RunningHead:RESEARCHMAP 1

ResearchMap:Use of Educational Technology in Adult Education

UniversityofNewBrunswick

ED6902
Deborah Leal
April 2017
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Abstract

Technology and its use within Adult Education is coming further into focus as a new

direction in learning. While universities, colleges, and industry believe that educational

technology is the next step in making education more efficient for all learners, the

question of whether technology is a practical and efficient means of knowledge sharing

in pedagogy is largely unanswered. While evaluating the work of respected researchers

in the field, existing research on factors such as infrastructure, barriers, and attitudes

of learners and teachers are assessed in relation to adult learning, and a determination

made on the gaps in this research which necessitate further research and analysis.

What is the broad area of focus?

The broad area of focus for this research map is the use of technology in adult education.

This is a diverse field as there are several categories of technology that have been used for adult

learning purposes. These include simulation, online learning, blogging, digital gaming,

podcasting, etc. Research suggests that moving forward in education necessitates further

incorporation of technology in education.

Thierry Karsenti, Canadas research chair in Technologies in Education believes that

Technologies play an increasingly central role in all areas of our lives. At the same time, their

influence on the development of societies worldwide has also increased, and there is growing

need for new generations to master technologies in order to achieve social and academic

success (Government of Canada, 2012). The millennial generation has been digitally immersed

since childhood, and more so than any other demographic. As a result, learners often seek out

technology based education for many reasons, which may include ease of access, convenience,

financial, social and access issues.

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Personal areas of research interest involve macro factors in the advancement of

technology for adult education, including the suitability of technology adoption for use in

Canadian adult education, as well as the barriers to its implementation on a National scale.

Who are the key scholars in the area?

While there are many researchers who have done micro focused research on technology

in adult education which has typically focused on the various media through which learning

delivery can occur (eLearning, blogging, MOOCs, etc.), this research map focuses on scholars

whose research is on the macro scale; research on educational technology and its barriers,

benefits, and challenges in the broader context.

David Boud

Professor Boud has been involved in research on adult, higher and professional education

in Australia for over 30 years, starting as Professor and becoming Dean with several Universities

(University of Technology, n.d.). Boud has explored new forms of curriculum design, learning

practices, and assessment using technology. Currently, Professor Boud is interested in the

challenges faced by formal education from new modes of knowledge production, writing

research articles on role of technology in adult education (University of Technology, n.d.).

Among them, Bouds article, Appraising New Technologies for Learning: A Framework for

Development, aims to produce a framework for appraisal of the value and efficacy of new

technologies for learning from the students perspective.

Bradford Bell

Bradford S. Bell teaches courses in Human Resource Management, Training and

Development at Cornell University. Dr. Bell's research interests include training and

development and team development and effectiveness (Cornell University, n.d.). Dr. Bell has
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published numerous chapters and articles on adult learning from the human resources perspective

(Cornell University, n.d.), including E-Learning in Postsecondary Education which aims to

examine three research issues; efficacy, features, and barriers to adoption (Bell, 2013).

Kathleen P. King

Dr. King is professor of Adult Education and coordinator of the MS in Adult Education

Fordham University. As a specialist in adult learning and integrating technology, she has earned

over $12 million in grants to research new models of teaching, program development and

technology innovations and is author of numerous articles and research papers (Fordham

University, n.d.), including Unleashing Technology in the Classroom: What adult basic

education teachers and organizations need to know.

Marc Prensky

Marc Prensky is considered one of the worlds leading experts on the connection between

learning and technology. Marcs professional focus is on understanding education from the

students perspective, designing better curriculum and pedagogy for the digital generation,

figuring out how to best put human minds and digital tools together wisely in business, in school,

and in life (Prensky, 2013). In his work, Our Brains Extended, he examines technology as a

tool that extends the abilities of the human brain.

Tony Bates/UNESCO

Tony Bates has undertaken studies and written on many uses of technology in education,

including an article for UNESCO, National Strategies for eLearning in post-secondary

education and training. As a recognized leader in technology for education in Canada, Tony

Bates, has worked as a consultant in over 40 countries on planning and management of e-

learning and distance education (Bates, n.d.).

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PEW Research

Pew Research Center conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, content

analysis and other data-driven social science research. It studies U.S. politics and policy; science

and technology; and U.S. social and demographic trends (Pew Research, 2016, p. 1). Pew

Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder (Pew Research,

2016, p. 1). Pews report Lifelong Learning and Technology reports survey data on the

learning habits of Americans.

