2004 Society of Economic Geologists

Special Publication 11, 2004, pp. 243257

Chapter 13

Uchucchacua: A Major Silver Producer in South America

ULRICH PETERSEN,
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

OSCAR MAYTA, LUIS GAMARRA, CSAR E. VIDAL, AND ANGEL SABASTIZAGAL

Compaa de Minas Buenaventura, S.A.A., Carlos Villarn 790, Lima 13, Per

Abstract
Although known since at least 1897, Uchucchacua was first explored on a major scale by Compaa de Minas
Buenaventura since 1960. Narrow vein mining started in 1975, but orebodies discovered at depth enabled ex-
pansion to todays 2,000-t/d operation, transforming Chacua into the largest primary silver producer in South
America.
The ores occur in fractures and faults, as well as in pipes, irregular replacement bodies, and mantos hosted
by Late Cretaceous limestone. Porphyritic dacite bodies are probably pre-, syn-, and postore. Most of the ore
occurs in distal manganiferous exoskarn and limestone and is mineralogically diverse, consisting mostly of the
following.
rhodonite rhodochrosite sphalerite pyrargyrite- quartz
bustamite kutnahorite wurtzite proustite pyrite
alabandite galena argentite
The grade of the ore mined varies between 16 and 20 oz/t Ag combined with about 10 percent Mn, 1.5 per-
cent Zn, and 0.9 percent Pb. Between 75 and 80 percent of the reserves are high in silver and manganese,
whereas about 7 percent contain high zinc and lead grades with only moderate silver and low manganese.
Logarithmic-grade graphs show very good positive linear correlations for zinc versus lead, moderate corre-
lations for silver versus manganese, and arcuate correlation bands for silver or manganese versus zinc or lead.
These relationships indicate that the outward zoning sequence is from lead-zinc to silver-manganese or vice
versa. The corresponding longitudinal vein sections can generally be contoured unambiguously, showing that
the bands of highest grades of lead and zinc coincide very well. The highest silver grades can be contoured con-
vincingly as a band that is zoned outward and/or at a higher elevation than the lead and zinc bands. However,
the manganese grades often require two high-grade bands: a main band that mostly coincides with the highest
silver grades and a thinner upper band that may represent near-surface manganese enrichment.
Ore intervals in individual veins, pipes, and replacement bodies are up to 200 m in vertical extent. However,
the elevations of these intervals change progressively, reflecting the overall geometry of the hydrothermal cell
(or cells) responsible for the mineralization. In addition, postore faulting has displaced the ore intervals. As a
result, ore has been found to date over a vertical interval of 600 m, between 4,730 and 4,040 m.
At surface, manganese oxide stains in the host limestone and limonite in fractures and faults indicate prox-
imity to ore. Underground, multiple calcite veinlets constitute a guide to nearby orebodies. Geochemical
anomalies of 60 to 80 ppm Ag have been documented up to 15 m from an orebody. By extrapolation, 10 ppm
Ag anomalies may extend 25 m from ore, and 1 ppm Ag anomalies may attain 40 to 45 m. Ore continues to be
found at depth as well as laterally and between known ore zones.

Resmen
Si bin y se conoca por lo menos desde el ao 1897, Uchucchacua recin fu explorada a mayor escala por
la Compaa de Minas Buenaventura desde 1960. El minado de vetas angostas comenz en 1975, pero el
descubrimiento de cuerpos de mena en profundidad permiti expansiones hasta llegar a la produccin actual
de 2,000 toneladas/da, transformando a Chacua en el mayor productor primario de plata en Sudamrica.
La mena ocurre en fracturas y fallas, as como en chimeneas, cuerpos de reemplazamiento irregulares, y
mantos en calizas del Cretsico Superior. Los intrusivos dacticos probablemente se emplazaron antes, durante
y despus de la mineralizacin. La mayora de la mena est en exoskarn manganfero distal y en caliza. Su
diversa mineraloga incluye:
rodonita rodocrosita esfalerita proustita- cuarzo
bustamita kutnahorita wurtzita pirargirita pirita
alabandita galena argentita
La ley del mineral explotado vara entre 16 y 20 oz/t Ag con unos 10 porciento Mn, 1.5 porciento Zn, y 0.9
porciento Pb. Entre el 75 y el 80 porciento de las reservas tiene altos contenidos de plata y manganeso, mientras
que un 7 porciento tiene altas leyes de zinc y plomo con slo moderada cantidad de plata y poco manganeso.

Corresponding author: e-mail, ulrichp@aol.com

\ 243
244 PETERSEN ET AL.

Los grficos logartmicos de leyes muestran buenas correlaciones lineales con pendientes positivas para zinc
versus plomo, moderadas correlaciones para plata versus manganeso, y arcos de correlacin para plata
manganeso versus plomo zinc. Estas relaciones indican que la secuencia zonal es de plomo-zinc a plata-
manganeso vice-versa. Las secciones longitudinales correspondientes generalmente pueden contornearse
convincentemente de manera que las bandas de leyes altas de plomo y zinc coinciden mayormente. Las leyes
altas de plata pueden contornearse convincentemente formando una banda externa y/ a mayor altura que las
bandas de leyes mayores de plomo y zinc. Sin embargo, las leyes de manganeso a veces requieren ds bandas
de leyes altas: una banda principal que coincide con la banda de leyes altas de plata y una banda secundaria a
mayor altura que podra representar un enriquecimiento supergeno.
Los intervalos de mena en las vetas, chimeneas y cuerpos de reemplazamiento abarcan hasta unos 200 m
verticales. Sin embargo, las elevaciones de estos intervalos cambian progresivamente, reflejando la geometra
general del sistema hidrotermal responsable de la mineralizacin. Adems, los intervalos de mena han sido
desplazados por fallas. Como resultado, se ha encontrado mena sobre un intervalo de 600 m, entre 4,730 y
4,040 m.
En la superficie, la proximidad de la mena puede reconocerce por la presencia de manchas de xidos de
manganeso en la caliza y por limonita en fracturas y fallas. Bajo tierra, la presencia de mltiples venillas de
calcita constituye una gua hacia cuerpos de mena cercanos. Adems se han documentado anomalas
geoqumicas de 60 a 80 ppm Ag hasta 15 m de un cuerpo de mena. Extrapolando esta informacin, puede
inferirse que probablemente se tengan anomalas de 10 ppm Ag hasta 25 m de la mena, y anomalas de 1 ppm
Ag hasta 40 a 45 m. Todava se est encontrando mena en profundidad, as como lateralmente y entre las
zonas con mena conocida.

