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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017 1

Efficiency Enhancement for an Inductive Wireless

Power Transfer System by Optimizing the Impedance
Matching Networks
Zhidong Miao, Dake Liu, Senior Member, IEEE, and Chen Gong, Student Member, IEEE

AbstractInductive wireless power transfer (IWPT) is a promis-

ing power technology for implantable biomedical devices, where
the power consumption is low and the efficiency is the most im-
portant consideration. In this paper, we propose an optimization
method of impedance matching networks (IMN) to maximize the
IWPT efficiency. The IMN at the load side is designed to achieve
the optimal load, and the IMN at the source side is designed to
deliver the required amount of power (no-more-no-less) from the
power source to the load. The theoretical analyses and design pro-
cedure are given. An IWPT system for an implantable glaucoma
Fig. 1. Efficiency distribution of IWPT system. pa , the efficiency of PA;
therapeutic prototype is designed as an example. Compared with S I M N , the efficiency of SIMN; cp , the efficiency of the coupled coils; L I M N ,
the efficiency of the resonant IWPT system, the efficiency of our the efficiency of LIMN; r ect r eg , the efficiency of the rectifier and the regulator;
optimized system increases with a factor of 1.73. Besides, the effi- link , the efficiency of simplified IWPT system model, which is the focus of
ciency of our optimized IWPT system is 1.97 times higher than that this paper; Losssw , the switch loss of PA; Losson , the switch-on resistance loss
of the IWPT system optimized by the traditional maximum power of PA; Loss S I M N , the SIMN loss; Losscp , the coupled coil loss; Loss L I M N ,
transfer method. All the discussions indicate that the optimization the LIMN loss; Lossr ect , the rectifier loss; Lossr eg , the regulator loss; Rsd the
method proposed in this paper could achieve a high efficiency and equivalent load of the source; Rld , the equivalent load resistance at the input
long working time when the system is powered by a battery. port of LIMN.

