Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Novel coal bottom ash waste composites for sustainable construction

Ertug Aydin
European University of Lefke, Lefke, North Cyprus, via Mersin 10, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

 Novel materials can be manufactured from coal bottom ash wastes.

 Sustainable construction is possible for cement paste composites.
 Alternative materials can be produced for control low-strength applications.
 Developing sustainability strategies in building construction to reduce CO2 emissions is mandatory.
 Comprehensive literature review on the topic is provided.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The construction industry generates large amounts of greenhouse gases, which negatively impact the
Received 22 March 2016 environment and society. International actions have increased to reduce the carbon footprint of this
Received in revised form 27 July 2016 industry. A way to achieve this target is by promoting a sustainable construction industry e.g., by recy-
Accepted 29 July 2016
cling bottom ash waste for producing ecological products. This paper examines the potential use of coal
bottom ash residue, obtained from a brick-producing factory, in cement pastes. The physical, mechanical,
and sodium sulfate test results revealed the lightweight nature of the prepared composites, which are
Keywords:
suitable for use in brick, tile, paving stone, and controlled low-strength applications.
Bottom ash
Paste
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sustainable construction
Composite
Sulfate
Lightweight

1. Introduction
Portland cement (PC) is widely used in the construction indus-
try. Specifically, PC is the most widely used component in concrete
[1], and its use accounts for 90% of the worlds carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions [2], which are known to have detrimental impacts
on the environment and society. In most parts of the world, the
replacement of clinker with supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs) is the conventional way to reduce CO2 emissions, provided
the SCM is a low-carbon material (e.g., fly ash or bottom ash) [3,4].
There is a growing interest in a sustainably built environment,
and green technologies are gaining worldwide attention. However,
such non-traditional technologies typically require more invest-
ment to achieve high efficiencies when compared with established
traditional technologies [58]. To this effect, Wu et al. suggested
introducing a carbon-labeling scheme to encourage benchmarking
and to develop sustainable building construction [6].
Sustainability is popular in the construction industry when
metropolitan areas are considered. Building sustainability became
E-mail addresses: eraydin@eul.edu.tr, eaertugaydin@gmail.com
popular in the 1990s and its assessment criteria have been used to
incorporate sustainability into the building industry worldwide
[9]. As the construction industry is developing, so is the demand
for sustainable materials. Thus, considering the need for changes
in performance, building designers are working toward including
new procedures in design processes by considering environmental
issues [10]. The global need for construction materials is estimated
to be 13,000 ton/year for a sustainable construction industry; and
80% of those materials constitutes of limestone, clay-based materi-
als, and sand [11].
The American Coal Ash Association has supported the use of
coal combustion products (CCPs) to help achieve environmental
friendly, technically sound, commercial, and sustainable building
construction since 1968 [12]. CCPs have been used in diverse appli-
cations for over 2000 years. The Resource Conservation and Recov-
ery Act is the principal governing statute for the management and
use of CCPs. Furthermore, the use of CCPs has been assessed by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; the evaluations revealed
that CCPs do not present a significant risk to the environment [13].
As an example of a CCP, bottom ash (BA) consists of coarse gran-
ular particles, which can be collected at the base of boilers. BA is

