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 APAT
Agenzia per la protezione dellambiente e per i servizi tecnici
DIPARTIMENTO DIFESA DEL SUOLO
S e r v i z i o G e o l o g i c o dI t a l i a
Organo Cartografico dello Stato (legge n68 del 2.2.1960)

MEMORIE
DESCRITTIVE DELLA

CARTA GEOLOGICA DITALIA

VOLUME LXXIV

INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

La Scala di Intensit ESI 2007
Authors

A.M. MICHETTI, E. ESPOSITO, L. GUERRIERI, S. PORFIDO, L. SERVA, R. TATEVOSSIAN, E. VITTORI,

F. AUDEMARD, T. AZUMA, J. CLAGUE, V. COMERCI, A. GRPINAR, J. MCCALPIN, B. MOHAMMADIOUN,
N.A. MRNER, Y. OTA, E. ROGHOZIN

Editors
GUERRIERI L., VITTORI E.

SYTEMCART - 2007
Direttore responsabile: Leonello SERVA
REDAZIONE a cura del Servizio Cartografico, coordinamento base dati e tavoli europei
Dirigente: Norman ACCARDI
Capo Settore: Domenico TACCHIA
Coordinamento Editoriale, allestimento digitale dei testi: Maria Luisa VATOVEC

SYSTEMCART - 2007
Preface

The idea of an Intensity scale based on coseismic environmental effects started to ripe early in the '80s
following the macroseismic surveys of strong earthquakes, in particular, for Italy, those occurred in 1976
(Friuli) and 1980 (Irpinia-Basilicata). In fact, during such surveys, it was often observed that intensity
could not be reliably evaluated only based on damage to artefacts. This was specially true for sparsely
populated areas and for the highest degrees, because it was extremely difficult to estimate damage above
degree X. Environmental effects, although sometimes widespread, were generally overlooked even if
some of them do not suffer of such limitations. Among them was particularly impressive the observation
of jumping stones, which sometimes were found higher than their original position, clear evidence of
peak acceleration exceeding gravity.
It must be underlined that the compilers of the earlier macroseismic scales already at the end of XIX cen-
tury judged useful to define the intensity degree based on effects not only on man and man-made struc-
tures, but also on the environment.
The intensity scale ESI 2007 (Environmental Seismic Intensity scale) results from a reviewing process of
previous versions lasted for eight years and carried out also under the patronage of INQUA (International
Union for Quaternary Research). To this revision have participated many qualified geologists, seismolo-
gists and engineers from many countries, under the coordination of the Italian Geological Survey of the
Italian Environmental Agency.
The ESI scale does not substitute the traditional ones, but integrates them, allowing to define the ear-
thquake intensity on the basis of the whole set of coseismic effects. It can be applied not only to future
earthquakes, but also to reassess historical events. Therefore, I believe that, if properly applied, the ESI
scale will provide valuable information in many areas for a better assessment of seismic hazard.

Prefazione
Lidea di una scala di intensit basata sugli effetti cosismici sullambiente iniziata a maturare a partire dagli anni '80 a
seguito dei rilievi macrosismici di forti terremoti, in particolare per lItalia quelli del 1976 (Friuli) e 1980 (Irpinia-
Basilicata). Infatti, nel corso di tali rilievi si osservava spesso che lintensit non poteva essere stimata in maniera affidabi-
le sulla base dei soli danni sul costruito. Ci valeva in particolare per le aree scarsamente abitate e per i terremoti pi forti,
in quanto risultava estremamente complesso stimare il danneggiamento sopra il decimo grado. Gli effetti ambientali, pur talo-
ra numerosi e diffusi su tutto il territorio venivano invece trascurati sebbene alcuni di loro non soffrissero di simili limitazio-
ni (tra essi, leffetto che pi mi colpiva erano le impronte sul terreno di sassi che si ritrovavano nelle immediate vicinanze,
anche a monte, indicazione sicura di picchi di accelerazione superiori a quello di gravit).
Va detto che gli Autori delle prime scale macrosismiche gi alla fine del XIX secolo avevano ritenuto utile definire il grado
dintensit sulla base degli effetti non solo sulluomo e sulle strutture antropiche, ma anche sullambiente naturale.
La scala di intensit ESI 2007 (Environmental Seismic Intensity scale) il risultato di un processo di revisione delle pre-
cedenti versioni durato otto anni e realizzato anche nellambito delle attivit dellINQUA (International Union for
Quaternary Research). A tale revisione hanno collaborato numerosi e qualificatissimi geologi, sismologi e ingegneri prove-
nienti da varie parti del mondo coordinate dal Servizio Geologico dItalia dellAPAT.
La scala ESI 2007 non si sostituisce a quelle tradizionali ma le integra, consentendo di definire l'intensit sismica sulla
base di tutti gli effetti a disposizione. Essa potenzialmente utilizzabile non solo per terremoti futuri ma anche per la revi-
sione di terremoti storici. Pertanto, sono convinto che, se adottata correttamente, la scala ESI 2007 potr fornire in molte
aree utili indicazioni anche per la rivalutazione della pericolosit sismica.

Il Direttore del Servizio Geologico dItalia / Dipartimento Difesa del Suolo

Dr. Leonello SERVA
Environmental Seismic Intensity scale - ESI 2007
La scala di Intensit Sismica basata sugli effetti ambientali - ESI 2007

MICHETTI A.M. (1), ESPOSITO E. (2), GUERRIERI L. (3), PORFIDO S. (2), SERVA L. (3),
TATEVOSSIAN R. (4), VITTORI E. (3), AUDEMARD F. (5), AZUMA T. (6), CLAGUE J. (7),
COMERCI V. (3), GRPINAR A. (8), MC CALPIN J. (9), MOHAMMADIOUN B. (10),
MRNER N.A. (11), OTA Y. (12), ROGHOZIN E. (4)

ABSTRACT - The Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI
2007) is a new earthquake intensity scale only based on the
effects triggered by the earthquake in the natural environ-
ment. The coseismic effects considered more diagnostic for
intensity evaluation are surface faulting and tectonic
uplift/subsidence (primary effects), landslides, ground
cracks, liquefactions, displaced boulders, tsunami and
hydrological anomalies (secondary effects). The ESI 2007
scale follows the same basic structure as any other XII
degree scale, such as the MCS, MM, MSK and EMS scales.
This type of intensity scale was proposed to the scientific
community since the beginning of '90s. The idea was defi-
nitely accepted in 1999, when a first version of the scale was
developed by a Working Group of geologists, seismologists
and engineers sponsored by the International Union for
Quaternary Research (INQUA). In the following years, this
version has been revised and updated.
The ESI 2007 scale is the result of the revision of previous
versions after its application to a large number of earthqua-
kes worldwide. In the frame of INQUA SubCommission
on Paleoseismicity, this activity was conducted by academic
and research institutes coordinated by the Geological
Survey of Italy - APAT (for further details,
s e e h t t p : / / w w w. a p a t . g o v. i t / s i t e / e n -
GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/default.html).
For intensity levels lower than IX, the main goal of this new
scale is to bring the environmental effects in line with the
damage indicators. In this range, the ESI 2007 scale should
be used along with the other scales. In the range between X
and XII, the distribution and size of environmental effects,
specially primary tectonic features, becomes the most dia-
gnostic tool to assess the intensity level. Documentary
report and/or field observations on fault rupture length
and surface displacement should be consistently implemen-
ted in the macroseismic study of past and future earthqua-
kes. Therefore, the use of the ESI 2007 alone is recommen-
ded only when effects on humans and on manmade struc-
tures i) are absent, or too scarce (i.e. in sparsely populated
or desert areas), and ii) saturate (i.e., for intensity X to XII)
loosing their diagnostic value.
After its official approval at the 17th INQUA Congress, the
use of the ESI 2007 scale will be proposed to national insti-
tutions (geological surveys, academic and research institu-
tes, departments for civil protection, environmental agen-
cies, etc.), dealing in the field of earthquake intensity and
seismic hazard.
RIASSUNTO - LEnvironmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI
2007) una nuova scala di intensit dei terremoti basata
esclusivamente sugli effetti ambientali. Tra questi, quelli
considerati diagnostici per la valutazione dellintensit sono
la fagliazione superficiale e i sollevamenti/abbassamenti tet-
tonici (effetti primari), i fenomeni franosi, le fratture, le
liquefazioni, gli tsunami, le variazione idrologiche (effetti
secondari). La scala ESI 2007 strutturata come le altre
scale a XII gradi, quali le scale MCS, MM, MSK ed EMS.
Gi dagli anni '90 questo tipo di scala di intensit veniva
proposta allinterno della comunit scientifica per essere
successivamente accolta e sviluppata in ambito internazio-
nale, sotto legida dellINQUA (International Union for
Quaternary Research), da un Gruppo di Lavoro costituito da
geologi, sismologi e ingegneri. Nel 1999 ne veniva redatta
una prima versione, pi volte aggiornata negli anni succes-
sivi.
La versione ESI 2007 il risultato della revisione delle pre-
cedenti sulla scorta delle informazioni ottenute attraverso
lapplicazione della scala a un gran numero di terremoti
in tutto il mondo. Tale attivit stata condotta, nellambito
dellINQUA SubCommission on Paleoseismicity, da
Universit e Istituti di ricerca a livello internazionale
coordinati dal Dipartimento Difesa del Suolo - Servizio
Geologico dItalia dellAPAT (per maggiori dettagli

(1) Universit dellInsubria, Como, Italy.

(2) Istituto per lAmbiente Marino Costiero, CNR, Napoli, Italy.
(3) Geological Survey of Italy, APAT, Roma, Italy.
(4) Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
(5) FUNVISIS, Caracas, Venezuela.
(6) National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
(7) Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
(8) IAEA, Vienna, Austria.
(9) GEO-HAZ Consulting, Crestone, Colorado, USA.
(10) Robinswood Consultant, Saint Martin de Nigelles, France.
(11) Institute for Paleogeodynamics & Paleogeophysics, Stockolm , Sweden.
(12) Emeritous of Yokohama National University, Japan.
8
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

h t t p : / / w w w. a p a t . g o v. i t / s i t e / e n - the scale for a trial period of 4 years, coincident

GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/default.html).
Per livelli di intensit inferiori a IX, lo scopo principale di
questa nuova scala quello di considerare gli effetti ambien-
tali alla stessa stregua degli indicatori di danneggiamento. In
questo intervallo di intensit, la scala ESI 2007 deve essere
utilizzata insieme alle altre scale d'intensit. Tra il X e il XII
grado, la distribuzione e le dimensioni degli effetti tettonici
primari costituiscono lindicatore maggiormente diagnosti-
ca per la valutazione dellintensit. Le descrizioni delle carat-
teristiche della fagliazione superficiale (lunghezza della rot-
tura; massima dislocazione verticale) dovrebbe essere ripor-
tata in maniera consistente negli studi macrosismici dei ter-
remoti passati e futuri. Lutilizzo della scala ESI 2007 come
unico e indipendente strumento di valutazione deve essere ESI
utilizzata solamente quando gli effetti sulluomo e sulle
strutture antropiche i) sono assenti o troppo scarsi (es. aree
deserte o scarsamente abitate) oppure ii) arrivano a satura-
zione (per intensit comprese tra X e XII).
Al fine di promuoverne un utilizzo pi condiviso e ampio
possibile, la scala ESI 2007, che verr ufficializzata durante
il 17th INQUA Congress, sar proposta alle istituzioni (servi-
zi geologici nazionali, istituti di ricerca in campo sismologi-
co, dipartimenti di protezione civile, agenzie ambientali) che
nei vari Paesi si occupano della valutazione dellintensit dei
terremoti e della pericolosit sismica.
1. - INTRODUCTION
In 1999, during the 15th INQUA (International
Union for Quaternary Research) Congress in
Durban, the Subcommission on Paleoseismicity
promoted the compilation of a new scale of
macroseismic intensity based only on environ-
mental effects. A Working Group including geo-
logists, seismologists and engineers compiled a
first version of the scale, that was presented at the
16th INQUA Congress in Reno (July 23 - 30,
2003), and updated one year later at the 32nd
International Geological Congress in Florence
(MICHETTI et alii, 2004). To this end, the INQUA
TERPRO (Commission on Terrestrial Processes)
approved a specific project (INQUA Scale
Project, 2004 - 2007) with the aim of A) testing
with the intercongress cycle, B) reviewing the first
version through its application to case studies wor-
ldwide(1) , and C) submitting the revised version so
as to be ratified during the 17th INQUA Congress
in Cairns (July 28 - August 3, 2007). The 2004 ver-
sion of this scale was provisionally named
INQUA EEE scale, where EEE stands for
Earthquake Environmental Effects.
This document describes the revised version
of the scale, which is formally named Enviro-
nmental Seismic Intensity scale - ESI 2007. The
IES 2007 scale is composed by:
a) Definition of intensity degrees on the basis
of Earthquake Environmental Effects, i.e. the
scale itself, which follows the same basic structu-
re of the widely used twelve degrees macrosei-
smic scales (see MICHETTI et alii, 2004);
b) Guidelines, which aim at better clarifying i)
the background of the scale and the scientific
concepts that support the introduction of such a
new macroseismic scale; ii) the procedure to use
the scale alone or integrated with damage-based,
traditional scales; iii) how the scale is organized;
iv) the descriptions of diagnostic features requi-
red for intensity assessment, and the meaning of
idioms, colors, and fonts.
A gallery of photographs kindly provided by
numerous scientists involved in the INQUA Scale
Project are reported in Appendix I.
The ESI 2007 Form (Appendix II) is an hel-
pful tool for data collection of Earthquake
Environmental Effects. The Plate I (Appendix
III) reports the definition of intensity degrees in
a synoptic table, classified by the category of
Earthquake Environmental Effect.
Both these latter documents have been desi-
gned for the application of the ESI 2007 scale
during field surveys immediately after the seismic
event.

(1) The application of the INQUA scale to case studies was conducted within the INQUA Scale Project Working Group by
the Authors and by the following scientists:
R. AMIT - Geological Survey of Israel.
G. BESANA - Nagoya University, Furo-cho Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
K. CHUNGA - Universit dellInsubria, Como, Italy.
A. FOKAEFS - Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, Greece.
L.E. FRANCO - INGEOMINAS, Bogot, Colombia.
C.P. LALINDE PULIDO - Universidad EAFIT, Departamiento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Medellin, Colombia.
E. KHAGAN - Geological Survey of Israel.
N. LIN YUNONG - National Taiwan University, Taiwan.
S. MARCO - Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv, Israel.
A. NELSON - US Geological Survey, Denver, USA.
I. PAPANIKOLAU - University College London, Department of Earth Sciences, BHRC, London, UK.
G. PAPATHANASSIOU - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
S. PAVLIDES - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
K. REICHERTER - Aachen University, Germany.
A. SALAMON - Geological Survey of Israel.
C. SPERNANZONI - University of Roma Tre, Italy.
P.G. SILVA - Departamento de Geologa, Universidad de Salamanca Sapin.
J. ZAMUDIO - Istituto Geofisico del Per, Lima.
Definition of intensity degrees
Definizione dei gradi di intensit

From I to III: There are no environmental effects that can be used as diagnostic.