World Economic Forum

The World Economic Forum engages political, business and other leaders of society to

shape global, regional and industry agendas and involves both the public and private sectors,

international organizations and academic institutions (World Economic Forum, n.d.). The World

Economic Forum has undertaken several studies on the use of technology for education world-

wide, and published New Vision for Education Unlocking the Potential of Technology.

What are the key research questions/issues scholars use to investigate this topic?

The research questions around the use of technology for adult learning that researchers

has used are numerous, however the key research questions in the area of educational technology

converge into categories centred around efficacy, adoption, and infrastructure. The breakdown of

the most common research questions in educational technology is as follows:

Efficacy

How efficient are various forms of educational technology for adult learning? How

effective are various forms of educational technology on skills? How well does educational

technology help adults prepare for in demand employer skills? What are the best uses of various

forms of educational technology for adult learning?

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Ease of adoption

How do current management and pedagogical structures need to change to allow

adoption of educational technology? What are the attitudes of teachers regarding educational

technology? What barriers inhibit various forms of educational technology? What is the role of

the business community in educational technology?

Infrastructure

What physical infrastructures needs to be in place for students to access various forms of

educational technology? What are the barriers to various forms of educational technology? What

investments in education are needed to advance various forms of educational technology?

What follows is a review of the research of key scholars and how their research intersects

with the above research categories.

World Economic Forum

World Economic Forum data suggests that skills that workers need today are much

different those needed while todays education systems were in development. The shift in

technology skill demand has exposed a problem of skill supply with more than a third of

companies expressing issues filling open positions in 2014, owing to shortages of key skills

(World Economic Forum, 2015, p. 2). Only 6% of adults demonstrated the highest level of

proficiency in problem solving in technology rich environments (World Economic Forum, 2015,

p. 2). The World Economic Forum highlights macro level barriers that impede learning,

including archaic standards that govern education, teacher quality and training, education

budgets, technological infrastructure. To remedy this, the World Economic Forum focuses on the

potential of technology to close these gaps, examining the technology resources available and

how they educational technology can close the loop.

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PEW Research

Pews research focuses on adult professional development activities and where

technology fits into this realm. They state that 61% of Americans have little concept of distance

learning and that online courses are unknown to 81% of Americans (2016, p. 8). While adults are

concerned with staying up to date with skills, their access is limited by their bound conceptions

of how to access that knowledge (Pew Research, 2016, p. 17). Pews study reveals how attitudes

about learning shape adult learning activities, as well as how issues of socio-economic position

affect ones ability to access technology based education (2016, p. 22).

Marc Prensky

Marc Prensky highlights structural issues including education systems that are not built

for todays learners. In his article Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, within declining education

in the US, Prensky highlights the issue that learners have changed and the educational system is

not designed to teach them (2001, p. 2). He concludes that students today think and process

knowledge differently as a result of their immersion in technology, which has likely brought

about a physical change in learner brains (Prensky, 2001, p. 1). In conjunction, a secondary issue

that Prensky identified is teachers, who may have been trained minimally in technology, are not

immersed to the same level as learners. Prensky concludes that both methodology and content

are barriers to incorporating educational technology in traditional education systems. In Our

Brains, Extended, Prensky acknowledges that technology is now foundational for education, not

just a tool (2013, p. 23), which necessitates a complete overhaul of curriculum to make it the

basis upon which all curriculum is based.

Kathleen King
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Kathleen King in Learning the New Technologies: Strategies for Success, demonstrates

that organizations know that technology is a required part of learning, but there is anxiety on

how to adopt it. She discusses the threat to competition on the worldwide economic stage as a

major issue in why technology must be adopted (King, 2003, p. 51). There is an urgent concern

for obsolescence of organizations that fail to adopt and upgrade swiftly. In her article

Unleashing Technology in the classroom: What adult basic education teachers and

organizations need to know, King studies teacher empowerment and how to encourage

professional development of teachers in their technology skills. She acknowledged the issue that

many teachers are fearful of trying new technologies, and that motivation and readiness are

important conditions. Finally, in Adaptation to Pressures of Changing Technology and Online

Instruction, King examines capacity issues balancing timely and effective high quality academic

delivery while teachers are also trying to keep up with technology changes and their resultant

delivery methods (2010, p. 30).