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.142
0950-0618/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588
typically ground before use to accelerate pozzolanic reactions and
thus can be used to replace PC [14]. BA is widely used as an aggre-
gate to replace fine and coarse aggregates (ingredients used in
manufacturing concrete blocks) to control low-strength applica-
tions [1519]. BA is additionally used in embankments, waste sta-
bilization, municipal solid waste (MSW) management, and road
base/sub-base, and as an ingredient in cement manufacturing
[12,13,2023]. However, BA is primarily used in road construction
and structural fills [13,2426]. Additionally, some high-strength
concrete (HSC), fiber-reinforced, and self-compacting BA applica-
tions have been reported [2729].
BA is an alternative construction material to cement and can be
used as a replacement for sand in bituminous mixtures and as a
fine aggregate replacement in the production of concrete. Its por-
ous nature makes it unsuitable for hot-mix asphalt applications.
However, there are many other applications in cold-bonded
asphalt systems where grain size distribution and durability
requirements are not as critical as in hot mixtures [13,3032].
Lightweight cement-based composites offer many advantages such
as reduced weight, strength, durability, low expansibility, good
thermal and sound insulation, and ease of use in construction.
Moreover, the final product is inexpensive. Therefore, the use of
lightweight cement-based composites in many applications has
enabled reduction in CO2 emissions and improved energy conser-
vation. Many countries have studied the use of waste materials
in concrete to improve the engineering properties of cement such
as density, strength, and thermal and acoustical properties
[33,34]. A review on the use of BA-based waste materials in con-
crete is provided below.
Keulen et al. [35] investigated the performance of treated and
MSW for the incineration of BA in specifically designed dry and
wet treatment processes to realize the sustainability strategies
set by the European Union (EU) Construction Products Regula-
tion (CPR 305/2011/EU, http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/con-
struction/product-regulation_en). The authors reported that the
fresh and hardened properties were superior to those of the ref-
erence concrete mixtures [35]. Jang et al. studied the resistance
of BA mortar against carbonation and chloride diffusion. The
authors found that the attack of BA mortar by chloride was less
pronounced than that of mortars using blend cements [36].
Garcia-Lodeiro et al. proposed the combination of fly ash and
BA as an alternative raw material in alkali-activated hybrid
cements. The leaching test results showed that the proposed
hybrid cement could neutralize potentially hazardous metals
present in BA [37]. Singh and Siddique investigated coal bottom
ash (CBA) as a replacement for sand by evaluating the workabil-
ity and strength properties of concrete. The results showed that
the later age strength of the BA concrete mixtures was similar to
that of reference concrete mixtures [38]. However, the concrete
mixture comprising BA showed a lower resistance to abrasion
than the reference mixtures examined [39]. Additionally, the
pulse velocity through BA concrete mixtures indicated that a
better-quality concrete could be prepared using CBA as a
replacement for fine aggregates [38]. Tang et al. studied the
characteristics and application potential of MSW BAs from two
plants. The authors observed that the use of fine BA had detri-
mental effects on cement hardening and mortar strength [40].
Xie and Ozbakkaloglu investigated the behavior of low-calcium
fly and BA-based geopolymer concrete cured at ambient temper-
ature. The density and homogeneity of the geopolymer concrete
increased with increasing fly ash-to-BA mass ratios [41]. Song
et al. studied the effect of BA as an aerating agent in the produc-
tion of autoclaved concrete. The results showed that the loss of
water to aeration was more rapid and that the resistance to
chemical attack was adversely affected in pastes composed of
larger contents of BA aerating agent [42]. Kim et al. studied
583
the chloride resistance of HSC composed of BA aggregates. Based
on the laboratory results, BA in HSC could considerably reduce
chloride dispersion [43].
Menndez et al. investigated the mechanical behavior of
cement mortars containing either fly ash or BA as a cement
replacement. Their results showed that mortars manufactured
with either ordinary PC or BA had similar or even better mechan-
ical behavior than mortars manufactured with fly ash. The authors
concluded that partially replacing cement with BA might be as
suitable as, if not better than, replacing it with fly ash [44]. Aggar-
wal and Siddique studied the incorporation of foundry sand and
BA. The results showed that incorporating foundry sand and BA,
as sand replacement, had no adverse effects on the strength prop-
erties as long as the replacement level was maintained to below
60% [45]. Carrasco et al. assessed the use of blocks containing BA
as a replacement for cement. The results showed that BA increased
the porosity and decreased the thermal conductivity and strength
of the final product. However, the authors reported that a 1:1 Si/Ca
mixture showed superior strength properties, which are suitable
for use in the manufacturing of building blocks [46].
Singh and Siddique studied the strength and microstructural
properties of concrete composed of various amounts of CBA as a
replacement for fine aggregates. The results indicated that, at a
given water-to-cement ratio, the consistency and loss of water
from bleeding could be reduced in the presence of CBA [47].
Cabrera et al. assessed the potential of biomass BA in civil
infrastructures and showed that biomass BA possesses desirable
properties for use as a filler material in road embankments [48].
Singh and Siddique studied the compressive strength and chemical
stability of concrete by incorporating CBA as a partial or total
replacement for fine aggregates. BA concrete exhibited better
dimensional stability and slightly better resistance to sulfuric acid
attack than normal concrete [49]. Kuo et al. investigated washed
MSW incinerator BA as a replacement for aggregates in porous
concrete [50]. Arenas et al. studied CBA for designing sound-
absorbent materials for highway noise barriers. The sound proper-
ties of the final composites were similar to, or even better than,
those displayed by porous concrete used in the same applications
[51]. Zhen et al. investigated the use of low load-bearing materials
obtained from sludge and refuse-incinerated BA. The results
revealed that BA could be used [52]. Vu et al. examined the manu-
facturing of a ceramic composed of BA and fly ash. The results
showed that fabrication involving sintering consumed more
energy than conventional production methods [53].
Siddique et al. examined the effect of the water-to-cement ratio
on the mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete com-
posed of fly ash and BA. The best result performance was achieved
at BA contents of less than 20% [54]. Qiao et al. studied the fine
fraction of incinerator bottom ash treated at 800 C for manufac-
turing cementitious materials. The final composites had compres-
sive strengths of 15 MPa following curing for 28 days [55].
Maschio et al. studied the rheological behavior of pastes composed
of fly ash and BA. Both types of ashes altered the rheological behav-
ior of the mortar. However, the samples displayed a significant
reduction in compressive strength and an increased content of
both types of ashes after 180 days of testing [56].
There is now increasing recognition in the scientific society that
conventional PC composites are unsustainable and that it is neces-
sary to recycle large volumes of wastes produced by industries. In
light of the discussion above, the fabrication of environmental
friendly low-cost building products from industrial wastes are
being examined at the laboratory scale toward developing sustain-
ability strategies in building construction to reduce CO2 emissions.
The present study thus examines the use of bottom ash waste as
a cement replacement to produce ecological building materials.
The performance and suitability of bottom ash waste were
584 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588