Index TermsInductive wireless power transfer (IWPT), effi-

ciency, output power, impedance matching network (IMN). this unique feature, IWPT technology has attracted much atten-
tion in applications such as battery charging, portable devices,
ABBREVIATION RFID, and especially implantable biomedical electronic devices
IWPT inductive wireless power transfer; [1][5]. For deep implanted biomedical devices, such as heart
C-IWPT IWPT system matched by resonant capacitors; pacemaker, IWPT system can be used to recharge the battery
IMN-C-IWPT IWPT system matched by resonant capacitors without surgery. For relatively shallow implanted biomedical de-
and impedance matching networks; vices, such as in-brain seizure detector, retinal prosthesis, and in-
IMN-IWPT IWPT system matched by impedance matching traocular pressure detector, the power requirement is low, and the
networks; available space is too strict to implant a battery as supplier. IWPT
SIMN impedance matching network connected to system is a promising way to drive these devices in real-time.
source; The discussion of this paper just focus on low power implanted
LIMN impedance matching network connected to biomedical applications, and an IWPT system for an implantable
load. glaucoma therapeutic prototype is designed as an example.
To maintain a stable power supply and to reduce the RF
I. INTRODUCTION electromagnetic exposure of human tissue for safety, the power
NDUCTIVE wireless power transfer (IWPT) technology transfer efficiency is the most critical design target in IWPT
I can provide power without physical connections. Due to design for biomedical applications. The efficiency distribution
for a general IWPT system is shown in Fig. 1. In order to simplify
the analysis, the power amplifier (PA) is modelled as a voltage
Manuscript received February 23, 2017; revised June 6, 2017; accepted Au-
gust 7, 2017. Date of publication; date of current version. This work was
signal source in series with a resistor, and the rectifier, regulator
supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under the Na- and load are modelled as a resistance load. Thus, the switch loss
tional Major Projects for Instrument Development of China (31427801). This of the PA and the losses of rectifier and regulator are not the
paper was recommended by Associate Editor D. R. S. Cumming. (Correspond-
ing author: Dake Liu.)
focus in this paper.
The authors are with the Institute of Application Specific Instruction Set
Processor, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China (e-mail:
zhidongmiao@bit.edu.cn; dake@bit.edu.cn; gongchen@bit.edu.cn). A. Related Works
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Many optimization efforts have been made by researchers on
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TBCAS.2017.2740266 every aspect of the IWPT system. Kurs et al. in [6] proposed
1932-4545 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017
that using resonant capacitors to tune the transmitting and re-
ceiving coil at the same frequency could distinctly improve the
efficiency. This tuning idea is broadly accepted by the following
researchers. Since the efficiency of IWPT system is propor-
tional to the quality factors of the coils, some researches have
been made to optimize the geometries of the coupling coils to
maximize quality factors [4], [7], [8]. To further improve the
efficiency, three coil and four coil IWPT structures are also
proposed [4], [25]. However, additional tuned coils added usu-
ally increase the total size of the IWPT system, which may be
unexpected in some space constrained implanted biomedical
applications [9].
Besides, researchers also found that there is an optimal load
resistance value existing, with which the coupling efficiency
(cp in Fig. 1) can be maximized [14]. To achieve this, the res-
onant capacitor at the load side is replaced by a more complex
impedance matching network (IMN) in [9], [10]. This IMN
could not only tune the receiver coil, but also transform the load
resistance value into the optimal one. Furthermore, the IMN
is also introduced into the source side in [10][12]. In these
literatures, the IMN at source side is usually used to conju-
gate the impedance across the transmitting coil with the PA.
This conjugation impedance matching could achieve maximum
power transfer of PA. In [10], these two IMN design ideas
(IMN at source side (SIMN) and IMN at load side (LIMN))
are integrated into one IWPT system, which achieved a good
performance. However, we find that the design object of SIMN
and LIMN are different: the SIMN is designed to maximize the
output power, but the LIMN is designed to maximize the effi-
ciency. This configuration could achieve a considerable output
power level, but the total efficiency is not optimal. Just as we
mentioned above, for implantable biomedical applications, the
efficiency is the most critical optimization target, so it is better
to optimize the SIMN under the efficiency consideration rather
than maximum power transfer.
For many implantable biomedical applications, the power
needed by load is several mW [3], [9], [10], [13], which is
usually much less than the maximum output power of the PA. A
discussion about the output power and the efficiency has been
presented by Kiani et al. in [7], in which, by making a trade off
between the efficiency and the power delivered to load, a more
efficient IWPT system is achieved. This trade off is realized by
reconfiguring the coupling coils. However, in some implantable
biomedical applications, the space is so strict that the efficiency
improvement by reconfiguring coils may be limited. Fortunately,
this trade off could also be done by the SIMN, which is the focus
of this paper.
B. Our Contribution
In this paper, a design procedure for IMNs (both of LIMN
and SIMN) in IWPT system is presented. The optimal load
resistance idea from [9], [10], [14] is used to design LIMN,
and we propose a SIMN optimization method by considering
the trade of between the efficiency and the power delivered to
load. In our method, the SIMN is designed to reduced the IWPT
output power until it is equal to the load needed power level. By
Fig. 2. Three IWPT system scenarios. (a) The C-IWPT scenario. (b) The
IMN-C-IWPT scenario. (c) The IMN-IWPT scenario.
using this trade off, not only the load power level is satisfied,
but also the efficiency is further enhanced. As far as we know,
there is no such an efficiency optimization method considering
both SIMN and LIMN proposed in literature.
All the reviews above are about the efficiency optimization.
The IWPT scenario, which is used to achieve the optimal effi-
ciency, is not mentioned in detail. Actually, we find that several
IWPT scenarios are used in literatures. The resonant capacitor
mentioned above can be seen as the simplest IMN, which con-
figures the resonant IWPT scenario (C-IWPT) (see Fig. 2(a)).
By replacing the resonant capacitor with an complex IMN, the
IWPT with IMN scenario (IMN-IWPT) is accomplished (see
Fig. 2(c)). Besides, in some literatures, both resonant capacitor
and IMN are used, which can be seen as an IWPT with resonant
capacitor and IMN scenario (IMN-C-IWPT) (see Fig. 2(b)).
Before the parameter optimization for efficiency, the IWPT sce-
nario should be determined firstly. So, the comparison among
these scenarios is presented from the matching process point of
view in this paper.
In this paper, not only the maximum efficiency design method
for IMN is proposed, the detailed design considerations, such
as the IWPT scenario comparison, the IMN structure selection,
the IMN component selection, and the design procedure are
also presented, which are helpful for both further researches
and designers. The rest of the paper is organized as follows.
Section II presents the comparison of three IMN scenarios.
The optimal input resistances of IMNs are determined to max-
imize the efficiency for IWPT system in Section III. The IMN
structure analysis and component formulation are presented in
Section IV. After that, an IMN design procedure is proposed
based on above discussions in Section V. In Section VI, a design
example is presented to verify our method. Finally, conclusions
are drawn in Section VII.
II. IMN SCENARIO SELECTION
In Section I, three commonly used matching scenarios are
briefly reviewed. In order to understand the matching processes
of these scenarios clearly, we draw matching process examples
of these scenarios in Fig. 3. Before comparing these processes,
some basic parameters are defined: the peak voltage of the sinu-
soid source Vs , the source resistance r0 , the equivalent load of
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MIAO et al.: EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT FOR AN INDUCTIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM BY OPTIMIZING 3

the highest efficiency of the coupling link. And for SIMN, rather
than using the maximum power transfer method, an optimal
trade-off mechanism between efficiency and output power is
used, which is defined as follows: (a) the output power is de-
signed to deliver the application required amount of power (Pr eq )
to the load firstly (not the maximum amount); (2) the efficiency
is designed as large as possible. In this mechanism, there is
no redundant power transferred to load so that the efficiency is
maximized. The IMN loss is not considered here, which will be
discussed in next section.
The coupling efficient cp , which represents the efficiency of
the coupling coils and the load, can be calculated by
2 Mr2xt x
Rr x +Rld Rld
cp = (3)
2 Mr2xt x
Rt x + Rr x +R Rld + Rr x
ld