Introduction already old mine workings up to 90 m deep in 1897. These

THE UCHUCCHACUA mining district is about 170 km north-
northeast of Lima, near the continental divide. Surface eleva-
tions range from 4,200 to 5,100 m above sea level (Fig. 1).
The mineralization of Uchucchacua (little old lady in
Quechua) is close to lake Colquicocha (lake of silver in
Quechua). According to Torrico and Mesa (1901), there were
workings were in oxide ore and stopped upon encountering
sulfides, which, at that time, could not be treated satisfacto-
rily. The district did not attract the interest of major mining
companies because at surface there were only narrow veins
with minor ore. Toward the end of the 1950s, Alberto Bena-
vides became interested in Uchucchacua, acquiring and
amplifying the available claims for Compaa de Minas

77 76 75
Antamina

10 10

Colquipucro
Raura
Chanca

UCHUCCHACUA Atacocha - Milpo

Cerro de Pasco
Iscaycruz
Colquijirca
Minas Ragra
11 Huarn 11
PA

Chungar
CI

km.

Santander
FI

170
C

Morococha
La Oroya
O

Casapalca
C
E
A
N

Yauricocha
12 12

LIMA 0 30 60 km.

77 76 75

FIG. 1. Location of the Uchucchacua mine, Peru.

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 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA
Buenaventura and carrying out modern exploration and de-
velopment by driving about 10 km of tunnels. In 1975 this led
to mining narrow veins at a scale of 200 t/d containing 14 to
16 oz/t Ag. The discovery of orebodies at greater depth en-
couraged successive production increases to 500, 1,200, and
finally 2,000 t/d containing 14 to 18 oz/t Ag. This transformed
Chacua into a major South American silver producer, re-
covering about 10 million oz of silver in 2003. Ore continues
to be found both at depth and laterally, between and beyond
the known orebodies.
The general geology and mineralization of the Uchuccha-
cua district were studied intensively during the first 30 yrs of
operation by Compaa de Minas Buenaventura, culminating
in a comprehensive paper by Bussell et al. (1990). However,
that paper did not describe the geochemical studies by
Martnez (1986) and, since then, ore has been found more
abundantly in large orebodies and at greater depths than ex-
pected as well as laterally. In addition, the vertical zoning of
the economically valuable metals has been better docu-
mented and understood by plotting grade and metal content
contours on longitudinal vein sections and verified using log-
arithmic graphs. This information is relevant for selecting al-
ternative exploration, mining, and concentrating strategies.
Extensive electron microprobe analyses (Petersen, 1995,
2000, 2001) also identified several new minerals and clarified
the sulfur fugacity existing during the various mineralization
stages. Documentation of two sphalerite populations with
contrasting zinc and iron plus manganese contents has im-
portant metallurgical implications. More of a curiosity was the
discovery of apparently hypogene native silver. Finally, the
setting of Uchucchacua in the context of Andean magmatism
was further clarified by the studies of Noble and McKee
(1999) and Petersen (1999). In order to discuss these new de-
velopments in their proper context and to provide an inte-
grated picture of this important ore deposit, which may rep-
resent a separate silver-manganese model, we summarize the
pertinent information provided by Bussell et al. (1990) and
add the new findings.
General Geology
The regional geology of Uchucchacua (Fig. 2) was de-
scribed by Cobbing and Garayar (1971), Cobbing (1973), Ro-
man (1982), and Bussell et al. (1990). The rocks that host the
mineralization are mostly limestone and marl of Late Creta-
ceous age. These are followed, above a slight unconformity,
by Santonian red beds. The Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
were strongly folded and faulted prior to the deposition of
Tertiary volcanic rocks.
Figure 2 reveals the north-trending axis of the Cachipampa
anticline. In addition, there appear to be faults trending
north, northeast, east, and southeast that radiate from a cen-
ter between the concentrator and the Plomopampa camp.
These faults may have been generated by an unexposed in-
trusion underlying the center.
Figure 2 also shows segments of thrust faults which do not
cause major displacements of stratigraphic contacts. How-
ever, the northern radial faults cut the Calipuy volcanic rocks,
indicating that the former are younger and possibly related to
the igneous and tectonic processes that gave rise to the min-
eralization of the district.
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245
Figure 2 further reveals a small outcrop of dacite with skarn
in the Casualidad area. Figure 3 of Bussell et al. (1990) also
shows two areas of dacite with skarn in mine (i.e., projected
to the surface) adjoining the Socorro fault. These three dacite
occurrences may be parts of a single intrusion that was cut
and dextrally displaced by the Socorro fault.
Noble (1980) considered that a K-Ar age of 25.3 Ma for
dacite from Uchucchacua was unreliable because of the ef-
fects of argon metasomatism, but Soler and Bonhomme
(1988) thought that this age does reflect the timing of dacite
emplacement. Bussell et al. (1990) pointed out that the intru-
sions at Uchucchacua are probably 8 to 15 Ma old because
the intrusions in the nearby Raura deposit gave ages between
10.2 and 7.8 Ma (Noble, 1980), and because the gravimetric
modeling of Bussell and Wilson (1985) suggests that the
Cordillera Blanca batholith continues southward at depth,
forming stocks above it at Raura and Uchucchacua. But
Noble and McKee (1999, table 5) prefer an age of 24.5 Ma for
Uchucchacua based on the age of a relict sanidine phenocryst
in a premineral dike. In map 7 of Petersen (1999) Uchuccha-
cua lies within a northeast-trending alignment of 25 to 35 Ma
ages, but in his map 3 a 5 to 10 Ma age for Uchucchacua cor-
responds to the Raura and Cordillera Blanca ages. Actually,
the Cordillera Blanca ages span from 2 to 25 Ma (Petersen,
1999, maps 26). Therefore, it is possible that the 24.5 Ma
age of the premineral dike corresponds to either the north-
east-trending magmatic alignment or to the Cordillera Blanca
magmatism, whereas the 5 to 10 Ma age reflects the position
of the main Cordillera Blanca magmatic belt. More radio-
metric ages are needed for fresh and altered intrusive rocks,
as well as for the various mineralization stages and their al-
teration halos, in order to decipher the magmatic and hy-
drothermal chronology of Uchucchacua.
Veins, Orebodies, and Mantos
The known intrusions in the Uchucchacua area have re-
lated endoskarn and adjoining exoskarn, but the majority of
the mineralization occurs in fractures and faults (veins) and
in replacement bodies within distal exoskarn or in limestone.
In this context, the term distal indicates that the exoskarn
does not directly adjoin an intrusion and has no mineralogic
implications.
The outcrops of mineralized fractures and faults (veins) have
evident black manganese oxide stains (Fig. 3a) that attracted
the initial explorers. Underground proximity to ore is indicated
by multiple calcite veinlets in the limestone (Fig. 3b).
Some orebodies are tubular, subvertical pipes that are
ovoid in horizontal section. Examples of these are the Rosa
Norte, Irma, and Viviana bodies discovered because of their
association with the Rosa vein. These bodies may have irreg-
ular forms but typically have a maximum horizontal width at
a certain elevation. For example, Paz and Pamo (1983) pro-
vided horizontal measurements for Rosa Norte and Viviana
(Table 1), and Martnez (1986) provided vertical ranges for
three orebodies (Table 2). The numbers of Martnez (1986)
differ somewhat from those of Paz and Pamo (1983) but re-
veal that the vertical ranges of the orebodies are on the order
of 200 to 250 m.
The recently discovered Rub and Vernica orebodies mea-
sure 20 70 150 and 20 15 120 m, respectively. It is
246 PETERSEN ET AL.