assessed in terms of its physical (water-to-binder ratio, setting
time, flow, slump, water absorption, apparent specific gravity),
mechanical (compressive and flexural strength), and durability
(porosity, sulfate resistance) properties.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Cement
Ordinary PC grade 42.5, conforming to ASTM C150M-12 stan-
dard, was used [57]. Its chemical composition is shown in Table 1.
The Blaine fineness and specific gravity of the cement are 289 m2/
kg and 3.12, respectively.
2.1.2. CBA
CBA was obtained from a local brick factory plant (Levent Brick
Factory located at Nicosia in Cyprus). It is produced during the fir-
ing operation (1100 C) in the kiln. In the brick factory, coal is
used for burning and ash is collected at the bottom of the kiln after
each burning cycle. The specific gravity of the CBA was 1.44. Its
chemical composition is shown in Table 1. Prior to use, CBA was
oven-dried at 110 C for 48 h and cooled to 23 1 C for more than
4 h to minimize the effects of moisture, if any, on the bottom ash
particles. The bottom ash particles were then ground to remove
the large particles. Particles that passed through a 0.212-mm sieve
were used to prepare the composites.
2.1.3. Lime
Hydrated calcium lime was purchased from a local company
(Zeiplast Chemical Industries Ltd., Nicosia, Cyprus). The specific
gravity of the lime was 2.17.
2.1.4. Water
Tap water was used in the curing and mixing processes (see
Section 2.2.).
2.2. Preparation and casting of the test specimens
Cement paste composites were prepared by mixing in a Hobart
mixer with a 2.5-L capacity. CBA, lime, and cement were mixed in
dry form for 30 s, after which tap water was added. The mixtures
were then cast and consolidated using a vibrating table for 1 min.
The specimens were then extracted from the molds after
12 days and subsequently cured at 20 1 C and 70% relative
humidity until testing (Days 7 and 28).
For the unconfined compressive strength and flexural strength
tests, 50-mm3 cubic molds and 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm pris-
matic molds were used, respectively. Compressive and flexural
strength tests were conducted according to the ASTM C109M-
13e1 [58] and ASTM C348-14 [59] standard procedures,
respectively.
Table 1
Chemical composition of CBA and cement.
Twelve 50-mm3 cubic samples were cast for each ageing period
tested, and the average values were calculated and reported. The
dry bulk density, apparent specific gravity, and water absorption
experiments were performed according to the ASTM C12715 pro-
cedure [60]. The workability of all prepared mixtures was deter-
mined using a flow table and mini slump cone test according to
the ASTM C230M-14 [61] and WK27311 [62] procedures. The
soundness of all the prepared mixtures was determined according
to the ASTM C88-13 [63] procedure. Initial and final setting time
tests were performed according to the ASTM C266-15 [64] proce-
dure. The experiments were conducted using cement paste to
obtain appropriate reference values for evaluating the durability
of the composites under undesirable ecological conditions
although the method is typically used for aggregates. The speci-
mens were subjected to five cycles of wetting in a Na2SO4 solution
and drying in an oven at 110 5 C; the weight loss was then
determined.
2.3. Mixture composition
The CBA-cement composites studied herein comprised varying
amounts of CBA (0100 wt%). Furthermore, 5% lime was added to
the some of the mixtures to improve the matrix properties. The
paste samples are denoted as CBAxCy where x and y refer to the
content (wt%) of CBA and cement, respectively, or as CBAxCyLz
where z refers to the content of added lime (i.e., 5 wt%). The
water-to-binder (w/b) ratio was maintained at 0.45 in all the pre-
pared mixtures. The mix designs were chosen based on the w/b
ratio of the composites. The numerical analyses of the results indi-
cated that there was a good correlation among the consistency (w/
b, slump, flow), physical (fresh unit weight, hardened unit weight,
water absorption, and porosity), and mechanical (compressive
strength) properties of the prepared mixtures. The compositions
of the different CBA-cement paste composites prepared are pre-
sented in Table 2.
3. Results and discussion
The fresh unit weight, slump, flow, and initial and final setting
times of the CBA-cement paste composites are presented in
Table 3.
As observed from Table 3, when compared with the control
cement paste (CBA0C100), all remaining cement specimens had
lower IST and FST values. The reduction in IST and FST values
was attributed to pozzolanic reaction contributions for early
stiffening of the paste instigated in the presence of a relatively
high content of cement substitute (i.e., CBA). Similar results have
been observed in the literature [7,16,20]. The lower IST and FST
values could also be attributed to the extent of hydration of
cement in the CBA paste. As the CBA amount in the pastes
increases, less water is available for the pastes owing to the
higher absorption capacity of the CBA particles when compared
to cement particles. As observed from Table 3, increasing the
amount of CBA in the paste decreased the flow and slump
values. The increase in the amount of water in the pastes

Oxides (%) CBA Cement

Table 2
SiO2 55.1 21.2 Composition of the CBA-cement paste composites.
Al2O3 28.1 5.1
Fe2O3 8.3 2.5 Sample CBA (wt%) Cement (wt%) Lime (wt%) w/b Ratio
CaO 1.1 64.7 CBA0C100 0 100 0 0.45
MgO 0.3 0.9 CBA100C0 100 0 0 0.45
K2O 1.5 0.2 CBA70C30 70 30 0 0.45
SO3 0.3 1.5 CBA70C25L5 70 25 5 0.45
LOIa 3.9 2.5 CBA80C15L5 80 15 5 0.45
a CBA85C10L5 85 10 5 0.45
Loss on ignition.
 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588 585

Table 3
Fresh unit weight (FUW), slump, flow, and initial setting time (IST) and final setting time (FST) of the CBA-cement paste composites.

Sample CBA0C100 CBA100C0 CBA70C30 CBA70C25L5 CBA80C15L5 CBA85C10L5

3
FUW (kg/m ) 1820 1425 1750 1829 1669 1587
Slump (mm) 23 13 18 16 15 14
Flow (mm) 135 100 125 120 110 105
IST (min) 140 125 130 134 128 130
FST (min) 345 303 320 325 314 315

Table 4
Dry unit weight (DUW), porosity, water absorption (WA), and apparent specific gravity (ASG) of the CBA-cement paste composites measured at Days 7 and 28.