where Mr xt x is the mutual inductance between two coupled

Fig. 3. The matching process examples for three IWPT scenarios. (a), (c), coils. The source efficiency s is
and (e) are the matching processes at the transmitting side for C-IWPT, IMN-
Rsd
C-IWPT, and IMN-IWPT scenarios. (b), (d), and (f) are the matching processes s = (4)
at the receiving side for C-IWPT, IMN-C-IWPT, and IMN-IWPT scenarios. r0 + Rsd
Assuming that Rt x + Rrr < Rsd and Rld < R L .
the total efficiency is
= s cp (5)
the source Rsd , the reflecting resistance from the receiving side
to the transmitting side Rrr , the equivalent load resistance at the output power can be calculated by
the input port of LIMN Rld , the output impedance of the LIMN Vs2 Rsd
Z out , and the load resistance R L . Pout = cp (6)
2(r0 + Rsd )2
In C-IWPT scenario (Fig. 3(a)), the resonant capacitor trans-
forms the input impedance of the transmitting coil Rt x + Rrr + The expressions (3)(6) indicate that efficiency and output
jL t x into a real value Rt x + Rrr , which may not be the optimal have the same term cp , and this term should be designed as
one the designer desired. In IMN-C-IWPT scenario (Fig. 3(c)), large as possible. The other parameters in and Pout are con-
the impedance Rt x + Rrr + jL t x is firstly transformed into flicting: when Rsd > r0 , further increasing Rsd leads to higher
a real one Rt x + Rrr by the resonant capacitor, and then this efficiency but lower output power. Although output power can be
real value is transformed into the optimal one by the SIMN. enhanced by enlarging Vs or decreasing r0 , these two parameters
This matching scenario can achieve the optimal Rsd opt , but are usually fixed in a certain application and the modification
the matching process, for the imaginary part and the real part of them usually complicates the system [7]. Thus, the most ef-
of the Rt x + Rr + jL t x , is split into two independent pro- fective way to implement the load required power is to select
cesses which complicates the system. In IMN-IWPT scenario a suitable Rsd . In order to keep efficiency high, the Rsd is cho-
(Fig. 3(e)), the impedance Rt x + Rrr + jL t x is transformed sen to equal the output power to the load needed power level
into the optimal value Rsd opt directly by the SIMN. The match- Pr eq . Under this condition, the load required power is achieved,
ing processes of the LIMN (Fig. 3(b), (d), and (f)) are simi- the efficiency is maximized, and the driver does not need to be
lar to that of the SIMN. According to the comparisons among modified.
matching processes of three scenarios, both of IMN-IWPT and Let Pout equal to Pr eq , we get the following equation
IMN-C-IWPT could achieve matching for imaginary part and
cp Vs2 Vs  2 2
real part of load, but the circuit of IMN-IWPT is simpler. So, Rsd opt = r0 + Vs cp 8cp r0 Pr eq (7)
IMN-IWPT scenario is used in our following optimization. 4Pr eq 4Pr eq
The matching processes in IMN-IWPT scenario can be ex- If the constraint of the load required power is ignored, the
pressed as follows: maximum output power is achieved when Rsd = r0 according
SI M N to the maximum power transfer theorem
Rt x + Rrr + jL t x Rsd opt (1)
Vs2 cp
LIMN
R L Rld jL r x (2) Pout max = (8)
opt 8r0
This equation shows the maximum power output ability of the
III. EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION
system.
In this section, the resistance conversion function is deter- In order to attain the maximum cp , we let the partial deriva-
mined for SIMN and LIMN. The LIMN is designed to achieve tive of (3) (with respect to Rld ) equal to zero. By calculation,
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4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017
TABLE I
CIRCUIT SCENARIOS AND THE INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCES OF  IMNS
the optimal Rld achieving the maximum cp is
 Firstly, the selection of SIMN is discussed. When the swith-
2 Mr2xt x
Rld opt = Rr x 1 +
Rt x Rr x
The equation shows that the optimal Rld opt has no relation to
the load resistance, which means that the influence of load on
the system optimization can be decoupled by using LIMN.
The maximum cp is calculated by (3) and (9).
2 Mr2xt x
Rt x Rr x
cp opt =   2
2 Mr2xt x
1+ 1+ Rt x Rr x
This expression is consistent with [9], [10], [14]. Letting
2 Mr2xt x
Ur xt x =
Rt x Rr x
cp opt is proportional to Ur xt x . Many published discussions
have already focused on modelling and maximizing this equa-
tion [4], [8], [16], which is thus not necessary to be discussed in
detail in this paper.
The optimal efficiency and output power can be achieved
from (5), (6), (7) and (10).
IV. FORMULAS OF IMN AND ITS DEVICES
In the previous section, the expressions of the circuit
parameters for optimal output power and efficiency are given,
in which Rsd opt and Rld opt are two most important parameters.
These two parameters are achieved by the matching processes
(1) and (2), which are discussed in this section.
These two matching processes can be implemented by many
IMN structures [18]. The simplest one is  type IMN, which
has two forms 1 and 2 (Table I). Other IMNs with more
complicated structures and higher orders can be seen as the
cascade of  type IMN. The simple structure of  type IMN
leads to easy manufacture with negligible power loss, which is
preferred in IWPT applications. Thus, our following analyses
focus on this kind of IMN.
Fig. 4. Two types of the bandpass filters. (a) The series-resonant type bandpass
filter. (b) the parallel resonant type bandpass filter.
A. Structure Selection for IMN
Source and load circuits should be taken into account during
the selection between 1 and 2 type IMN. In previous discus-
sions, the source is simplified by the sinusoid source in series
with a resistor, and the load is simplified by a resistor. However,
in real applications, the source is usually a switch-mode PA, and
the load is a full bridge rectifier cascaded with a filter capacitor
and a load. The properties of these circuits should be taken into
consideration during the IMN structure selection.
mode PA is used, a band-pass filter circuit should be inserted
(9)
between the PA and load to attenuate the harmonics. This filter
is very important for the PA to configure ZVS or ZCS which
enhances the PA efficiency. In C-IWPT scenario, the resonant
capacitor and the inductor coil act as the band-pass filter. So, in
IMN-IWPT, the IMN should replace the filter function of the
resonant capacitor in C-IWPT scenario.
From the input point of view, both  type IMNs can be seen
as bandpass filters, but 1 type and 2 type IMN show different
(10) impedance characteristics (Table I). The 1 type IMN shows
high input impedance out of the band, which equals to circuit
function of the series-resonant bandpass filter (Fig. 4(a)). On the
contrary, the 2 type IMN shows low input impedance out of the
band, which equals to circuit function of the parallel resonant
bandpass filter (Fig. 4(b)). Different impedance characteristics
(11) suit for different PAs [19]. Voltage mode PA, like voltage mode
class D and class E, uses series-resonant 1 type IMN to block
harmonics. Current mode PA, like current mode class D, uses
parallel resonant 2 type IMN to bypass harmonics.
Secondly, the selection of LIMN is discussed, which should
consider the load property. In most applications, the full-wave
rectifier converts the input sinusoid waveform at the receiving
side into its absolute value, which is then regulated into a DC
voltage by a regulator. After that, the DC voltage is used to
power up the real load. This AC-DC conversion process in-
troduces voltage harmonic waveforms into the AC side of the
circuit, which accelerates the circuit ageing, produces harmonic
radiation, and wastes energy [17]. To get rid of these harmon-
ics, the AC circuit should have high impedance at harmonic
frequencies.
From the output point of view, the output impedance prop-
erties of 1 and 2 type IMNs are just opposite to their input
impedance properties (Table I). And the output impedance of
the 2 type LIMN shows high value out of the band, which
just satisfies the harmonic attenuation requirement of the full-
wave rectifier. Thus 2 type LIMN is a better choice. When
other more complicated rectifier is used, the harmonic attenua-
tion requirement for LIMN may be different, which should be
analyzed based on the rectifier structure.
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MIAO et al.: EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT FOR AN INDUCTIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM BY OPTIMIZING 5

