CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT
NUTRIENTS

THE ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
IN CROP NUTRITION

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND
TOXICITY SYMPTOMS

Prof. K. SRDI
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
 Plant nutrients

Nutrition = Supply and absorption of chemical compounds and/or elements

elements (ions) needed for
plant growth and metabolism
Nutrition metabolism ( = biochemical reactions i. the cell (plant)
During life processes (vegetation period) Biomass production
Crops = plant species grown in agriculture for human use

Nutrients = elements or chemical compounds (ions)

ions) required by an organism (crop)
crop)

DEFINITION OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Elements (nutrients) required by the plants for normal growth and developmenand not
replacable in their function by another are referred essential (Mengel, 1982).

Essential nutrients 3 criteria must be met

1. A deficiency of the element makes it impossible for the plant to complete its life cycle
2. The deficiency is specific for the given element and not replaceable
replaceable by another
3. The element is a constituent of an essential metabolite or req
required for the action of an
anzyme system.

(Arnon and Stout 1939, Mengel 1982)

1982)
 Classification of plant nutrients
Elements representing the mineral composition of plants =
Essential and Other Mineral Elements

Based on concentrations: macronutrients 0.02 6.0 %

micronutrients 0.01 500 mg/kg

Based on physiological functions:

1. Constitutents of organic or inorganic compounds N, S, P, Ca, B, Fe and Mg

2. Activators of enzymes K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, Na and Cl
3. Components of redox systems and electron transport: P, S, Fe, Mn Cu, Mo
4. Osmotic regulators and maintain ionic balance: K, Na and Cl
5. Stimulating (beneficial) elements Co, Cr, Ni, V, Sn, Li, F, Se, Si etc.
6. Toxic heavy metals and other elements: Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, As, Se, V

IMPORTANT

With the development of analytical methodologies and advances

in plant physiology, lowest measurable amounts of elements were
decreasing. Lowest measurable amount: pg (picogram= 10-12 g)
 RECENT CONSIDERATION OF ESSENTIAL AND OTHER
(NONESSENTIAL AND TOXIC) NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN
CROPS
a.) Excessive concentration of a mineral element both macro- and
microelements - can cause nutrient imbalances, reduction in growth
and yield losses. The element has been considered as toxic.

b.) Plants may contain small amounts of elements with no evidence of

essentiality: Fluorine (F), Arsenic (As), Chromium
(Cr), Lithium (Li), Lead (Pb).

New terms were introduced by Epstein (1999), Epstein & Bloom (2005).

Instead of the term nonessential, it is suggested to use the term

apparently nonessential or not known to be essential.
The element is classified as quasi-essential when essentiality and
plant responses are different among plant species.
It is suggested to use the term toxic concentration rather then
toxic element.

c.) Other terms used by several authors: beneficial elements
(Pilon-Smits et al., 2009).

Aluminum (Al), cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), selenium (Se), and silicon

(Si) are considered beneficial elements for plants: they are not
required by all plants but can promote plant growth and may be
essential for several plant species.

d.) Silicon is considered a quasi essential element for plants

because its deficiency can cause various abnormalities with respect
to plant growth and development. This term was introduced by
Epstein (1999), Epstein & Bloom (2005).
 Essential nutrients (Mengel 1982, Frageria et al. 1995)

Element Chemi- Principal Described as

cal form(s) taken essential Author
symbol up by roots Year

Macronutrients
Carbon C CO2 1882 Sachs, J.

Hydrogen H H2O 1882 Sachs, J.

Oxygen O H2O, O2 1804 De Saussure, T.

Nitrogen N NH4+, NO3- 1872 Rutherford, G.K.

Phosphorus P H2PO4-, HPO42- 1860 Ville

Potassium K K+ 1860 Sachs, J., Knop

Calcium Ca Ca2+ 1856 Salm-Horstmar,

F.
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ 1906 Willstatter

Sulfur S SO42- 1865 Sachs, J. , Knop

 Micronutrients
Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ 1860 Sachs, J., Knop
Zinc Zn Zn2+, Zn(OH)2 1926 Sommer and Lipman
Manganese Mn Mn2+ 1922 McHargue
Copper Cu Cu2+ 1931 Lipman and
MacKinney
Boron B B(OH)3 1923 Warington
Molybdenum Mo MoO42- 1938 Arnon and Stout
Silicon* * Si Si(OH)40 1980s
Sodium* Na Na+ 1980s
Chlorine* Cl Cl- 1954 Broyer, Stout
Nickel Ni Ni2+ 1983 Brown, Welsh &Cary
Cobalt Co Co2+ 1980s
Vanadium V V+ 1987

* Macronutrients for several crops

* * Quasi-Essential Element
 Expressing plant nutrient content

Recently, nutrient content is expressed as element

content in dry matter (DM)

percentages in DM for macroelements:
N %, P %, K %, Ca %, Mg %, S %

mg per kg (mg kg-1 ) in DM for microelements (also
known as ppm= pars pro million, 1mg per 106)

Previously, element contents were commonly expressed
as oxides (e.g. P2O5 , K2O etc.)