Sample CBA0C100 CBA100C0 CBA70C30 CBA70C25L5 CBA80C15L5 CBA85C10L5

DUW (kg/m3)-7 days 1456 1027 1362 1405 1238 1181
DUW (kg/m3)-28 days 1106 967 1172 1123 1005 996
Porosity (%)-7 days 0.38 0.42 0.39 0.38 0.40 0.41
Porosity (%)-28 days 0.31 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.32
WA (%)-7 days 25.15 40.11 37.35 35.22 38.13 39.10
WA (%)-28 days 20.60 32.23 31.12 28.10 30.90 32.22
ASG-7 days 2.31 2.39 2.36 2.34 2.37 2.37
ASG-28 days 2.22 2.28 2.26 2.25 2.27 2.27

increases the distance among cement hydration products, as
reported by Singh and Siddique, and the setting times [20].
Furthermore, it was observed that the addition of lime could also
reduce the setting times. The hydration process occurs more
rapidly [7,16,20,22,65] when lime is added to the paste, thereby
shortening the final setting time.
As mentioned earlier, the slump and flow of the composites
decreased as the amount of CBA increased. Replacing cement with
CBA is believed to increase friction among the particles (i.e. inter-
particle friction), which delays the occurrence of hydration
[7,20,22], and hence the flow characteristics of the cement paste.
At a given w/b ratio, the flow properties of the paste decreased
as CBA was introduced as a cement replacement. Furthermore, as
observed in Table 4, the water absorption value was higher in
the presence of CBA. Hence, the amount of water absorbed by
the CBA particles and cohesiveness of the particles to attain the
required flow properties are diminished.
Table 4 shows the dry unit weight, porosity, water absorption,
and apparent specific gravity values of the CBA-cement paste
composites.
As observed from Table 4, the CBA-cement paste composites
featured lower DUW values as the content of CBA increased. The
reduced DUW values could possibly be attributed to the lower
mass and porous nature of the BA particles when compared with
those of cement. The lower DUW values could also possibly be
due to the increase in demand for water owing to the higher CBA
content, subsequently generating more capillaries and increasing
the porosity in the final material. It is known that the properties
of hardened cement paste (HCP) depend largely on the DUW
[8,16,17,40]. Thus, the chemical or mineralogical composition of
the solid phases in HCP is usually less important than the physical
characteristics such as volume, size, and distribution of pores.
Therefore, it is believed that the CBAcementlime-enriched mix-
tures tend to shrink the pores of HCP, consequently limiting the
formation of capillaries and propagation of adsorbed water. Thus,
more densified matrix properties are obtained. The obtained
DUW values indicate that the final products can be considered as
a lightweight material and can be satisfactorily used in the manu-
facturing of lightweight materials. Typically, the density of aerated
composites varies from 300 to 2100 kg/m3 [42], and owing to the
air trapped within the matrix, aerated composites act as a natural
sound and heat insulation material. Thus, such composites are
widely used in the manufacture of lightweight wall panels. Fabri-
cating such types of materials is an alternative potential solution
for the manufacture of light commercial structures and products
used in residential houses [11,12,17,42,46].
Additionally, the porosity of the composites slightly increased
with increasing CBA contents. The higher porosities may be attrib-
uted to the increase in water demand as the CBA content is
increased, resulting in a porous structure and an increase in pore
connectivity. A similar trend was observed for the WA values i.e.,
the WA values increased with increasing CBA contents. An inverse
correlation was observed between WA and DUW with increasing
CBA contents as a result of the refinement of the pore structure.
The amount of connective pores increases the demand for water,
and more water is absorbed by composites that contain a higher
CBA content. A critical pore volume is necessary for the pastes to
complete hydration reactions. Increasing the water content can
increase the voids volume to the required volume. Thus, these
pores should be filled by the required amount of paste to ensure
that those hydration products react completely in the bulk cement
paste [65]. As known, ASG is directly proportional to the pore vol-
ume of the matrix and thus affects the behavior of the final com-
posites [65]. As observed in Table 4, the ASG values (both 7 and
28 days) were mostly the same across all the composites, only very
slight increases in the ASG value were observed with increasing
CBA contents. The nearly similar ASG values can be linked to the
porosity values, which were also mostly the same across the
composites. Changes in the ASG value could be linked to the
microstructure of the pastes; ASG is known to be dependent on
the micro-structural property [65]. The ASG values are expected
to change after prolonged ageing of the composite pastes, as
observed in Table 4. Hardening of cement paste, i.e. the develop-
ment of strength that follows solidification is governed by the
hydration of silicates [66]. The hydration of C3S and C2S leads to
the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) into a rigid
gel structure [65,66]. As reported in the literature, the microstruc-
ture of cement-based composites changes slightly at early stages of
testing (Day 7) and developed significantly at later stages of testing
(Day 28) [22,65], when CSH formation reaches a more advanced
stage. Thus, micro-structural development in the pastes could be
due to either the development of the CSH structure, which