Bradford Bell

Bradford Bell identifies three key issues in the growing use of e-learning in

postsecondary education, in E-Learning in Postsecondary Education. The first is whether e-

learning is as effective as other delivery methods (Bell, 2013). The debate about the effectiveness

of e-learning has been framed in terms of how it compares with other means of delivering

instruction, most often traditional instructor-led classroom instruction (Bell, 2013, p 165). The

second issue is identifying which features of e-learning influence effectiveness (Bell, 2013).

Addressing the third issue, the barriers to the adoption of e-learning, Bell discusses how concerns

about fraud and cheating, uncertainties about the cost of e-learning, and the unique challenges
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faced by low-income and disadvantaged students have the potential to undermine the adoption of

e-learning instruction (2013, p. 177).

David Boud

In his article, Appraising New Technologies for Learning: A Framework for

Development, David Boud determines a framework for assessing technology for learning, from

a learner centric position. The issue of his research focus is that while technology enhances

learning, these assessments focus on the outcome of assessments and not the learning acceptance

and learner experience (Boud, 2002, p. 237). His work studies how willing learners are to accept

technologies for learning, including issues such as how learners perceive their readiness and how

they perceive the aims and objectives of technology based learning. Boud derives from these

questions a framework for assessing how well technologies enhance learner engagement,

challenge learners, and provide practice.

Tony Bates (UNESCO)

Tony Bates, on behalf of UNESCO, writes National Strategies for eLearning in post-

secondary education and training. Within this article, Tony Bates highlights issues such as how

to assess the context in which e-Learning is currently being used, what is needed to support

learning technologies, required infrastructure, costs/benefits, funding, and policy issues. Another

challenge identified by Bates is resistance to adoption by instructors (2001. p. 73). Tony states

that making a rational decision not to adopt eLearning because the necessary institutional

rewards and support infrastructures are not in place, creates an unwillingness to change (2001.

p. 74). In addition, others have deep ideological or philosophical objections to the change, or

may see their status or position challenges by the change and are unlikely to ever embrace the

innovation (Bates, 2001. p. 74).

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What approaches have they taken or are they taking to address the questions or issues in

the field. In other words, what methodology was used to gather data to formulate

conclusions?

Qualitative Multi case Studies

The majority of research takes the form of qualitative research where the writers used

direct data collection to study multi case documents to gather the data. A case study, is an in-

depth analysis of one or more events, settings, programsor other bounded systems in their

natural context (McMillan, 2004). Works by Boud, Prensky, King, and Bell reviewed several

research documents of others and compiled data in order to make prescriptions about current

issues in technology in adult education. As an example, Bell reviews a number of meta-analyses

and other studies that, taken together, show that e-learning produces outcomes equivalent to

other delivery media when instructional conditions are held constant (2013, p. 175).

Qualitative - Phenomenology

In another of his works, Digital Natives, Prensky utilizes phenomenology to consider the

issue of attitudes of learners on the use of educational technology. By definition of

phenomenology, Prensky seeks to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in order

to understand the essence of the experience as perceived by the participants (McMillan, 2004).

After compiling statements of learners such as, I went to a highly ranked college where all the

professors came from MITBut all they did was read from their textbooks. I quit (Prensky,

2001, p. 3), Prensky concludes the issue is that educators make education less engaging than

everything else students experience in their technological world. (2001, p. 4)

Non-experimental Quantitative Research - Mixed Method

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The World Economic Forum and Tony Bates (UNESCO) used mixed methods within

their research articles. While the bulk of the information is based on case study research, the

findings are supplemented with quantitative data. Mixed method designs are useful when

researchers need to identify variables, key concepts, and themes through qualitative data

collection in advance of using quantitative techniques to further investigate a problem

(McMillan, 2004). The World Economic Forum incorporates quantitative descriptive research

with case studies to link 21st century skill requirements to the data demonstrated skill gap, and

then discusses the potential for technology to close that gap. Similarly, Tony Bates uses

quantitative descriptive research and case studies to incorporate implementation cost data on

different modes of eLearning delivery, a curve showing the relationship between % of adopters

and their resistance to adoption, and a review of UBC online distance education course costs,

while discussing issues of adoption, infrastructure policy and funding for eLearning (2001. p.

73).