And for LIMN

C2 m3 =

 
1 QL 1 1
      2
1 + Q 2L Rld 1 + Q 2L Rld R L 1 + Q 2L Rld
(18)
L r x
where Q L = Rld
.
Fig. 5. (a) 1 type SIMN. (b) 2 type SIMN. (c) 1 type LIMN. (d) 2 type 1
LIMN. C2 m4 =    (19)
RL 1 + Q 2L Rld R L

B. Components Selection for IMN Not all matching processes can be achieved by capacitor-only
 type IMNs. By letting the values of (12)(19) positive, we get
When the IMN structures are confirmed, the capacitor or the applicable scopes of the capacitor-only  type IMNs, which
inductor components should be chosen and their component are shown in (20) and (21)
values should be calculated. Since the quality factor of capacitor
is usually much higher than that of inductor, especially when (Rt x + Rrr )2 + (L t x )2
Rt x + Rrr < Rsd opt < (20)
the frequency is high, the capacitor is a better choice to build up Rt x + Rrr
low-loss IMNs. The loss of the capacitor-only IMN is negligible, 2
Rld + (L r x )2
which means S I M N L I M N 0. Fig. 5 shows the capacitor-only Rld opt < RL <
opt
(21)
structures of SIMN and LIMN. Rld opt
1) 1 Type IMN: When the 1 type IMN is used, the com- If Rsd opt and R L are not in region (20) and (21), the  IMNs
ponent values for SIMN and LIMN can be derived by following can not be implemented by using capacitors only. The sign of
equations. For SIMN some values in (12)(19) will be negative, which means that
these components should be replaced by inductors.
1 In this situation, the efficiency of the system may be reduced
C1 m1 =    (12) significantly because of the usage of inductors, especially when
Rsd 1 + Q 2tr Rtr Rsd the working frequency is high. The efficiency expression (5)
should be modified by
C1 m2 =

  modi f ied = s S I M N cp L I M N (22)
1 Q tr 1 1
      2 where S I M N and L I M N represent the efficiency of SIMN and
1 + Q 2tr Rtr 1 + Q 2tr Rtr Rsd 1 + Q 2tr Rtr
LIMN. According to this expression, we can not get the opti-
(13) mal efficiency by the equation proposed in Section III because
the influence of S I M N L I M N is not considered. We find that
L t x 2 Mr2xt x lower s cp can loose the constraints of the IMNs, and make
where Q tr = Rt x +Rrr
, Rrr = Rr x +Rld
and Rtr = Rt x + Rrr . And
Rsd opt and R L return into regions (20), (21), which means that
for LIMN
capacitor-only  type IMNs can be used again. Thus, when the
 region constraints (20), (21) are not satisfied, a trade-off between
1 1 s cp and S I M N I M N is helpful to attain the highest efficiency.
C1 m3 = (14)

L r x Rld (R L Rld )
 V. DESIGN PROCEDURE
1 R L Rld
C1 m4 = (15) Sections IIIV discussed the optimizations of IMNs to
RL Rld
achieve the highest efficiency for IMN-IWPT scenario under
the output power constraint. A design procedure (Fig. 6) is pro-
2) 2 Type IMN: When the 2 type IMN is used, the com- posed in this section to guide the IMN-IWPT design based on
ponent values for SIMN and LIMN can be derived by following all the analyses above. The procedure details are listed below:
equations. For SIMN Step 1: Application specified constraints are decided, which
includes: the working frequency, the source voltage, the power
 amplifier type, the coil size constraints, the load circuit type, the
1 Rsd Rtr power level needed by load, etc.
C2 m1 = (16)
Rsd Rtr Step 2: This step decides appropriate coils to achieve the
highest coupling efficiency cp and use this cp to calculate the
1
C2 m2 =  (17) optimal system link efficiency, the optimal output power and the
L t x Rtr (Rsd Rtr ) maximum output power.
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6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017

Fig. 7. The system scenario of the implantable glaucoma therapeutic apparatus

prototype.