blocked the capillary pores, to form a denser matrix, or the volume
of capillary voids in the hardened cement paste, which would
decrease with decreasing water/cement ratios or with prolonged
(hydration) ageing [34,45,47,65].
The unconfined compressive strength and flexural strength val-
ues measured at Days 7 and 28 are presented in Table 5.
586 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588
Table 5
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and flexural strength (FS) of the CBA-cement paste composites measured at Days 7 and 28.
Sample CBA0C100 CBA100C0
UCS (MPa)-7 days 13.12 1.90
UCS (MPa)-28 days 17.41 3.12
FS (MPa)-7 days 1.68 0.25
FS (MPa)-28 days 2.28 0.39
Table 6
Sodium sulfate weight loss of the CBA-cement paste composites measured at Days 7 and 28 days.
Sample CBA0C100 CBA100C0
Weight loss (%)-7 days 13.43 14.22
Weight loss (%)-28 days 9.73 10.31
As observed from Table 5, the UCS of the cement paste com-
posites was time-dependent owing to the hardening process. In
general, as hydration proceeds, a decrease in the porosity of
HCP is observed. Porosity is mostly responsible for the compres-
sive strength properties of cement pastes. The strength of the
cement paste is dependent on the extent of the hardening pro-
cess, subsequent improvement in bond strength of the hydration
products, and ongoing reduction in the size of inner pores. The
overall external volume remains mostly unchanged; however,
the volume of solids within the boundaries of the sample
increases, causing an overall reduction in the voids of the paste.
CBA70C30 and CBA70C25L5 displayed the highest UCS values
and the lowest porosity values when compared with the other
samples. The reaction between the BA particles and calcium
hydroxide results in the formation of a secondary CSH gel. Alter-
natively, the formation of the secondary CSH structure reduces
the degree of porosity in the composites and does not allow for
constant stress allocation. Comparison between the composites
prepared in the presence and absence of lime (i.e., CBA70C25L5
and CBA70C30) showed that the addition of lime increased both
the compressive and flexural strength values. Additionally, com-
parison between CBA70C30 and CBA70C25L5 after 28 days of cur-
ing revealed that the UCS and FS of CBA70C25L5 were higher by
19.36% and 24.85%, respectively. Pozzolanic reactions that
occurred between CBA and lime during the formation of cemen-
titious products led to improved strength of the final product.
Additionally, as reported in the literature, the reaction between
CBA and added lime improved the microstructure by reducing
the porosity [34,45,47,65]. Thus, lime addition enhanced the over-
all mechanical properties. Also, CBA is believed to chemically con-
vert the weak CH crystals into a strong CSH fibrous gel [45,47].
However, increasing the content of CBA above 70% decreased
both the UCS and FS. This reduction was attributed to the
increase in water demand of the mix with increasing CBA con-
tents that reduced the degree of bonding resulting from the reac-
tion between lime and CBA. Thus, 70% was determined to be the
optimum amount of CBA [45,47,65].
The compressive strength tests results reveal that the final
products are suitable for use in low-to-medium technology appli-
cations such as in road bases, ceramic applications, and brick man-
ufacturing. For structural fill applications, the minimum
requirement for the compressive strength value ranges from 0.7
to 8.3 MPa [67]. The UCS values of the final products obtained at
Day 28 are therefore suitable for such applications. Depending on
the strength requirements, the final product can additionally be
used for foundation support.
In flexible pavement applications, asphalt or bituminous mate-
rials can be replaced with CBA. The UCS values of the final products
measured at Day 28 are also suitable for flexible pavement and
CBA70C30 CBA70C25L5 CBA80C15L5 CBA85C10L5
9.24 10.85 8.78 8.42
12.34 14.73 11.15 10.71
1.25 1.41 1.14 1.12
1.65 2.06 1.45 1.39
CBA70C30 CBA70C25L5 CBA80C15L5 CBA85C10L5
9.72 7.81 10.29 11.45
6.89 5.82 7.67 8.59
rigid pavement applications. A minimum UCS of 5.20 MPa is
required for flexible pavement applications and a minimum UCS
of 3.45 MPa is required for rigid pavement applications according
to the ACI 230.1R report [67]. In addition, the CBA-cement paste
composites satisfy the minimum compressive strength require-
ments for application in end- and side-construction tiling accord-
ing to the ASTM C212-14 standard [68]. Finally, the UCS values
of the hardened CBA-cement paste composites show that the final
composites are also adequate for application in constructing catch
basins, manholes, precast/pre-stressed elements, and can be satis-
factorily used both in non-load-bearing and load-bearing elements.
The final composites can also be used in manufacturing Class MX
or Class NX paving bricks, standard and special-type tiles, and
manhole Grade MS or Grade MM bricks. The latter bricks, which
are intended for use in manholes and catch basins, do not require
high degrees of abrasive resistance. However, the final composites
are not suitable for heavy vehicular brick applications. The
compressive strength requirements for these applications are not
satisfied (i.e., for Class MX, Class NX, and Grade MS, a compressive
strength of 17.2 MPa is necessary, whereas for Grade MS, a
compressive strength of 15 MPa is required) [69]. Based on the
above discussion and findings, it is recommended that the
maximum replacement level for CBA be limited to 70 wt%.