Non-experimental Quantitative Research - Cross Sectional Survey Research

Pew uses Non-experimental Quantitative Research - Cross Sectional Survey Research to

gather data on Lifelong Learning and Technology. Cross sectional surveys are an efficient means

of gathering data because information is collected from one or more samples at a time and

can compare different age categories of subjects to investigate differences or relationships

(McMIllan, 2004). Data is reported on areas such as participation in adult learning in the past

year, the outcomes of their learning, demographic indicators, and knowledge and use of various

learning technologies. Pews methodology is fully explained with the formulas used and a copy

of the survey included at the end of their report. Participants were interviewed over cellular and

landline telephone, with a response rate of 9% technologies (Pew Research, 2016, p. 41).
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What is the range of views about good or best practice in the field

The researchers examined generally concur on the directions that need to be taken to

address the challenges and issues they collectively identified.

Efficacy

On the issue of efficacy, Bell reflects, We do not find studies comparing the

effectiveness of different learning media terribly enlightening (2013, p. 169). While some data

suggests that efficiency depends on how well eLearning is designed, other more optimistic views

state eLearning can lead to better academic outcomes by creating instructional experiences

impossible to recreate in the physical classroom (Bell, 2013, p. 170). Bell finally concludes that

eLearning is at least as effective as classroom learning (2013, p. 174). Prensky believes that

educational technology will only be effective with a change in how curriculum is designed as a

result of hearing learner feedback like, You (older generations) think of technology as a tool,

we think of it as a foundation; it underlies everything we do (2013, p. 1). Prensky also posits

that wide integration of evolving, powerful technology demands that we rethink our

curriculum (2013, p. 1). Similarly, the World Economic Forum (2015) states that educational

technology is most effective when applied within and integrated instructional system known as

the closed loop including: objectives, curriculum, instructional strategies, assessments, and

interventions based on student needs (p. 8). They also concede that more research on efficacy

must be undertaken to identify the most effective use of technology (World Economic Forum,

2015, p. 9).

Adoption

The findings on educational technology adoption appear to have the most similarities

among researchers. King highlights combating instructor resistance as one of the many best
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practices to successfully implement educational technology, stating: there is a dichotomy

between faculty and their struggle to learn and embrace new technology while maintaining a

variety of other obligations that come with being an instructor (2010, p. 29). In Kings

assessment, Educational technology is less a choice by faculty and more and imperative from

administration where communicating, realigning, and negotiating formal patterns and policy take

precedence (2010, p. 30). Adding to this issue is little support for effective change and

planning without broad participation which guarantees strict resistance (King, 2010, p. 31).

King concludes that faculty must believe from experience that online instruction is valuable and

effective (2010, p. 32). In cooperation with ensuring teachers are supported through

technological change, King advises that educators of adults urgently need assistance in

integrating technology into their curricula (2003, p. 52). Coinciding with Kings work, Prensky

states the biggest challenge for education today is instructors, who speak an outdated language

(that of the pre-digital age) are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new

language (2001, p. 2). He speculates that for educational technology to be adopted, todays

teachers need to learn to communicate in the language and style of their students (Prensky,

2001, p. 4).

Infrastructure

Under the issue of infrastructure, Bates highlights promotion of adequate internet access

as a best practice needed for educational technology to thrive. He states, The major challenge

for university or college is to ensure all staff and professors have a computer linked to a local

area network (Bates, 2001, p. 36). Since many institutions have aging technology infrastructure,

creative solutions may need to be found such as wireless/cellular networks. Bates speculates that

some universities may need $4-5 million a year to develop and maintain the necessary campus
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technology infrastructure (2001, p. 37). Consequently, Bell states that cost issues may represent

a barrier in that the cost effectiveness of eLearning remains largely an open question (2013, p.

180). As well, King believes some basic programs may not be as equipped due to limited funding

reserves (King, 1999, para. 2).

Boud takes a more pragmatic view stating, there is an assumption that eLearning reduces costs

due to scalability, which is over optimistic. The variation among learners and how they

experience learners cannot justify the premise (2003, p. 244). King (learning the new tech)

surmises that educators need the tools required to integrate technology when she states,

planning tools are powerful means to promote technology learning; they help educators assess

their current status and needs for technology learning. Technology can provide some of the

means to support learning exchange (2003, p. 55). Pew Research concludes that access to

technology is a major barrier for adult technology in education (2016, p. 26). They caution to

avoid an overly optimistic assessment on the ability of the internet to automatically democratize

education and access to knowledge (Pew Research, 2016, p. 6). Pew also presents survey data

that suggests technology ownership is strongly tied to online learning for personal development

and that socio-economic standing affects ones ability to access technology for learning (2016, p.

