SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

UNIT 1: Concept of state state equations for linear continuous time models nonuniqueness of state
model state diagram for continuous time state models solution of state equations state transition
matrix.

* * *

INTRODUCTION:

The conventional methods of analysis and design of feedback systems such as root locus and frequency
response methods require transfer function. The transfer function approach suffers from certain drawbacks.

(i) Transfer function is defined only under zero initial conditions.

(ii) It is only applicable to linear time invariant systems.
(iii) It provides only system output for a given input and provides no information regarding internal-
state of the system.

STATE-VARIABLE ANALYSIS: The state variable analysis yields information about the state of the
system variables at some predetermined points along the flow of signals.

ADVANTAGE OF STATE VARIABLES:

(1) This approach takes into account the effect of all initial conditions.
(2) It can be applied to non linear as well as time-varying systems.
(3) It can be applied to multiple input multiple output systems.
(4) As state variable approach involves matrix algebra can be conveniently adopted for digital computers.

DEFINITIONS:

1. STATE: The state of dynamic system is defined as minimal set of variables such that the
knowledge of these variables at t=t0 together with the knowledge of inputs for t t0 completely
determines behavior of the system for t > t0 .
(or)
state of a system at any time t is the combined effect all different elements which are associated
with initial conditions of the system

2. STATE VARIABLES: The variables that can represent the entire state of the system at any
given time. State variables must be linearly independent. The minimum number of state variables
required to represent a given system is usually equal to order of system defining differential equation.

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

STATE MODEL: In state variable formulation of a system

the state variables are represented by 1 (), 1 () ..
the inputs by 1 (), 2 () ..

The outputs by 1 (), 2 () ..

The state space representation may be visualized in black-diagram

The variables can be represented in matrix form

1 () 1 () 1 ()
2 () 2 () 2 ()
() = , () = , () =

[ ()] [ ()]
[ ()]

For a general control system, the state representation can be arranged in the form of n-first order
differential equations.
1
= 1 = 1 (1 , 2 , 3 , . ; 1 , 2 , )

= = 1 (1 , 2 , 3 , . ; 1 , 2 , ) ..(1)

The n differential equations [eq(1)] can be written in vector as

1 (), ()) (2)

1 = (
Where x is n 1 state vector

u is m 1 state vector

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

for time varying systems, the function f is dependent on time. The vector notation as

1 (), (), ) ..,(3)

1 = (
Equations 2 and 3 are state equations for time-invariant and time-varying systems respectively.

The state vector x determines point in n-dimensional space called state space.

The curve traced out by state point( from t =t0 to t=t1) in the direction of increasing time is known as state
trajectory.

The output () For general control control system can be expressed in terms of state () and input () as

() = ((), ())

() = ((), (), ) (4)

STATE MODEL OF LINEAR SYSTEMS:

From general time-invariant model of equations (1) &(4 ). Derivative of each state variable now becomes a
linear combination of system states and inputs i.e.

1 = 11 1 + 12 2 + + 1 + 11 1 + 12 2 + + 1

2 = 21 1 + 22 2 + + 2 + 21 1 + 22 2 + + 2

= 1 1 + 2 2 + + + 1 1 + 2 2 + + (5)

Where the co-efficient , and are constants. In vectoer form equation can be written as
() = () + ()

Where () 1

() 1

A is n

B is n

11 12 1 11 12 1
21 22 2 21 22 2
A= ; B= ;

[1 2 ] [1 2 ]

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

Similarly, the output variables at time t are linear combination of input and state variables at time t

i.e.

1 () = 11 1 () + 12 2 () + 1 () + 11 1 () + + 1 ()

() = 1 1 () + 2 2 () + () + 1 1 () + + ()

Where the coefficients and are constant. This set of equations can be put in vector matrix form

() = () + ()

Where y (t) is p 1

C is p

D is p

11 12 1 11 12 1
21 22 2 21 22 2
C= ; D=

[ 1 2 ]
[ 1 2 ]

The state model of linear time-invariant systems is given by the following equations.

() = () + ()

() = () + ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

STATE DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION:

It is pictorial representation of state model for the given system. It is basically a block diagram type approach
which is designed from the view of programming of computer.

State diagram is a proper interconnection of three basic units.

(i) Scalars (ii) adders (iii) integrators

STATE DIAGRAM OF STANDARD STATE MODEL: Considered standard state model

() = () + ()

() = () + ()

So its state diagram will be

Note: (1) Choose output of each integrator as a state variable.

(2) Thick arrows indicate that there are multiple number of input, output and state variables

Ex 1: Obtain state diagram of SISO system represented by equations

1 () = 1 1 () + 1 ()

2 () = 2 1 () + 3 2 () + 2 () and

() = 1 1 () + 2 2 ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

Sol: As there are 2 state variables 1 () and 2 (). Two integrators are required.

DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM STATE MODEL:

Consider a standard state model derived for linear-time-invariant system as

() = () + ()

() = () + ()

Sol: Taking Laplace transform of both sides

[s.x(s) - x (o)] = () + ()

Y(s) = () + ()

(i) Since system is time-invariant, the co-efficient of matrices A,B,C and D are constant.
(ii) Definition of transfer function is based on assumption of zero initial conditions i.e. x(0)=0

s. x(s)= () + ()

s. x(s) - () = ()
s is an operator while A is matrix of order n order.