TABLE II
Fig. 6. The proposed design procedure for IMN-IWPT system.
APPLICATION CONSTRAINTS

Parameter Symbol Value

Step 3: Check whether the output power satisfies the power
level requirement of the load. If the check is not passed, it means Supply voltage (V) Vs 5
Working frequency (MHz) f 2
that the application constraints are not reasonable and should be Power supply capacity required by the load (mW) Pr eq 20
modified. For example, the source voltage may be too low to Load resistance () RL 500
drive the IWPT system, or the PA may not be suitable for this Transmitting coil Coil thickness (mm) Wt1 4
Coil width (mm) Wa1 5
application. Inner diameter (mm) D P1 40
Step 4: Calculate the optimal Rsd opt and Rld opt according to Receiving coil Coil thickness (mm) Wt2 0.1
(7) and (9). Coil width (mm) Wa2 2
Inner diameter (mm) D P2 20
Step 5: Check whether the Rsd opt and R L are in region (20) Relative distance (mm) x 10
and (21). If the answer is yes, the IMNs can be designed by
capacitor-only  IMNs. Thereafter, (12)(19) should be used to
calculate the component values. If the answer is no, the IMNs
can not be implemented by capacitor-only  IMNs. A design
shares the coupling coils with the IMN-IWPT power supply
trade-off between s cp and s I M N l I M N should be made to
subsystem [24]. The IWPT frequency should be much higher
attain the highest efficiency.
than the data rate of the communication whose requirement
Step 6: When all above steps are implemented, the design
is 10 kbps. Thirdly, the skin attenuation would be high if the
of an IMN-IWPT system with optimal efficiency and output
frequency is high, which would decrease the efficiency signifi-
power is finished. The system performance should be validated
cantly. By considering all these constraints, we choose 2 MHz
by simulations or measurements.
as the working frequency for our IMN-IWPT system.
The voltage-mode Class-D PA is used as the signal source
VI. DESIGN EXAMPLE and the load is a full bridge rectifier in the application. The
In order to verify our optimization method by simulation and main purpose of this paper is to optimize the linear IMN-IWPT
experiment, an IWPT system for an implantable glaucoma ther- part, so in order to get rid of the harmonic influences in the
apeutic apparatus prototype is designed as an example, which verifications, the PA is simplified by a sinusoidal signal source
is shown in Fig. 7. In this application, the therapeutic device series with a resistor, and the load is simplified by an ideal
is implanted onto the eyeball surface to control the intraocular resistor.
pressure and our IMN-IWPT system is used to power up this The Agilent Impedance Analyzer E 4294 is used to measure
implanted device. The receiving coil is implanted onto the eye- the inductance, the series resistance, and the mutual inductance
ball and the transmitting coil is embedded into the frame of the of the coils [4]. Besides, the Agilent Vertor Network Analyzer
glasses. Thus, the space for IWPT system design is so strict. (VNA) E 5071 is used to measure the efficiency and output
The detailed application constraints are listed in Table II. power of the IWPT systems. The setups of these two equipments
The system works at 2 MHz, which is decided under the fol- are shown in Fig. 8. The probe introduced errors are carefully
lowing considerations. Firstly, since the coil geometry is con- calibrated before measuring.
strained strictly, the inductance can not be large, so according to The optimization method is verified in following aspects:
[3], the frequency should be increased to enhance the efficiency. 1) Comparing the efficiency and output power performances
Secondly, in this system, a duplex communication subsystem between IMN-IWPT system and C-IWPT system.
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MIAO et al.: EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT FOR AN INDUCTIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM BY OPTIMIZING 7

Fig. 8. (a) The measuremental setup for inductance, series resistance and
mutual inductance using Agilent Impedance Analyzer E4294; (b) the experi-
mental setup for efficiency and output power using the Agilent Vertor Network
Analyzer E5071.

Fig. 10. Ur xt x for the coupling coil pairs. Nt x , turn number of the transmit-
ting coil. Nr x , turn number of the receiving coil.

TABLE III
THE PARAMETERS FOR IMN-IWPT SYSTEM OPTIMIZED BY OUR PROCEDURE

Coil Tx Coil Rx

Coil parameters
Wire type AWG 30 Litz wire 0.06 mm copper wire
Inner diameter (mm) 40 20
Number of turns 30 35
Inductance (H ) 68.2 66.5
Quality factor 101 38.9
Coupling coefficient kr xt x = 0.1
IMN parameters
Fig. 9. Experiment system structures. (a) C-IWPT, (b) IMN-C-IWPT, and (c) Rsd opt () 434
IMN-IWPT. (c) is the system optimized by our design procedure. Rld opt () 136
SIMN type 1
LIMN type 2

