Source: Vethamani, M.E.

and Rajandaran Perumal (Edts) Teaching English in

Malaysia. Petaling Jaya: Sasbadi Sdn. Bhd. 2007

The Ebb and Flow of English Language Education in Malaysia

Malachi Edwin Vethamani

Introduction
The English language is one of eighty languages spoken in Malaysia (Asmah Haji
Omar 1992: 1) and it no longer plays the role of an official language. English had
played the role of official language with the Malay language until ten years after
the Malayan Independence of 1957 (Asmah Haji Omar 1992: 91). Today, the
Malay language is the sole official language (The Federal Constitution of Malaysia
1957, Article 152). The only status accorded to English is in the national education
policy, which refers to English as "the second most important language" (Asmah
Haji Omar 1992: 84). This status had been accorded to it even before independence
by the 1956 Committee on Education (Kementerian Pelajaran Persekutuan Tanah
Melayu 1956). English is still important both as a lingua franca and as an
international language in the country (Benson 1990: 19). Its presence in the
linguistic scene in Malaysia has been in a state of flux. Pennycook states: the
fortunes of English in Malaysia have waxed and waned and waxed again, and it
never seems far from the centre of debate (1994: 217).

The Advent of English in Malaysia

The English language arrived on Malaysian shores initially through the commercial
interests of the British East India Company in the early nineteenth century. This
was then quickly followed by Britains imperialistic ambitions to stake its claims in
the Malay Peninsula against its other European competitors, mainly the Dutch. The
English language was first used for commercial communication and later
incorporated for colonial administrative purposes (Wong 1981: 94; Lowenberg
1991: 364).

1
The Malay language was already established as the language of the local Court and
all administration at the time of the arrival of the British. A lower variety of the
Malay language was used for everyday communication by the rest of the
population. This caused the British to be cautious about the propagation of English
in Malaysia. The initial need for English speaking employees in businesses and in
the government was met by English-educated Indians from the subcontinent.

Early English Language Education in the Malaysian Education System

The first English medium schools in Malaya (later known Malaysia) were Christian
missionary initiatives and were open to all the races. The schools were mostly
located in urban centres and attracted mostly non-Malay students. The missionaries
were prohibited by the colonial government to establish schools in the rural areas
among the Malay population (Gaudart 1987).
The English schools were at first not well received by the Malays as they were
considered foreign and Christian. Consequently, from the 1880s, a system of
vernacular schools was established through which instruction in English was
carried out together with the local vernaculars, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Until
1900, the English language was taught through the medium of the vernacular
languages. This method was later abandoned and the Direct Method of teaching
English was implemented (Chelliah quoted in Maniam 1977: 20).
As the demand grew greater, local schools were established and the natives (the
Malays) and other immigrant races (mainly Chinese and Indians) in Malaya were
encouraged to learn the English language. Asmah Haji Omar (1992) describes this
effort on the part of the British as gentle coercion which culminated in the
establishment of an elite school for the sons of Malay Sultans, nobles and chiefs in
the 1920s (1992: 83).
Education in English-medium schools was soon seen as a means of climbing the
socio-economic ladder of success in the colonial and post-colonial period. English
education was initially seen as the exclusive preserve of royalty and the rich.
However, with the setting up of more schools by missionaries, English education

2
became accessible to more Malaysians, mostly to those in urban areas (Platt and
Weber 1980: 18-20).
With the extended use of English in administration and commerce, those educated
in English came to be associated with a higher earning capability. The English
language came to enjoy a favourable position in the Malaysian education system
and it was seen as a means of entitlement to further education. It became the
medium of instruction when the first Malayan university was set up in Singapore in
1949. The use of English in the media was in the form of English newspapers, an
English radio station and, later, programmes in English on the local television
networks.
Language Policies and Legislation on English Language Education
English language education and the use of English as a medium of instruction have
been largely determined by the Malaysian governments various language policies
and legislation. And these legislations have been the based on reports which were
produced by Education committees that had been appointed by the government.
The Razak Report was presented to government by the Razak Education
Committee of 1956. The Razak Report of 1956 on education planning ensured the
continued teaching of the English language in Malaysia (Asmah Haji Omar 1992:
84), and the teaching of English was still seen as an integral part of the Malaysian
education system. It was made a compulsory subject in all schools and defined its
position as the second most important language (Asmah Haji Omar 1992: 84).
The Razak Report also allowed for the establishment of bilingual schools, having a
dual medium of instruction, in English and Malay. This was however, short-lived
(Gaudart 1987).
In 1960, a committee was appointed to review the implementation of the National
Education Policy under the chairmanship of the then education Minister, Abdul
Rahman bin Taib. The recommendations from the Rahman Talib Report were
responsible for the conversion of all schools in Malaysia to become Malay-medium
schools.