Karst breccia

Dacite with skarn in mine

Dacite with skarn in outcrop

TERTIARY
Calipuy Group volcanics
Angular unconformity

SANTONIAN
Capas Rojas Formation

CONIACIAN - EARLY SANTONIAN

Celendin Formation

TURONIAN - LATE ALBIAN

Members 3 and 4
Jumasha
Marker succession Formation
Member 2

FIG. 2. Geology of the Uchcchacua mining district (after Bussell et al., 1990). A-A' section line for Figure 12.

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 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA 247

a b

Socorro 3 Vein

FIG. 3. a. Outcrop area of the Socorro 3 vein. Note the widespread manganese oxide stains.
b. Calcite veinlets surrounding an orebody.

TABLE 1. Rosa Norte and Viviana Orebodies Horizontal Measurements estimated that these orebodies contain about 6 and 3 Moz of
(from Paz and Pamo, 1983) silver, respectively. Commonly the orebodies are associated
Rosa Norte Viviana
with veins, faults, or fractures. Locally, ore occurs in mantos
Level m Level m that are concordant with the limestone stratigraphy (Paz and
Pamo, 1983) and are connected occasionally with the orebodies.
730 45 8 590 30 15 In places, veins and orebodies are truncated by bedding-
680 50 12 565 60 14 parallel faults. In most such cases, their displaced parts have
630 62 19 550 66 18
590 40 30 500 55 8 not been located.
550 15 7
Mineralogy and Paragenesis
The mineralogy and paragenesis of the Uchucchacua min-
TABLE 2. Vertical Ranges for the Rosa Norte, Vivana, and Irma Orebodies eralization was described by Alpers (1980), Paz and Pamo
(from Martnez, 1986)
(1983), Bussell et al. (1990), and Petersen (1995). Uchuccha-
Orebody Vertical range Maximum width cua stands out for having an unusually varied mineralogy
(m) (m) (m) (with numerous silicates, carbonates, sulfides, and sulfosalts),
for its abundance of manganese, silver, arsenic and antimony
Rosa Norte 4,7654,520 245 25?
Viviana 4,7454,530 215 40
minerals, and for being the type locality for several rare min-
Irma 4,8004,550 250 15 erals, such as uchucchacuaite and benavidesite (Oudin et al.,
1982; Molo et al., 1984).