IV - LARGELY OBSERVED - First unequivocal effects in the environment

Primary effects are absent.

Secondary effects:

a) Rare small variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recorded,
as well as extremely rare small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in
springs and wells, especially within large karstic spring systems, which appear to be most prone to this
phenomenon.
b) In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height not exceeding a few centimeters may develop,
commonly observed only by tidal gauges, exceptionally even by naked eye, typically in the far field of
strong earthquakes. Anomalous waves are perceived by all people on small boats, few people on larger
boats, most people on the coast. Water in swimming pools swings and may sometimes overflows.
c) Hair-thin cracks (millimeter-wide) might be occasionally seen where lithology (e.g., loose alluvial depo-
sits, saturated soils) and/or morphology (slopes or ridge crests) are most prone to this phenomenon.
d)Exceptionally, rocks may fall and small landslide may be (re)activated, along slopes where the equili-
brium is already near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose and generally saturated soil.
e) Tree limbs shake feebly.

V - STRONG - Marginal effects in the environment

Primary effects are absent.

Secondary effects:

a) Rare variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recorded, as
well as small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs and wells.
b) In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height of decimeters may develop, sometimes noted also
by naked eye, typically in the far field of strong earthquakes. Anomalous waves up to several tens of cm
high are perceived by all people on boats and on the coast. Water in swimming pools overflows.
c) Thin cracks (millimeter-wide and several cms up to one meter long) are locally seen where lithology
(e.g., loose alluvial deposits, saturated soils) and/or morphology (slopes or ridge crests) are most prone
to this phenomenon.
d) Rare small rockfalls, rotational landslides and slump earth flows may take place, along often but not
necessarily steep slopes where equilibrium is near the limit state, mainly loose deposits and saturated
soil. Underwater landslides may be triggered, which can induce small anomalous waves in coastal areas
of sea and lakes.
e) Tree limbs and bushes shake slightly, very rare cases of fallen dead limbs and ripe fruit.
f) Extremely rare cases are reported of liquefaction (sand boil), small in size and in areas most prone to
this phenomenon (highly susceptible, recent, alluvial and coastal deposits, near-surface water table).
10
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

VI - SLIGHTLY DAMAGING - Modest effects in the environment

Primary effects are absent.

Secondary effects:

a) Significant variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recor-
ded, as well as small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs
and wells.
b) Anomalous waves up to many tens of cm high flood very limited areas nearshore. Water in swimming
pools and small ponds and basins overflows.
c) Occasionally, millimeter-centimeter wide and up to several meters long fractures are observed in loose alluvial deposits
and/or saturated soils; along steep slopes or riverbanks they can be 1-2 cm wide. A few minor cracks develop in paved
(either asphalt or stone) roads.
d) Rockfalls and landslides with volume reaching ca. 103 m3 can take place, especially where equilibrium
is near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose saturated soil, or highly weathered / frac-
tured rocks. Underwater landslides can be triggered, occasionally provoking small anomalous waves in
coastal areas of sea and lakes, commonly seen by intrumental records.
e) Trees and bushes shake moderately to strongly; a very few tree tops and unstable-dead limbs may break
and fall, also depending on species, fruit load and state of health.
f) Rare cases are reported of liquefaction (sand boil), small in size and in areas most prone to this phenomenon (highly
susceptible, recent, alluvial and coastal deposits, near surface water table).

VII - DAMAGING - Appreciable effects in the environment

Primary effects: observed very rarely, and almost exclusively in volcanic areas. Limited surface fault rup-
tures, tens to hundreds of meters long and with centimetric offset, may occur, essentially associated to
very shallow earthquakes.
Secondary effects: The total affected area is in the order of 10 km2.
a) Significant temporary variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are
locally recorded. Seldom, small springs may temporarily run dry or appear. Weak variations of chemi-
cal-physical properties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs and wells are locally observed.
b) Anomalous waves even higher than a meter may flood limited nearshore areas and damage or wash
away objects of variable size. Water overflows from small basins and watercourses.
c) Fractures up to 5-10 cm wide and up to hundred metres long are observed, commonly in loose alluvial deposits and/or
saturated soils; rarely, in dry sand, sand-clay, and clay soil fractures are also seen, up to 1 cm wide. Centimeter-wide
cracks are common in paved (asphalt or stone) roads.
d) Scattered landslides occur in prone areas, where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / satu-
rated soils), while modest rock falls are common on steep gorges, cliffs). Their size is sometimes signi-
ficant (103 - 105 m3); in dry sand, sand-clay, and clay soil, the volumes are usually up to 100 m3.
Ruptures, slides and falls may affect riverbanks and artificial embankments and excavations (e.g., road
cuts, quarries) in loose sediment or weathered / fractured rock. Significant underwater landslides can
be triggered, provoking anomalous waves in coastal areas of sea and lakes, directly felt by people on
boats and ports.
e) Trees and bushes shake vigorously; especially in densely forested areas, many limbs and tops break
and fall.
f) Rare cases are reported of liquefaction, with sand boils up to 50 cm in diameter, in areas most prone to this phenome-
non (highly susceptible, recent, alluvial and coastal deposits, near surface water table).

VIII - HEAVILY DAMAGING - Extensive effects in the environment

Primary effects: observed rarely.
Ground ruptures (surface faulting) may develop, up to several hundred meters long, with offsets not exceeding a few cm, par-
ticularly for very shallow focus earthquakes such as those common in volcanic areas. Tectonic subsidence or uplift of the
ground surface with maximum values on the order of a few centimeters may occur.
 INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
11

Secondary effects: The total affected area is in the order of 100 km2.
a) Springs may change, generally temporarily, their flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Some small
springs may even run dry. Variations in water level are observed in wells. Weak variations of chemi-
cal-physical properties of water, most commonly temperature, may be observed in springs and/or
wells. Water turbidity may appear in closed basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sul-
phureous, are locally observed.
b) Anomalous waves up to 1-2 meters high flood nearshore areas and may damage or wash away objects
of variable size. Erosion and dumping of waste is observed along the beaches, where some bushes
and even small weak-rooted trees can be eradicated and drifted away. Water violently overflows from
small basins and watercourses.
c) Fractures up to 50 cm wide and up to hundreds metres long, are commonly observed in loose alluvial deposits and/or
saturated soils; in rare cases fractures up to 1 cm can be observed in competent dry rocks. Decimetric cracks arecommon
in paved (asphalt or stone) roads, as well as small pressure undulations.
d) Small to moderate (103 - 105 m3) landslides are widespread in prone areas; rarely they can occur also
on gentle slopes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / saturated soils; rock falls on
steep gorges, coastal cliffs) their size is sometimes large (105 - 106 m3). Landslides can occasionally dam
narrow valleys causing temporary or even permanent lakes. Ruptures, slides and falls affect riverbanks
and artificial embankments and excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment or weathered /
fractured rock. Frequent is the occurrence of landslides under the sea level in coastal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; branches may break and fall, trees may be uprooted , especially along steep slopes.
f) Liquefaction may be frequent in the epicentral area, depending on local conditions; the most typical effects are: sand boils
up to ca. 1 m in diameter; apparent water fountains in still waters; localised lateral spreading and settlements (subsiden-
ce up to ca. 30 cm), with fissuring parallel to waterfront areas (river banks, lakes, canals, seashores).
g) In dry areas, dust clouds may rise from the ground in the epicentral area.
h) Stones and even small boulders and tree trunks may be thrown in the air, leaving typical imprints in soft
soil.

IX - DESTRUCTIVE - Effects in the environment are a widespread source of considerable

hazard and become important for intensity assessment
Primary effects: observed commonly.
Ground ruptures (surface faulting) develop, up to a few km long, with offsets generally in the order of several cm. Tectonic
subsidence or uplift of the ground surface with maximum values in the order of a few decimeters may occur.
Secondary effects: The total affected area is in the order of 1000 km2.
a) Springs can change, generally temporarily, their flow-rate and/or location to a considerable extent. Some modest springs
may even run dry. Temporary variations of water level are commonly observed in wells. Variations of chemical-physical
properties of water, most commonly temperature, are observed in springs and/or wells. Water turbidity is common in clo-
sed basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, and bushes and grass near emission
zones may burn.
b) Meters high waves develop in still and running waters. In flood plains water streams may even change their course, also
because of land subsidence. Small basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline,
dangerous tsunamis may reach the shores with runups of up to several meters flooding wide areas. Widespread erosion
and dumping of waste is observed along the beaches, where bushes and trees can be eradicated and drifted away.
c) Fractures up to 100 cm wide and up to hundreds metres long are commonly observed in loose alluvial deposits and/or
saturated soils; in competent rocks they can reach up to 10 cm. Significant cracks are common in paved (asphalt or stone)
roads, as well as small pressure undulations.
d) Landsliding is widespread in prone areas, also on gentle slopes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / satu-
rated soils; rock falls on steep gorges, coastal cliffs) their size is frequently large (105 m3), sometimes very large (106
m3). Landslides can dam narrow valleys causing temporary or even permanent lakes. Riverbanks, artificial embankments
and excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) frequently collapse. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level.
e) Trees shake vigorously; branches and thin tree trunks frequently break and fall. Some trees might be
uprooted and fall, especially along steep slopes.
f) Liquefaction and water upsurge are frequent; the most typical effects are: sand boils up to 3 m in diameter; apparent water
fountains in still waters; frequent lateral spreading and settlements (subsidence of more than ca. 30 cm), with fissuring
parallel to waterfront areas (river banks, lakes, canals, seashores).
12
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

g) In dry areas, dust clouds may rise from the ground.

h) Small boulders and tree trunks may be thrown in the air and move away from their site for meters, also depending on
slope angle and roundness, leaving typical imprints in soft soil.

X - VERY DESTRUCTIVE - Effects on the environment become a leading source of hazard

and are critical for intensity assessment
Primary effects become leading.
Surface faulting can extend for few tens of km, with offsets from tens of cm up to a few meters. Gravity grabens and elon-
gated depressions develop; for very shallow focus earthquakes in volcanic areas rupture lengths might be much lower. Tectonic
subsidence or uplift of the ground surface with maximum values in the order of few meters may occur.
Secondary effects. The total affected area is in the order of 5,000 km2.
a) Many springs significantly change their flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Some springs may run
temporarily or even permanently dry. Temporary variations of water level are commonly observed in
wells. Even strong variations of chemical-physical properties of water, most commonly temperature,
are observed in springs and/or wells. Often water becomes very muddy in even large basins, rivers,
wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, and bushes and grass near emission
zones may burn.
b) Meters high waves develop in even big lakes and rivers, which overflow from their beds. In flood plains rivers may chan-
ge their course, temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence. Basins may appear or be
emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups exceeding 5 m floo-
ding flat areas for thousands of meters inland. Small boulders can be dragged for many meters. Widespread deep erosion
is observed along the shores, with noteworthy changes of the coastline profile. Trees nearshore are eradicated and drifted
away.
c) Open ground cracks up to more than 1 m wide and up to hundred metres long are frequent, mainly in loose alluvial depo-
sits and/or saturated soils; in competent rocks opening reaches several decimeters. Wide cracks develop in paved (asphalt
or stone) roads, as well as pressure undulations.
d) Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are frequent, practically regardless of equilibrium state of slopes,
causing temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments, and sides of excavations typically
collapse. Levees and earth dams may also incur serious damage. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level in coa-
stal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; many branches and tree trunks break and fall. Some trees might be uprooted and fall.
f) Liquefaction, with water upsurge and soil compaction, may change the aspect of wide zones; sand volcanoes even more
than 6 m in diameter; vertical subsidence even > 1m; large and long fissures due to lateral spreading are common.
g) In dry areas, dust clouds commonly rise from the ground.
h) Boulders (diameter in excess of 2-3 meters) can be thrown in the air and move away from their site for hundreds of meters
down even gentle slopes, leaving typical imprints in soil.

XI - DEVASTATING - Effects on the environment become decisive for intensity assessment,

due to saturation of structural damage

Primary effects are dominant

Surface faulting extends from several tens of km up to more than one hundred km, accompanied by slips reaching several
meters. Gravity graben, elongated depressions and pressure ridges develop. Drainage lines can be seriously offset. Tectonic sub-
sidence or uplift of the ground surface with maximum values in the order of numerous meters may occur.
Secondary effects. The total affected area is in the order of 10,000 km2.
a) Many springs significantly change their flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Many springs may run
temporarily or even permanently dry. Temporary or permanent variations of water level are generally
observed in wells. Even strong variations of chemical-physical properties of water, most commonly
temperature, are observed in springs and/or wells. Often water becomes very muddy in even large
basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, and bushes and grass
near emission zones may burn.
b) Large waves develop in big lakes and rivers, which overflow from their beds. In flood plains rivers can change their cour-
 13
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

se, temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence and landsliding. Basins may appear or be
emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups reaching 15 meters
and more devastating flat areas for kilometers inland. Even meter-sized boulders can be dragged for long distances.
Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with noteworthy changes of the coastal morphology. Trees nearsho-
re are eradicated and drifted away.
c) Open ground cracks up to several meters wide are very frequent, mainly in loose alluvial deposits
and/or saturated soils. In competent rocks they can reach 1 m. Very wide cracks develop in paved
(asphalt or stone) roads, as well as large pressure undulations.
d) Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are frequent, practically regardless of equilibrium state
of slopes, causing many temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments,
and sides of excavations typically collapse. Levees and earth dams incur serious damage. Significant
landslides can occur even at 200 - 300 km distance from the epicenter. Frequent are large landslides
under the sea level in coastal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; many branches and tree trunks break and fall. Many trees are uprooted and fall.
f) Liquefaction changes the aspect of extensive zones of lowland, determining vertical subsidence possi-
bly exceeding several meters; numerous large sand volcanoes, and severe lateral spreading can be observed.
g) In dry areas dust clouds arise from the ground.
h) Big boulders (diameter of several meters) can be thrown in the air and move away from their site for long distances down
even gentle slopes., leaving typical imprints in soil.

XII - COMPLETELY DEVASTATING - Effects in the environment are the only tool
for intensity assessment

Primary effects are dominant.