31). Only 68% of Americans surveyed have either a smartphone or broadband connection in

their homes. As a result, their data suggests that one third(32%) of professional learners say all

or most of their learning takes place online, which reinforces the supplementary nature of the

internet within adult learning (Pew Research, 2016, p. 31). Pew data suggests a connection

between more tech access providing greater reliance on technology for learning. Similarly, the

World Economic Forum (2015) states that institutional resources help deliver effective

technology closed loop education by improving human capital systems and providing student
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information and learning management systems (p. 9). The World Economic Forum (2015) also

makes the case for adaptive learning platforms and simulation as areas needing greater

infrastructure development in order to make effective use of the technology (p. 11).

Where are there gaps or potential opportunities for new work and where and how do you

see your own work making a contribution

When searching Academic Search Premier for research on for the terms adult

education and technology and the geographic limiter of Canada, 28 results were found.

Upon changing adult education to post-secondary, 6 results were found. Clearly there is a

gap in reliable research on macro issues of educational technology for adult education in Canada.

As a result, more measurement needs to be conducted on historically integrated

technology strategies, with connections made to those technologies that continue to emerge.

While technology innovation is occurring rapidly the education system is struggling to keep up;

most likely due to the volume of red tape and consultation before any initiative is implemented.

One area where development initiatives rapidly keep pace with the need is private industry. More

research could be done around examining private initiatives that could be candidates for

integration into traditional high education, and how to strategically partner with industry in order

to fulfill upcoming skills and education needs by leveraging the strengths of both systems.
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References

Bates, Tony. National Strategies for E-Learning in Post-Secondary Education and Training.

Paris: UNESCO, 2001. Print.

Bates, T. (n.d.). Tony Bates Biography. Retrieved April 06, 2017, from

http://www.tonybates.ca/tony-bates-associates/tony-bates-biography/

Bell, B. S., & Federman, J. E. (2013). E-learning in Postsecondary Education. Future of

Children, 165-185.

Boud, D., & Prosser, M. (2002). Appraising New Technologies for Learning: A Framework

for Development. Educational Media International, 39(3/4), 237.

Cornell University. (n.d.). Bradford Bell. Retrieved April 02, 2017, from

https://www.ilr.cornell.edu/people/bradford-bell

Fordham University. (n.d.). Fordham Faculty Websites - Dr. Kathleen P. King, Professor.

Retrieved March 28, 2017, from http://faculty.fordham.edu/kpking/

Government of Canada, Industry Canada, Canada Research Chairs. (2012, November 29).

Canada Research Chairs. Retrieved April 05, 2017, from http://www.chairs-

chaires.gc.ca/chairholders-titulaires/profile-eng.aspx?profileId=828

King, K. P. (1999). Unleashing Technology in the Classroom: What Adult Basic Education

Teachers and Organizations Need to Know. Adult Basic Education, 9(3), 162.

King, K. P. (2003). Learning the New Technologies: Strategies for Success. New Directions

for Adult & Continuing Education, 2003(98), 49.

King, K. (2010). Adaptation to Pressures of Changing Technology and Online Instruction.

LLI Review, 529-35.

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McMillan, J. H. (2004). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer. Boston:

Pearson/A and B.

Pew Research Centre (2016). Lifelong Learning and Technology.

http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/03/22/lifelong-learning-and-technology/

Prensky, Marc (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon (MCB University

Press), Vol. 9. No. 5, October 2001)

Prensky, M. (2013, June 02). Meet Marc Prensky. Retrieved April 04, 2017, from

http://marcprensky.com/about-marc/

Prensky, M. (2013). Our Brains Extended. Educational Leadership, 70(6), 22-27.

University of Technology (n.d.). Emeritus Professor David Boud. Retrieved April 02, 2017,

from https://www.uts.edu.au/staff/david.boud

World Economic Forum (2015). New Vision for Education Unlocking the Potential of

Technology. http://www3.World Economic Forumorum.org/docs/ World Economic

Forum USA_NewVisionforEducation _Report2015.pdf

World Economic Forum. (n.d.). Our Mission. Retrieved April 03, 2017, from

https://www.World Economic Forumorum.org/about/world-economic-forum