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248 PETERSEN ET AL.
The following simplified paragenetic sequence is based on
descriptions by Alpers (1980a, b), Paz and Pamo (1983), Bus-
sell et al. (1990), and Petersen (1995), as well as on more re-
cent observations:
I. Formation of an Mn-bearing exoskarn: rhodonite, fer-
roan tephroite, johannsenite, quartz, and calcite.
II. Base metal stage: deposition of galena, sphalerite,
wurtzite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, ar-
senopyrite, rhodonite, kutnahorite, rhodochrosite, bustamite,
friedelite, alabandite, manganpyrosmalite, manganaxinite,
quartz, calcite, fluorite, and magnetite-jacobsite.
III. Silver stage: deposition of pyrargyrite-proustite, argen-
tite, miargyrite, polybasite, pyrite, calcite, manganaxinite,
kutnahorite, alabandite, stibnite, realgar, orpiment, and some
galena, sphalerite, enargite, uchucchacuaite, benavidesite,
jamesonite, and bournonite.
IV. Supergene oxidation: formation of cerussite, siderite,
marcasite, orpiment, goethite, and manganese oxides.
The presence of pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite in stage II in-
dicates that this stage precipitated from fluids with a rela-
tively low sulfur fugacity (Barton and Skinner, 1967). In con-
trast, the presence of enargite in stage III shows that it
precipitated from fluids with a relatively high sulfur fugacity
(Barton and Skinner, 1979). This difference in sulfur fugaci-
ties probably explains why about half of the sphalerite-
wurtzite grains analyzed by Bussell et al. (1990, table A9)
from the Luz vein have <47 percent Zn but >19.5 percent Fe
+ Mn, whereas the other half have >58.5 percent Zn but <8
percent Fe + Mn (Barton and Skinner, 1967, 1979). The nu-
merous microprobe analyses of sphalerite by Petersen (2000)
from the Rub, Alison, and Lisa replacement orebodies, as
well as from the Ramal Cachipampa and Tina veins, reveal
ranges of 47.5 to 58.8 percent Zn and 16.0 to 7.8 percent Fe
+ Mn, corroborating the results of Bussell et al. (1990). The
sphalerite analyses of Petersen (2000) further indicate that
the full range of sphalerite compositions occurs in all three
replacement orebodies and in one of the two veins studied.
Only the Veta Ramal Cachipampa shows a more limited
range of sphalerite compositions. Petersen (2001) also docu-
mented the variation in zinc, iron, and manganese concen-
trations in sphalerite by means of a comprehensive study of
concentrates from the Luz, Tina, and Vanessa veins. The last
two veins contain sphalerite with >50 percent Zn and mostly
<12 percent Fe and <4 percent Mn, whereas the Luz vein
contains sphalerite of both types, but predominantly with
<50 percent Zn but >12 percent Fe and >4 percent Mn. The
sphalerite poor in zinc but rich in iron plus manganese prob-
ably corresponds to the low sulfur fugacity stage II, whereas
the one rich in zinc but poor in iron plus manganese is from
the high sulfur fugacity stage III. These findings have im-
portant implications for the production of high-grade zinc
concentrates.
The microprobe analyses of Petersen (1995) indicate that
the galena contains about 85 percent Pb and 0.17 to 4.1 per-
cent Ag. The 4.1 percent Ag value may have inadvertedly in-
cluded some tetrahedrite, but 7 (22%) of his 32 analyses have
>0.5 percent Ag. This is >5,000 ppm or about 160 oz/t Ag and
corresponds to about 2 oz Ag per 1 percent Pb. This galena is
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more silver rich than that typically found in lead-zinc
deposits, which contains about 1 oz Ag per 1 percent Pb. The
only tetrahedrite analyzed by Petersen (1995) contains 21.7
percent Ag, 20.6 percent Cu, 25.4 percent Sb, and 0.1 per-
cent As. The microprobe analyses also show that most of the
sulfosalts contain much more antimony than arsenic.
In terms of the metallurgical treatment of the ore, it makes
a difference if the manganese is in rhodochrosite or
rhodonite, which were deposited during stage II and do not
cause metallurgical problems, or in alabandite, which was de-
posited during stages II and III and causes metallurgical
problems. Rhodochrosite and rhodonite appear to dominate
in the Carmen section of Uchucchacua, whereas alabandite is
more abundant in the remaining sections.
Fluid Inclusion and Isotopic Studies
In a preliminary investigation, Alpers (1980) studied two
fluid inclusions in sphalerite from Uchucchacua, obtaining
homogenization temperatures of 280 and 292C. One of
them contained halite and had a salinity of 31.5 wt percent
NaCl equiv. He also described secondary fluid inclusions in
quartz with homogenization temperatures between 244 and
290C.
Bussell et al. (1990) carried out an extensive study of pri-
mary and secondary fluid inclusions in 13 samples of calcite
and quartz from stages II and III of the Irma and Rosa Norte
replacement orebodies and the Rosa vein. Disregarding the
inclusions that are evidently secondary, this range narrows to
156 to 320C for quartz. The homogenization temperatures
for calcite are 185 to 322C. Given that there are no vapor-
rich inclusions and that the inclusions did not homogenize to
a vapor phase, they concluded that the fluid did not boil dur-
ing the deposition of calcite and quartz. This conclusion is
probably also valid for the economically valuable minerals be-
cause the homogenization temperatures for calcite and quartz
are in the same temperature range as the few determinations
available for sphalerite.
The 112 fluid inclusion salinity determinations of Bussell et
al. (1990) vary between 0.5 and 29.7 wt percent NaCl equiv
and indicate up to 20 wt percent CaCl2 equiv. This variability
in salinity may indicate mixing of saline and dilute fluids.
Inasmuch as the ore is not located at an intrusive contact and
that there is no evidence of significant thermal gradients,
Bussell et al. (1990) assumed that a hot fluid rich in NaCl,
KCl, and CaCl2 mixed with meteoric water. Both fluids could
have acquired calcium from the Jumasha limestone. Bussell
et al. (1990) measured the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of vein calcite but
had to infer these ratios for potential source rocks. Their esti-
mates are summarized as: Sandstone and shale beneath the
Jumasha limestone = 0.709 to 0.722, calcite in ore = 0.707 to
0.711, Jumasha limestone = 0.707 to 0.708, and intrusive
rocks = 0.705.
The range of the strontium isotope ratios for the 11 hy-
drothermal calcite samples analyzed matches that inferred for
the Jumasha limestone, so it is reasonable to assume that
limestone dissolution contributed predominantly to the com-
position of the fluid that deposited calcite. However, the
range for hydrothermal calcite exceeds somewhat that in-
ferred for the Jumasha limestone, so it is possible that this
fluid interacted previously with the sandstone and shale
248
 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA
underlying the Jumasha limestone. The available data do not
require interaction with igneous rocks, but the latter may well
have acted as heat engines and could have supplied hydro-
thermal fluids that deposited sulfide minerals.
The high salinity and NaCl/CaCl2 ratios of the fluid inclu-
sions led Bussell et al. (1990) to speculate that the hydrother-
mal fluids of Uchucchacua were similar to those that formed
Mississippi Valley-type deposits, although the Uchucchacua
fluids have slightly higher KCl/NaCl ratios. However, the
high salinities are also compatible with a magmatic-hy-
drothermal fluid component. Ore deposition took place at a
minimum depth of 1,600 m, based on a geologic reconstruc-
tion. This would require 15 to 40C corrections to the ho-
mogenization temperatures.
Grade Distributions and Zoning
During the late 1970s and the 1980s one of us (UP) and col-
laborators conducted studies to interpret grade distributions
Ore island
Low grade
Cutoff
Cutoff
FIG. 4. Diagrammatic representation of a sinuous ore band in a longitudinal section (a) and in a cross section (b) of a vein.
249
and zoning in hydrothermal ore deposits. These investigations
generated grade, metal content (grade width), and metal
ratio distributions in maps and longitudinal vein sections, as