2) Comparing the efficiency and output power performances

between IMN-IWPT system and IMN-C-IWPT system. TABLE IV
COMPONENT VALUES FOR EXPERIMENT SYSTEMS
3) Comparing the efficiency and output power performances
between our design method and the maximum power
Cm1 Cm2 Ct x L m1 Ltx
transfer method for IMN-IWPT system.
4) Tissue effect on the IMN-IWPT system. C-IWPT 91 pF 68.2 uH
The compared IWPT structures are shown in Fig. 9. Before IMN-C-IWPT 483 pF 91 pF 12 pF 68.2 uH
IMN-IWPT 33 pF 60 pF 68.2 uH
comparisons, the coupling coils are determined according to Cm3 Cm4 Cr x L m2 Lr x
the design procedure first. A set of transmitting and receiving C-IWPT 95 pF 66.5 uH
coils are manufactured under the application constraints. These IMN-C-IWPT 260 pF 95 pF 18 pF 66.5 uH
IMN-IWPT 46 pF 52 pF 66.5 uH
coils are arranged into coupling coil pairs. Parameters of these
coupling coil pairs, such as inductance, series resistance and
coupling factor, are measured. TABLE V
The Ur xt x of these coupling coil pairs is calculated, which is OPTIMIZATION RESULTS FOR IMN-IWPT AND C-IWPT SYSTEMS
shown in Fig. 10. The coil pair with highest Ur xt x is chosen to
configure IWPT systems. This coil pair could attain the highest Efficiency Output power (mW)
cp . The parameters of the chosen coils are listed in Table III.
C-IWPT 0.41 160
IMN-IWPT 0.71 20
A. Comparison Between IMN-IWPT System and
C-IWPT System
For C-IWPT systems, the series-resonant capacitors are added three subsections. The matching component values for C-IWPT
as IMNs. For IMN-IWPT system, 1 type IMN is chosen as the and IMN-IWPT are listed in Table IV
SIMN because the source is a voltage mode power amplifier, Table V shows the efficiency and output power for the
and 2 type IMN is chosen as the LIMN because the load is a C-IWPT and IMN-IWPT systems. We can see that the effi-
full bridge rectifier. The parameters of the chosen IMN-IWPT ciency of the IMN-IWPT system increases by a factor of 1.73
system are listed in Table III, which will also be used in next compared with the C-IWPT system. Although the output power
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
8 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017
Fig. 11. Efficiency and output power for IMN-C-IWPT and IMN-IWPT
systems.
of C-IWPT system is higher than that of IMN-IWPT, the load
requirement is 20 mW and the excessive energy of C-IWPT
system is totally lost instead of used by the load.
It is obvious that IMNs in IMN-IWPT expose an useful di-
mension for design. With these IMNs, the load can be trans-
formed into a suitable one for the PA and the required energy
volume can be delivered to the load with high efficiency. It is
difficult to be implemented in C-IWPT systems.
B. Comparison Between IMN-IWPT System and
IMN-C-IWPT System
In the previous subsection, we draw a conclusion that the
IMNs are important for IWPT systems. In this subsection, the
performance of two IMN included IWPT systems, namely IMN-
IWPT system and IMN-C-IWPT system, are compared. The
coupling coil pair used in IMN-IWPT system is also chosen
to configure IMN-C-IWPT system. The IMNs of both systems
are designed according to the trade-off mechanism proposed
in Section III. During the design of IMNs for IMN-C-IWPT
system, the IMNs can not be built only with capacitors and
the inductors have to be used because the resonant capacitors
exist. Additionally, only 2 type IMN can be chosen for SIMN,
since 1 type IMN can not transfer a small resistance into a
larger one [10]. With the same reason, only 1 type IMN can
be chosen for LIMN. The designed IMNs are shown in Fig. 9
and the parameters are listed in Table IV. The simulated and
tested results of efficiency and output power for two systems are
illustrated in Fig. 11.
In the efficiency plot of Fig. 11, both of the IWPT systems
achieve the highest PTE at 2 MHz, which is about 0.71. The
experiment result of efficiency in IMN-C-IWPT system is
TABLE VI
IMPEDANCE |Z sd| AT HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Frequency (MHz) 2 6 10 14 18
|Z sd|() IMN-IWPT 445 1332 762 538 416
IMN-C-IWPT 444 56 34 26 21
Fig. 12. The normalized output power spectrum of the PWM source for (a)
IMN-C-IWPT system and (b) IMN-IWPT system. Both (a) and (b) are normal-
ized by the fundamental harmonic.Phd , output power at high order harmonic
frequencies; P f und , output power at fundamental frequency.
slightly lower than the calculated one at 2 MHz, which is caused
by the loss of the low-Q inductors in IMNs.
The output power plot of Fig. 11 shows that both systems
deliver about 20 mW power to the load at 2 MHz. The experi-
ment result of PDL in IMN-C-IWPT system is slightly higher
than 20 mW. This is also because of the slightly resonant point
mismatch induced by inductors in IMNs. The output power of
the IMN-C-IWPT system shows two peaks when the frequency
is slightly higher and lower than 2 MHz, this is because the 2
type SIMN is used and the input impedance decreases when the
frequency deviates from 2 MHz.
For ideal class D PA, the output is a square wave. The input
impedances of SIMN at fundamental and harmonic frequencies
are listed in Table VI for IMN-C-IWPT and IMN-IWPT. Two
systems show the same impedance at 2 MHz. But at higher
order harmonic frequencies, the impedances for IMN-C-IWPT
are much lower than that for IMN-IWPT. These low impedances
lead to significant harmonic losses. The harmonic loss is sim-
ulated by ADS. An ideal square wave is used to stimulate two
systems and the output power spectrum for them are shown in
Fig. 12. We can see that the harmonic loss for IMN-C-IWPT is
significantly higher than that for IMN-IWPT. For IMN-IWPT,
the harmonics are attenuated enough, which means it can per-
form as a band-pass filter to help the PA configure ZCS or ZVS.
These comparisons figure out that the efficiency and out-
put power of these two systems have not much difference, but
the harmonic losses are significantly different, which means that
IMN-IWPT is more suitable for our application. When the appli-
cation and PA are changed, the IMN-C-IWPT system may also
achieve a high harmonic attenuation. So, the choice between
IMN-IWPT and IMN-C-IWPT does not depend the IWPT link
efficiency and the output power, but depends on the PA type.
Of course, the circuit of IMN-IWPT is simpler than that of
IMN-C-IWPT, which is also a considerable aspect.
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

MIAO et al.: EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT FOR AN INDUCTIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM BY OPTIMIZING 9

Fig. 13. The performance of the IMN-IWPT system. (a) Efficiency versus
Rsd and Rld . (b) Output power versus Rsd and Rld .

