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Introduction 2 | Nanotech Testing Challenges 2 | Electrical Measurement Considerations 5 | Electrical Noise 6 | Source-Measure Instruments 7
Pulsing Technologies 8 | Avoiding Self-Heating Problems 9 | Application Example: Graphene 10 | Summary 12 | Glossary 13 | Selector Guide 16 | For More Information 17
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Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges (continued) Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
For macroscopic particles, electrons take on Because the density of states can be used to predict Source-Measure Instruments........................7
discrete quanta of energy that lie within energy the electrical behavior of materials, it is also possible Pulsing Technologies......................................8
bands, with each band consisting of many energy to use electrical impedance measurements to derive Avoiding Self-Heating Problems..................9
levels that electrons can share through their density of states information. The density of states Application Example: Graphene................ 10
thermal energies. For a conducting material, is found by plotting differential conductance vs. Summary.......................................................... 12
electrons can be thermally excited into the applied voltage. Differential conductance is simply Glossary............................................................ 13
conduction band (i.e., electrons are present in (di/dv). When this conductance is plotted against Selector Guide................................................ 16
the valence as well as in the conduction band). voltage, the graph indicates the materials density For More Information.....................................17
For an insulator (bandgap > thermal energy of of states. Highly conductive materials possess an
the electron), enormous energy is required for abundance of free energy levels in the conduction
an electron to transition from the valence to Figure 1. As material is reduced from band, i.e., greater density of states (more individual
the conduction band separated by the material macroscopic dimensions to nanoscopic size, allowed energy levels per unit energy). Insulating
its continuous energy bands (a) separate into
bandgap. If a suitable amount of energy is absorbed discrete energy levels within the band (b) and materials have an electronic structure with a dearth
(> bandgap), then electrons can jump bands. the bandgap increases. of occupied energy levels in the conduction band.
Because density of states corresponds to the density
As a particles size is reduced to nanoscopic Characterizing the density of states is a fundamental of these energy levels, a plot of conduction vs.
dimensions, the allowable energies within the activity in nanoscopic material research. Density of voltage provides a direct measure of the electronic
continuous bands separate into discrete levels states (3D dimensionality) as a function of energy density of states at each energy level (voltage across
(because there are far fewer atoms in the mix). This can be expressed as: the device).
occurs when the separation between energy levels
approaches the thermal energy of the electrons One approach to this technique is to use a nano-
(Figure 1). With fewer energy levels within the This represents the number of electron states per manipulator that makes low resistance contacts
specific energy band, the density of states of the unit volume per unit energy at energy E, where: to the nanoparticle. Such an arrangement
material changes. allows charge transport and density of states
m = the effective mass of the particle,
measurements. This works well into the conduction
The density of states is a measure of the number h = Plancks constant, and region thanks to the low resistance direct
of energy options available to an electron as it falls E = the energy (electron orbital location) in connections of the nano-probes on the material
into a lower energy level by giving up energy or as electron volts. (particle) being tested.
it ascends to a higher energy level after absorbing
energy. A corollary is that if the density of states is Although the result is independent of volume
known, the size of the particle can be deduced. (can be applied to any size particle), this equation
is of limited value if the particle size/structure is
unknown. However, other ways are available to
determine the density of states experimentally, from
which the particle size can be found.
Ask Us Your Application Or Product Question.
3
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges (continued) Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Photos courtesy of Zyvex Corporation Electrical Noise.................................................6
The nano-manipulator and its probes, along Source-Measure Instruments........................7
with a source-measure unit (SMU), are used to Pulsing Technologies......................................8
apply a current or voltage stimulus directly to the Avoiding Self-Heating Problems..................9
nanoparticle and measure its corresponding voltage Application Example: Graphene................ 10
or current response (Figure 2). The advantage Summary.......................................................... 12
of electrical source-measure testing is rooted in Glossary............................................................ 13
the fact that a specific SMU measurement mode Selector Guide................................................ 16
(source current/measure voltage or vice versa) can For More Information.....................................17
be chosen based on the relative impedance of the
material or device under test (DUT). Furthermore, Want to Explore Further?