It should also be noted that the ideal replacement composition
is either 70 wt% CBA and 30 wt% cement or 70 wt% CBA,
25 wt% cement, and 5 wt% lime. The sodium sulfate weight loss
test results at Days 7 and 28 are presented in Table 6.
As observed in Table 6, an increase in CBA amount increased
the weight loss of the sulfate solution for both testing periods.
Owing to the pore connectivity, the sulfate solution is easily
absorbed by the composites, thereby deteriorating the paste
structure containing a high amount of CBA. Among the samples
studied, CBA100C0 featured the highest weight loss, whereas
the 70-% CBA replacement composites (CBA70C30 and
CBA70C25L5) featured the lowest weight losses. Comparison
between CBA70C30 and CBA70C25L5 showed that the addition
of lime led to a lower weight loss, likely because of the improved
microstructure discussed previously. The obtained porosity values
were consistent with this observation. The water content is the
main factor that affects the physicomechanical properties and
durability of structures [2,4,8,54]. The ingress or release of water
from cementitious systems results in the rearrangement of the
gel/capillary porosity [65], consequently increasing the porosity
values and reducing resistance to sulfate. CBA100C0 featured
the lowest resistance to sulfate, which is consistent with the high
porosity value observed for this sample. The sodium sulfate test
results indicate that the final composites possess medium-to-
high sulfate resistance (standard specification of weight loss
should be between 6% and 16%).
 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588
4. Conclusions
As reported in the literature, the use of waste materials as
lightweight composites in the construction industry is suitable
for realizing sustainable construction. Specifically, the potential
of using engineered by-products in cement paste and concrete is
growing. The study conducted herein aimed to match the public
requirement for the safe and cost-effective removal of waste
products by using them as high-efficiency, cost-effective building
materials. The following conclusions can be drawn from the
present findings:
1. The physical, mechanical, and sulfate test results indicate that
the engineering performance of the final products is suitable
for the use of the products in the manufacturing of construction
materials.
2. The setting times of the final composites are appropriate for
use in civil engineering applications. Compared with the
control cement paste (CBA0C100), the remaining composites,
which consisted of CBA only or mixtures of CBA and
cement or CBA, cement, and lime, had lower IST and FST
values.
3. The slump and flow of the composites decreased as the amount
of CBA increased. Likewise, the DUW values decreased with
increasing CBA contents. Conversely, the porosity of the com-
posites increased with increasing CBA contents.
4. CBA70C30 and CBA70C25L5 featured the highest UCS values
among all composites studied. Following 28 days of curing,
the UCS and FS values of CBA70C25L5 increased by 19.36%
and 24.85%, respectively, when compared with those of
CBA70C30.
5. Based on the FS test results, the final composites can be satisfac-
torily used in low-to-medium-strength applications (e.g., pave-
ments, overlays, shotcrete linings, and base and sub-base
applications).
6. The 70-% CBA replacement mixture samples (CBA70C30 and
CBA70C25L5) displayed the lowest weight losses among all
composites studied. Compared with the control mix
(CBA0C100), the decrease in weight loss for CBA 70C25L5 at
28 days was 40.18%. And comparison between CBA70C30 and
CBA70C25L5 revealed that lime addition caused a 15.53%
reduction in the weight loss following curing for 28 days.
7. In summary, the current findings indicate that the incorpora-
tion of 70% CBA in a pure cement matrix is suitable for prepar-
ing alternative cement materials with high performance.
Additionally, the addition of 5% lime was also demonstrated
to have added benefits on the performance of the final compos-
ite material.
Acknowledgements
E.A. greatly appreciates the assistance of Mr. Birol Karaman,
who provided the bottom ash materials for the present study. E.
A. also thanks his graduate students for their support during the
laboratory experiments.
References
[1] R. Gupta, Characterizing material properties of cement-stabilized rammed
earth to earth to construct sustainable insulated walls, Case Stud. Constr.
Mater. 1 (2014) 6068.
[2] R.D. Hooton, J.A. Bickley, Design for durability: the key to improving concrete
sustainability, Constr. Build. Mater. 67 (2014) 422430.
[3] E. Gartner, H. Hirao, A review of alternative approaches to the reduction of CO2
emissions associated with the manufacture of the binder phase in concrete,
Cem. Concr. Res. 78 (2015) 126142.
587
[4] M. Da Luz Garcia, J. Sousa-Coutinho, Strength and durability of cement with
forest waste bottom ash, in: Constr. Build. Mater. 41 (2013) 897910.
[5] X. Zhang, M. Skitmore, M.d. Jong, D. Huisingh, M. Gray, Regenerative
sustainability for the built environment- from vision to reality: an
introductory chapter, J. Clean. Prod. 109 (2015) 110.
[6] P. Wu, Y. Feng, J. Pienaar, B.A. Xia, Review of benchmarking in carbon labeling
schemes for building materials, J. Clean. Prod. 109 (2015) 108117.
. Targan, A. Olgun, Y. Erdogan, V. Sevinc, Influence of natural pozzolan,
[7] S
colemanite ore waste, bottom ash, and fly ash on the properties of Portland
cement, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (2003) 11751182.
[8] P. Flipponi, A. Polettini, R. Pomi, P. Sirini, Physical and mechanical properties of