well as logarithmic grade and metal content graphs. This work
was comprehensively illustrated by Murdock (1989) and cul-
minated in the model presented by Petersen (1990). Uchuc-
chacua was one of the deposits studied (Petersen, 1979;
Alpers, 1980a, b; Paz and Pamo, 1983; Moore, 1985; Petersen
et al., 1985; Martnez, 1986; Bussell et al., 1990). In retro-
spect, figures 16 through 22 in Bussell et at. (1990) are not
entirely convincing because they do not show the data points
in the longitudinal vein sections, they portray metal ratios,
which provide less direct evidence than grade and metal con-
tent, and they show closure of contours in areas where there
are insufficient data points. In light of these concerns, it is ap-
propriate to present in Figure 4a and b the current concep-
tual model of an ore band, in Figures 5 to 8 examples of
grade contouring (for the Luz vein), and in Figures 9 to 11
General
tendency
Envelope of
marginal grade
Ore band
Antishoot
Low grade
Marginal grade
Ore
50 - 250m
Marginal grade
Low grade
250 PETERSEN ET AL.
examples of logarithmic-grade graphs (for ore reserves of
Uchucchacua).
The dark sinuous band in Figure 4a represents the axis of
maximum grades above a given cutoff grade, i.e., the ore band
if this representation is for an economically valuable element
or the mineral band if the element is part of the gangue. This
band may be locally discontinuous and eventually pinch out at
both ends. An ore band may contain high-grade areas (not
shown), referred to as ore shoots or bonanza ore if the two elements are zoned relative to each other. For Mn-Pb
pertinent element is of economic interest. Ore bands may
contain areas below the cutoff grade, designated as anti-
shoots. Grades diminish laterally from the ore and/or min-
eral band, passing from the grade interval represented by the
black band to the grade interval indicated by symbols, the Luz vein. Note that the values chosen for the grade con-
and to even lower grades shown by the dotted pattern. Lo-
cally, there may be high-grade areas outside of the mineral
band, which are referred to as islands. The sinuous ore
and/or mineral band can generally be envisaged as meander-
ing between two roughly parallel lines (dashed in Fig. 4a),
which define its general tendency or trend. This trend can be
useful in guiding the exploration for extensions to the ore
band. The cross section of the vein in Figure 4b shows the ore
interval, which is commonly 50 to 250 m but may be zero
where the ore band is discontinuous or terminates. It can be
up to 400 m in exceptionally large and rich veins. This cross
section implies that vein structures are wider in the ore inter-
val, which is often observed but not necessarily so. There
should be one such longitudinal section for every relevant el-
ement assayed, but complications arise because an element
can occur in various minerals (e.g., silver in argentite, sulfos-
alts, tetrahedrite, and galena or copper in chalcopyrite and
tetrahedrite), and any mineral can consist of various ele-
ments. Hence, grade contours generally reflect a composite
picture. In most cases, one of the minerals greatly predomi-
nates over the others, thus simplifying the interpretation. As
a precaution it is generally advisable to study both the distri-
bution of grades and metal contents because both approaches
should give similar results (or reveal unusual local circum-
stances).
One reason for contouring grade and metal content inter-
vals is to determine the shape, position, and general tendency
of an ore or mineral band in order to follow it efficiently and
avoid unproductive exploration in both of its low-grade sides.
Another reason is to determine if the high-grade bands for
other elements coincide with the ore band or are zoned rela-
tive to it. If they coincide, this provides an opportunity to de-
tect erratic values; if they are zoned, this presents an oppor-
tunity to diagnose if a given low- grade vein intercept is on
one side or the other of the ore band, thus deciding if the next
intercept should be aimed lower, higher, or laterally to either
one side or the other. For this purpose and assuming that the
hydrothermal fluids flowed essentially perpendicular to the
ore and mineral bands (thus generating the observed zoning),
the senior author (UP) has for many years used the terms
proximal and distal: proximal refers to the side of the lines) would be consistent with the interpretations based on
ore band that presumably is closest to the source of the hy-
drothermal fluids, and distal refers to the side of the ore
band toward which the hydrothermal fluids were flowing.
For the Luz and Rosa veins, Moore (1985) produced 12
logarithmic-grade and metal content graphs. Of these, the
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Pb-Zn metal content graphs showed good to excellent linear
correlation bands that are narrower than half an order of
magnitude. This means that in both veins the bands of high-
est lead and zinc metal contents coincide spatially. In general,
this seems to be true throughout the Uchucchacua district, as
it is in most but not all mining districts. For the pairs Ag-Mn,
Ag-Pb, and Ag-Zn the correlations were poor, resembling the
correlation arcs expected when the maximum-grade bands of
and Mn-Zn the correlations were very poor, indicating that
the maximum manganese grades are clearly zoned relative to
the bands of maximum lead and zinc grades.
Figures 5 and 6 depict contours for zinc and lead grades in
tours differ for both metals. This is because their correlation
band in the pertinent logarithmic graph (not reproduced
here) indicates that for every percent lead there is, in general,
about 1.3 to 1.5 percent Zn. In Figure 5 there are three anti-
shoots and two ore shoots between the 1.5 and 4 percent Zn
contours, and in Figure 6 there are three antishoots between
the 1 and 3 percent Pb contours.
In Figures 5 and 6 the 1.5 percent Zn and 1.0 percent Pb
contours are dome shaped and the 4 percent Zn and 3 per-
cent Pb contours are quite continuous in the vicinity of the
450 level, i.e., the zinc and lead grades increase downward.
However, a major crosscut on the 360 level cut very low zinc
and lead grades. Of the four lower intercepts one encoun-
tered 6.0 percent Zn with 5.2 percent Pb, indicating that the
bands of highest zinc and lead grades pass through this inter-
cept. Another deep intercept cut 3.1 percent Zn and 2.4 per-
cent Pb, indicating that it is probably close to the bands of
highest zinc and lead grades. The exact geometries of the
bands of highest zinc and lead grades remain to be deter-
mined below the 450 level, but on the basis of this informa-
tion they may turn sharply, as indicated by the dotted lines.
Figure 7 shows the contours for 10 and 15 oz/t Ag in the
Luz vein. Both contours are close to each other because they
do not differ appreciably on a logarithmic scale (log 10 = 1.0,
log 15 = 1.2). Nevertheless, a dome-shaped silver ore band
with four antishoots can be envisaged. It is debatable, how-
ever, whether the low silver area in the central part of level
450 is the lower (proximal) side of silver ore band or if this is
an antishoot. Considering that the intercept by the crosscut
on the 360 level was low grade, it seems likely that the lower
limit of the high-grade silver band is indeed crossed by the
450 level. Thus, the high-grade silver band is at a higher ele-
vation than the bands of highest zinc and lead grades. In other
words, the silver band is zoned with respect to the zinc and
lead bands.
In Figure 7 the axis of the band of high silver grades ap-
pears to plunge to both the left and right. However, with an
average width of 100 to 150 m it could well have turned and
passed close to the lower two left intercepts because they cut
14 and 8 oz/t Ag. This interpretation (shown with dotted
zinc and lead grades.
Figure 8 shows four contours for 5 percent Mn in the Luz
vein. The two lower ones clearly define a robust antiformal
band of >5 percent Mn. A comparison with Figure 7 shows
that this high-grade manganese band generally overlaps the
 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA 251