the measurement mode can change dynamically Featured Resources
as the impedance changes, such as occurs in CNTs Give Your Microscope a
acting as semiconductor switches. This allows a Hand: Characterization of
much wider dynamic range of voltage and current Nano Structures
stimuli and measurements, thereby optimizing Kleindiek Nanotechnik
parametric test precision and accuracy. SMU voltage Figure 2. Nano-manipulator probing of nanoscale structures: Microscopic view of low impedance probe
and current sensitivity can be as good as 1 microvolt contact to a CNT for direct electrical measurements. Photo of a nano-manipulator head assembly. Electrical Character-
and 100 atto-amps. ization of Carbon
Nanotube Transistors
Electrical measurements on nanoscopic materials Particle self-assembly can be accomplished measurements through the volume as well as over (CNT FETs) with the
place stringent requirements on the instrumentation. from silicon to silicon, where conventional the surface, using appropriately placed macroscopic Model 4200-SCS
In order to measure conductivity, impedance, photolithographic techniques are used to make test pads formed on the material surface. For
or other electrical properties, and relate those electrical connection pads for probing. Particles thatconductive materials, separate pads for source and
measurements to the density of states, a galvanic are long enough to straddle such pads (for example, measure can be deposited to create a Kelvin (4-wire) Additional Resources
connection must be made to the nanoscopic DUT.3 carbon nanowires) can be connected to the pads connection.4 This type of circuit eliminates test lead Nanoscale Device and Material Electrical
This represents one of the major hurdles to be through externally generated electrostatic fields. resistance from the measurement and improves Measurements
overcome in the field of nanotechnology testing. accuracy. In any case, a quantum well (nano-film) Advanced Particle Beam Methods For
Although the properties of quantum wells, wires, Nano-characterization And Analysis
There are only a few tools available and few device can be tested like any other bulk material.
and dots differ, its possible that information about Optimizing Low Current Measurements
constructs that facilitate connections of this type. with the Model 4200-SCS Semiconductor
a particular material in the form of a quantum dot Bioimpedance Bioelectricity Basics, Wiley 2003.
1
can be inferred by examining the same material Applied Physics Letters, Single and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Characterization System
2
fashioned as a quantum wire or well (nano-film). Transistors, volume 17, number 73, October 26, 1998, IBM Research Division. I-V Measurements of Nanoscale Wires
Nano-films are particularly easy to measure because I-V Measurements of Nanoscale Wires and Tubes with the Model 4200-SCS and Zyvex
3 and Tubes with the Model 4200-SCS and
S100 Nanomanipulator, Application Note #2481, Keithley Instruments, 2004. Zyvex S100 Nanomanipulator
only one dimension is small. Such a film might
Tips for Electrical Characterization of
be deposited on a conductive substrate, allowing Four-Probe Resistivity and Hall Voltage Measurements with the Model 4200-SCS,
4
Application Note #2475, Keithley Instruments, 2004. Carbon Nanotubes and Low Power
Nanoscale Devices
4
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Vn = (4kTBR)
Nanowires and NanoFETs
(a) (b) Dr. Virginia Ayers
Head, The Electronic and Biological
Nanostructures Laboratory
where k = Boltzmanns constant Figure 3. (a) Circuit model for the source voltage/measure current technique; (b) Modified Michigan State University
model illustrating the noise gain (op-amp noise gained up) when the DUT impedance is low
T = Absolute temperature of the source compared to the measurement impedance.
in degrees Kelvin Making Ultra-Low Current
B = Noise bandwidth in Hertz The Johnson current noise of a resistor at 270K is: the correct measurement topology is chosen. Measurements with the
For example, consider a source voltage/measure Low-Noise Model 4200-SCS
R = Resistance of the source in ohms
current topology. An operational amplifier is used
which can be further simplified to: in many current measurement (ammeter) circuits,
as shown in Figure 3.
indicating that the noise goes down as DUT resis-
tance increases. To minimize noise gain, the ammeter circuit must
This equation shows that as DUT resistance (R) operate at a low gain with respect to its non-inverting Additional Resources
For all particle sizes, in addition to Johnson
decreases, the Johnson voltage noise generated by input terminal. Low Level Measurements Handbook
noise, there could be a noise gain associated with
the DUT also decreases. Conversely, high impedance the measurement topology chosen. Noise gain
devices stimulated with a voltage source are limited is a parasitic amplification of the noise of the
by current measurement noise. measurement system that is not present when
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6
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Additional Resources
Pulse Testing for Nanoscale Devices
Keithley Pulse Solutions
DC offsets due to thermal voltages and meter Performing a 2-point delta measurement cancels An optional third measurement point can help
offsets can give significant errors in the mea- offset error. The measured delta voltage gives cancel moving offsets.
sured voltage. correct voltage response to the current pulse.