cement-based products containing incineration bottom ash, Waste Manage. 23
(2003) 145156.
[9] A. Reith, M. Orova, Do green neighbourhood ratings cover sustainability, Ecol.
Indicators 48 (2015) 660672.
[10] M. Bissoli-Dalvi, E.A. Nico-Rodrigues, CEd. Alvarez, G.E.S. Fuica, D.C.G.
Montarroyos, The sustainability of the materials under the approach of
ISMAS, Constr. Build. Mater. 106 (2016) 357363.
[11] A. Coelho, Preliminary study for self-sufficiency of construction materials in a
Portuguese region-vora, J. Clean. Prod. 112 (2016) 771786.
[12] American coal ash association report, An American recycling success story:
beneficial use of coal combustion products, 2013.
[13] R.S. Kalyoncu, Coal combustion products, in: Metals Miner.: U.S. Geol. Surv.
Miner. Yearbook 98, 1, 2000, pp. 19.119.19.
[14] A. Sathonsaowaphak, P. Chindaprasirt, K. Pimraksa, Workability and strength
of lignite bottom ash geopolymer mortar, J. Hazard. Mater. 168 (2009) 4450.
[15] Z. Guangyin, Z. Haiyan, Z. Tiantao, Z. Youcai, Performance appraisal of
controlled low strength material using sewage sludge and refuse
incineration bottom ash, Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 20 (2012) 8088.
[16] S. Naganathan, H.A. Razak, S.N.A. Hamid, Properties of controlled low-strength
material made using industrial waste incineration bottom ash and quarry dust,
Mater. Des. 33 (2012) 5663.
[17] H.A. Razak, S. Naganathan, S.N.A. Hamid, Performance appraisal of industrial
waste incineration bottom ash as controlled low-strength material, J. Hazard.
Mater. 172 (2009) 862867.
[18] . zkan, I. Yksel, . Muratoglu, Strength properties of concrete
incorporating coal bottom ash and granulated blast furnace slag, Waste
Manage. 27 (2007) 161167.
[19] M. Cheriaf, J.C. Rocha, J. Pra, Pozzolanic properties of pulverized coal
combustion bottom ash, Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (1999) 13871391.
[20] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Effect of coal bottom ash as partial replacement of sand
on properties of concrete, Resour. Conserv. Recycling 72 (2013) 2032.
[21] M. Ferraris, M. Salvo, A. Ventrella, L. Buzzi, M. Veglia, Use of vitrified
MSWI bottom ashes for concrete production, Waste Manage. 29 (2009)
10411047.
[22] K.L. Lin, D.F. Lin, Hydration characteristics of municipal solid waste incinerator
bottom ash slag as a pozzolanic material for use in cement, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 28 (2006) 817823.
[23] O. Gins, J.M. Chimenos, A. Vizcarro, J. Formosa, J.R. Rosell, Combined use of
MSWI bottom ash and fly ash as aggregate in concrete formulation:
environmental and mechanical considerations, J. Hazard. Mater. 169 (2009)
643650.
[24] H.K. Kim, Utilization of sieved and ground coal ash powders as a coarse binder
in high-strength mortar to improve workability, Constr. Build. Mater. 91
(2015) 5764.
[25] H.K. Kim, J.H. Jeon, H.K. Lee, Flow, water absorption and mechanical
characteristics of normal-and high-strength mortar incorporating fine
bottom ash aggregates, Constr. Build. Mater. 26 (2012) 249256.
[26] W. Wongkeo, P. Thongsanitgarn, A. Chaipanich, Compressive strength and
drying shrinkage of fly ash-bottom ash-silica fume multi-blended cement
mortars, Mater. Des. 36 (2012) 655662.
[27] H.K. Kim, H.K. Lee, Use of power plant bottom ash as fine and coarse
aggregates in high-strength concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) 1115
1122.
[28] R. Siddique, P. Aggarwal, Y. Aggarwal, Prediction of compressive strength of
self-compacting concrete containing bottom ash using artificial neural
networks, Adv. Eng. Softw. 42 (2011) 780786.
[29] H.K. Lee, H.K. Kim, E.A. Hwang, Utilization of power plant bottom ash as
aggregates in fiber-reinforced cellular concrete, Waste Manage. 30 (2010)
274284.
[30] S.B. Park, Y.I. Jang, J. Lee, B.J. Lee, An experimental study on the hazard
assessment and mechanical properties of porous concrete utilizing coal
bottom ash coarse aggregate in Korea, J. Hazard. Mater. 166 (2009) 348355.
[31] K.S. Cong, C.-S. Poon, Properties of concrete prepared with crushed fine stone,
furnace bottom ash and fine recycled aggregate as fine aggregates, in: Constr.
Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 28772886.
[32] L.B. Andrade, J.C. Rocha, M. Cheriaf, Evaluation of concrete incorporating
bottom ash as a natural aggregates replacement, Waste Manage. 27 (2007)
11901199.
[33] L.-J. Hunag, H.-Y. Wang, S.-Y. Wang, A study of the durability of recycled green
building materials in lightweight aggregate concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 96
(2015) 353359.
[34] W. Wongkeo, A. Chaipanich, Compressive strength, microstructure and
thermal analysis of autoclaved and air cured structural lightweight concrete
made with coal bottom ash and silica fume, Mat. Sci. Eng. A-Struct. 527 (2010)
36763684.
588 E. Aydin / Construction and Building Materials 124 (2016) 582588
[35] A. Keulen, A. van Zomeren, P. Harpe, W. Aarnink, H.A.E. Simons, H.J.H.
Brouwers, High performance of treated and washed MSWI bottom ash
granulates as natural aggregate replacement within earth moist concrete,
Waste Manage. 49 (2016) 8395.
[36] J.G. Jang, H.J. Kim, H.K. Kim, H.K. Lee, Resistance of coal bottom ash mortar
against the coupled deterioration of carbonation and chloride penetration,
Mater. Des. 93 (2016) 160167.
[37] I.G. Lodeiro, V.C. Taboada, A.F. Jimnez, A. Palomo, Manufacture of hybrid
cements with fly ash and bottom ash from a municipal solid waste incinerator,
in: Constr. Build. Mater. 105 (2016) 218226.