FIG. 5. Zinc grade contours for Luz vein.

FIG. 6. Lead grade contours for Luz vein.

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252 PETERSEN ET AL.

FIG. 7. Silver grade contours for Luz vein.

FIG. 8. Manganese grade contours for Luz vein.

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 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA 253

upper part of the high-grade silver band. Hence, the former
is zoned relative to the latter and more so relative to the high-
grade zinc and lead bands. However, the upper two 5 percent
Mn contours define another high-grade manganese band.
Double bands for one element are rare but not impossible or
unknown (e.g., separate bands for copper in chalcopyrite and
tetrahedrite were documented for the Cananea-Duluth oval
vein by Bushnell, 1982). Inasmuch as the older upper levels
are no longer accessible, one can only speculate that the two
manganese bands correspond to different manganese miner-
als or that the upper band corresponds to a near-surface en-
richment of manganese oxide minerals.
Alpers (1980) also contoured vein widths for the Luz vein.
A comparison of his section D-12 with Figures 5 to 8 in this
paper shows that there is no relationship between vein width
and ore grade.
Martnez (1985) made an independent interpretation of the
Rosa vein and concluded that the higher grade bands for sil-
ver and manganese rise progressively westward and are cut by
the Socorro fault, with their continuation being vein 3, 200 m
north and 200 m higher.
Martnez (1985) also showed that in the Rosa Norte, Irma,
and Viviana replacement orebodies the highest silver grades
are in their middle sections (where their cross sections are
widest) and decrease both upward and downward, as well as
from the center toward their peripheries. The richest nuclei
can be outlined with contours of 30 oz/t Ag for Rosa Norte,
20 oz/t Ag for Viviana, and 15 oz/t Ag for Irma, the last with
two nuclei at different elevations.
Inasmuch as the higher grade bands for the various metals
are somewhat irregular and not perfectly parallel, it is not
surprising that Uchucchacua ore has significant but variable
concentrations of manganese, silver, zinc, and lead. This is re-
flected in Table 3, which summarizes the percentages of the
total tonnage of the 2002 ore inventory that fall into various
types of ore (A through F) in different mine sections (Casual-
idad, Socorro, and Carmen). The ore types are defined on the
basis of grade ranges (i.e., > or <10 oz/t Ag, > or <2% Mn, >
or <5% Pb + Zn) and are arranged in the inferred zonal se-
quence. Thus, ore types A through C have >2 percent Mn,
whereas types D through F have <2 percent Mn (except type
E, which may not be representative because it involves a rel-
atively small tonnage). Ore types B through D have >10 oz/t
Ag, whereas types A and E-F have <10 oz/t Ag. Ore types C
through F have >5 percent Pb + Zn, whereas A and B have
<5 percent Pb + Zn. All three mine sections contain the A