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8
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Pp = Pa Tt / Tr
Want to Explore Further?
standard features of most SMU-based test
systems with pulsed current capabilities and may Featured Resources
be required to avoid self-heating of some low
resistance structures. How to Avoid
where: Pp = Pulse power dissipation Self-Heating Effects on
When an elevated test current is required, it must Pa = Apparent power (i.e., VI) Nanoscale Devices
be short enough so that it does not introduce Tt = Test time
enough energy to heat the DUT to destructive T = Test repetition rate
r
temperatures. (Nanoscopic devices tolerate very
little heat, so the total energy dissipated in them Pulse mode is also useful for density of state Jonathan Tucker
must be maintained at low levels.) In addition, measurements using a low impedance connection, Senior Marketer, Nanotechnology
care must be taken that the magnitude of the test such as through a nano-manipulator. Pulsing allows Keithley Instruments, Inc.
current is low enough that the DUTs nanoscopic measurements at I/V locations that were previously
channel does not become saturated. (For instance, uncharacterizable due to particle self-heating.
a current channel thats 1.5 nanometers in diameter
severely limits the number of electrons that can
pass through it per unit of time.) Some nanoscopic
devices can support only a few hundred nano-amps
of current in their conductive state. Thus, a devices
saturation current may define the maximum test
current, even in pulsed applications.
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Novoselov and Geim proved otherwise with the near 0-cm. These measurements require Nanovoltmeter
discovery of graphene in 2004; for their achievement, very low current, precision sourcing, on
they won the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics. the order of nano-amps. However, the
most important aspect of tight control over
For the semiconductor industry, the exciting
sourcing is ensuring that excessive power
thing about graphene is that electrons travel DC Current Source
does not develop across the graphene sample
through it unimpeded, and these electrons behave
in order to avoid destroying it. Furthermore, Configuration for simultaneous measurement of
according to quantum electrodynamic principles.
at nano-amp source current levels, the Hall effect voltage and longitudinal resistance of a
Carrier mobilities through graphene are on the
resulting voltages developed across the graphene sample in a Hall bar configuration.
order of 10,000cm 2/V-s at room temperature,
sample are extremely small, on the order
and mobility values as high as 200,000 cm2/V-s
of ten to hundreds of nanovolts. These type of nanovolt-level measurements require special
on suspended samples of graphene have been
instrumentation with sufficient resolution and
reported. Graphenes high mobility has
extremely high sensitivity.
already led to the development of very
high frequency (100GHz and higher) RF In nanovolt-level measurements, thermoelectric
transistors. Unfortunately, graphene does voltages and noise sources can significantly impact
not have a natural bandgap, so many measurement accuracy, so its important to employ
researchers are investigating methods techniques designed to minimize these effects.
to create one so graphenes high speed For example, using a current source that allows
properties and nano scale size could reversing the polarity of its signal can eliminate
replace silicon in next-generation FETs measurement errors due to thermal voltage
for digital circuitry, thereby extending the offsets. Furthermore, a current source that can
life of Moores Law. output low duty cycle, narrow pulses will minimize
measurement errors due to resistivity changes
resulting from self-heating of the graphene sample.
A graphene single electron transistor (SET). Ask Us Your Application Or Product Question.