[38] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Effect of coal bottom ash as partial replacement of sand
on workability and strength properties of concrete, J. Clean. Prod. 112 (2016)
620630.
[39] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Properties of concrete containing high volumes of coal
bottom ash as fine aggregate, J. Clean. Prod. 91 (2015) 269278.
[40] P. Tang, M.V.A. Florea, P. Spiesz, H.J.H. Brouwers, Characteristics and
application potential of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI)
bottom ashes from two waste-to-energy plants, Constr. Build. Mater. 83
(2015) 7794.
[41] T. Xie, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Behavior of low-calcium fly ash and bottom ash-based
geo-polymer concrete cured at ambient temperature, Ceram. Int. 41 (2015)
59455958.
[42] Y. Song, B. Li, E.-H. Yang, Y. Liu, T. Ding, Feasibility study on utilization of
municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash as aerating agent for the
production of autoclaved aerated concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 56 (2015)
5158.
[43] H.K. Kim, J.G. Jang, Y.C. Choi, H.K. Lee, Improved chloride resistance of high-
strength concrete amended with coal bottom ash for internal curing, Constr.
Build. Mater. 71 (2014) 334343.
[44] E. Menndez, A.M. lvaro, M.T. Hernndez, J.L. Parra, New methodology for
assessing the environmental burden of cement mortars with partial
replacement of coal bottom ash and fly ash, J. Environ. Manage. 133 (2014)
275283.
[45] Y. Aggarwal, R. Siddique, Microstructure and properties of concrete using
bottom ash and waste foundry sand as partial replacement of fine aggregates,
Constr. Build. Mater. 54 (2014) 210223.
[46] B. Carrasco, N. Cruz, J. Terrados, F.A. Corpas, L. Prez, An evaluation of bottom
ash from plant biomass as a replacement for cement in building blocks, Fuel
118 (2014) 272280.
[47] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Strength properties and micro-structural properties of
concrete containing coal bottom ash as partial replacement of fine aggregate,
Constr. Build. Mater. 50 (2014) 246256.
[48] M. Cabrera, A.P. Galvin, F. Agrela, M.D. Carvajal, J. Ayuso, Characterisation and
technical feasibility of using biomass bottom ash for civil infrastructures,
Constr. Build. Mater. 58 (2014) 234244.
[49] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Compressive strength, drying shrinkage and chemical
resistance of concrete incorporating coal bottom ash as partial or total
replacement of sand, Constr. Build. Mater. 68 (2014) 3948.
[50] W.-T. Kuo, C.-C. Liu, D.-S. Su, Use of washed municipal solid waste
incinerator bottom ash in pervious concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 37 (2013)
328335.
[51] C. Arenas, C. Leiva, L.F. Vilches, H. Cifuentes, Use of co-combustion bottom ash
to design an acoustic absorbing material for highway noise barriers, Waste
Manage. 33 (2013) 23162321.
[52] G. Zhen, X. Lu, Y. Zhao, J. Niu, X. Chai, L. Su, Y.-Y. Li, Y. Liu, J. Du, T. Hojo, Y. Hu,
Characterization of controlled low-strength material obtained from dewatered
sludge and refuse incineration bottom ash: mechanical and micro structural
perspectives, J. Environ. Manage. 129 (2013) 183189.
[53] D.H. Vu, K.-S. Wang, J.-H. Chen, B.X. Nam, B.H. Bac, Glass-ceramic from
mixtures of bottom ash and fly ash, Waste Manage. 32 (2012) 23062314.
[54] R. Siddique, P. Aggarwal, Y. Aggarwal, Influence of water/powder ratio on
strength properties of self-compacting concrete containing coal fly ash and
bottom ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 29 (2012) 7381.
[55] X.C. Qiao, M. Tyrer, C.S. Poon, C.R. Cheeseman, Novel cementitious materials
produced from incinerator bottom ash, Resour. Conserv. Recycling 52 (2008)
496510.
[56] S. Maschio, G. Tonello, L. Piani, E. Furlani, Fly and bottom ashes from biomass
combustion as cement replacing components in mortars production:
rheological behavior of the pastes and materials compression strength,
Chemosphere 85 (2011) 666671.
[57] ASTM, ASTM C150/C150M-15, Standard Specification for Portland Cement,
2015.
[58] ASTM, ASTM C109M-13, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens), 2013.
[59] ASTM, ASTM C348-14, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of
Hydraulic-Cement Mortars, 2014.
[60] ASTM, ASTM C127-15, Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific
Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate, 2015.
[61] ASTM, ASTM C230/C230M-14, Standard Specification for Flow Table for Use in
Tests of Hydraulic Cement, 2014.
[62] ASTM, ASTM WK27311, New Test Method for Measurement of Cement Paste
Consistency Using a Mini-Slump Cone, 2010.
[63] ASTM, ASTM C88-13, Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by
Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate, 2013.
[64] ASTM, ASTM C266-15, Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic-
Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles, 2015.
[65] P.C. Hewlett, Leas Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, fourth ed., John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York, 1998.
[66] L. Bertolini, B. Elsener, P. Pedeferri, E. Redaelli, R.B. Polder, Corrosion of Steel in
Concrete: Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair, second ed., Wiley-VCH, United
Kingdom, 2013.
[67] ACI, ACI 230.1 R, American Concrete Institute Report on Soil Cement, 2009.
[68] ASTM, ASTM C212-14, Standard Specification for Structural Clay Facing Tile,
2014.
[69] ASTM, ASTM C902-14, Standard Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic
Paving Brick, 2014.