8 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

For an impedance load i.e., lumped load

V2
P= .R
R + (2fL) 2
2

V2
and Q= . (2fL) (1.20)
R 2 + (2fL) 2
From this it is clear that both P and Q increase as the square of voltage magnitude. Also
with increasing frequency the active power P decreases whereas Q increases.
The above equations are of the form
P = P [f, |V|]
(1.21)
Q = Q [f, |V|]
Composite loads which form a major part of the system load are also function of voltage
and frequency and can, in general, be written as in equation (1.21). For this type of load,
however, no direct relationship is available as for impedance loads. For a particular composite
load an empirical relation between the load, and voltage and frequency can be obtained.
Normally we are concerned with incremental changes in P and Q as a function of incremental
changes in | V | and f. From equation (1.21).
P P
P ~
.| V |+ . f
|V | f
Q Q
and Q ~
.|V |+ . f (1.22)
|V | f
The four partial derivatives can be obtained empirically. However, it is to be remembered
that whereas an impedance load P decreases with increasing frequency, a composite load will
increase. This is because a composite load mostly consists of induction motors which always
will experience increased load, as frequency or speed increases.
The need for ensuring a high degree of service reliability in the operation of modern
electric systems can hardly be over-emphasized. The supply should not only be reliable but
should be of good quality i.e., the voltage and frequency should vary within certain limits,
otherwise operation of the system at subnormal frequency and lower voltage will result in
serious problems, especially in case of fractional horse-power motors. In case of refrigerators
reduced frequency results into reduced efficiency and high consumption as the motor draws
larger current at reduced power factor. The system operation at subnormal frequency and
voltage leads to the loss of revenue to the suppliers due to accompanying reduction in load
demand. The most serious effect of subnormal frequency and voltage is on the operation of the
thermal power station auxiliaries. The output of the auxiliaries goes down as a result of which
the generation is also decreased. This may result in complete shut-down of the plant if corrective
measures like load shedding is not resorted to. Load shedding is done with the help of under-
frequency relays which automatically disconnect blocks of loads or sectionalise the transmission
system depending upon the system requirements.