3
In July 1969, after the racial riots in Malaysia, the Ministry of Education directed
that all subjects be taught in Bahasa Melayu from January 1970. When the medium
of instruction in the education system was changed from English to Bahasa Melayu
there was a drastic reduction in the amount of time the students were exposed to the
English language. This was because English was now taught only as a single
subject (Asiah Abu Samah 1984: 194).
The period from 1970 to 1990 saw the implementation of the National Education
Policy which resulted not only in the phasing out of English as the medium of
instruction but also the development of a common syllabus for primary and
secondary schools which also resulted in a common examination paper for the
country (Foo and Richards 2004).
The pedagogical approach to teaching the English language moved from the
structural approach in the 1970s to a communicative language teaching approach in
1980s, keeping very much to the trends in English language teaching of that period
(Richard and Rodgers 2001).
Although the literacy level in English among Malaysians between the years 1970
and 1980 remained at 30 per cent, the standard of English is said subsequently to
have dropped significantly (Asmah Haji Omar 1992: 10). This was largely
attributed to the change in the medium of instruction to Bahasa Melayu. The
change in the status of the English language resulted in a change in the attitude of
Malaysians towards the language. Gaudart (1987: 34) states that the acquisition of
the English language to most Malaysians is seen as a necessary evil. This attitude
spills over to the children in school, making it more difficult for them to have any
intrinsic desire to acquire English. Platt (1982: 389) states that, in 1967, enrolment
in English-medium schools fell to 69.1 percent when, at its height in 1962, it had
reached 90 percent. During the same period, enrolment in Malay-medium schools
rose from 4.1 percent in 1962 to 30.9 percent in 1967.
Despite the decline in the percentage of English-medium school enrolments, and
the relegation of the English language to a second language status, Malaysians are
still encouraged to study and be proficient in the English language. It is not viewed
as the language of the colonizer, but rather as a language for knowledge and

4
international communication. There is however, no denying that, although English
is still accorded the status of a second language, its role has shifted to that of a
foreign language for most young Malaysians (Todd and Hancock 1986: 280).
English is still used for intranational communication in the large urban centres in
Malaysia, although it cannot be denied that in most rural areas it remains a foreign
language (Benson 1990: 19). Rural people find little or no reason for
communication in English, as most of their transactions are carried out in the
Malay language or in other vernaculars.
However, it is clear that the importance of the English language for Malaysians was
recognized and its importance both at the national and international levels and also
to enable Malaysia(ns) to engage meaningfully in local and international trade
(Sukatan Pelajaran Menengah Bahasa Inggeris, 1987:1). Vethamani (2001) stated
that if Malaysians were to be able to participate in international communication,
their language must be internationally intelligible but this was beyond the ability of
many Malaysian students. He added that the government was aware of this and it
was indicated in the Report of the Cabinet Committee on the implementation of the
Malaysian Education Policy:

The objective of the English Language lessons, in accordance with

its status as the second language, is to impart basic skills and
knowledge with two specific aims; firstly, to enable the pupils to
use the language in their work and for specific activities, and
secondly, for a small group, to enable them to improve their skills,
and increase their knowledge of the language to be used for
specific needs at higher levels of education.