Surface faulting is at least few hundreds of km long, accompanied by offsets reaching several tens of meters. Gravity gra-
ben, elongated depressions and pressure ridges develop. Drainage lines can be seriously offset. Landscape and geomorpholo-
gical changes induced by primary effects can attain extraordinary extent and size (typical examples are the uplift or subsi-
dence of coastlines by several meters, appearance or disappearance from sight of significant landscape elements, rivers chan-
ging course, origination of waterfalls, formation or disappearance of lakes).
Secondary effects. The total affected area is in the order of 50,000 km2 and more.
a) Many springs significantly change their flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Temporary or perma-
nent variations of water level are generally observed in wells. Many springs and wells may run tempo-
rarily or even permanently dry. Strong variations of chemical-physical properties of water, most com-
monly temperature, are observed in springs and/or wells. Water becomes very muddy in even large
basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, and bushes and grass
near emission zones may burn.
b) Giant waves develop in lakes and rivers, which overflow from their beds. In flood plains rivers change their course and
even their flow direction, temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence and landsliding.
Large basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the sho-
res with runups of several tens of meters devastating flat areas for many kilometers inland. Big boulders can be dragged
for long distances. Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with outstanding changes of the coastal mor-
phology. Many trees are eradicated and drifted away. All boats are tore from their moorings and swept away or carried
onshore even for long distances. All people outdoor are swept away.
c) Ground open cracks are very frequent, up to one meter or more wide in the bedrock, up to more than
10 m wide in loose alluvial deposits and/or saturated soils. These may extend up to several kilometers.
d) Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are frequent, practically regardless to equilibriumstate
of the slopes, causing many temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments,
and sides of excavations typically collapse. Levees and earth dams incur serious damage. Significant
landslides can occur at more than 200 - 300 km distance from the epicenter. Frequent are very large
landslides under the sea level in coastal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; many branches and tree trunks break and fall. Many trees are uprooted and fall.
f) Liquefaction occurs over large areas and changes the morphology of extensive flat zones, determining
vertical subsidence exceeding several meters, widespread large sand volcanoes, and extensive severe
lateral spreading can be observed.
g) In dry areas dust clouds arise from the ground.
h) Also very big boulders can be thrown in the air and move for long distances even down very gentle slopes, leaving typical
imprints in soil.
Guidelines
Linee Guida

1. - BACKGROUND re. In this way, the effects produced by earthqua-

kes at the surface have notably come under close
1.1. - RATIONALE scrutiny, recognizing the fact that they actually
result from the cumulated effects of the source
The twelve degrees macroseismic intensity (vibrations generated during slip, finite deforma-
scales, developed since the beginning of XX cen- tions), of the propagation of seismic waves, and,
tury, were based on evaluation of the effects on a) lastly, of local site effects. Later it became clear
humans, b) manmade structures and c) natural that by doing this they were able to take into
environment (fig. 1). account the whole frequency range of interest,
When the first models of macroseismic scales including its static component. Therefore, accor-
appeared, the Authors intuitively followed the ding to this original and valuable approach,
inspired idea of including different types of Intensity can be defined as a classification of
effects, or effects on different kinds of recei- effects, which allows measuring the earthquake
vers. Without giving a formal definition of this severity in the whole range of frequencies inclu-
successful methodological approach, DE ROSSI, ding static deformations and vibrational effects.
MERCALLI, CANCANI, OMORI, SIEBERG and their However, in the early versions of the twelve
colleagues incorporated in the macroseismic sca- degrees scales (cf. DAVISON, 1921), the effects of
les effects on humans, on buildings and on natu- the earthquakes on the natural environment were
scarcely documented. Their presence in the scale
was mostly due to the many references to ground
cracks, landslides, and landscape modifications,
effects on humans contained in the historical sources.
Later, in the second half of the XX century,
these effects have been increasingly disregarded
effects on manmade in the literature and in the practice of macrosei-
structures Intensity (I)
smic investigation, probably due to their inner
complexity and variability requiring specific skills
effects on natural and knowledge, while increasing attention has
environment been paid to the apparently easier to analyze
effects on humans and manmade structures (e.g.,
Fig. 1 - According to the original definition of intensity in the twelve ESPINOSA et alii, 1976a; 1976b; GRUNTHAL, 1998).
degrees scales, i.e., the Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg Scale (MCS), the In fact, recent studies (DENGLER & MCPHERSON,
Modified Mercalli scale (MM-31 and MM-56) and the Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK-64), the assessment of intensity degrees 1993; SERVA, 1994, DOWRICK, 1996; ESPOSITO et
has to be based on humans, manmade structures and natural environment. alii, 1997; HANCOX et alii, 2002; MICHETTI et alii,
- Secondo la defnizione originale di intensit nelle scale a dodici gradi, quali la scala
Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS), la scala Mercalli Modificata (MM-31 e MM - 56) 2004; and references therein) have offered new
e la scala Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK 64), la valutazione del grado di inten- substantial evidence that coseismic environmental
sit deve essere basata sugli effetti sulluomo, sulle strutture antropiche e sullambiente
naturale. effects provide precious information on the ear-
16
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
thquake size and its intensity field, complemen-
ting, de facto, the traditional damage-based macro-
seismic scales. As a matter of fact, with the out-
standing growth of Paleoseismology as a new
independent discipline, nowadays the effects on
the environment can be described and quantified
with a remarkable detail compared with that avai-
lable at the time of the earlier scales. Therefore,
today the definition of the intensity degrees can
effectively take advantage of the diagnostic cha-
racteristics of the effects on natural environment.
This is the goal of the ESI 2007 scale. Its use,
alone or integrated with the other traditional sca-
les (see chapter 2), affords a better picture of the
earthquake scenario, because only environmental
effects allow suitable comparison of the ear-
thquake intensity both:
in time: effects on the natural environment
are comparable for a time-window (recent, histo-
ric and palaeo seismic events) much larger than
the period of instrumental record (last century),
and
in different geographic areas: environmental
effects do not depend on peculiar socio-econo-
mic conditions or different building practices.
1.2. - PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS
Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEEs)
are any phenomena generated in the natural envi-
ronment by a seismic event. They can be catego-
rized in two main types:
primary effects, the surface expression of
the seismogenic tectonic source (including surfa-
ce faulting, surface uplift and subsidence), typical-
ly observed for crustal earthquakes over a certain
threshold value of magnitude. Being directly lin-
ked to the size, hence the energy of the earthqua-
ke, these effects in principle do not suffer satura-
tion, i.e., they saturate only for intensity XII, this
being an obvious inherent limit of all macrosei-
smic scales.
secondary effects: phenomena generally
induced by the ground shaking. Their occurrence
is commonly observed in a specific range of
intensities. For each type of secondary effect, the
ESI 2007 scale describes their characteristics and
size as a diagnostic feature in a range of intensity
degrees. Hence, in some cases it is only possible
to establish a minimum intensity value.
Conversely, the total area of distribution of
secondary effects does not saturate and therefore
it can be used as an independent tool for the
assessment of the epicentral intensity 0 (par. 3.2).
1.3. - THRESHOLD FOR SURFACE FAULTING IN VOL-
CANIC AREAS
The focal depth and the stress environment of
an earthquake obviously influence the occurrence
and the size of the observed effects. Two crustal
earthquakes with the same energy but very diffe-
rent focal depths and stress environment can pro-
duce a very different field of environmental
effects and therefore largely different local inten-
sity values. This is particularly important in volca-
nic areas, where tectonic earthquakes with low
magnitude and very shallow focus (in the order of
1-4 km) can generate primary effects (e.g.,
AZZARO, 1999). To take this into account, the
threshold for surface faulting in volcanic areas has
been set at intensity VII, whereas for typical ear-
thquakes (focal depth 5-15 km) primary effects
start from intensity VIII.
2. - HOW TO USE THE ESI 2007 SCALE
When suitable EEEs are documented, the ESI
2007 scale allows independent estimates of epi-
central and local intensity. Through a straightfor-
ward procedure (fig. 2) these values can be used
for intensity assessment alone or together with
damage-based traditional scales to produce a
hybrid intensity field. The use of the ESI 2007
scale as an independent tool is recommended
when (case A in fig. 2) only environmental effects
are diagnostic because effects on humans and on
manmade structures are absent, or too scarce (i.e.
in sparsely populated or desert areas), or suffer
saturation (i.e., for intensity X to XII).
As shown by the processing of many ear-
thquakes worldwide, typically the ESI 2007 used
alone can define the intensity degree with an
acceptable level of accuracy starting from intensi-
ty VII, when environmental effects usually beco-
me diagnostic. This accuracy improves in the
higher degrees of the scale, in particular in the
range of occurrence of primary effects, typically
starting from intensity VIII, and with growing
resolution for intensity IX, X, XI and XII.
Obviously, when environmental effects are not
available, intensity has to be assessed by damage-
based traditional scales (case B).
If effects are available either on manmade
structures and natural environments (case C),
allowing to estimate two independent intensities,
in general the intensity has to coincide with the
highest value between these two estimates. Of
course, expert judgment is an essential compo-
nent in the process of comparing intensitiy asses-
 17
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

sed using different categories of receivers. the epicenter. Several techniques can be applied
This procedure allows generating a hybrid to assess I0; for instance, POSTPISCHL (1985) defi-
field of local intensities, i.e., derived from the ne I0 as the value of the closed isoseismal line
integration of ESI 2007 and other intensity scales. having the highest degree and including at least 3
This is deemed to be the best intensity scenario different data points.
because 1) it takes into account all the effects trig- Surface faulting parameters and total area of
gered by the earthquake, 2) it is in agreement with distribution of secondary effects (landslides
the original definition of intensity, and 3) it allows and/or liquefactions) are two independent tools
the comparison of earthquakes in time and in to assess I0 on the basis of environmental effects,
space over the largest chronological and geogra- starting from the intensity VII.
phic window. SURFACE FAULTING PARAMETERS: The ranges
reported in Table 1 are based on the analysis of
2.1. - PROCEDURE TO USE THE ESI 2007 SCALE AS surface faulting parameters and intensity data
A SELF INSTRUMENT FOR INTENSITY ASSESSMENT available for more than 400 shallow crustal ear-
thquakes worldwide (SURFIN, SURFace faulting
Evidently the ESI 2007 scale is a tool to assess and INtensity database; INQUA scale Project,
both epicentral and local intensities. 2007). The use of this simple table for I0 asses-
sment requires particular attention when the
2.1.1. - Epicentral intensity (0) amount of surface faulting is close to the boun-
daries between two intensity degrees. In this case
Epicentral intensity (I0) is defined as the inten- it is recommended to choose the intensity value
sity of shaking at epicenter, i.e. what intensity we better consistent with the characteristics and
would get, if there were a locality that matches distribution of secondary effects.

DATA INTENSITY
COLLECTION ASSESSMENT

HISTORICAL A
EARTHQUAKES
NATURAL
Revision of effects ENVIRONMENT
IESI
from historical
documents
B IMCS
RECENT HUMANS + IMM
EARTHQUAKES MANMADE IMSK
AVAILABLE
EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES IEMS
Revision of effects
from macroseismic and IJMA
geological surveys

C IMCS
HUMANS + IMM
FUTURE
MANMADE
EARTHQUAKES STRUCTURES IMSK
IEMS MAXIMUM
Ad hoc macroseismic
and geological field
AN D
IJMA VALUE
surveys =
NATURAL
INTENSITY
ENVIRONMENT IESI
Fig. 2 - Logical scheme for the use of ESI 2007 scale alone or together with damage-based traditional scales. We show only the most commonly used scales,
however, any scale can be integrated with the ESI 2007 scale following the same methodological steps.
- Schema logico per l'utilizzo della scala ESI 2007 da sola o insieme con le scale tradizionali basate sui danni. Qui sono considerate solo le scale maggiormente usate, tuttavia qual-
siasi scala pu integrarsi con la scala ESI 2007 seguendo un approccio metodologico analogo.
18
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

TOTAL AREA OF SECONDARY EFFECTS: Starting According to this approach, a Site can be defi-
from intensity VII, the ESI 2007 scale considers ned as any place where a single environmental
the total area of secondary effects as diagnostic effect has occurred. The description of one effect
element for I0 assessment. Even in this case, for has to be done at this level.
each intensity degree table 1 only lists the order of One Locality may include several sites and
magnitude of the total area, and the chosen value presents a level of generalization, to which inten-
of I0 has to be consistent with primary effects. sity can be assigned. It can refer to any place,
The definition of total area should not inclu- either inhabited or natural. It has to be small
de the isolated effects occasionally located in the enough to keep separated areas with significantly
far field. In fact, the occurrence of these effects is different site intensities, but large enough to
most likely due to peculiar site conditions. include several sites and consequently to be repre-
Evidently, only a sound professional judgment sentative for intensity assessment. Therefore, the
can establish which effects should be inclu- locality has to be defined by expert judgment.
ded/excluded in the definition of total area. REGULAR GRID: in case a systematic field sur-
vey of the affected area provides a homogeneous
distribution of environmental effects, which is
TAB. 1 - Ranges of surface faulting parameters (prima- still uncommon for modern earthquakes but
ry effects) and typical extents of total area (secondary highly advisable for future earthquakes, it is
effects) for each intensity degree. recommended to divide the territory into a regu-
- Valori di riferimento per ciascun grado di inten- lar grid with a cell size that depends on the scale
sit relativo ai parametri di fagliazione superficia- of the field survey. It should be possible to assign
le (effetti primari) e allarea totale degli effetti a local intensity to each cell. The resulting distri-
secondari. bution of local intensities allows to define the
PRIMARY SECONDARY map of isoseismals. However, with this approach
I0 EFFECTS EFFECTS the comparison and integration with standard
Intensity SURFACE
MAX SURFACE macroseismic intensity values may become quite
DISPLACEMENT
RUPTURE
/
TOTAL AREA difficult.
LENGTH
DEFORMATION
IV - - - 2.2. - CORRELATION BETWEEN ESI 2007 AND
V - - - TRADITIONAL MACROSEISMIC SCALES
VI - -
VII (*) (*) 10 km2 In principle, the correlations of intensity sca-
VIII Several hundreds Centimetric 100 km2 les, degree by degree, should be never allowed
meters
IX 1- 10 km 5 - 40 cm 1000 km2 because each scale classifies the effects in a diffe-
X 10 - 60 km 40 - 300 cm 5000 km2 rent way. Hence, for the comparison of two ear-
XI 60 150 km 300 700 cm 10000 km2 thquakes it should be advisable to use the same
XII > 150 km > 700 cm > 50000 km2 intensity scale, even if it is necessary to reclassify
(*) Limited surface fault ruptures, tens to hundreds meters long with cen-
all the effects. For instance, in the MSK64 scale
timetric offset may occur essentially associated to very shallow earthqua- the concepts of typical damage and building
kes in volcanic areas. types are used. As a result this is a scale of con-
stant intervals. The MCS and Modified Mercalli sca-
2.1.2 . - Local intensity (IL) les, based on maximum effects, are scales of order.
As a consequence intensity VIII is much easier to
The local intensity is essentially assessed get in original Mercalli than applying MSK64.
through the description of secondary effects. Indeed, the classic twelve degrees scales,
However, even the local expression of primary though they included environmental effects, were
effects, in terms of maximum displacement of a not able to differentiate intensities above IX,
fault segment, may contribute to its evaluation. because (a) they did not make difference between
The evaluation of local intensity can be done in primary and secondary effects, (b) they did not
two different ways: use quantitative approach for the effects on natu-
LOCALITY - SITE: this approach is recommen- re. Therefore, it is expected that when we deal
ded when the descriptions of environmental with the strongest earthquakes the application of
effects are not homogeneously surveyed over the the ESI 2007 scale will yield an intensity value
territory, which is common for historical ear- that is different, and more physically meaningful,
thquakes. The main advantage of this procedure is from that obtained with the others scales. That is
that it allows the comparison with local intensities exactly the reason why it is necessary to develop
deriving from traditional macroseismic scales. this new intensity scale.

INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
As a matter of fact, in the practice of macro-
seismic investigation, very often one is obliged to
compare earthquakes intensities classified with
different scales. This has promoted the use of
conversion tables, such as those proposed by
KRINITZSKY & CHANG (1978), REITER (1990), and
PANZA (2004). On the other hand, the application
of such kind of tables has often caused the intro-
duction of additional uncertainties, such as the
use of half-degrees or fractional degrees.
In order to avoid these inconveniences, the
correlation among the most important intensity
scales has to be simply based on one-to-one rela-
tionships. As discussed in MICHETTI et alii, (2004),
due to the level of uncertainty inherent in the
structure itself of the macroseismic scales, and in
case a conversion between scales is a step that
cannot be absolutely avoided, the best we can do
is to consider all the twelve degrees scales as equi-
valent. This includes also the Chinese macrosei-
smic intensity scale, which has been originally
designed to be consistent with the MM scale (e.g.,
XIE, 1957; WANG, 2004). Nevertheless, the corre-
lation with the 7-degrees JMA intensity scale
(KRINTIZSKY & CHANG, 1977; REITER, 1990;
HANCOX et alii, 2002), and with other scales not
based on twelve degrees, inevitably requires grou-
ping of some intensity degrees.
3. - STRUCTURE OF THE SCALE
The ESI 2007 scale has been developed to be
consistent with the Modified Mercalli macrosei-
smic scale (MM-31, WOOD & NEUMANN, 1931;
MM-56, RICHTER, 1958) and the MSK-64 (
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale), since these
are the most applied worldwide and includes
many explicit references to environmental effects.
More in general, the new scale was carefully
designed in order to keep the internal consistency
of the original twelve degrees scale, as discussed
in depth by MICHETTI et alii, (2004). A great deal
of work in seismic hazard assessment is accompli-
shed in the world, and intensity is a basic parame-
ter in this. Any new word in this research field
must not result in dramatic changes. The members
of the WG are aware that, by definition, the twel-
ve-degree macroseismic scales are based essential-
ly on effects on humans in the range of intensity
II to V, on damage in the range of intensity VI to
IX, and on natural environment in the range
of intensity X to XII. The ESI 2007 scale is therefo-
re really useful only for the assessment of the
highest intensities. But, as mentioned above,
to avoid any confusion, the classical numbering
is kept.
19
3.1. - MAIN GROUPS OF INTENSITY DEGREES
The ESI 2007 scale starts where environmen-
tal effects become regularly observed in favorable
conditions, i.e. at intensity IV. The scale is linear
and works well up to XII degree. In the first ver-
sion of the scale, intensity I, II and III were also
defined using environmental effects (MICHETTI et
alii, 2004). It is important to remark that several
effects on nature, especially concerning water
bodies and hydrogeological phenomena
(MONTGOMERY & MANGA, 2003 and references
therein), but also instrumentally-detected primary
tectonic deformations (permanent fault offset
measured at the INFN Gran Sasso, Italy, strain-
meter; cf., AMORUSO & CRESCENTINI, 1999), have
been observed for very low intensity. Perhaps
future investigation will allow a new revision of
the scale in order to include environmental effects
suitable for intensity assessment in the range
from I to III. However, after 4 years of applica-
tion at a global scale through the INQUA scale
project, it was clear that with the knowledge avai-
lable today, effects on natural environment in this
range are not diagnostic.
Therefore, comparing the ESI 2007 with the
other 12 degrees scales, we can identify three
main subset:
I) From I to III: There are no environmen-
tal effects that can be used as diagnostic.
II) From IV to IX: Environmental effects are
easily observable starting from intensity IV, and
often permanent and diagnostic especially star-
ting from intensity VII. However, they are neces-
sarily less suitable for intensity assessment than
effects on humans and manmade structures.
Their use is therefore recommended especially in
sparsely populated areas;
III) From X to XII: Effects on humans and
manmade structures saturate, while environmen-
tal effects become dominant; in fact, several types
of environmental effects do not suffer saturation
in this range. Thus, environmental effects are the
most effective tool to evaluate the intensity.
3.2. - TITLE AND DESCRIPTION
The title reflects the corresponding force of
the earthquake and the role of environmental
effects.
In the description, the characteristics and size
of primary effects associated to each degree are
reported firstly. Then, secondary effects are
described i) in terms of total area of distribution
for the assessment of epicentral Intensity (star-
20
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

ting from intensity VII); ii) grouped in several A - Hydrological anomalies

categories (see previous chapter and tab. 2), orde- Hydrological anomalies show up from inten-
red by the initial degree of occurrence. sity III and saturate (i.e. their size does not increa-
Text in Italic has been used to highlight se) at intensity X.
descriptions regarded as diagnostic by itself for a They can be divided in two groups:
given degree. Surface water effects: 1) Overflow; 2)
Discharge variation; 3) Turbidity of rivers;
3.3. - DESCRIPTION OF EARTHQUAKE Ground water effects: 1) Drying up of springs;
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 2) Appearance of springs; 3) Temperature chan-
ges; 4) Anomaly in chemical component; 5)
It is possible to collect the characteristics of Turbidity of springs.
earthquake environmental effects in two different Further useful information might be: the
ways: amount and rates of variation in temperature and
discharge, the presence of anomalous chemical
- the ESI 2007 Form, designed to be used during element, the duration of the anomaly, and the
the emergency phase after an earthquake time delay.
(Appendix II);
B - Anomalous waves/tsunamis
- the EEE Database, designed to be used for the In this category are included: seiches in closed
revision of historical reports and for final archi- basins, outpouring of water from pools and
ving. basins, and tsunami waves. In the case of tsuna-
Both these documents can be downloaded from mis, more than the size of the tsunami wave itself,
h t t p : / / w w w. a p a t . g o v. i t / s i t e / e n - the effects on the shores (especially runup, beach
GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/Documents/ erosion, change of coastal morphology), without
The structure of the ESI 2007 Form and EEE
Database is similar. Thus, it is possible to migrate
from the former to the latter without difficulties. TAB. 2 - Diagnostic range of intensity degrees for each
class of environmental effects.
3.3.1. - Primary effects - Intervallo di gradi di intensit diagnostico per
ciascuna classe di effetti ambientali.
The size of primary effects is typically expres- Diagnostic range
sed in terms of two parameters: i) Total Surface Environmental effects of intensity
Rupture Length (SRL) and ii) Maximum degrees
Displacement (MD). Their occurrence is com-
monly associated to a minimum intensity value SURFACE FAULTING
(VIII), except in case of very shallow earthquakes VIII (*) XII
in volcanic areas. Amount of tectonic surface AND DEFORMATION
deformation (uplift, subsidence) is also taken into HYDROLOGICAL
account. A IV X
ANOMALIES
3.3.2. - Secondary effects ANOMALOUS
B IV XII
WAVES/TSUNAMIS
Secondary effects can be classified into eight
main categories (tab. 2). While some descriptions C GROUND CRACKS IV X
are considered diagnostic (in Italic), others are
susceptible to be changed after the implementa- D SLOPE MOVEMENTS IV X
tion of the database which correlates characteri- E TREE SHAKING IV XI
stic features of secondary effects and intensity
degrees. F LIQUEFACTIONS V X
Nevertheless, in order to provide a reasonable G DUST CLOUDS VIII VIII
value for the total area of secondary effects, it is
recommended to describe and map the whole H JUMPING STONES IX XII
distribution of secondary effects, including those
not yet incorporated in the description of inten- (*) For intensity degree VII, limited surface fault ruptures, tens to hun-
dreds meters long with centimetric offset may occur essentially associated
sity degrees (e.g., karst collapses). to very shallow earthquakes in volcanic areas.

INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
neglecting those on humans and manmade struc-
tures, are taken as diagnostic of the suffered
intensity.
Effects may already occur at intensity IV, but
are more diagnostic from IX to XII. The defini-
tion of intensity degrees has taken advantage
from the tsunami intensity scale proposed by
PAPADOPOULOS & IMAMURA (2001), and from
many descriptions of the aforementioned effects
worldwide (e.g., LANDER et alii, 2003).
C - Ground cracks
Ground cracks show up from intensity IV and
saturate (i.e. their size does not increase) at inten-
sity X.
Diagnostic parameters are lithology, strike and
dip, maximum width, and area density.
D - Slope movements
Slope movements, including under water lan-
dslides, have been grouped in:
1) Rock fall; 2) Debris fall; 3) Toppling; 4) Rock
slide; 5) Debris slide; 6) Avalanche; 7) Mudslide;
8) Debris flow; 9) Earth flow; 10) Mud flow; 11)
Slow slide; 12) Slow earth flow; 13) Slow mud
flow; 14) Lateral spread; 15) Sackung; 16)
Complex (two or more concurrent types).
They show up at intensity IV and saturate (i.e.
their size does not increase) at intensity X.
The total volume is diagnostic for intensity
assessment. It can be roughly estimated on the
basis of the landslide area when the depth of sli-
ding mass can be reasonably estimated. The
uncertainties introduced with this procedure do
not appear to significantly influence the intensity
evaluation.
Further information: maximum dimension of
blocks, area density, amount of slip, humidity and
time delay.
E - Trees shaking
Trees shaking is reported from a minimum
intensity IV. It is important to record the occur-
rence of broken branches and the morphologic
characteristics of the area (flat, slope). The defini-
tion of intensity degrees basically follows these
provided by DENGLER & MCPHERSON (1993).
F - Liquefactions
Liquefactions occur from intensity V. The dia-
gnostic features for liquefactions are the diameter
of sand volcanoes and the lithology. Saturation
(i.e. their size does not increase) occur at intensi-
ty X. Other useful characteristics are shape, the
time delay, the depth of water table and the
occurrence of water and sand ejection.
21
G - Dust clouds
Dust clouds are reported since intensity VIII,
typically in dry areas.
H - Jumping stones
Jumping stones have been reported from mi-
nimum intensity IX. The size of stones and their
imprint in soft soil are considered as diagnostic
parameters for intensity evaluation.
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DAVISON, C. (1921). On scales of seismic intensity and on the con-
struction of isoseismal lines. Bull. Seis. Soc.Am., 11, 95-129.
DENGLER L. & MCPHERSON R. (1993) - The 17 August 1991
Honeydaw earthquake north coast California: a case for revising
the Modified Mercalli Scale in sparsely populated areas. Bull.
Seis. Soc. Am. 83, 4, 1081-1094.
DOWRICK D. J. (1996) - The Modified Mercalli earthquake inten-
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ESPINOSA, A. F., R. HUSID, S. T. ALGERMISSEN, & J. DE LAS
CASAS (1976a) - TheLima earthquake of October 3, 1974,
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of America, 67, 1429-1440.
ESPINOSA, A. F., R. HUSID, & A. QUESADA (1976b) -Intensity
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Report, A. F. ESPINOSA, Eds., U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 1002, 52-66 .
ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S., MASTROLORENZO G., NIKONOV
A.A. & SERVA L., (1997) - Brief rewiew and preliminary pro-
posal for the use of ground effects in the macroseismic intensity
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Beijing, China, vol 5. Contemporary lithospheric motion
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6764-269-X, 233-243.
GRUNTHAL G. (1998) - European Macroseismic Scale 1998
(EMS-98). European Seismological Commission,
Subcommission on Engineering Seismology, Working
Group Macroseismic Scales. Conseil de lEurope,
Cahiers du Centre Europen de Godynamique et de
Sismologie, 15, Luxembourg, 99 pp.
HANCOX G.T., PERRIN N.D. & DELLOW G.D. (2002) -Recent
studies of historical earthquake-induced landsliding, ground
damage, and MM intensity in New Zealand. Bulletin of the
New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 35
(2), 59-95, ISSN 1174-9857.
INQUA Scale Project (2007) - Available online at http:
//www.apat.gov.it/site/en-GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale
KRINITZSKY, E.L. & CHANG, F.K. (1988) - Intensity-related ear-
thquake ground motions. Bulletin of the Association of
Engineering Geologists, 25, 425-435.
LANDER J.F., WHITESIDE L.S. & LOCKRIDGE P.A. (2003) -
Two Decades of Global Tsunamis 1982-2002. The
International Journal of The Tsunami Society (21) 1,
22 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
NOAA - NGDC, Boulder, Colorado USA, 73 pp.
MICHETTI A.M., ESPOSITO E., GRPINAR J., MOHAMMADIOUN
B., MOHAMMADIOUN A., PORFIDO S., ROGOZHIN E.,
SERVA L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E., AUDEMARD F.,
COMERCI V., MARCO S., MCCALPIN J. & MRNER N.A.
(2004) - The INQUA Scale. An innovative approach for asses
sing earthquake intensities based on seismically-induced ground
effects- in natural environment. Special paper APAT, Mem.
Descr. Carta geol. dItalia, 68. (E. VITTORI & V.
COMERCI Eds.), 115 pp.
MONTGOMERY D.R. & MANGA M. (2003) - Streamflow and
Water Well Responses to Earthquakes. Science, 300, 27 June
2003, 2047-2049.
PANZA G.F. (2004) - Correlation among intensity scales.
Downloadable from http://www.apat.gov.it/ site/en-
GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/Documents/, 15 p., Trieste.
PAPADOPOULOS, G.A. & F. IMAMURA (2001) - Proposal for a
new tsunami intensity scale. Proc. Internat. Tsunami
Conference, Seattle , 7 - 9 August 2001, 569 - 577.
POSTPISCHL D. (1985) - Catalogo dei terremoti italiani dallanno
1000 al 1980. CNR-PFG 114, 2B: 238 pp.
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insights. Columbia University Press, New York, 254 pp.
RICHTER C.F. (1958) - Elementary Seismology. W.H. FREEMAN
& CO, San Francisco, 768 p.
SERVA L. (1994) - Ground effects in intensity scales. Terra Nova
6, 414-416.
WANG J. (2004) - Historical earthquake investigation and research
in China. Annals of Geophysics, 47 (2/3), 831-838.
XIE Y. (1957) - A new scale of seismic intensity adapted to the con-
ditions in Chinese territories. Acta Geophysica Sinica, 6-1,
35-47, (in Chinese).
PUBLICATIONS WITHIN THE INQUA SCALE
PROJECT
In the frame of the INQUA Scale Project activities,
numerous papers, reports and abstracts have been publi-
shed. In this section is reported a preliminary list.
PAPERS AND REPORTS (PUBLISHED OR IN PRESS).
FOKAEFS A. & PAPADOPOULOS G. (in press) - Testing the
new INQUA intensity scale in Greek earthquakes. Quaternary
International (2007), doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2007.02.019.
GUERRIERI L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E., COMERCI
V., ESPOSITO E., MICHETTI A.M., PORFIDO S. & SERVA L.
(2007) - Earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and intensity
assessment: the INQUA scale project. Boll. Soc. Geol. It. (Ital. J.
Geosci.), 126, No. 2, Roma.
GUERRIERI L., VITTORI E., ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S.,
TATEVOSSIAN R. & SERVA L. (2006) - The INQUA intensity
scale. Brochure APAT, 4 pp., Roma.
LALINDE C. P. & SANCHEZ J.A. (2007) - Earthquake and
environmental effects in Colombia in the last 35 years. INQUA
Scale Project. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
America, 97, (2), pp. 646-654.
MICHETTI A.M., AUDEMARD F.A.M. & MARCO S. (2005)
- Future trends in paleoseismology: Integrated study of the seismic lan-
dscape as a vital tool in seismic hazard analyses. Tectonophysics
408 (2005) 3 -21.
MICHETTI A. M., ESPOSITO E., GRPINAR A.,
MOHAMMADIOUN J., MOHAMMADIOUN B., PORFIDO S.,
ROGOZHIN E., SERVA L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E.,
AUDEMARD F., COMERCI V., MARCO S., MCCALPIN J. &
MRNER N.A. (2004) - The INQUA Scale. An innovative
approach for assessing earthquake intensities based on seismically-
induced ground effects in natural environment. Special paper
APAT, Mem. Descr. Carta Geol. dItalia , 67. (E. VITTORI &
V. COMERCI Eds.), 115 pp., Roma.
MICHETTI A.M., LIVIO F., CHINGA K. ESPOSITO E.,
FANETTI D., GAMBILLARA R., MARTIN S., PASQUAR F.,
PORFIDO S., SILEO G. & VITTORI E. (2005) - Ground effects of
the Ml 5.2, November 24, 2004, Sal earthquake, Northern Italy,
and the seismic hazard of the western Southern Alps. Rend. Soc.
Geol. It., 1 (2005), Nuova Serie, 134-135, 2 ff.
PAPATHANASSIOU G., VALKANIOTIS S. & PAVLIDES S.
(2007) - Applying the INQUA Scale to the Sofaeds 1954, Central
Greece, earthquake.
PORFIDO S., ESPOSITO E., VITTORI E., TRANFAGLIA G.,
GUERRIERI L. & PECE R. (2007) - Seismically induced ground
effects of the 1805, 1930 and 1980 earthquakes in the Southern
Apennines (Italy). Boll.Soc.Geol.It. (Ital .J. Geosci.), 126, No.
2, Roma.
SALAMON A. (2005) - Seismically induced ground effects of the
February 11, 2004, Ml=5.2 northeastern Dead Sea earthquake.
Geological Survey of Israel, Report 30/04.
SERVA L., ESPOSITO E., GUERRIERI L., PORFIDO S.,
VITTORI E. & COMERCI V. (in press) - Environmental Effects
from some historical earthquakes in Southern Apennines (Italy) and
macroseismic intensity asseessment. Contribution to INQUA
EEE scale project. Quaternary International (2007),
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.03.015.
SILVA P.G. (2006) - La Escala de Intensidad Macrossmica de
INQUA (EEE Intensity Scale): Efectos Geolgicos y
Geomorfolgicos de los terremotos. Journal of Quaternary and
Geomorphology: Cuaternario y Geomorfologa, 20 (1.2).
TATEVOSSIAN R.E. (in press) - The Verny, 1887, earthqua-
ke in central Asia: Application of the INQUA scale based on cosei-
smic environmental effects. Quaternary International (2007),
accepted manuscript.
ABSTRACTS
32nd International Geological Congress - Florence, Italy,
20-28 August 2004.
MOHAMMADIOUN B. - Interpretation of paleoseismic data using
an innovative macroseismicity scale.
SERVA L., ESPOSITO E., GURPINAR A., MARCO S., MC
CALPIN J., MICHETTI A.M., MOHAMMADIOUN B., PORFIDO
S., TATEVOSSIAN R. & VITTORI E. - The INQUA Scale: an
innovative approach for assessing earthquake base ond seismically-
induced ground effects in natural environments.
International Symposium on Active Faulting - Hokudan,
Japan, 17-22 January 2005
ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S., LIVIO F., MARTIN S., MICHETTI
A. M., CHUNGA K., FANETTI D., GAMBILLARA, R., SILEO G.
& VITTORI E. - Ground effects of the Ml 5.2, November 24,
2004, Sal earthquake, Northern Italy: a case study for the use of the
INQUA scale.
GUERRIERI L., COMERCI V. & VITTORI E. - An earthquakes
database linking epicentral Intensity and surface faulting parameters.
KINUGASA Y. - The INQUA Seismic Intensity Scale, its importan-
ce and problems.
MICHETTI, A.M. - Paleoseismology, seismic hazard, and the
INQUA Scale Project.
PORFIDO S. & ESPOSITO E. - The INQUA Scale Project:
Analysis and distribution of ground effects by type for Italian ear-
thquakes.
VITTORI E., GUERRIERI L. & COMERCI V. - Intensity - fault
parameter relationships: implications for seismic hazard assessment.
Dark Nature - Rapid natural Change and Human
Responses, Como, Italy, 3-7 September, 2005
CHUNGA K., LEN C., QUINEZ M., STALN BENTEZ
& MONTENEGRO G. - Seismic Hazard Assessment for Guayaquil
City (Ecuador): Insights from Quaternary Geological Data.
 INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
CHUNGA K., ZAMUDIO Y., MARN G., EGRED J.,
QUINEZ M. & ITURRALDE D. - The 12 Dic, 1953,
Earthquake, Ms 7.3, Ecuador-Peru border region: A Case Study
for Applying the New INQUA Intensity Scale.
ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S, GUERRIERI L, VITTORI E. &
PENNETTA M. - INQUA intensity Scale Evaluation for the 1980
Southern Italy Historical Earthquake.
FOKAEFS A., G.A. PAPADOPOULOS & PAVLIDES S. - Testi-
ng the New INQUA Intensity Scale in Greek Earthquakes.
GUERRIERI L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E., COMERCI
V., ESPOSITO E., MICHETTI A.M., PORFIDO S. & SERVA L. -
The Database of Coseismic Environmental Effects as a Tool for
Earthquake Intensity Assessment within the INQUA EEE Scale
Project.
KAGAN E.J. , AGNON A., BAR-MATTHEWS M. & AVNER
AYALON - Damaged Cave Deposits Record 200, 000 Years of
Paleoseismicity: Dead Sea Transform Region.
PAPATHANASSIOU G. & PAVLIDES S. - Using the INQUA
Scale for the Assessment of Intensity: Case Study of 14/08/2003
Lefkada Earthquake, Greece.
TATEVOSSIAN R. - Study of the Verny, 1887, Earthquake
in Central Asia: Using Environmental Effects to Scale the Intensity
ZAMUDIO DIAZ Y., MARIN RUIZ G. & VILCAPOMA
LAZARO L. - Applying the INQUA Scale to Some Historical and
Recent Peruvian Earthquakes.
EGU General Assembly 2006, Vienna, Austria, 06 April
2006, Session 3000 years of earthquake ground effects
reports in Europe: geological analysis of active faults and
benefits for hazard assessment
AZUMA, T.& OTA, Y. - Comparison between seismic ground
effects and instrumental seismic intensity- an example from a study on
the 2004 Chuetsu earthquake in Central Japan.
GIARDINA, F.,CARCANO C., LIVIO F.. MICHETTI, A.M.,
MUELLER, K., ROGLEDI S., SERVA L., SILEO G. & VITTORI
E. - Active compressional tectonics and Quaternary capable faults in
the Western Southern Alps.
GUERRIERI L., ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S. & VITTORI E.
- The application of INQUA Scale to the 1805 Molise earthquake.
MICHETTI A.M. - The INQUA Scale Project The INQUA Scale
Project: linking pre-historical and historical records of earthquake
ground effects.
REICHERTER K.R., SILVA P.G., GOY J.L., SCHLEGEL U.,
SCHNEICH S. & ZAZO C. - Active faults and paleostress history
of the Gibraltar Arc area (southern Spain) - first results.
PAPANIKOLAOU I.D., PAPANIKOLAOU D.I., LEKKAS E.L.
- Epicentral-near field and far field effects from recent earthquakes in
Greece. Implications for the recently introduced INQUA
Scale.
SILVA BARROSO P.G., REICHERTER K., BARDAJ T., LARIO
J., PELTZER M., GRTZNER C., BECKER-HEIDMANN P., GOY
J.L., ZAZO C. & BORJA F. - The Baelo Claudia earthquake pro-
blem, Southern Spain.
SILVA P., G.REICHERTER K.R., BARDAJ T., LARIO J.,
PELTZER M., GRTZNER CH., BECKER-HEIDMANN P., GOY
J.L., ZAZO C.& BORJA F. - Surface and subsurface paleoseismic
record of the Baelo Claudia area (Gibraltar Arc area, southern
23
Spain) - first results.
ICTP IAEA Workshop on the Conduct of Seismic Hazard
Analyses for Critical Facilities Trieste, Italy, 15-19 May 2006.
ABDEL AZIZ M. - INQUA intensity assessment for the 1995
Aqaba earthquake.
AMIT R. - The use of paleoseismic data and ground effects
(INQUA Scale) of strong earthquakes for seismic hazard evalua-
tions of the Dead Sea Rift.
KINUGASA Y. - Use of geological data for seismic hazard asses-
sment and siting of the nuclear facilities in Japan.
LALINDE PULIDO C. - Active tectonics and earthquake ground
effects in Colombia, with examples of applications of the INQUA
Scale.
MC CALPIN J. - Paleoseismology and Maximum Magnitude esti-
mates in extensional terranes.
MICHETTI A.M. - Introduction of the INQUA Intensity Scale.
MOHAMMADIOUN B. - The INQUA Scale Project: A better
link to dynamic source parameters and maximum magnitude determi-
nation.
MUELLER K. - Assessing Mmax on Active Thrust Faults in
New Madrid (USA) and the Northern Po Basin (Italy).
NELSON A. - Earthquakes accompanied by tsunamis: their
paleoseismic records and application to the INQUA intensity scale.
OTA Y., AZUMA T. & LIN N. - Paleoseismological study and
seismic hazards resulting from major recent active faulting in Japan
and Taiwan, and examples of INQUA scale intensity maps.
PAPATHANASIOU G. - Applications of the INQUA Scale in
Greece.
PORFIDO S., ESPOSITO E., GUERRIERI L.& VITTORI E. -
Application of the INQUA Scale to Italian earthquakes.
REICHERTER K. - Paleoseismology and the study of earthqua-
ke ground effects in the Mediterranean Region.
SERVA L. - The concept of the Intensity parameter in the Intensity
scales.
SILVA P.G. - Fault activity and earthquake ground effects in
Spain: applications of the INQUA Scale in the Iberian Peninsula.
TATEVOSSIAN R. - Geological effects in the macroseismic inten-
sity assessment, and the application of the INQUA Scale in former
USSR.
VITTORI E. - Relationships among surface rupture parameters
and intensity.
OTHER CONFERENCES
ASHOORI S., GHADYANI A., MEMARIAN H. & ZAR M. -
Estimation of the Earthquake Intensities in Iran based on ground
effects (application of INQUA scale); two cases studies.
LALINDE C.P., ESTRADA R. B.E. & FARBIARZ J. F. -
Preliminary application of the INQUA scale to the recent
Colombian earthquakes. X Congreso Colombiano de Geologia,
Bogot, April 2005.
PAPATHANASSIOU G. & PAVLIDES S. - Lefkada. 14th
MAEGS, Turin, September 2005.
VITTORI E. - The INQUA EEE scale. WS Regional
Cooperation on natural hazards: tools for risk management,
Yerevan, Armenia, October 26-28, 2005.
 APPENDIX I

Ear thquak e En vir onmental Ef f ects

Photo g aller y
PRIMARY EFFECTS

January 3, 1911, Chon Kemin, Kirgyzstan earthquake

(Ms=8.2).
A fault slip of more than ten meters was produced by one
single seismic event. In such a case, a paleoseismological
trench needs to be very deep to recognize past events (cen-
tre of photo, man for scale).
- Un rigetto di oltre 10 metri venne generato da un singolo evento
sismico. In questi casi servono trincee paleosismiche molto estese per
ricostruire gli eventi precedenti (per confronto, si osservi luomo al cen-
tro della foto).

Photo: E. Vittori

December 4, 1957, Mogod, Gobi-Altay earthquake

(Mw=8.1).
Bogd Toromhon coseismic fault rupture: 6 m of left
lateral and 5 m (cfr. Shmulik Marco + Kelvin
Berryman + Thomas Rockwell) of vertical slip.
- Fagliazione superficiale cosismica a Bogd Toromhon: lo sposta-
mento cosismico stato pari a circa 6 metri di movimento late-
rale sinistro, e a circa 5 m (cfr. Shmulik Marco + Kelvin
Berryman + Thomas Rockwell) di dislocazione verticale.

Photo: R. Amit

March 27, 1964 Alaska earthquake (Mw=9.2).

Hanning Bay fault scarp on Montague Island.
Vertical displacement in the foreground, in
rock, is about 3.6 m. The maximum measured
displacement of 4.2 m is at the beach ridge near
the trees in the background.
- Scarpata di faglia di Hanning Bay, Montague Island.
In primo piano, la dislocazione verticale pari a 3,6 m.
La massima dislocazione, pari a 4,2 m, stata misu-
rata vicino agli alberi sullo sfondo.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey Photographic

Library (http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov) .
Published on U.S. Geological Survey
Professional paper 541.
28 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

December 7, 1988 Spitak, Armenia ear-

thquake (Ms 6.9).
Coseismic surface rupture produced by
one single event. Here the rupture cuts
across the ground without clear morpholo-
gical evidence of past tectonic activity.
- Rottura cosismica superficiale prodotta da un sin-
golo terremoto. La rottura cosismica ha tagliato la
superficie topografica in un punto in cui non si
hanno evidenze morfologiche di attivit tettonica
precedente.