TABLE 3. Ore Types, Grades, and Widths1

Ag Mn Zn + Pb Tons Ag equiv Ag Zn Pb Mn Width

Type 10 2 5 Mine section (%) (oz/t) (oz) (%/t) (%) (%) (m)

A < > < Casualidad 0.5 11.8 9.7 1.5 0.6 2.5 1.43
A < > < Socorro 4.0 12.8 8.4 3.0 1.4 2.3 1.39
A < > < Carmen 10.5 12.6 8.0 2.2 2.8 6.5 12.02

Total 15.0

B > > < Carmen 55.8 20.3 17.4 1.3 1.9 10.8 6.28
B > > < Socorro 11.1 17.4 15.2 1.4 0.9 9.0 4.38
B > > < Casualidad 5.5 15.7 13.6 1.3 0.8 7.5 1.58

Total 72.4

C > > > Carmen 2.3 26.0 16.5 6.3 4.1 10.5 20.30
C > > > Carmen 2.0 23.0 16.4 3.3 3.9 7.1 6.25
C > > > Socorro 0.2 19.1 12.8 2.8 3.4 4.6 1.83
Total 4.5

D < > Socorro 0.6 24.1 11.7 7.2 5.1 1.2 1.74
D > < > Socorro 0.0 16.1 10.0 5.6 0.62 1.6 1.57

Total 0.6

E < > > Carmen 1.2 13.0 6.9 3.3 3.4 4.13 5.36

Total 1.2

F < < > Socorro 0.4 13.7 6.6 3.5 3.7 1.9 1.30
F < < > Casualidad 0.7 14.0 4.2 5.8 4.0 1.2 1.79
F < < > Casualidad 0.1 15.1 4.9 4.5 5.6 0.5 0.90
F < < > Socorro 1.3 17.4 7.7 6.6 4.7 1.5 1.71
F < < > Socorro 3.8 14.3 6.1 6.4 1.8 1.9 1.75

Total 6.3

Notes: See text for explanation of symbols < and >

1
Source: 2002 ore inventory
2
Nonrepresentative value due to low local tonnage
3
Possibly nonrepresentative value

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254 PETERSEN ET AL.

type ore (low in silver and lead + zinc but >2% Mn), the sil-
ver-rich B, C, and D types of ore, and the relatively lead-zinc
rich ores of types C through F.
In Table 3, widths >2 m generally involve replacement ore-
bodies, whereas narrower widths correspond to veins. It is ap-
parent that most of the ore (72.4% of type B) has high silver
and manganese grades but low zinc and lead grades, which
implies that it consists mostly of stage III mineralization. In
contrast, only 6.3 percent of the ore (type F) has high lead-zinc
grades and low silver-manganese grades, consisting mainly of
stage II mineralization. The other ore types (21.3%) consist of
mixtures of these two stages. The fact that both mineralization
stages are present in Carmen, Socorro, and Casualidad sup-
ports the idea that probably both stages belong to a single hy-
drothermal cell rather than to separate cells.
Figures 9, 10, and 11 are logarithmic plots of the average
grades in Table 3. Figure 9 confirms the linear correla-
tions of silver with manganese and of zinc with lead if the

FIGS. 9. Logarithmic-grade graphs for the ore types listed in Table 1. White squares = types A and B, crosses = types C
and E, and black rhombs = types D and F.

FIGS. 10. Logarithmic-grade graphs for the ore types listed in Table 1. White squares = types A and B, crosses = types C
and E, and black rhombs = types D and F.

FIGS. 11. Logarithmic-grade graphs for the ore types listed in Table 1. White squares = types A and B, crosses = types C
and E, and black rhombs = types D and F.