TABLE VII
PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT OPTIMIZATION METHODS FOR
Fig. 14. Performances of efficiency and output power using our method and
IMN-IWPT SCENARIO
maximum power transfer method when the power level needed by load varies.

Efficiency Output power (mW)

Maximum power transfer 0.36 227.5

Our method 0.71 20

C. Comparison Between Our Design Method and the

Maximum Power Transfer Method for IMN-IWPT System
In this subsection, the performance of two IMN-IWPT de-
sign methods, our optimization method and the commonly used Fig. 15. Measurement setup for tissue effect. The receiving coil is sandwiched
within two beef slices.
maximum power transfer method, are compared. The main dif-
ference between two methods is that the calculations for optimal
Rsd and Rld are different. To indicate the efficiency and output
power performances of two methods, we calculate the efficiency
and output power of the IMN-IWPT system when Rsd and Rld
varies and plot the results in Fig. 13. Point P represents the opti-
mal values calculated by our design method, and point Q repre-
sents the optimal values calculated by maximum power transfer
method. From the efficiency plot (Fig. 13(a)), point Q attains an
efficiency of 0.36, and point P attains an efficiency of 0.71. The
efficiency at point P increases by a factor of 1.97 compared with
that at point Q. From the output power plot (Fig. 13(b)), point
Fig. 16. Comparison of the IMN-IWPT system with/without tissue. (a) The
Q attains 228 mW output power, and point P attains 20 mW measured quality factor of the receiving coil. (b) The measured efficiency.
output power. Although output power at point P is much lower
than that at point Q, it meets the application requirement, and the
method is related to the difference between the Pr eq and the
redundant output power at point Q is wasted by the load. Values
maximum output power of source. The larger the difference is,
of efficiency and output power for two optimization methods
the higher efficiency enhancement our method can get.
are listed in Table VII.
These discussions indicate that the maximum power trans-
To emphasize the difference between our method and maxi-
fer method is not the optimal optimization method for this low
mum power transfer method, the performances of efficiency and
power application, in which the output power is not the larger
output power under different Pr eq are calculated (see Fig. 14).
the better. Our design method could achieve the highest effi-
The efficiency and output power for maximum power transfer
ciency and satisfy the application power requirement as well,
method contain the same values. This is because the design
which is a better choice. When the transmitting part of the IMN-
does not consider the power level requirement by load. Using
IWPT system is powered by the battery, the working-time can
our method, the situation is different. When Pr eq is small, the
be greatly extended by our optimization method.
efficiency is high and output power is low. Then when the Pr eq
increases, the efficiency decreases and output power increases.
Finally, curves for two methods converge to the same points D. Tissue Effect on the IMN-IWPT System
when the system achieves its maximum output power. We can The tissue effect is addressed here. When the receiving coil
see that, before reaching the maximum output point, our method is implanted onto the eyeball, two issues should be taken into
shows a better efficiency performance. The performance of our consideration. The first one is potential safety hazard caused
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

10 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 00, NO. 00, 2017

TABLE VIII
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF TWO COIL IWPT SYSTEMS IN IMPLANTABLE BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

[3] [3] [8] [8] [7] [9] [22] [22] [20] [21] This work

Frequency (MHz) 1 1 1 5 13.56 13.56 79.5 79.5 13.56 13.56 2

Diameter (mm) 40/22 40/22 69/20 69/20 23.2/10 60 20/25 10 30/20 30/20 80/12 30/9.5 40/20
Distance (mm) 7 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 30 30 10
Load () 500 500 100 120 470 500
Output power (mW) 250 40 180.4 10 93.3 29.8 1.7 90 20
Consider r0 PA PA No No Yes No Yes Yes PA Rectifier Yes
Efficiency (%) 65.8 33.3 41.2 85 71.3 75 65.4 47.6 21.7 62.4 71

* This row indicates whether the power loss of r0 is considered in efficiency calculation. PA means that the reference considers the whole PA loss involving the resistance
loss and switching loss. Rectifier means that the rectifier loss is considered, because reference [21] is focus on the rectifier optimization.
** The adaptive frequency control is used in [22].