10
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Source-Measure Instruments........................7
Graphene: The Semiconductor Industrys Replacement for Silicon? (continued) Pulsing Technologies......................................8
Avoiding Self-Heating Problems..................9
Application Example: Graphene................ 10
Thus, using a current source and nanovoltmeter For graphene or a graphene-based material to Summary.......................................................... 12
combination that can synchronize sourcing and replace silicon, it must have a bandgap so that a Glossary............................................................ 13
measurement simplifies the elimination of the ther- FET channel can be turned on and off. A precision Selector Guide................................................ 16
mal offsets and the of averaging out noise signals. SourceMeter instrument is needed to modulate For More Information.....................................17
the substrate or gate voltage to characterize
the samples performance across a range of gate
voltages. Again, a low level current source and a
nanovoltmeter are required to provide low power,
Want to Explore Further?
low level measurements. xy (4e2ih)
Featured Resources
(k) xx
Take Advantage of
Keithleys Expertise
V +7/2
with Measurements
+5/2 on Graphene
10
+3/2
Hall Voltage
4K
VXY 14T +1/2
Graphene
1/2
SiO2 Longitudinal 5
3/2 Additional Resources
Silicon Voltage Delta Mode Online Demo
Vgate 5/2
VXX Achieving Accurate and Reliable
Resistance Measurements in Low
7/2 Power and Low Voltage Applications
Configuration of a measurement system for 0
-2 0 2 4
assessing the bandgap in graphene and n (1012 cm-2)
graphene-based structures.
Plot of Hall voltage and longitudinal voltage across a magnetic field of varying intensity.
Note how the Hall Voltage is constant at specific points of magnetic field intensity;
at those points, the longitudinal voltage drops to near 0, indicating extremely high
conductivity. This demonstrates that graphene exhibits the quantum Hall effect.
Plot courtesy of Neto, Novoselov, Geim, et, al. The Electronic Properties of Graphene. Jan. 2009
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11
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Additional Resources
Model 4200 Semiconductor
Characterization Test System Product Intro
Model 4200-SCS Semiconductor
Characterization System
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Source-Measure Instruments........................7
Glossary continued Pulsing Technologies......................................8
Avoiding Self-Heating Problems..................9
Fullerene. Refers to C60, an approximately spherical, Input Resistance. The resistive component of input Molecular Manipulator. A device combining a proximal- Offset Current. A current generated by a circuit
hollow, carbon molecule containing 60 carbon atoms impedance. probe mechanism for atomically precise positioning with even though no signals are applied. Offset currents
Application Example: Graphene................ 10
arranged in interlocking hexagons and pentagons, a molecule binding site on the tip; can serve as the basis are generated by triboelectric, piezoelectric, or Summary.......................................................... 12
reminiscent of the geodesic dome created by Insulation Resistance. The ohmic resistance of for building complex structures by positional synthesis. electrochemical effects present in the circuit. Glossary............................................................ 13
architect R. Buckminster Fuller. Sometimes called insulation. Insulation resistance degrades quickly as
buckminsterfullerene or buckyball. humidity increases. Molecular Manufacturing. Manufacturing using Overload Protection. A circuit that protects the Selector Guide................................................ 16
molecular machinery, giving molecule-by-molecule instrument from excessive current or voltage at the input For More Information.....................................17
Ground Loop. A situation resulting when two or more Johnson Noise. The noise in a resistor caused by the control of products and by-products via positional terminals.
instruments are connected to different points on the thermal motion of charge carriers. It has a white noise chemical synthesis.
ground bus and to earth or power line ground. Ground spectrum and is determined by the temperature, Picoammeter. An ammeter optimized for the precise
loops can develop undesired offset voltages or noise. bandwidth, and resistance value. Molecular Nanotechnology. Thorough, inexpensive measurement of small currents. Generally, a feedback
control of the structure of matter based on molecule- ammeter.
Guarding. A technique that reduces leakage errors Leakage Current. Error current that ows (leaks) through by-molecule control of products and by-products; the
and decreases response time. Guarding consists of a insulation resistance when a voltage is applied. Even high products and processes of molecular manufacturing, Piezoelectric Effect. A term used to describe currents
conductor driven by a low impedance source surrounding resistance paths between low current conductors and including molecular machinery. generated when mechanical stress is applied to certain
the lead of a high impedance signal. The guard voltage is nearby voltage sources can generate signicant leakage types of insulators.
kept at or near the potential of the signal voltage. currents. MOSFET. A metal oxide eld effect transistor. A unipolar
device characterized by extremely high input resistance. Precision. Refers to the freedom of uncertainty in the
Hall Effect. The measurement of the transverse voltage Long-Term Accuracy. The limit that errors will not exceed measurement. It is often applied in the context of
across a conductor when placed in a magnetic eld. With during a 90-day or longer time period. It is expressed as a Nano-. A prefix meaning one billionth (1/1,000,000,000). repeatability or reproducibility and should not be used in
this measurement, it is possible to determine the type, percentage of reading (or sourced value) plus a number of place of accuracy. See also Uncertainty.
concentration, and mobility of carriers in silicon. counts over a specied temperature range. Nanoelectronics. Electronics on a nanometer scale.