Conversion factors:
P2O5 % x 0.436 = P % or P % x 2.29 = P2O5
K2O % x 0.83 = K% or K % x 1.2 = K2O
AVERAGE CONCENTRATION RANGES OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT
ELEMENTS IN CROPS

Macro- Concentration range

elements percentages in DM
Microlements Concentration
O 45 range mg per kg
in DM
C 45
Fe 50 250
H 6
Mn 20 500
N 0.1 6.0
Zn 25 150
P 0.01 0.7

K 0.2 6.0
Cu 2 20

Ca 0.2 1.0 B 6 60

Mg 0.1 0.4 Mo 1

S 0.1 0.4 Co 0.02 0.5

Si 0.2 - 2.0 Ni 0.05

Cl 0.2 2.0 V 1

Na 0.01 10
 MECHANISMS OF ION TRANSPORT TO PLANT ROOTS

3 Mechanisms are known in which nutrients reach the root surface:

- Root interception
- Mass flow
- Diffusion movement

- Rates of Root interception, Mass Flow and Diffusion in Ion Transport to Corn
Roots (Havlin et al. 2005)

Nutrient Root Mass Flow Diffusion

interception movement
Pecentages in Supply
Nitrogen N 1 99 0
Phosphorus P 2 4 94

Potassium K 2 20 78
Calcium Ca 12 88 0
Magnesium Mg 27 73 0

Sulphur S 4 94 2
 Part 2

THE ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
IN CROP NUTRITION
 Functions of essential nutrients in plants

Nutrient Function
Basic molecular component of carbonydrates,
carbonydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
Carbon

Occurs in all organic compounds of living organisms.

Oxigen

Plays a central role in plant metabolism. Important in ionic balance,

balance, as main
Hydrogen reducing agent, and plays a key role in energy relations of cells.
cells.
Plays a significant role in the synthesis of important organic compounds,
Nitrogen amino acids,
acids, proteins,
proteins, nucleic acids (RNA, DNA), enzymes etc.
Important component of proteins and enzymes,
enzymes, nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA) and phytin.
phytin. P is involved in various energy transfer reactions of
Phosphorus adenosine triphosphate and diphosphate (ATP and ADP).

Helps in osmotic and ionic regulation. Potassium is a cofactor or activator for

Potassium many enzymes of carbohydrate and protein metabolism.
Involved in cell division and plays a major role in the maintenance of membrane
membrane
Calcium integrity.
Component of chlorophyll and cofactor for many enzymatic reactions.
reactions.
Magnesium

Somewhat like phosphorus,

phosphorus, it is involved in plant cell energetics.
energetics. Plays an
Sulfur important role in plant lipid synthesis.
synthesis.
 An essential component of many heme nonheme Fe enzymes and carrires, carrires,
including the cytochromes (respiratory election carriers) and these ferredoxins.
ferredoxins.
Iron
The latter are involved in key metabolic functions such as N fixation, fixation,
photosynthesis and electron transfer.

Essential component of several enzyme systems (dehydrogenases

(dehydrogenases,, proteinases
Zinc and peptidases including carbonic anhydrase,
anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase and
others).

Involved in the O2-

O2-evolving system of photosynthesis and is a component of
Manganese the enzymes arginase and photosphotransferase.
photosphotransferase.

Constituent of a number of important enzymes, including cyctochrome oxidase.

oxidase.
Copper Ascorbic acid oxidase and lactase.

The specific biochemical function of boron is unknown, but it may

may be involved
Boron in carbonydrate metabolism and sythesis of cell wall components.

Required for the normal assimilation of N in plants. An essential

essential component on
Molybdenum nitrate reductase as well as nitrogen (N2 fixation enzyme).

Stimulates biological N fixation of bacteria (Azotobacter

(Azotobacter,, Rhizobium sp.)
Vanadium similarly to Molybdenum.
V has an important role in the food chain (essential for animals and humans)
Essential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes involved
involved in
Chlorine splitting water. It also functions in osmoregulation of plants growing on saline
soils.
NITROGEN N

Elemental N (N2) constitutes 99.8 % of global N and

78 % of the atmosphere is N2.
Available forms and usual concentrations in plants
Available forms for roots: ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-)
Concentration range in plants: 0.8-6.0 % in DM weight

Nitrogen is found in both inorganic and organic forms in the plant.