by the electromagnetic field. Vinit et al. in [23] analyse the
specific absorption rate (SAR) around the human eye when an
inductive link is working. The research result shows that for a
peak normalized current of 0.62 A in the transmitting coil at
10 MHz, the highest peak 1-g SAR is found to be 0.45 W/Kg,
which is within the limit imposed by IEEE safety standard. In
our application, the frequency is lower and the working current
is also smaller, so the SAR is in a safe range.
The second considerable issue is the power loss and resonance
shift caused by the tissue. To address this, we sandwich the re-
ceiving coil with two beef slices, which is shown in Fig. 15. After
measurement, we find that the coil parameters are varied from
L r x = 66.5 H, Q r x = 38.9 into L r x = 70.4 H, Q r x = 31.6
(see Fig. 16(a)). The quality factor decreases about 18%.
This variation would cause the resonant shift and decrease
the efficiency. Thus, the matching capacitors are modified ac-
cordingly. The modified parameters are: Cm1 = 33 pF, Cm2 =
62 pF, Cm3 = 40 pF, Cm4 = 53 pF. We can see that the most in-
fluenced capacitor is the Cm3 which is in parallel with the receiv-
ing coil. The efficiency of this system is shown in Fig. 16(b).
At 2 MHz, the efficiency is about 69%, which is only about
2% lower than the efficiency of the system without beef slices.
The efficiency decrease is negligible. This is because, in our
application, the equivalent load resistance Rld opt across LIMN
is 136 , which is much larger than the coil parasitic resistance.
If the load is small or the frequency is high in other applications,
the tissue effect may lead to a significant efficiency decrease.
On the other hand, the peak efficiency is shifted from 2 MHz
into about 1.93 MHz, this is caused by the tissue influence on
the mutual inductance.
Table VIII compares our IMN-IWPT system with the IWPT
systems published in recent biomedical literatures. The effi-
ciency of our system is comparable with others. IWPT sytems
in [9] and [8] obtain higher efficiencies than ours, but the power
loss of Rs is not considered, the results are thus a bit over es-
timated. From [8] we can also see that when the frequency is
low, the achievable efficiency of IWPT is low compared with
the one with high frequency. Systems in [3] and [22] show that
lower output power leads to lower efficiency and vice versa.
This is because that the power loss in the coil parasitic resis-
tance remains the same, whereas the load power consumption
is decreased. Our application constrains the frequency at a low
value (2 MHz) and requires a low output power (20 mW), which
are all increase the difficulty of achieving high power transfer
efficiency. Relatively low efficiencies are shown in [20] and
[21], partly because that the switching loss of PA or the rectifier
loss is calculated in. IWPT system in [7] trades off the efficiency
and the power delivered to load, and obtains a similar efficiency
with our system. This trade-off idea is just similar to ours, yet it
is accomplished by reconfiguring the coils in [7]. The optimal
load resistance is also not considered in [7].
We should notice that the efficiency is strictly constrained
by several parameters, such as frequency, coupling coefficient,
size limitation and output power. Other literatures are trying to
improve efficiency as much as possible in their specific appli-
cation and specific method. Thus, the goal of this paper is not
to achieve the highest absolute efficiency, but to demonstrate
an IMN design method, in which both of the SIMN and LIMN
are optimized to maximize the efficiency. As far as we know,
there is no such an efficiency optimization method for IMNs
proposed in literature. By comparing with the prototypes us-
ing other IWPT scenarios and optimization method under the
same application setup, a better performance of our method is
identified in this section. Our method is especially helpful for
low power implantable biomedical applications. Furthermore,
during our discussion, the IWPT scenario comparison and the
IMN design consideration are also presented, which provide a
valuable guidance for both further researches and designers.
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper, impedance matching network is optimized for
IWPT system. The matching processes for C-IWPT, IMN-C-
IWPT and IMN-IWPT structures are compared. The results
indicate that IMN-IWPT scenario is the most suitable one for
our application. To achieve the maximum efficiency, the IMN
optimization is analyzed in three aspects. Firstly, the efficiency
is maximized by letting the output power equal to the power
level needed by load. Secondly, the harmonic losses of source
and load circuits are minimized during the selection between
1 and 2 IMNs. Thirdly, the matching networks and their pa-
rameters are formulated. An implantable IWPT prototype for
a glaucoma therapy system is studied as an example. In this
application, the performances of different IWPT scenarios and
different optimization methods are measured. Comparing with
the efficiency of C-IWPT system, the efficiency of our optimized
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
MIAO et al.: EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT FOR AN INDUCTIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM BY OPTIMIZING
system increases with a factor of 1.73. Besides, the efficiency
of our optimized IMN-IWPT is 1.97 times higher than that
of the IMN-IWPT system optimized by the traditional maxi-
mum power transfer method. All the experiment and simulation
results indicate that the IMN-IWPT system derived by our pro-
posed optimization method could achieve high efficiency and
long working-time when the system is powered by battery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the cooperative hospital
(Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China) for providing
professional medical support. And thanks go to Beijing Institute
of Technology teacher Meiying Dong for her active support and
assistance in experiments and writing. Thanks also go to Bei-
jing open lab of Keysight Technologies, for the support of test
instruments.
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Zhidong Miao received the B.S. degree in 2013
from Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China,
where he is currently working toward the Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering. His research inter-
ests include wireless power transfer system design,
full-digital PA, and high-performance application-
specific instruction set processors.
Dake Liu (M95SM08) received the Technol-
ogy Doctor degree from Linkoping University,
Linkoping, Sweden, in 1995. He is a Professor and
Director of the Institute of Application Specific In-
struction Set Processor, Beijing Institute of Tech-
nology, Beijing, China, and also a professor with
the Computer Engineering Division, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Linkoping University. He au-
thored or coauthored more than 200 papers on jour-
nals and international conferences and holds five U.S.
patents. He has experiences in design of commu-
nication systems and radio frequency CMOS integrated circuits. He is the
co-Founder and CTO of FreehandDSP AB, Stockholm, Sweden, and the co-
Founder of Coresonic AB, Linkoping. Coresonic was acquired by MediaTek.
He is currently assigned by the China Recruitment Program of Global Ex-
perts (1000 plan). His research interests include high-performance low-power
application-specific instruction set processors and integration of on-chip multi-
processors for communications.
Chen Gong (S15) received the B.S. degree in
electrical engineering from Dalian University of
Technology, Dalian, China, in 2012. He is currently
working toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical engi-
neering with Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing,
China. His research interests include inductive near-
field communication, high-performance application-
specific instruction set processors, and low-power
mixed-signal circuit design for advanced medical
devices.