(Report of the Cabinet Committee 1985: 57-58)

Re-establishing of English in Malaysia

Since 1982, the English language was seen in a more favourable light and this too
was the result of new government language policies (Pennycook 1994: 16). Asmah
Haji Omar (1992: 67) uses the term re-establishing English to describe the
re-emergence of English in Malaysia. She sees the return of English not as having
come a full circle because it has not been accorded the status it had enjoyed

5
during the colonial period and early post-independence period. She is of the view
that the re-emergence of enthusiasm for the English language is in line with the role
of the language in the development of the country. The English language which had
been associated with colonial rule became unfashionable following independence,
but has re-emerged as a language for international communication and knowledge.
With the firm establishment of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language, English
is no longer seen as a threat to national unity (Pennycook 1994: 217).
The re-emergence of English in present-day Malaysia is largely because of the
concern of the nation's leaders and educationalists for what they considered a
decline in the standard of proficiency in the English language among secondary
school students and especially university graduates (Todd and Hancock 1986: 280).
This alarmed the government and attempts were made to rectify the situation. The
government's concern did not remain purely political rhetoric. In the mid-1990s the
government began implementing various programmes at all levels in the education
system, including changes in teacher training programmes, to stem the rot which
had begun when the number of hours students were exposed to English was
dramatically reduced after the principal medium of instruction was changed from
English to Bahasa Malaysia in 1971. This meant that English was taught as a single
subject and students were exposed to the language only during English lessons
(Asiah Abu Samah 1984: 193-194).
English was used again in domains in which it had once been taboo. Government
Ministers even give speeches in English. In December 1993, the Malaysian Prime
Minister, Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, announced that scientific and technological
subjects could be taught in English. This move was opposed by the Congress of
Malay Intellectuals who sent a memorandum to the Prime Minister expressing their
dissatisfaction. The Prime Minister responded by stating that the move stays, but
stressed that it would not be at the expense of Bahasa Malaysia and that the
position of Bahasa Malaysia as outlined in the National Education Policy would
remain (Ramayah and Menon: 1994). This move can be seen as significant in
reinstating English as one of the media of instruction at the tertiary level.

6
Recent Developments in English Language Education and the Use of English
Two major innovations were carried out to the teaching of the English language at
the schools level. The first was the introduction of a literature in English
component in the English language paper and the second was the introduction of a
new English language subject called English for Science and Technology (EST).
Both these curriculum changes were aimed at helping Malaysian students improve
their English language proficiency and also to help them use English for future
needs in the workplace. There was also much emphasis on thinking skills,
information and communications technology (ICT) skills and values and
citizenship education (Foo and Richards, 2004).
The introduction of the EST curriculum was closely linked with the rapid growth
in ICT and an increase in international communication which is linked with the
phenomenon of globalization. Not only was it felt that changes should be made to
English language education, Mahathir Muhammad (1999), the then Prime Minister
decide that English should be re-introduced as a medium of instruction to teach
mathematics and science in schools. He clearly stated that Malaysians had to learn
the language of telecommunications, of computers, of the Internet to be able
compete with the worlds most advanced countries.

Literature in English Component

When the Ministry of Education introduced the incorporation of the literature in
English component into the English language subject, it indicated that this was to
be a tested component in the English language paper (Subramaniam, 2002). This
ruling has in many ways motivated both students and teachers to take the reading
of literary texts seriously. The Literature in English component has now been fully
incorporated at the secondary school level. Students are taught short stories, novels
and poems. The texts for the lower secondary are authentic texts except for the
novels that are abridged. All the texts for upper secondary are authentic texts.

7
Among the aims of incorporating literature in English into the English language
programme is to help students improve their language skills (especially reading)
and also to experience both education and pleasure when reading literary texts
(Vethamani 2002).
Students are required to understand literary texts and show some literary
competence. They should be able to infer message or theme in a literary work.
They should be able to understand some basic literary aspects about relationship
between characters, plot, setting and portrayal of themes. Students are not expected
to do detailed study of literary devices as these aspects will not be tested in the
public examinations. Students are trained to give personal responses the various
texts that are studied. It is a learner-centered approach that encourages learners to
give their own points of view with textual evidence.
The programme is now in its third year of full implementation and seems to be
generally working well. Response from both teachers and students has become
more positive towards the literature in English component in the English language
subject. The literature in English component is clearly incorporated in the new
English language Syllabus which came into effect in 2003 for Form 1 and Form 4
under the heading of Language for Aesthetic Use (Ministry of Education, 2003).