Photo: E. Vittori

December 7, 1988 earthquake, Spitak, Armenia, Ms=6.9.

Evidence of coseismic surface faulting: local displacements are
more than one meter.
- Fagliazione superficiale cosismica: qui lentit della dislocazione
cosismica superiore al metro.

Source: CISTERNAS et alii, (1989). The Spitak (Armenia) earthquake of 7

December 1988: field observation, seismology and tectonics. Nature, 339,
N 6227, p.675-679.

September 27, 2003 Altai, Russia

earthquake (Ms=7.4)
Coseismic surface ruptures: local
offsets of topographic surface are
in the order of a few meters.
- Rotture superficiali cosismiche: local-
mente le dislocazioni della superficie
topografica sono dellordine di pochi
metri.

Photo: A. Ovsyuchenko
 INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
29

October 28, 1983, Borah Peak, Nevada, USA, earthqua-

ke (Ms = 7.3)
The height of fault scarp is locally in the order of one
meter. A clear gentler sloping scarp indicates the penul-
timate event.
- Laltezza della scarpata di faglia pari a circa un metro. Un
tratto della scarpata meno pendente indica il penultimo evento.

Photo: E. Vittori

December 16, 1954 Dixie Valley,

Nevada, USA, earthquake (M =
7.2)
Trace of the fault escarpment asso-
ciated to this event. The mountain
front is the result of repeated ear-
thquakes like the 1954 event over a
geological time interval.
- Traccia della scarpata di faglia associa-
ta a questo evento. Il fronte montuoso il
risultato di ripetuti terremoti simili a
quello del 1954 in un intervallo di tempo
geologico.

Photo: E. Vittori

October 02, 1915 Pleasant Valley,

Nevada, USA, earthquake
(M = 7.8).
Trace of the coseismic fault
scarp and associated
Mt. Tobin mountain front.
- Traccia della scarpata di faglia e del
fronte montuoso (Monte Tobin) ad essa
associato.

Photo: B. Slemmons
30
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

January 17 1995, Kobe, Japan, earthquake (M=6.9).

Hokudan, Awaji island: the surface rupture of the Nojima fault preserved inside a museum built on purpose.
- Hokudan, isola di Awaji: la rottura superficiale della faglia di Nojima conservata allinterno di un museo appositamente costruito.

Photo: L. Guerrieri

January 13, 1915, Fucino, Central Italy, earthquake (M = 7.0).

San Veneziano, Eastern border of the Fucino basin: Eye-witnesses have testified to Serva L. that coseismic displacement along the fault was about 80-90 cm.
- San Veneziano, margine orientale del bacino del Fucino. Testimoni oculari hanno dichiarato a Serva L. che il rigetto cosismico lunga la faglia stato pari ad 80-90 cm.

Source: SERVA L., BLUMETTI A.M. & MICHETTI A.M. (1988) - Gli effetti sul terreno del terremoto del Fucino (13 gennaio 1915); tentativo di interpretazione
dellevoluzione tettonica recente di alcune strutture. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 35, 893-907.
 INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
31

October 23, 2004, Chuetsu, Japan, earthquake (Mw=6.6).

A trench exposure across the Obirou thrust fault which caused the earthquake. The scarp is the cumulative effect of several earthquakes. The last event
produced offsets of only a few cm.
- La parete di una trincea attraverso il thrust di Obirou che ha generato il terremoto. La scarpata leffetto cumulato di diversi terremoti. Lultimo evento ha prodotto rigetti
dellordine di pochi cm.

Photo: T. Azuma

1811-1812 New Madrid (USA) earthquakes (Mw between 7.2 and 8.3).
Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee, USA. This lake was formed by coseismic uplift triggered by a blind thrust that caused the inundation of the forested area in
foreground.
- Questo lago si formato per il sollevamento cosismico innescato dalla riattivazione di un sovrascorrimento cieco che ha provocato linondazione dellarea forestata in primo piano.

Photo: courtesy J. & D. Richardson Photography (http://www.jdrichardson.com/)

 SECONDARY EFFECTS

February 5, 1783 Calabria ear-

thquake (Mm=7.1).
A seismically-induced landslide
dammed the S. Cristina narrow
valley and formed a temporary
lake.
- Una frana sismoindotta sbarr la
stretta valle di S. Cristina e form
un lago temporaneo.

Source: Sarconi (1784) - Istoria

de' fenomeni del Tremoto avvenuto
nelle Calabrie e nel Valdemone nel-
lanno 1783. Reale Accademia
delle Scienze, e delle Belle
Lettere di Napoli. Naples.

October 23, 2004 Chuetsu, Japan, earthquake

(Mw=6.6).
Seismically induced landslide in the hills of
Yamakoshi.
- Una frana sismoindotta sulle colline di Yamakoshi.

Photo: T. Azuma
34 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

January 25, 1999, Armenia, Colombia earthquake (M = 6.1).

Seismically induced landslide at Cristales, Cajamarca.
- Una frana sismoindotta a Cristales, Cajamarca.

Photo: A.N. Gomez

November 23, 1980 Irpinia-Basilicata, Italy earthquake (Ms = 6.9).

S. Giorgio La Molara: coseismic reactivation of a landslide.
- S. Giorgio La Molara: riattivazione cosismica di una frana.

Source: Ufficio Tecnico Comune San Giorgio La Molara

August 6, 2002 Bullas, Spain earthquake (VI MSK; 5.0 mb)

A massive block of 25 m3 located 4 km from the epicentre rolled for several hundreds of meters. Another block of 15 m3 fell down in the same zone. Blocks
were overturned during a second earthquake (VI MSK; 4.8 Mw), 2005 La Paca earthquake.
- Un blocco di 25 m3 a circa 4 km dallepicentro rotolato per centinaia di metri. Un altro blocco di 15 m3 caduto nella stessa zona. I blocchi sono stati rimobilizzati durante il ter-
remoto del 2005 a La Paca (VI MSK; 4.8 Mw).

Source: Murphy Corella, P. (2005) Field Report for the January 29th 2005 earthquakes in Lorca, Spain. http://www.proteccioncivil-
andalucia.org/Documentos/SismoLorca.htm
 35
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

November 24, 2004, Sal, Italy earthquake (Ml=5.2).

At Clibbio, along the Chiese River, large rockfalls with dolostone boulders up to ca. 75 m3 detached from the mountain slope of Mt. Acuto; two houses were
hit by the boulders.
- A Clibbio, lungo il fiume Chiese, imponenti frane di crollo con blocchi di dolomia di dimensioni anche fino a 75 m3 si sono staccati dal versante montuoso di Monte Acuto. Due case
furono colpite dai blocchi.

Photo: S. Porfido

April 12, 1998 Bovec, Slovenia earthquake (Md = 5.6) - Two rock falls reactivated along the Mt. Cucla mountain slope.
- Due frane di crollo si sono riattivate lungo il versante montuoso di Monte Cucla.

Photo: P. Di Manna, E. Vittori

36 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

July 12, 2004, Kobarid, Slovenia earthquake (Md = 5.1). Two small landslides along the Kobarid - Bovec road.
- Due piccole frane lungo la strada Kobarid - Bovec.

Photo: P. Di Manna, E. Vittori

September 06, 2002, Palermo, Italy

earthquake (ML=5.6).
Cerda: trace of the main scarp of a
ca. 500 m x 1500 m landslide. An
ESI scale value of VII degree
might be attributed based on such a
landslide. However, the nearby vil-
lage of Cerda and the country hou-
ses around the slide did suffer a
MCS intensity V. No other similar
or even smaller slides were obser-
ved in the area.
This is a case where a specific ana-
lysis is required to verify if the iso-
lated, though large, landslide, better
portraits the local intensity or it
should be disregarded.
- Cerda: un tratto della corona di una
frana di dimensioni pari a circa 500 m x
1500 m. Si potrebbe attribuire a questo
effetto un grado di intensit ESI pari a
VII. Tuttavia, al vicino paese di Cerda e
alle case adiacenti alla frana stata attri-
buita un intensit MCS pari a V. Non
sono stati osservati altri movimenti di ver-
sante nellarea.
Questo un caso in cui necessaria un
analisi specifica con lobiettivo di verifica-
re se un fenomeno franoso isolato, anche se
molto esteso, sia rappresentativo dellin-
tensit locale o se invece debba essere igno-
rato.

Photo: E. Vittori
 INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
37

March 27, 1964 Alaska earthquake (Mw = 9.2).

Collapse pits at Kasilof formed after eruptions
of ground water and sand. The pit in the fore-
ground is about one meter in diameter.
- Kasilof, cavit di collasso formate dalle eruzioni di
acqua sotterranea e sabbia. La cavit in primo piano ha
un diametro di circa un metro.
Photo by H.L. Foster, 1964. U.S. Geological
Survey Professional paper 543-F.

May 27, 1995 Neftegorsk earthquake (Ms=7.4).

A ground collapse occurred after the earthquake.
- Un collasso occorso a seguito del terremoto.

Source: IVASHCHENKO et alii, (1995). Neftegorskoye zemletryaseniye

27(28) maya 1995 g. na Sakhaline. (The Neftegorsk 27(28) May, 1995,
earthquake in Sakhalin - in Russian). // In: Federalnaya sistema sei-
smologicheskikh nablyudeniy i prognoza zemletryaseniy.
Neftegorskoye zemletryaseniye 27 (28).05.1995. Moskva, 48-67.

March 3, 1872 Owens Valley, California, USA earthquake (Ms=7.6).

Owens Lake: aligned mud volcanos in the playa of the lake, dried in
1925.
- Owens Lake: vulcanelli di fango allineati sul fondo del lago, prosciugato nel
1925.

Photo: E. Vittori
38 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

November 22, 1995 Nuweiba, Sinai, ear-

thquake, (MW=7.2).
Gulf of Elat - Aqaba: an about one meter
large sand blow with coarse sand on its surfa-
ce, suggesting that coarser material was likely
ejected during a late liquefaction phase.
- Golfo di Elat - Aqaba: un vulcanello di sabbia di
circa un metro con sabbia grossolana in superficie. Il
materiale grossolano dovrebbe essere fuoriuscito in una
fase tardiva del fenomeno di liquefazione.

Source: The November 22, 1995 Nuweiba

earthquake, Gulf of Elat - Aqaba: post-sei-
smic analysis of failure features and seismic
hazard implications. Edited by Hillel Wust,
Report GSI/3/97, Elat.

October 23, 2004 Chuetsu, Japan, earthquake (Mw=6.6).

Kawabukuro: a sand bowl a few meters wide.
- Kawabukuro: un vulcanello di sabbia ampio diversi metri.
Photo: T. Azuma

August 14, 2003, Lefkada, Ionian Sea,

Greece, earthquake (Mw=6.2).
Ground crater in the sandy beach of
Agios Nikitos.
- Un cratere formatosi nella spiaggia sabbiosa
di Agios Nikitos.

Source: Earth Planets Space, 55, 713-

718, 2003 (G.A. PAPADOPOULOS, V.
KARASTATHIS, A. GANAS, S. PAVLIDES,
A. FOKAEFS & K. ORFANOGIANNAKI).
 39
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

November 24, 2004, Sal, Italy, earthquake (Ml=5.2)

Sal: in the harbor evidence of liquefaction and localized (over an
area of ca. 500 m2) lateral spreading was observed, with fissuring
up to 30 cm wide parallel to the waterfront area.
- Sal: nel porto sono state osservate evidenze di liquefazione ed espandimen-
ti laterali localizzati in un area di circa 500 m2, con fessure ampie fino a 30
cm parallele al fronte del porto.

Photo: E. Esposito

October 18, 1992, Murindo, Colombia earthquake (Mw=7.1)

Murindo River basin, Colombia: The vegetation cover was heavily
damaged and trees collapsed even in flat areas.
- Bacino del fiume Murindo, Colombia: La copertura vegetale venne profondamen-
te devastata e alberi caddero anche in aree pianeggianti.

Photo: E. Parra

October 18, 1992, Murindo,

Colombia earthquake (Mw=7.1)
Damaquiel Island (50m x
150m) emerged in the Gulf of
Uraba Colombia.
- Lisola di Damaquiel (50 m x
150 m) emerse nel Golfo di Uraba,
Colombia.

Photo: E. Parra
40 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII

October 18, 1992, Murindo, Colombia

earthquake (Mw=7.1)
San Pedro de Uraba: the Cacahual mud-
volcano erupted some minutes after the
event emitting gas that burnt for days.
- San Pedro de Uraba: il mud-volcano di
Cacahual ha iniziato ad eruttare alcuni minuti
dopo levento con emissioni gassose che alimenta-
rono incendi per diversi giorni.

Photo: E. Parra

March 27, 1964, Alaska earthquake (Mw=9.2).

Shoup Bay: a boulder estimated to weigh almost 800 kg was
thrown 27 m above the shoreline.
- Shoup Bay: un enorme blocco il cui peso stato stimato pari a quasi
800 kg stato scagliato fino a 27 metri sopra la linea di costa.

Photo by G. Plafker, 1964. Figure 4, U.S. Geological Survey

Professional paper 542-G.
 41
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007

February 11, 2004, Northeastern Dead Sea

earthquake (ML=5.2).
Anomalous wave in the Dead Sea, half an hour
after the event.
- Un onda anomala nel Mar Morto, mezzora dopo
levento.

Source: SALAMON, A., 2005. Natural seismoge-

nic effects of the February 11, 2004, ML=5.2,
Dead Sea earthquake, Israel Journal of Earth
Sciences, 54, 145-169).
Photo taken by C. Barghoorn

February 11, 2004, Dead

Northeastern Sea earthqua-
ke (ML=5.2).
Ponds along the Darga
coast, probably formed by
the run-up wave of a small
tsunami.
- Pozze dacqua lungo la costa di
Darga, formate probabilmente
dallonda di run-up di un picco-
lo tsunami.

Source: SALAMON, A., 2005.