Forms of N in the environment:

a.) gaseous: nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxides (NOx), ammonia
(NH3)
b.) inorganic compounds and ions: ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate
(NO3-)
c.) organic forms: urea CO(NH2)2, amino acids, proteins, enzymes,
etc.
 Effects of ammonium-N and nitrate-N supply

1.) NO3- reduction is an energy-requiring process (reduction of each

NO3- ion requires 2 molecules of NO3- reductase for protein
synthesis.

2.) When plants take up high levels of NO3 N, an increase in cation

(K+, Ca++, Mg++) absorption will occur.

3.) High levels of NH4+ -N may be toxic for cells and retard growth.
Due to the ion antagonism, restricts K uptake.

4.) Cerals, corn, rice, pineapple use both forms of N while potato,
tomato and other solanaceae crops prefer a high nitrate/ammonium
ratio for optimum growh.
PHOSPHORUS P

Available forms and usual concentrations in plants

P exist in most soils in organic forms (about 50-70 % of total P) and

inorganic forms (about 30-50 % of total P).
The main available anion forms of P for roots are orthophosphates:
Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4-
Monohydrogen phosphate HPO42-

Their ratio is depending on soil pH: at pH 6.0 and about 90 % of

phosphates exist as H2PO4- whereas at pH 8.0 the ratio is just the
reverse.
Concentration range in plants: 0.15 0.7 % P in DM weight of crops,
depending
on species and plant parts.
 Main functions of PHOSPHORUS in
plants

a.) P is a constituent of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA),

phospholipids, phosphoproteins, nucleotids and
membrane biochemistry.

b.) Almost every metabolic reaction requires and involves

phosphates.

c.) As energy obtained from photosynthesis and

carbohydrate metabolism is stored in P compounds,
growth and reproduction functions are strongly
depending on the level of P supply.
Potassium K

Available forms and usual concentrations in plants

Available forms of potassium for plant uptake: K+ in soil solution
and exchangeable K+ adsorbed on soil colloids.
An equilibrium exists between K forms: exchangeable K,
nonexchangeable K (fixed in the clay minerals).
Adequate K concentration range of plants: 1.0 - 6.0 %, highest
concentrations: in young leaves and plant stems.
Excess absorption of plants is referred to as luxury
consumption. Nutrient ratios (balanced nutrition!) of either K/Ca
or K/Mg are important in crops.
 Main functions of POTASSIUM in plants

Unlike N and P, K is not a component of biochemical compounds:
exists as K+ ion.

K is required in a wide range of physiological functions:
- for the normal water status of plants: regulates the osmotic
pressure in cells and across membranes (K/Ca interaction),
- in maintaining the turgor pressure of cells,
- for the opening and closing of stomata

Plays a significant role in the accumulation and translocation of
carbohydrates (sugars and starch)

Plays a key role in enzyme activation: involved in the function
and activity of more than 60 enzymes

K is required for the translocation of assimilates, ATP and protein
synthesis

K stimulates resistance to pests and diseases (cell walls are
thicker in good K status), color, taste, vitamins and other quality
parameters in fruit and vegetable crops
Calcium Ca

Functions in plants

Plays an important role in

maintaining membrane permeability
enhances pollen germination and growth
activates a member of enzymes for cell mitosis and elongation
Ca is required in avoiding the toxicity effects of heavy metals in plants.

Available forms and usual concentrations in plants

Calcium exists as Ca++ cation in the soil. In soils with high pH values,
Ca++ has the highest concentrations among cations, in both soluble and
exchangeable forms.
Ca is taken up by plants as Ca++ (availability is affected by soil pH and
moisture)
Calcium content in the DM of plants ranges between 0.20 to 5.00 %.
Critical values of Ca vary considerably among crop species.
Magnesium Mg

Functions in plants

Magnesium is a component of the cholorphyll molecule, serves as a cofactor

in most enzymes that activate phosphorylation processes as a bridge
between pyrophosphate structures of ATP or ADP and the enzyme molecule.

Available forms and usual concentrations in plants

Magnesium can be found in the soil solution as Mg++ cation and as

exchangeable Mg++ on soil colloids.
Magnesium content in plant DM ranges between 0.15% and 1.00%. The Mg
content in leaves increases with age.
The relationship between Mg and K is well kown, as is the relationship
between mg and Ca.
I.Microelements B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn

Functions in plants

Micronutrients Cu, Fe and Mn are involved in various processes related

to photosynthesis. Cu, Fe and Zn are associated with various enzyme
sysmtes, Mo is specific for nitrate reductase only.
Boron is associated with the carbonydrate metabolism of plants and the
pollen germination.