English for Science and Technology (EST) as a Subject in Secondary Schools

Even as the Ministry of Education set out to implement the new policy of teaching
mathematics and science in the English language, it was felt that most students did
not have the language proficiency to study these two subjects in English. To help
students improve their language proficiency, a new subject, English for Science
and Technology (EST), was introduced as a subject and was made compulsory for
all students in the science and technical streams at the upper secondary school
level. The subject was also to be tested at the Malaysian O levels or Sijil
Peperiksaan Malaysia (SPM) examination. Later there was a change in policy and

8
it was made an elective paper which students had to study but need not register as a
subject for the SPM examination if they choose not to.
This subject was to be taught to students who were caught in the sudden change of
the medium of instruction. The subject would not only give students more hours of
English language education, it was also aimed at helping students develop an
ability to grasp basic concepts and ideas in science and to understand methods of
scientific thoughts and enquiry in English common to all kinds of scientific and
technical discourse (Curriculum Development Centre 2001).
The implementation of this subject was met with various challenges. Teaching
materials in the form of textbooks needed to be written and teachers needed to be
trained to teach the subject. English language teachers were apprehensive about
their ability to teach this course though they had been informed that they were not
to teach the subject matter of science.
The EST subject was initially considered a stop gap subject until Form 1 students
who were studying science and mathematics in English arrived at the Form 4 level.
However, the Ministry of Education changed this policy. It was felt that despite the
change in the medium of instruction, many students still needed more exposure to
the English language and the subject should be taught indefinitely.

English as Medium of Instruction for Teaching Science and Mathematics

The change in policy in the medium of instruction was met with much resistance
both from the Malay nationalists who feared the position of Malay as the official
language of the nation will be threatened, especially with a decline in its use in the
school system, and also from the science and mathematics teachers who
themselves have had their entire education and teacher training in the Malay
language. It was traumatic for many teachers who now had to teach in a language
they themselves we not proficient in.
The Ministry of Education in order to succeed in implementing this new policy
invested millions of Malaysian Ringgit by introducing various in-service

9
programmes and developing teaching materials in English, especially in the form
of CD roms. English for Teaching Mathematics and Science programmes, or
ETEMS as it commonly called, were held to help teachers both with their language
and content areas. English language teachers were drawn into the in-service
courses and asked to help the science and mathematics teachers. They were called
critical friends and fellow mathematics and science teachers who were proficient
in English were called buddies.
ETEMS courses were held throughout 2002 and in the year 2003, the science and
mathematics teachers started teaching in English. Students were given English
language textbooks but the examination questions were bilingual. Public
examinations from 2003 were bilingual and students were encouraged to answer in
English. In 2005, the first batch of students who had studied science and
mathematics in English sat for their public examination (PMR) at the end of their
lower secondary education. The examination paper was a bilingual Malay and
English languages, and students were encouraged to answer in English. In 2007,
the SPM should be examined in English. It is unclear if it will follow the PMR
bilingual format. This writer is of the view that the examination solely in the
English language will happen when the Standard 1 students who studied science
and mathematics in the English language sit for the SPM examination in 2014.

English as Medium of Instruction in Institutions of Higher Education

Even as English grew in prominence in the Malaysian school systems, its use as
the medium of instruction in institutions of higher education (IHE) has been
evident. This has been especially so since 1994 when Mahathir Muhammad (the
then Prime Minister) advocated the used of English as a medium of instruction. In
1999, he also stated this in nationalistic terms to quell the concerns of various
factions in the country. Mahathir reiterated:
Learning the English language will reinforce the spirit of nationalism when it
is used to bring about development and progress for the country True