Includes both molecular electronics and nanoscale Quantum Dot. A nanoscale object (usually a semiconductor
High Impedance Terminal. A terminal where the Maximum Allowable Input. The maximum DC plus devices that resemble current semiconductor devices. island) that can confine a single electron (or a few) and in
source resistance times the expected stray current (for peak AC value (voltage or current) that can be applied which the electrons occupy discrete energy states, just as
example, 1A) exceeds the required voltage measurement between the high and low input measuring terminals Nanotechnology. Fabrication of devices with atomic or they would in an atom. Quantum dots have been called
sensitivity. without damaging the instrument. molecular scale precision. Devices with minimum feature artificial atoms.
sizes less than 100 nanometers (nm) are considered
Input Bias Current. The current that ows at the MEMS. Microelectromechanical systems. Describes systems products of nanotechnology. A nanometer [one-billionth Random Error. The mean of a large number of
instrument input due to internal instrument circuitry and that can respond to a stimulus or create physical forces of a meter (10 9m)] is the unit of length generally most measurements inuenced by random error matches the
bias voltage. (sensors and actuators) and that have dimensions on the appropriate for describing the size of single molecules. true value. See also Systematic Error.
micrometer scale. They are typically manufactured using
Input Impedance. The shunt resistance and capacitance the same lithographic techniques used to make silicon- Nanovoltmeter. A voltmeter optimized to provide Range. A continuous band of signal values that can be
(or inductance) as measured at the input terminals, not based ICs. nanovolt sensitivity (generally uses low thermoelectric measured or sourced. In bipolar instruments, range
including effects of input bias or offset currents. EMF connectors, offset compensation, etc.). includes positive and negative values.
Micro-ohmmeter. An ohmmeter that is optimized for low
Input Offset Current. The difference between the two resistance measurements. The typical micro-ohmmeter Noise. Any unwanted signal imposed on a desired signal. Reading. The displayed number that represents the
currents that must be supplied to the input measuring uses the four-terminal measurement method and has characteristic of the input signal.
terminals of a differential instrument to reduce the output special features for optimum low level measurement Normal-Mode Rejection Ratio (NMRR). The ability
indication to zero (with zero input voltage and offset accuracy. of an instrument to reject interference across its input Reading Rate. The rate at which the reading number is
voltage). Sometimes informally used to refer to input bias terminals. Usually expressed in decibels at a specic updated. The reading rate is the reciprocal of the time
current. Molecular Electronics. Any system with atomically frequency such as that of the AC power line. between readings.
precise electronic devices of nanometer dimensions,
Input Offset Voltage. The voltage that must be applied especially if made of discrete molecular parts, rather than Normal-Mode Voltage. A voltage applied between the Relative Accuracy. The accuracy of a measuring
directly between the input measuring terminals, with the continuous materials found in todays semiconductor high and low input terminals of an instrument. instrument in reference to a secondary standard. See also
bias current supplied by a resistance path, to reduce the devices. Absolute Accuracy.
output indication to zero.
Ask Us Your Application Or Product Question.