Available forms and usual concentrations in plants

Elements Available forms Concentration mg/kg
Boron B H3Bo3 6-60
Copper Cu Cu2+ 2-20
Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ 50-
50-250
Manganese Mn Mn2+ 20-
20-500
Molybdenum Mo MoO42- ~1
Zinc Zn Zn2+ 25-
25-150

Critical values of microelement concentrations vary considerably among

crop species.
 Part 3

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY

SYMPTOMS
 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND TOXICITY
SYMPTOMS OF CROPS

 General description of deficiency and

toxicity
 Concentration ranges used in plant
analysis and interpretation
 Visual symptoms of deficiencies
 Visual symptoms of toxicities
Concentration Ranges:
Deficient, Critical, Sufficient or Normal, Excessive or Toxic are
known and used for laboratory results interpretation.

Example: K and P % concentration ranges for corn

Deficient Critical Sufficient High Toxic

K < 1.25 1.26-1.5 2.1-4.0

P <0.15 0.32 0.4-0.8 2.45

 Relationship between plant nutrient concentration and plant
growth/yield

Souce: (Havlin et al.

al. 2005)
Steenberg effect: under extreme deficiency, rapid yield increase can
cause some decreases in nutrient concentration.l
General Deficiency symptoms of N

In nitrogen deficiency, the most typical symtoms are: leaf chlorosis,

leaves turn brown and die

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

Excess nitrogen : vigorous vegetative growth, dark green colour,

prolonged vegetative growth, delayed crop maturitiy.

Important: nutrient ratios in plants!

N/P N/K N/S

Imbalances of these ratios may depress yield levels and quality

 SYMPTOMS OF
NITROGEN DEFICIENCIES
Wheat Sunflower Grapevine

Potatoes Peach
Deficiency symptoms of P

Slow-growing, weak plants. A typical dark green colour on older

leaves showing a purple pigmentation (anthocyanes).
Since P is mobile in the plant, deficiency symptoms initially occur
in the older tissue (indicating the ability for reutilization)

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

Excess of P appears mainly in the form of micronutrient deficieny

mostly for Fe, Zn and Mn.
Excess P may also cause typical Ca deficieny symptoms.
 SYMPTOMS OF P DEFICIENCIES

Wheat MAIZE

K
Sunflower
 SYMPTOMS OF P DEFICIENCIES

Sweet Melon

Sweet cherrry
P deficiency on pepper
Root beet
Deficiency symptoms of K

Crops deficient in K are sensitive to diseases. Fruit yield and quality

will be reduced. Leaves show symptoms of being burned.

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

Plants show typical symptoms of Mg and possibly Ca deficiency due

to a cation imbalance in the plant.
 SYMPTOMS OF POTASSIUM DEFICIENCIES

Trofolium Oilseed Maize

sp. rape

Plum Grapevine
Deficiency symptoms of Ca

The growing tips of leaves and roots turn brown and die.
Reduced structural stability of cell membranes.
Reduced root hair function in nutrient and water uptake.

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

Excessive Ca content will produce Mg or K deficiency in plants,

depending on the concentration of these elements.
Ca toxiticy symptoms have not been reported for crops under field
conditions.
 SYMPTOMS OF Ca
DEFICIENCIES

Apple
Cabbage
Deficiency symptoms of Mg

Mg deficiency causes intervenial chlorosis reduced chlorophyll

synthesis in leaves.
Mg deficiency begins on older leaves as mg is a mobile element in
plants.

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

No specific toxiticy symptoms are known for Mg.

Imbalances among K, Ca, and mg may induce reduced growth when
mg content growth when Mg content is extremeley high.
 SYMPTOMS OF Mg DEFICIENCIES
Oilseed Wheat
rape

Grapevine Plum

SZL
SYMPTOMS OF SULFUR DEFICIENCIES

Oilsedd Maize
rape
Deficiency symptoms of micronutrients

Symptoms of micronutrient deficiency are: reduced or abnormal

growth, bleaching and necrosis of leaves, intervenial chlorosis and
other symptoms typical for the given crop.

Excess (toxiticy) symptoms

Excess or toxic amounts of micronutrients may result a premature

yellowing and burning of the leaves, as well as leaf abcission. Root
growth may be reduced, restricting the uptake of water and several
nutrients from the soil.
Typical symptoms of both deficiencies and toxicities are described in
nutrition manuals and other books.
 SYMPTOMS OF IRON DEFICIENCIES

Grapevine Soybean
SYMPTOMS OF Zn DEFICIENCIES

Onion Maize
 SYMPTOMS OF
BORON DEFICIENCIES

Sugarbeet Sunflower