10
 nationalism means doing everything possible for the country, even if it means
learning the English language.
(Mahathir Muhamad: The Sun, 11 September, 1999)
With this statement, the winds of change we once again felt in the Malaysian
education system and the English language returned to Malaysia in a very big way in
the field of science and technology. The Wan Zahid Report (2006) on the
development and direction of higher education in Malaysia make this clear. The
report states that over the last decade all public IHE (except two institutions) use the
Malay language as the medium of instruction while most private IHE use English as
the medium of instruction (with the permission from the Ministry of Education). This
has resulted in two kinds of graduates emerging from IHEs, one group with Malay
language instruction and the second with English language instruction.
The Wan Zahid Report also states that the lack of communication skills in English is
one of the main causes for graduates not finding employment in the Malaysian job
scene. This could suggest that graduates from private IHE have a better chance of
employment than those from the public institutions of higher learning.

Conclusion
English language education in Malaysia has indeed been in a state of flux. Today, it
is viewed as integral part of the Malaysian students education. The status accorded
to the English language as a second language reflects the important position it holds
in our education system. It position has moved from that of a colonial language to
that of a second language in the Malaysian education system. It is recognized not just
as an international language but as a universal language. Today, English is seen as a
basic skill (Graddol 2006) necessary for those who want to be players in the global
world. Learning from the past, the future of English in Malaysia will be determined
by both global and Malaysian needs

11
REFERENCES

Asiah Abu Samah. The English Language (Communicational) Curriculum

for Upper Secondary Schools in Malaysia: Rationale, Design and
Implementation. Read 193-215

Asmah Haji Omar. The Linguistic Scenery in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1992.

Benson, Phillip. A Language in Decline? English Today: The International

Review of the English Language. 24 (1990): 19-23.

Cheshire, Jenny ed. English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

---. The Teaching of Literature in English in Malaysian Secondary Schools.

Brumfit 44-49.

Federal Constitution of Malaysia, 1957.

Foo, Bernadette and Cynthia Richards. English in Malaysia in Regional English

Language Centre Journal. 25.2 229-240. 2004.

Gaudart, Hyacinth. English Language Teaching in Malaysia: A Historical

Account. The English Teacher 16 (1987): 17-36.

Gill, Saran Kaur. English language Challenges for Malaysia: International

Communication. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. 2002.

Graddol, David. English Next. London: British Council. 2006.

Kementerian Pelajaran Perseketuan Tanah Melayu, 1956.

Lowenberg, Peter. H. Variation in Malaysian English: The Pragmatics of

Languages in Contact. Cheshire 364-375.

12
Mahathir Muhammad, A New Deal for Asia. Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk
Publications. 1999.

Mahathir Muhamad, The Sun, 11 September 1999.

Maniam, K.S. A Critical History of Malaysian and Singaporean Poetry in

English. Diss. University of Malaya, 1977.

Ministry of Education Malaysia. Bahasa Inggeris Tingkatan 4. Kuala Lumpur:

Dewan dan Bahasa. 2003.

Ministry of Education Malaysia. Bahasa Inggeris Untuk Sains dan Teknoloji.

Kuala Lumpur: Curriculum Development Centre. 2001

New Straits Times 3 Jan. 1996. natl. ed.

Pennycook, Alastair. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language.

London: Longman, 1994.

Platt, John. The English in Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong. English As a
World Language. Bailey 384-414.

Platt, John and Heidi Weber. English in Singapore and Malaysia. Kuala
Lumpur:Oxford University Press, 1980.

Ramayah, Jefferey and Vijayan Menon. "Bahasa Policy Stays." The New Sunday
Times. 9 Jan. 1994, natl. ed.: 1.

Read, J.A.S., ed. Trends in Syllabus Design. Singapore: Singapore University

Press, 1984.

Report of Education Review Committee. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printers.

1960. (The Rahman Talib Report).

Richards, Jack and Theodore Rodgers. Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001.

Smith, Larry E., ed. English for Cross-Cultural Communication. [London]: The
Macmillan Press Ltd., 1981.

Todd, Loreto and Ian Hancock, comp. International English Usage. London:
Croom Helm Ltd., 1986.

13
Wan Zahid Report 2006.

Wong, Irene F. H. English in Malaysia. Smith 94-107.

14
15