14
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Source-Measure Instruments........................7
Glossary continued Pulsing Technologies......................................8
Avoiding Self-Heating Problems..................9
Repeatability. The closeness of agreement between Shunt Capacitance Loading. The effect on a Source Resistance. The resistive component of source Transfer Accuracy. A comparison of two nearly equal
successive measurements carried out under the same measurement of the capacitance across the input impedance. See also Thevenin Equivalent Circuit. measurements over a limited temperature range and
Application Example: Graphene................ 10
conditions. terminals, such as from cables or xtures. Shunt time period. It is expressed in ppm. See also Relative Summary.......................................................... 12
capacitance increases both rise time and settling time. Spintronics. Electronics that take advantage of the spin of Accuracy, Short-Term Accuracy. Glossary............................................................ 13
Reproducibility. The closeness of agreement between an electron in some way, rather than just its charge.
measurements of the same quantity carried out with a Short-Term Accuracy. The limit that errors will not exceed Triboelectric Effect. A phenomenon whereby currents Selector Guide................................................ 16
stated change in conditions. during a short, specied time period (such as 24 hours) Standard Cell. An electrochemical cell used as a voltage are generated by charges created by friction between a For More Information.....................................17
of continuous operation. Unless specied, no zeroing or reference in laboratories. conductor and an insulator.
Resolution. The smallest portion of the input (or output) adjustment of any kind are permitted. It is expressed as
signal that can be measured (or sourced) and displayed. percentage of reading (or sourced value) plus a number of Superconductor. A conductor that has zero resistance. Trigger. An external stimulus that initiates one or more
counts over a specied temperature range. Such materials usually become superconducting only at instrument functions. Trigger stimuli include: an input
Response Time. For a measuring instrument, the time very low temperatures. signal, the front panel, an external trigger pulse, and
between application of a step input signal and the Single Electron Transistor. A switching device that uses IEEE-488 bus X, talk, and GET triggers.
indication of its magnitude within a rated accuracy. For controlled electron tunneling to amplify current. An SET Switch Card. A type of card with independent and isolated
a sourcing instrument, the time between a programmed is made from two tunnel junctions that share a common relays for switching inputs and outputs on each channel. Two-Terminal Resistance Measurement. A
change and the availability of the value at its output electrode. A tunnel junction consists of two pieces of measurement where the source current and sense voltage
terminals. Also known as Settling Time. metal separated by a very thin (~1nm) insulator. The only Switching Mainframe. A switching instrument that are applied through the same set of test leads.
way for electrons in one of the metal electrodes to travel connects signals among sourcing and measuring
Rise Time. The time required for a signal to change to the other electrode is to tunnel through the insulator. instruments and devices under test. A mainframe is Uncertainty. An estimate of the possible error in a
from a small percentage (usually 10%) to a large Tunneling is a discrete process, so the electric charge that also referred to as a scanner, multiplexer, matrix, or measurement; in other words, the estimated possible
percentage (usually 90%) of its peak-to-peak amplitude. flows through the tunnel junction flows in multiples of e, programmable switch. deviation from its actual value.
See also Fall Time. the charge of a single electron.
Systematic Error. The mean of a large number of van der Pauw Measurement. A measurement technique
Sensitivity. The smallest quantity that can be Source Impedance. The combination of resistance and measurements inuenced by systematic error deviates used to measure the resistivity of arbitrarily shaped
measured and displayed. capacitive or inductive reactance the source presents to from the true value. See also Random Error. samples.
the input terminals of a measuring instrument.
Settling Time. For a measuring instrument, the time Temperature Coefficient. A measure of the change in Voltage Burden. The voltage drop across the input
between application of a step input signal and the Source-Measure Unit (SMU). An electronic instrument reading (or sourced value) with a change in temperature. It terminals of an ammeter.
indication of its magnitude within a rated accuracy. For that sources and measures DC voltage and current. is expressed as a percentage of reading (or sourced value),
a sourcing instrument, the time between a programmed Generally, SMUs have two modes of operation: source plus a number of counts per degree change in temperature. Voltage Coefficient. The change in resistance value
change and the availability of the value at its output voltage and measure current, or source current and with applied voltage. Usually expressed in percent/V
terminals. Also known as Response Time. measure voltage. Also known as source-monitor unit or Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. The change or in ppm/V.
stimulus-measurement unit. of resistance of a material or device per degree of
Shielding. A metal enclosure around the circuit being temperature change, usually expressed in ppm/C. Warm-up Time. The time required after power is applied
measured, or a metal sleeve surrounding the wire SourceMeter. A SourceMeter instrument is very similar to an instrument to achieve rated accuracy at reference
conductors (coax or triax cable) to lessen interference, to the source-measure unit in many ways, including its Thermoelectric EMFs. Voltages resulting from temperature conditions.