Natural seismogenic effects
of the February 11, 2004,
ML=5.2, Dead Sea ear-
thquake, Israel Journal of
Earth Sciences, 54, 145-
169).
Photo taken by G. Baer.
APPENDIX II

ESI 2007 F or m
 ESI 2007 Form
This 2 pages - form has to be used for field surveys immediately after the earthquake and for the revision of
environmental effects from historical sources. It is designed at the site level (one different form for each different site).
Fields in Italic should be filled when required information is available.
A complete Guide to Compilation is available at the end of this Form.
Authors & Institution
1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3._____________________________________________________________________________________________________
4._____________________________________________________________________________________________________
5._____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Earthquake
Earthquake Code __________________ Earthquake Region _____________________________________________
Year________ Month ______ Day_______ Greenwich Time______________Epicentral Intensity_______ Intensity type______
Magnitude_______________ Magnitude type________________ Focal Depth (km) _______ Depth accuracy_______
Latitude __________________ Longitude__________________________Earthquake References_________________________
Surface faulting (yes/not): _________________ Map of rupture zone (available /not available) _________________________
Maximum Displacement (cm) ______Total Rupture Length (km)______ Slip-sense ____________________________________
Surface faulting References_______________________________________________________________________________
Area of max secondary effects (kms) _________ Reference for secondary effects _______________________________________

ESI epicentral intensity assessment _______________

Locality
Locality Code______________________ EEE-Survey Date ______________ Surveyors _______________________________
Locality ______________________ Town/District______________ Locality length (m) _________ Locality width (m) ________
Latitude _________________ Longitude ____________________ Altitude (m) __________ Location accuracy ______________
Distance from epicentre (km) _________ Local PGA (g) ______ Geomorphological setting_______________________________
Local Macroseismic Intensity _____________ Intensity type______

EEE site
EEE Code__________________ EEE type____________________ Site length (m) _________ Site width (m) _____________
Site position _____________________Latitude __________ Longitude ___________ Altitude (m) ______ Loc. accuracy _____
Description ________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes on the site ____________________________________________________________________________________
Bedrock lithology_______________________________________ Soft sediment lithology __________________________
Strength_____________________________________________ Structure______________________________________
EEE Site References __________________________________________________________________________________

Effects on man-made structures

Type of man-made structures _____________________________________________________________________________
Level of damage _________________________ Single/multiple _________________________________________________
Surface faulting
Strike () ______ Dip () _____ Slip vector () ______ Type of movement__________________________________________
Vertical Offset (cm) ___________ Horizontal Offset (cm) ______ Displaced features _________________________________
Length of fault segment (km) ________ Scarp ________ Associated features:________________________________________

Hydrologic anomalies
Surface water effects____________________________________ Ground water effects________________________________
Temperature Anomaly Temperature change (C) ________ Discharge anomaly Discharge change (l/s)_________
Chemical anomaly Change chemical components________________ Gas emission Gas element _____________
Duration of anomaly (days) __________ Time delay (hrs) __________ Velocity_______________________________________

Anomalous waves/tsunami
Max wave height (m) _________ Width (m) ___________ Length of affected coast (km) ________ Time delay (min) _________
Description____________________________________________________________________________________________

Ground cracks
Origin________________________________ Strike () ______ Dip () _____ Areal density (Nr/m2) _________________
Shape___________________________ Max opening (cm) _______________ Length (m) ___________________________

Slope movements
Type_________________________________ Max dimension of blocks (m3) __________Total volume (m3)________________
Linear density (Nr/m) ____________ Areal density (Nr/m2) ____________________ Humidity__________________________
Time delay (hrs) _____________________ Width (m) _____________________ Slip amount (m) __________________

Liquefactions
Type____________________________________ Max diameter (m) _____________ Linear density (Nr/m) ________________
Areal densit y (Nr/m2) ________ Max lowering/uplift (m) _________ Shape _________________________________________
Humidity_________________________ Depth of water table (m) ___________ Water ejection Sand ejection
Velocity ____________________________________ Time delay/advance (hrs) _____________________________________

Other effects
Three shaking Dust clouds Jumping stones Other__________________________________
Description_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Sketch

ESI local intensity assessment _______________

 ESI 2007 Form - Guide to Compilation
Authors & Institution: List of the authors of this form (Surname, First Name, Institution, Country).

Earthquake
Earthquake Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table Earthquake It is composed by 11 digits:
o 2 digits for country code for Regional Working Group (i.e. GR for Greece) that can be different from the country of epicentre;
o 8 digits for date (yyyymmdd);
o 1 digit according to the type of shock (m = main shock; a = aftershock; f = foreshock).
Earthquake Region: epicentral area, country or name of the earthquake (i.e. San Francisco, California, US);
Year, Month & Day: the date of the event. Please specify if it original date or converted date.
Greenwhich Time: when available, please specify.
Epicentral Intensity & Intensity type: MCS= Mercalli, Cancani, Sieberg; MM = Modified Mercalli intensity; EMS98 = European
Macroseismic Scale; MSK64 = Medvedev, Sponhauer, Karnik; JMA = Japanese Meterological Agency-Intensity Scale. If you do not
know the intensity type, please select Not identified.
Magnitude & Magnitude type: select from the menu (Ml / Mb / M / Ms / Md/ Mw / MbLg / Mm).
Focal Depth & Depth accuracy: in km.
Latitude, Longitude & datum: two numerical fields for the coordinates of the epicentre. Datum must be WGS84.
Earthquake References: the Agency providing source parameters and/or a list of data source for the earthquake.
Surface faulting: YES or NOT, according to the SF reference cited below. If there is no information about surface faulting,
please select Unknown.
Map of rupture zone: click the option if it is available.
Max D & SRL: maximum displacement (in cm) and Surface Rupture Length (in km) of the rupture zone.
Slip-sense: choose the option (normal/reverse/oblique/right-lateral/left-lateral).
Surface faulting References: the data source for surface faulting parameters (published paper and/or a personal observation).
Area of maximum secondary effects: the size (in km2) of the area where maximum secondary effects occurred.
SecEff References: references for the definition of the area of maximum secondary effects.
ESI epicentral intensity: epicentral intensity assessment based on EEE effects at the total affected area level.

Locality
Locality Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table Locality, composed by the first 8 digits of the locality name (truncated).
Es: SANFRANC.
EEE-Survey Date: when the EEE effects of this locality have been described.
Surveyors: the list of surveyors.
Length & Width: the size of locality in meters.
Locality and Town/District: the name of the locality and the closest town/district.
Latitude, Longitude, Altitude & Location accuracy: the coordinates and the elevation (m) of the centroid of locality area.
Accuracy in km.
Distance from epicentre: in km.
Local PGA: peak ground acceleration data (in g), when available.
Geomorphological setting: select a geomorphological environment from the list (Mountain slope /Mountain
valley/Hillslope/Alluvial fan/Bajada/Delta/Alluvial plain/Alluvial terrace/Marsh/Sea-river cliff/River-lake bank/Sea-lake shore/Arid-
semiarid flat/Desert).
Local Macroseismic Intensity: local intensity values according to classical traditional scales (do not confuse with ESI intensity!!).
EEE site
EEE Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table EEE Effects, composed by 11 digits (8 digits of locality code + 1 + 2 digits
for counter). Es: SANFRANC101. If another earthquake recorded in this database has hit the same locality you should insert 2
(instead of 1) between the 8 digits for locality code and the 2 digits for counter ). Es. SANFRANC201.
Site position: describe the position of the site within the locality (50 digits).
Length & Width: the size of site in meters.
Latitude, Longitude, Altitude & Location accuracy: the coordinates and the elevation (m) of the EEE site. Accuracy in m.
Description: a description of the effect as reported by the original observer (essential for historical earthquakes). In this field you
should include description of the evolution in time of the effect.
Notes: any additional information on the site.
Bedrock lithology: select from the menu
(Intrusive/Volcaniclava/Pyroclastic/Metamorphic/Shale/Sandstone/Conglomerate/Limestone/Salt).
Soft sediment lithology: select from the menu (Soil/Clay/Silt/Sand/Gravel).
Strength: select from the menu (hard/semi-coherent/soft).
Structure: select from the menu (massive/stratified/densely cleaved).
EEE Site References: cite the document supporting the EEE description.
EEE type: select the dominant type of EEE effect in this site: Surface faulting - Slope movements - Ground cracks - Ground
settlements - Hydrological anomaly Tsunami - Not geological effects.

Effects on man-made structures

Type of man-made structure: select from the menu (Buildings/Bridge/Viaduct/Railway/Tunnel/Paved road/Unimproved
road/Highway).
Level of damage: select from the menu (partially damaged/collapsed).
Single/Multiple: choose the option.

Surface faulting
Strike, Dip & Slip vector: in degrees.
Slip sense: . it can be different from the general trend of movement. Select from the list (normal/reverse/oblique/strike-slip dextral/
strike-slip sinistral).
Vertical Offset & Horizontal Offset: in cm.
Displaced features: type the displaced features (i.e. alluvial fan deposits, limestone, erosional terrace, etc.);
Length of fault segment: in km.
Scarp: select single/multiple.
Associated features: select from the menu (Gravity graben/Push-up/Pull-a-part/Mole track).

Hydrologic anomalies
Surface water effects: select from the menu (Surface waters effects/Overflow/Waves/Water fountain/Discharge variation/
Turbidity of river/Seiches/Temporary sea-level change/Temporary lake-level change).
Ground water effects: select from the menu (Drying up of springs/Appearance of springs/Temperature/Chemical component/
Turbidity of springs).
Temperature Anomaly &Temperature change: in case, click the option and estimate the change in C.
Discharge anomaly & Discharge change: in case, click the option and estimate the change in l/s
Chemical anomaly & Change chemical components: in case, click the option and record the anomalous chemical component.
Gas emission & Gas element: in case, click the option and record the anomalous gas element.
Duration of anomaly: in days.
Time delay: in hours.
Velocity: select from the menu (Extremely slow/Very slow/Slow/Moderately rapid/Rapid).
Anomalous waves / Tsunami
Max wave height: in meters.
Width: the width of inundated land from the coast to the inner land, in meters.
Length of affected coast: in km.
Time delay: in minutes.

Ground cracks
Origin: select from the menu (slide/ground settling/detachment/ground shaking).
Strike & Dip: in degrees.
Areal density: Nr/m2.
Shape: select from the menu (straight/Sinuous/Curvilinear/Max opening).
Max opening: in cm.
Length: in meters.

Slope movements
Type: select from the menu (Rock fall/Debris fall/Toppling/Rock slide/Debris slide/Avalanche/Mudslide/Debris flow/
Earth flow/Mud flow/Slow slide/Slow earth flow/Slow mud flow/Lateral spread/Sackung).
Max dimension of blocks: in cubic meters.
Total volume: in cubic meters.
Linear density & Areal density: in Nr/m and in Nr/m2.
Humidity: select from the menu (very wet/moderately wet/dry).
Time delay: in hours.
Width: the width of the sliding material (along the slope) in m.
Slip amount: approximately, the amount of slip in m.

Liquefactions
Type: select from the menu (Liquefaction/Compaction/Subsidence/Bulge/Sinkhole/Ground failure)
Max diameter: in meters
Linear density & Areal density: Nr/m and Nr/m2
Max lowering/uplift: in meters
Shape: select from the menu (Round/Elliptical/Elongated/Squared positive cone / Squared negative cone)
Humidity: select from the menu (Very wet/Moderately wet/Dry)
Depth of water table: in meters.
Water ejection & Sand ejection: in case, click the option
Velocity: select from the menu (Extremely slow/Very slow/Slow/Moderately rapid/Rapid)
Time delay/advance: in hours

Other effects
Select the type of effect
Description: add detailed characteristics of the effect

ESI local intensity assessment

The final assessment of local intensity on the basis of the ESI 2007
Plate I - Synoptic Table of ESI 2007 Intensity Degrees - The accuracy of the assessment improves in the higher degrees of the scale, in particular in the range of occurrence of pri- - Quadro sinottico dei Gradi di Intensit della scala ESI 2007 - Laccuratezza della valutazione aumenta verso i gradi pi alti della scala, in particolare nellintervallo di occorrenza degli effetti primari che
mary effects, typically starting from intensity VIII, and with growing resolution for intensity IX, X, XI and XII. Hence, in the yellow group of intensity degrees (VIII- tipicamente iniziano a manifestarsi dallVIII grado con risoluzione crescente fino al XII grado. Pertanto, per i gradi di intensit in giallo (VIII-X) gli effetti sullambiente naturale sono una componente essenzia-
X) the effects on natural environment are an essential component of seismic intensity that cannot be disregarded. In the orange group of intensity degrees (XI-XII) they become le dellintensit che non pu essere ignorata. Per i gradi di intensit in arancio (XI e XII), essi sono lo strumento pi affidabile per la valutazione dell'intensit.
the most effective tool for intensity assessment.

PRIMARY EFFECTS S E C O N D A R Y E F F E C TS

Jumping stones TOTAL

Surface faulting and deformations Hydrological anomalies Anomalous waves/tsunamis Ground cracks Slope movements Tree shaking Liquefactions Dust clouds AREA

From I to III There are no environmental effects that can be used as diagnostic
Rare small variations of the water level in In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height Hair-thin cracks (millimeter-
wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are not exceeding a few centimeters may develop, com- wide) might be occasionally
LARGELY OBSERVED locally recorded, as well as extremely rare monly observed only by tidal gauges, exceptionally seen where lithology (e.g., Exceptionally, rocks may fall and small landslide may
First unequivocal small variations of chemical-physical proper- even by naked eye, typically in the far field of strong loose alluvial deposits, satura- be (re)activated, along slopes where the equilibrium is
IV Absent
ties of water and turbidity in springs and earthquakes. Anomalous waves are perceived by all ted soils) and/or morphology already near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, Tree limbs shake Absent Absent Absent ------
effects in the wells, especially within large karstic spring people on small boats, few people on larger boats, (slopes or ridge crests) are with loose and generally saturated soil. feebly.
environment systems, which appear to be most prone to most people on the coast. Water in swimming pools most prone to this phenome-
this phenomenon. swings and may sometimes overflows. non.

