arrive when the
transducer is displaced the maximum amount in the '+'
direction. The mark is at 10:30 (315).
How Amplitude Units Affect Phase Angles
Now let's
look at
velocity units
- the most
commonly
used. When
will the peak
arrive ?
Remember
what we are
measuring -
the speed of
the bearing
in one
direction.
Using
velocity
amplitudes,
the peak
occurs when
the bearing
is moving
towards the
transducer at
the fastest
speed. At
that
moment, the
mark is at
7:30 (225).
That is 90
different
than what
we measured
with
displacement
units.
By simply
changing
amplitude
units from
displacement
to velocity,
we have
caused a 90
phase shift.
How Amplitude Units
Affect Phase Angles
Finally, let's
look at
acceleration
units. When
will the peak
arrive in that
case ?
Using
acceleration
amplitudes,
the peak will
arrive when
the bearing
housing/stru
cture is
pushing
(applying
force) the
greatest
amount in
the "+"
direction.At
that
moment, the
mark is at
4:30 (135).
That is 90
different
from what
we measured
with velocity
units.
By changing
from velocity
to
acceleration,
we have
induced
another 90
phase shift
(180 from
the phase
angle using
displacement
units).
How Amplitude Units
Affect Phase Angles
Displacement Sinusoid Velocity Sinusoid Acceleration Sinusoid
Comparing these images (from the 'Amplitude' Section) will

help you understand why the peaks arrive at different moments
for different amplitude units.
Velocity is 1/4 cycle (90) ahead of displacement and 1/4
cycle behind acceleration.
Acceleration is 1/2 cycle (180) away from displacement.
When is this information important ?

When doing any work with phase (general analysis,
balancing, etc.), don't change the amplitude unit with
which you are working.
How Is Phase Measured With A Photoeye ?
The procedure for collecting phase with a
photoeye is somewhat different than
with a strobe light. Let's measure phase
at 1x rpm as shown here.
Step #1 - Mount Photoeye & Trigger
The first step in measuring phase is

to properly set up the photoeye. It
must be mounted rigidly next to
the shaft so it can detect a trigger
mark rotating on the shaft. The
mark is often a piece of reflective
tape. With some modern detectors
(like 'Lasertachs'), pattern
recognition is used and reflective
tape is often not needed. The
trigger gives the analyzer a 1x rpm
pulse (gives it the frequency).
Step #2 - Mount Transducer

Mount the transducer at the
location and direction desired.
Step #3 - Instruct Analyzer to collect a

phase measurement.
A keystroke will tell the box to
collect a phase reading.
How does the photoeye calculate the phase angle ?
The 1x rpm trigger provides the box with the period of
the frequency being measured - the period of 1 cycle at
1x rpm.
The box takes that period (measured in seconds) and
divides it by 360.
Once all the math is completed, the box is ready. When
instructed to collect a phase angle, it waits for the trigger
mark to pass so it can begin a count up to 360.
After beginning it's count, it awaits the arrival of a peak
signal from the transducer. The moment it has that, it
stops the count. That is the phase angle.
For the sake of accuracy, several angles are checked and

an average is what is eventually displayed as the phase
angle.
What Is "Time
Synchronous Averaging" ?
It is a procedure that differentiates between synchronous and
non-synchronous frequencies. When applied properly, it is a
powerful tool.
The analyzer and photoeye are set up as outlined on the
previous page.
The analyzer is instructed to collect a spectrum. The
specifics on how to perform this are different for each box
and exact instruction will be left to the various
manufacturers.
The analyzer will collect a spectrum that contains ONLY
synchronous vibration. That is, only vibration frequencies
that are exact harmonics of the trigger rate (usually 1x
rpm).
Any non-synchronous frequencies - no matter how close
they are to being synchronous - are filtered out and
disappear from the spectrum. This allows for comparison
with a normally collected spectrum and subsequent
analysis of whether a particular frequency is coming from
the rotor or some other (non-synchronous) source.
For more information on this powerful troubleshooting tool, see

the 'Field Tests' manual.
End Of Phase Section:
End Of Vibration Characteristics
You have now completed the "Vibration Characteristics" section
of our training. If you feel satisfied with your understanding of
the subjects, you should now move on to:
How vibration is measured and how a database should be
set up, or
Plots: The trend plot, the spectrum plot, the "envelope"

plot and time domain plot.

What Is Vibration? Explained

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What Is Vibration? Explained

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What Is Vibration?

Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It can also be

What Is Vibration Caused By?

Why Do We Measure Vibration ?

Actual Bearing A Transducer Mounted

How Much Movement Occurs

Frequency Tells Us:

How Often The Movement Occurs

In What Direction Is The Movement

Common Position Naming Conventions

Consistency Is The Key

Axial Direction is always, Always, ALWAYS parallel to shaft

Let's start with horizontal, direct drive machines. These

Belt drives can be oriented in any direction and thereby require

For these reasons, a convention is used that defines "parallel to

Common Direction Naming Conventions

The Acceleration Sine Wave

Before we answer that question, let's keep in mind what

The 'amplitude' is a measure of the amount of

Simply put, it measures:

To understand the second amplitude unit, you must first

To understand the third amplitude unit, you must understand

The red ball (seen at the very ends

The bearing is 1/4 of the way through the cycle (1/4 of a

The bearing is now passing the '0' position again moving

The red ball has completed 3/4 of a cycle (3/4 of a shaft

The bearing is now back where it started, having

Stress failures are most likely to occur on slow speed

Since the velocity is constantly changing over time,

As we began discussing the relationship between velocity and

From this moment until the bearing passes the "at-rest"

The bearing is now passing the "at-rest" position as it moves

From this moment until the bearing reaches the "+X"

The bearing has reached its maximum displacement in the '+'

From this moment until the bearing passes the 'at-rest'

The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position again moving

From this moment until the "-X" position is reached, the

With displacement, we were concerned with the total

It should be noted that even though velocity is suited to

English or "Imperial": Inches per Second (ips -or- in/sec)

From the moment shown until the '0' position is reached,

The bearing is passing the "at-rest" position moving in the "+"

From this moment until the "+X" position is reached the

The bearing has reached the "+X" position (the "+"

From this moment until the "0" position is reached the

The bearing is passing the at-rest position moving in the "-"

From this moment until the "-X" position is reached the

As with velocity, we were concerned only with the

Those problems include primarily rolling element bearing

English or Metric - G's (1 g = force of gravity)

Amplitude Guidelines For "Other" Equipment

That number - how many cycles occur in a given time

By correctly linking the frequency to the various possible

The frequency of any periodic signal is mathematically related

o The period is 0.1 seconds (time required for 1 cycle).

How Do Displacement, Velocity & Frequency

By setting those two variables, you establish a third -

So increasing the frequency 7x while leaving the displacement

The forces being applied to make the bearing move.

The graph below shows the sensitivity of each amplitude unit to

Notice that at low

Once you get above

So why is acceleration used in the high frequency range ?