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 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA
nonrepresentative 0.6 percent Pb grade identified in Table 3
is omitted. The linear correlation band for zinc versus lead
has a slope close to 45, as expected for elements precipitated
during the same paragenetic stage. The slope of the linear
correlation band for silver-manganese differs from 45 be-
cause these elements have different dispersions. These linear
correlation bands have widths of about one-half of an order of
magnitude, which contrasts with widths of two-thirds of an
order of magnitude (or more) commonly observed when plot-
ting grades of individual samples.
Figures 10 and 11 are graphs of manganese and silver ver-
sus zinc and lead and show the arcuate correlation bands due
to zoning. In all these graphs there is a general separation be-
tween white and black symbols, with the crosses falling in be-
tween. The white squares correspond to high silver and man-
ganese grades (ore types A and B), the black rhombs
correspond to high zinc and lead grades (ore types D and F),
and the crosses imply intermediate compositions (ore types C
and E).
Districtwide Ore Distribution and Exploration
At Uchucchacua, the ore intervals in the veins and associ-
ated replacement orebodies and mantos are generally at about
the same elevation. There may be exceptions due to post-
ore faulting, but many of the replacement orebodies were dis-
covered by following veins. The assumption is that tension
fractures adjoining faults and veins, as well as cymoid loops
and vein junctions or intersections (vein wedges), enhance
fluid flow and hence the chances of finding a replacement
orebody. For this reason, following veins continues to be a fa-
vored exploration tactic. Exploration also focuses on the anti-
clinal axis shown in Figure 2, on the assumption that this area
was more intensely fractured prior to mineralization.
Figure 3b illustrates the numerous calcite veinlets that ad-
join orebodies at Uchucchacua. Martnez (1986) showed that
such calcite veinlets occur above, below, and alongside ore-
bodies at distances from zero to 40 m. The veinlet halos are
used consistently and successfully to position drill holes.
Martnez (1986) also showed that on surface, at an elevation
of 5,050 m, there are calcite veinlets adjoining an apparently
barren intrusion. Could there be an orebody below them?
Martinez (1986) also studied the possibility of detecting
orebodies by means of their geochemical halos. His study was
restricted to silver anomalies along workings on the 590 level
that radiate from the Rosa Norte orebody toward the north,
south, east, and west. Three of the four samples from the ore-
body returned 360 ppm Ag (1012 oz/t Ag) and can, there-
fore, be considered marginal ore. In two of his profiles, the
silver grades first decrease away from ore and then increase
at greater distances, possibly upon approach to another ore-
body, because a veinlet was sampled or because of analytical
error. Plotting the remaining data on semilogarithmic graphs
suggests that the ore could be detected up to 30, 35, 50, and
55 m (avg 42.5 m), using routine geochemical analyses with a
detection limit of 1 ppm Ag. The detection limit is now 0.05
ppm Ag. In addition, by choosing other elements, such as
lead, zinc, antimony, arsenic, iron, calcium, and manganese,
or isotopic signatures, such as O18 and C13, it may be possi-
ble to further increase the distance and reliability of detection
of replacement orebodies and veins.
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255
As illustrated by Figures 5 to 8, the ore interval may vary
considerably within a given vein as a consequence of spatial
changes in permeability and hydrothermal cell geometry at
the time of ore deposition. In addition, the elevations of the
ore intervals vary from vein to vein (Fig. 12). In general, one
can use the mirror-image strategy to explore for ore in nearby
veins. According to this strategy, the most efficient way to ex-
plore for ore in a neighboring structure is to aim crosscuts or
drill holes to intersect the unexplored structure at an eleva-
tion that corresponds to the middle of the ore interval in the
already-known vein. Using this procedure there is a good
chance of intersecting the upper, central, or lower part of its
ore interval.
Figure 12 shows that the ore intervals are at high elevations
in the northwestern part of Mina Carmen, decreasing to the
southeast and northwest (in Mina Socorro). In Mina Carmen,
the ore intervals pass from member 2 to member 1 of the Ju-
masha Formation, suggesting that there is no significant
stratigraphic control. It remains unclear whether the ore at
Mina Carmen and Mina Socorro belongs to two separate hy-
drothermal cells or whether the two are parts of a single
major cell.
Figure 12 also shows the intrusive bodies that are inferred
to exist at depth on the basis of igneous rock intercepts in the
deeper mine workings and in drill holes. This pattern sup-
ports the concept of separate hydrothermal cells. However,
Figure 12 also suggests that the ore intervals of the various
sectors at Uchucchacua could be part of a single major hy-
drothermal system reminiscent of the Tayoltita and Pachuca-
Real del Monte districts in Mexico. Such a view is supported
by indications that the hydrothermal fluids responsible for
Uchucchacua may have been sedimentary brines that flowed
through extensive aquifers. However, ascending hydrother-
mal fluids from any source could have mixed with meteoric
water to produce the observed undulating ore intervals
within veins and replacement orebodies, as well as the varia-
tions in the elevation of ore intervals from vein to vein (as in-
dicated by the shaded band that connects the ore intervals in
Fig.12). Recent exploration is finding silver ore in Lucrecia,
between Carmen and Huantajalla, and in Huantajalla; silver-
zinc ore was intersected at depth between Carmen and
Huantajalla; and lead-zinc ore was cut at depth between Lu-
crecia and Socorro. Consequently, districtwide exploration
now seeks to document and understand the broader miner-
alization geometry.
Conclusions
An important lesson provided by Uchucchacua is that in
many respects it resembles the famous mining districts with
veins, pipes, replacement bodies, and mantos in limestone in
Mexico and in the western United States. It is probable that
other such deposits can still be found in Peru, where the
Andes have a greater proportion of limestone in the strati-
graphic column than in countries to both north and south.
The limestone has been folded, faulted, and invaded by mul-
tiple magma bodies capable of supplying and/or mobilizing
hydrothermal fluids for generation of veins and replacement
bodies, as Atacocha, Milpo, Cerro de Pasco, Colquijirca, Mo-
rococha, and Yauricocha (Fig.1). These districts were discov-
ered because they had already been partially eroded, thus
 256

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256
PETERSEN ET AL.

FIG. 12. Section A-A' through the Uchucchacua mining district (see Fig. 2 for location of section), showing the general stratigraphic section, the known silver ore-
bodies and intervals, the general trend of these intervals, the recent intercepts of silver and of silver-zinc ore (circles labeled DDH), and the known or inferred intru-
sions at depth.
 UCHUCCHACUA MINING DISTRICT, SOUTH AMERICA
exposing oxidized ore. At Uchucchacua, however, the ore in-
dications are unimpressive at surface because erosion barely
reached the uppermost limits of the ore intervals. This is the
reason that major mining companies showed no interest in
the prospect. It was the progressive deepening of mine work-
ings on economic veins that led to discovery of large tonnage,
high-grade orebodies. In the final analysis, this success must
be credited to the optimism, foresight, and perseverance of
Alberto Benavides and to the support he received from the
management and directors of Compaa de Minas Buenaven-
tura, who initially started this mine at a very modest scale. Fu-
ture discoveries will face similar challenges.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Compaa de Minas Buenaventura for its
support of the research studies reported in this paper, as well
as for its permission to publish the results. In addition, we
thank the reviewers of this paper, L. Fontbot, F. Graybeal,
and R. Sillitoe for their thoughtful and constructive comments
that led to substantial improvements of the manuscript.
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