In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height Thin cracks (millimeter-wide and Rare small rockfalls, rotational landslides and slump Extremely rare cases are repor-
STRONG Rare variations of the water level in wells several cms up to one meter ted of liquefaction (sand boil),
and/or of the flow-rate of springs are local- of decimeters may develop, sometimes noted also by earth flows may take place, along often but not necessa- Tree limbs and bushes
naked eye, typically in the far field of strong ear- long) are locally seen where litho- rily steep slopes where equilibrium is near the limit state, shake slightly, very rare small in size and in areas most
Marginal effects in ly recorded, as well as small variations of logy (e.g., loose alluvial deposits,
V the environment
Absent chemical-physical properties of water and thquakes. Anomalous waves up to several tens of cm saturated soils) and/or morpho-
mainly loose deposits and saturated soil. Underwater cases of fallen dead
landslides may be triggered, which can induce small ano- limbs and ripe fruit.
prone to this phenomenon
(highly susceptible, recent, allu-
Absent Absent ------
turbidity in lakes, springs and wells. high are perceived by all people on boats and on the logy (slopes or ridge crests) are malous waves in coastal areas of sea and lakes. vial and coastal deposits, near-
coast. Water in swimming pools overflows. most prone to this phenomenon. surface water table).
Occasionally, millimeter-centimeter Rockfalls and landslides with volume reaching ca. 103 Trees and bushes shake
Significant variations of the water level in wide and up to several meters long frac- m3 can take place, especially where equilibrium is near moderately to strongly; a Rare cases are reported of liquefac-
SLIGHTLY tures are observed in loose alluvial
wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are Anomalous waves up to many tens of cm high flood the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose very few tree tops and tion (sand boil), small in size and in
DAMAGING deposits and/or saturated soils; along saturated soil, or highly weathered / fractured rocks. unstable-dead limbs may areas most prone to this phenomenon Absent Absent ------
VI Modest effects in the Absent locally recorded, as well as small variations of very limited areas nearshore. Water in swimming steep slopes or riverbanks they can be Underwater landslides can be triggered, occasionally break and fall, also (highly susceptible, recent, alluvial
environment chemical-physical properties of water and pools and small ponds and basins overflows. 1-2 cm wide. A few minor cracks deve-
provoking small anomalous waves in coastal areas of depending on species, and coastal deposits, near surface
turbidity in lakes, springs and wells. lop in paved (either asphalt or stone) fruit load and state of
roads. sea and lakes, commonly seen by intrumental records. health. water table).
Scattered landslides occur in prone areas, where equili-
brium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / saturated
Significant temporary variations of the water Fractures up to 5-10 cm wide and soils), while modest rock falls are common on steep Rare cases are reported of lique-
Observed very rarely, and almost exclusi- level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of up to hundred metres long are gorges, cliffs). Their size is sometimes significant (103 - Trees and bushes faction, with sand boils up to 50 The total
Anomalous waves even higher than a meter may observed, commonly in loose allu- 105 m3); in dry sand, sand-clay, and clay soil, the volu- shake vigorously;
DAMAGING vely in volcanic areas. Limited surface springs are locally recorded. Seldom, small flood limited nearshore areas and damage or wash vial deposits and/or saturated cm in diameter, in areas most affected
fault ruptures, tens to hundreds of springs may temporarily run dry or appear. mes are usually up to 100 m3. Ruptures, slides and falls especially in densely prone to this phenomenon (highly area is in
away objects of variable size. Water overflows from soils; rarely, in dry sand, sand- Absent Absent
VII Appreciable effects in meters long and with centimetric offset, Weak variations of chemical-physical proper- small basins and watercourses. clay, and clay soil fractures are
may affect riverbanks and artificial embankments and forested areas, many
excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment susceptible, recent, alluvial and the order
the environment may occur, essentially associated to very ties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs also seen, up to 1 cm wide. limbs and tops coastal deposits, near surface water of
or weathered / fractured rock. Significant underwater break and fall.
shallow earthquakes. and wells are locally observed. Centimeter-wide cracks are com- landslides can be triggered, provoking anomalous waves table). 10 km 2.
mon in paved (asphalt or stone) in coastal areas of sea and lakes, directly felt by people on
roads. boats and ports.
Springs may change, generally temporarily, their Small to moderate (103 - 105 m3) landslides are widespre-
Fractures up to 50 cm wide ad in prone areas; rarely they can occur also on gentle slo- Liquefaction may be frequent in the
Observed rarely. flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Some and up to hundreds metres long, epicentral area, depending on local In dry areas, Stone sand even
Anomalous waves up to 1-2 meters high flood near- pes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose The total
HEAVILY Ground ruptures (surface faulting) may develop, small springs may even run dry. Variations in are commonly observed in loose conditions; the most typical effects dust clouds small boulders
shore areas and may damage or wash away objects of alluvial deposits and/or saturated / saturated soils; rock falls on steep gorges, coastal cliffs) Trees shake vigorously; affected
DAMAGING up to several hundred meters long, with offsets water level are observed in wells. Weak variations their size is sometimes large (105 - 106 m3). Landslides branches may break are: sand boils up to ca. 1 m in dia- may rise from and tree trunks
variable size. Erosion and dumping of waste is obser-
VIII Extensive effects in
not exceeding a few cm, particularly for very of chemical-physical properties of water, most
ved along the beaches, where some bushes and even
soils; in rare cases fractures up to
1 cm can be observed in competent can occasionally dam narrow valleys causing temporary and fall, trees may be meter; apparent water fountains in the ground in may be thrown area is in
shallow focus earthquakes such as those common commonly temperature, may be observed in or even permanent lakes. Ruptures, slides and falls affect uprooted, especially still waters; localised lateral sprea- the order
springs and/or wells. Water turbidity may appear small weak-rooted trees can be eradicated and drifted dry rocks. Decimetric cracks are the epicentral in the air, leaving
the environment in volcanic areas. Tectonic subsidence or uplift of riverbanks and artificial embankments and excavations ding and settlements (subsidence up of
in closed basins, rivers, wells and springs. away. Water violently overflows from small basins and common in paved (asphalt or along steep slopes. area. typical imprints
the ground surface with maximum values on the stone) roads, as well as small (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment or weathered to ca. 30 cm), with fissuring paral- 100 km2.
Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are locally watercourses. lel to waterfront areas (river banks, in soft soil.
order of a few centimeters may occur. pressure undulations. / fractured rock. Frequent is the occurrence of landslides
observed. under the sea level in coastal areas. lakes, canals, seashores).
Springs can change, generally temporarily, their flow-rate Fractures up to 100 cm wide and Landsliding is widespread in prone areas, also on gentle slo- Liquefaction and water upsurge are Small boulders and
DESTRUCTIVE and/or location to a considerable extent. Some modest Meters high waves develop in still and running waters. In flood up to hundreds metres long are Trees shake vigorously;
Observed commonly. pes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / frequent; sand boils up to 3 m in dia- In dry areas, tree trunks may be The total
Effects in the springs may even run dry. Temporary variations of plains water streams may even change their course, also because of commonly observed in loose allu- saturated soils; rock falls on steep gorges, coastal cliffs) their branches and thin tree meter; the most typical effects dust clouds thrown in the air an- affected area
environment are a Ground ruptures (surface faulting) develop, up water level are commonly observed in wells. Variations of land subsidence. Small basins may appear or be emptied.
to a few km long, with offsets generally in the chemical-physical properties of water, most commonly Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, dangerous tsuna-
vial deposits and/or saturated size is frequently large (105 m3), sometimes very large (106 trunks frequently break are:apparent water fountains in still may d move away from is in the
widspread source of order of several cm. Tectonic subsidence or uplift soils; in competent rocks they can m3). Landslides can dam narrow valleys causing temporary and fall. Some trees waters; frequent lateral spreading and rise from their site for meters,
IX considerable hazard and of the ground surface with maximum values in
temperature, are observed in springs and/or wells. Water
turbidity is common in closed basins, rivers, wells and
mis may reach the shores with runups of up to several meters floo-
ding wide areas. Widespread erosion and dumping of waste is
reach up to 10 cm. Significant or even permanent lakes. Riverbanks, artificial embankments might be uprooted and settlements (subsidence of more than the ground. also depending on slope order of
1,000
cracks are common in paved and excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) frequently collapse. fall, especially along ca. 30 cm), with fissuring parallel to angle and roundness,
become important for the order of a few decimeters may occur. springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, observed along the beaches, where bushes and trees can be eradica- (asphalt or stone) roads, as well leaving typical im- km 2.
intensity assessment and bushes and grass near emission zones may burn. ted and drifted away. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level in coastal steep slopes. waterfront areas (river banks, lakes,
as small pressure undulations. areas. canals, seashores). prints in soft soil.
Become leading. Many springs significantly change their flow-rate Meters high waves develop in even big lakes and rivers, which over-
VERY DESTRUCTIVE and/or elevation of outcrop. Some springs may run Open ground cracks up to more Boulders (diameter in
Surface faulting can extend for few tens of km, temporarily or even permanently dry. Temporary
flow from their beds. In flood plains rivers may change their course, than 1 m wide and up to hundred Liquefaction, with water upsurge
temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are fre- Trees shake vigorously; excess of 2-3meters)
Effects in the environ- with offsets from tens of cm up to a few meters. variations of water level are commonly observed in metres long are frequent, mainly and soil compaction, may change In dry areas, can be thrown in the The total
Gravity grabens and elongated depressions deve- subsidence. Basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape in loose alluvial deposits and/or quent, practically regardless of equilibrium state of the slo- many branches and tree the aspect of wide zones; sand vol-
ment become a leading wells. Even strong variations of chemical-physical
properties of water, most commonly temperature, of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with pes, causing temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River trunks break and fall. dust clouds air and move away affected area
lop; for very shallow focus earthquakes in volca- saturated soils; in competent rocks canoes may even be more than 6 m commonly from their site for is in the
X source of hazards and nic areas rupture lengths might be much lower. are observed in springs and/or wells. Often water runups exceeding 5 m flooding flat areas for thousands of meters opening reaches several decimeters. banks, artificial embankments, and sides of excavations typi- Some trees might be in diameter; vertical subsidence
becomes very muddy in even large basins, rivers, inland. Small boulders can be dragged for many meters. cally collapse. Levees and earth dams may also incur serious rise from the hundreds of meters order of
Wide cracks develop in paved even > 1m; large and long fissures
are critical for intensity Tectonic subsidence or uplift of the ground sur- wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with notewor- (asphalt or stone) roads, as well damage. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level in uprooted and fall. due to lateral spreading are com-
ground. down even gentle slopes, 5,000
assessment
face with maximum values in the order of few are observed, and bushes and grass near emission thy changes of the coastline profile. Trees nearshore are eradicated coastal areas. leaving typical km2.
meters may occur. zones may burn. and drifted away.
as pressure undulations. mon. imprints in soil.
Many springs significantly change their flow-rate Large waves develop in big lakes and rivers, which overflow from their
and/or elevation of outcrop. Many springs may Open ground cracks up to Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are
DEVASTATING Are dominant. run temporarily or even permanently dry.
beds. In flood plains rivers can change their course, temporary or even several meters wide are very Big boulders (diame-
Surface faulting extends from several tens of km permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence and landsli- frequent, practically regardless of equilibrium state Liquefaction changes the ter of several meters)
Effects in the up to more than one hundred km, accompanied
Temporary or permanent variations of water level
ding. Basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea
frequent, mainly in loose of slopes, causing many temporary or permanent Trees shake vigorously; aspect of extensive zones of can be thrown in the The total
are generally observed in wells. Even strong varia- alluvial deposits and/or barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments, many branches and tree In dry areas
environment become by slips reaching several meters. Gravity graben, tions of chemical-physical properties of water, bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups rea- saturated soils. In competent lowland, determining vertical dust clouds air and move away affected area
elongated depressions and pressure ridges deve- and sides of excavations typically collapse. Levees trunks break and fall. subsidence possibly excee- from their site for is in the
XI decisive for intensity lop. Drainage lines can be seriously offset.
most commonly temperature, are observed in ching 15 meters and more devastating flat areas for kilometers inland.
Even meter-sized boulders can be dragged for long distances.
rocks they can reach 1 m. and earth dams incur serious damage. Significant Many trees are ding several meters; nume-
arise from
the ground. long distances down order of
springs and/or wells. Often water becomes very Very wide cracks develop in
assessment, due to Tectonic subsidence or uplift of the ground sur- muddy in even large basins, rivers, wells and Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with notewor- landslides can occur even at 200 300 km distance uprooted and fall. rous large sand volcanoes, even gentle slopes, 10,000
paved (asphalt or stone) from the epicenter. Frequent are large landslides leaving typical km2.
saturation of face with maximum values in the order of springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are thy changes of the coastal morphology. Trees nearshore are eradicated roads, as well as large pressu- and severe lateral spreading
numerous meters may occur. observed, and bushes and grass near emission and drifted away. along the shores, with noteworthy changes of the re undulations. under the sea level in coastal areas. can be observed. imprints in soil.
structural damage zones may burn. coastline profile. Trees nearshore are eradicated and drifted away.
Are dominant. Many springs significantly change their flow-
Surface faulting is at least few hundreds of km Giant waves develop in lakes and rivers, which overflow from
rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Temporary their beds. In flood plains rivers change their course and even Large landslides and rock-falls (> 1055 - 1066 m3)
long, accompanied by offsets reaching several tens or permanent variations of water level are Liquefaction occurs over
COMPLETELY of meters. Gravity graben, elongated depressions their flow direction, temporary or even permanently, also becau- Ground open cracks are very are frequent, practically regardless to equilibrium Also very big boul- The total
generally observed in wells. Many springs and se of widespread land subsidence and landsliding. Large basins frequent, up to one meter or Trees shake vigo- large areas and changes the ders can be thrown in affected area
DEVASTATING and pressure ridges develop. Drainage lines can wells may run temporarily or even permanen- may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom state of the slopes, causing many temporary or per- morphology of extensive
more wide in the bedrock, rously; many bran- In dry areas the air and move for is in the

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be seriously offset. Landscape and geomorpholo-
Effects in the gical changes induced by primary effects can
XII environment are the attain extraordinary extent and size (typical
examples are the uplift or subsidence of coastli-
only tool for intensity
nes by several meters, appearance or disappea-
assessment rance from sight of significant landscape ele-
ments, rivers changing course, origination of
waterfalls, formation or disappearance of lakes).
tly dry. Strong variations of chemical-physical and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups of manent barrier lakes. River banks, artificial emban- flat zones, determining verti-
up to more than 10 m wide ches and tree dust clouds long distances even order of
properties of water, most commonly tempe-
rature, are observed in springs and/or wells.
several tens of meters devastating flat areas for many kilome-
ters inland. Big boulders can be dragged for long distances. in loose alluvial deposits
kments, and sides of excavations typically collapse.
Levees and earth dams incur serious damage. trunks break and cal subsidence exceeding
several meters, widespread arise from down very gentle slo- 50,000
Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with out- and/or saturated soils. These fall. Many trees are large sand volcanoes, and the ground. pes, leaving typical
Water becomes very muddy in even large may extend up to several Significant landslides can occur at more than 200 uprooted and fall. imprints in soil. km 2
basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emis- standing changes of the coastal morphology. Many trees are 300 km distance from the epicenter. Frequent are extensive severe lateral and more
sions, often sulphureous, are observed, and eradicated and drifted away. All boats are tore from their moo- kilometers in length. spreading can be observed.
very large landslides under the sea level in coastal
bushes and grass near emission zones may rings and swept away or carried onshore even for long distances. areas.
burn. All people outdoor are swept away.