Hence to match orders of two terms on L.H.S multiply s by identity matrix of order n

s () () = ()

[sI - A]() = ()

X(S) = [SI-A]-1 BU(S)

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

Substituting in equation (2), we get

Y(S) = C. [SI-A]-1 BU(S) + D.U(S)

()
T(S) = () = C. [SI-A]-1B + D

[]
[SI-A]-1 = ||

Ex 2: Consider a system having state model

2 3 1 3
[ 1] = [ ] [ ] + [ ]

2 4 2 2 5
1
Y=[1 1] [ ] with D=0, obtain its Transfer function
2

Sol: Transfer function = C. [SI-A]-1B

1 0 2 3 1
[SI-A] = S [ ] - [ ] if A = [ ] then 1 = [ ]
0 1 4 2
+2 3
[SI-A] = [ ]
4 2
+2 3
[ ]
4 2
[SI-A]-1 =
2 +8
+2 3 ]
[3 ]
[
4 2
Transfer function =[1 1]
2 +8 5
[321]
=[1 1] 5+22
2 +8

8+1
Transfer function =
2 +8

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY
STATE MODELS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:

1. For the electrical systems, the currents through inductors and voltages across capacitors are selected
to be the state variables.
2. Equations must be written in terms of selected state variables, their derivatives and the inputs.
3. Arrange equations in standard form so as to obtain required state model.
Note: The equation for differentiation of one state variable should not involve the differentiation of any
other state variable.

Ex 3: Obtain state model of the given electrical system

Sol: There are two energy storing elements L and C.

So the two state variables are

(i) Current through inductor i(t)

(ii) Voltage across capacitor v0(t)

i.e. 1 () = (); 2 () = 0 ()

() = () =

() = 0 ()

Applying KVL to the loop

()
() = () + . + 0 ()

[()]
Arrange it for

[()] 1 1
= () () 0 ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

1 1
1 () = 1 () 2 ()+ ()

1
While 0 () = ()

0 () 1
= ()

1
2 () = 1 ()

The equations (1) and (2) given required state equation

1
() 1 () 1
[ 1 ] = [ 1 ][ ] + [ ]u(t)
2 () 0 2 () 0

() = +

The output variable, () = 0 () = 2 ()

1
Y(t)=[0 1] [ ] + [0]()
2

1
1
A=[ 1 ] = [ ] , = [0 1] , = 0
0 0

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS:

To obtain the state vector () which satisfies the state equation

() = () + () at any time t. This is called solution of state equations.

The state equations of linear time-invariant system is

() = () + ()

This state equation can be of two types

(i) Homogeneous
(ii) Non- homogeneous

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION:
If A is a constant matrix and u is a zero vector ( i.e. no control force are applied to the system). The equation
represents a homogeneous linear system.

i.e. () = ()

The solution can be written as () = (0)

Where A is matrix of order n

NON- HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION:

If A is a constant matrix and u is non zero vector, the equation represents Non- homogeneous linear system.
(i.e. control forces are applied to the system)

() = () + ()

() Called homogeneous part of the state equation.

() is called non homogeneous part of the sate equation.

Consider the state equation of a LTI system

() = () + ()

() () = ()

pre multiplying both sides by we get

[ () ()] = ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

[ . ()] = () [ [ . ()] = . () . () = [ () ()]

Integrating both sides with respect to t between the limits 0 & t, we get

0 ()=0 . . ().

() (0) = . . ().
0

Pre multiplying both sides by

. () (0) = 0 . . ().

() = (0) + () . ().

0

(0) =

() . (). =

This complete solution of non-homogeneous equation.

If the initial state is known at t=t0 rather than t=0,

() = (0 ) (0 ) + () . ().
0

STATE TRANSITION MATRIX (()):

The state transition matrix is defined as

() =

PROPERTIES OF STATE TRANSITION MATRIX ():

1. (0) = 0 = =
2. ()= =( )1 = [()]1 1 () = ()
3. (1 + 2 ) = (1 +2 ) = 1 . 2 = (2 ). (1 )
4. (2 1 )(1 0 ) = (2 0 )(2 0 ) 0 , 1 2
5. [()] = (). ()
= . . .
= = = ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

COMPUTATION OF STATE TRANSITION MATRIX:

Consider homogeneous linear (un forced) system whose state equation is

Where A is constant matrix,

Taking Laplace transform of this equation ,we get

s.X(s) - X (0)= ()

[sI-A] () = (0)

() = [sI A]1 (0) => () = 1 {[SI A]1 } (0)

The solution is identical to homogeneous solution

i.e. 1 [SI A]1 =1 [()]

() = = 1 [SI A]1

PROPERTIES OF STATE TRANSITION MATRIX (STM):

(1) (0) = =
1 1
Proof: () = = + + 2! 2 2 + 3! 3 3 +

Putting t=0

(0) =

(2) 1 () = ()
Proof: multiplying on both sides by
() =
() =I

Pre multiply both sides by 1 (), we get

1 ()() = 1 ()

= 1 ()

1 () = ()

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 SUBJECT : MODERN CONTROL THEORY

(3) (1 + 2 ) == (2 ). (1 )
Proof: (1 + 2 ) = (1 +2 ) = 1 . 2 = (2 ). (1 )

(4) (2 1 )(1 0 ) = (2 0 )
Proof: (2 1 )(1 0 )= (2 1 ) . (1 0 )
= 1 . 2 . 0 . 1 .
= 2 . . 0
=( )

(5) [()] = ()
Proof: [()] = (). ()
= . .
=
=
=()

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