interaction, or leakage. The shield is usually grounded or ability to source and measure both current and voltage differences within a measuring circuit or when conductors
connected to input LO. and to perform sweeps. In addition, a SourceMeter of dissimilar materials are joined together. Zero Offset. The reading that occurs when the input
instrument can display the measurements directly in terminals of a measuring instrument are shorted
Shunt Ammeter. A type of ammeter that measures current resistance, as well as voltage and current. It is designed for Thevenin Equivalent Circuit. A circuit used to simplify (voltmeter) or open-circuited (ammeter).
by converting the input current into a voltage by means general-purpose, high speed production test applications. analysis of complex, two-terminal linear networks. The
of shunt resistance. Shunt ammeters have higher voltage It can also be used as a source for moderate to low level Thevenin equivalent voltage is the open-circuit voltage
burden and lower sensitivity than do feedback ammeters. measurements and for research applications. and the Thevenin equivalent resistance equals the open-
circuit voltage divided by the short-circuit current.
Polymer Nanofibers/ Semiconductor Carbon Nanotubes Single Electron Carbon Nanotube Synthesized Molecular
Nanobatteries Nanophotonics Nanosensors & Arrays Thermal Transport
Nanowires Nanowires and Graphene Devices/Transistors Field Effect Transistors Electronics/Wires
High R/Low I, 1M to 1014 Low Power, R <10M, Pulse Low Power, R < 100k Low I, Low V Low I, Pulse Low I, Low Power Low I, Pulse Low I, Low Power Low I, Low V Low I, Low Power, Pulse
Want multiple channels of sourcing Need to characterize mobility, Need tighter control over your pulses? Troubled by overheating problems? Testing lots of devices?
and measurement? carrier density, and device speed?
The Series 3400 Pulse/Pattern Generators can output The Model 4225-PMU option for the Model 4200-SCS performs Series 2600A System SourceMeter instruments let you make
The fully integrated Model 4200 Semiconductor The Model 4210-CVU Option takes the voltage pulses with widths as short as 3ns with indepen- pulsed I-V testing on a variety of devices for many different purposes, precision DC, pulse, and low frequency AC source-measure tests
Characterization System brings together all three guesswork out of obtaining valid capacitance- dently adjustable rise and fall times as short as 2ns. including preventing device self-heating by using narrow pulses and/or quickly, easily, and economically. They offer virtually unlimited
core measurement types, DC-IV, AC impedence and voltage (C-V) measurements quickly and low duty cycle pulses rather than DC signals. flexibility to scale the systems channel count up or down to match
transient I-V, in one easy-to-operate package. It's easily, with intuitive point-and-click setup, changing application needs.
used in many phases of nano research, development, complete cabling, and built-in element models.
characterization, and production. Looking for just a single channel?
Each Series 2400 SourceMeter instrument is a complete,
single-channel DC parametric tester. Choose from a variety of
ranges and functions to suit specific application needs. The Model
2430 can be programmed to produce individual pulses or pulse
trains up to 5ms wide.
Introduction.......................................................2
Nanotech Testing Challenges.......................2
Electrical Measurement Considerations....5
Electrical Noise.................................................6
Some of the materials used in this e-handbook are reproduced from the first edition of Keithleys
Nanotechnology Measurement Handbook, Copyright 2007 Keithley Instruments, Inc.
Keithley Corporate Headquarters Consult with a Keithley applications engineer and learn how
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Toll-free: 800-552-1115
Email: applications@keithley.com
Fax: 440-248-6168
Additional contact information at www.keithley.com ASIA
info@keithley.com
China: (+86) 10 8447 5556
Japan: (+81) 3 5733 7555
Korea: (+82) 2 574 7778
Taiwan: (+886) 3 572 9077
A g r e at e r m e a s u r e o f c o n f i d e n c e
KEITHLEY INSTRUMENTS, INC. 28775 AURORA RD. CLEVELAND, OH 44139-1891 440-248-0400 Fax: 440-248-6168 1-888-KEITHLEY www.keithley.com
Copyright 2011 Keithley Instruments, Inc. Printed in the U.S.A. No. 3114 02.15.11