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DRILLING FLUIDS

IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 IADC Technical
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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-i

CHAPTER

FL
DRILLING FLUIDS

he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment mainte-
nance and repair.

The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling company
recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may conflict with
regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.

While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his own
reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology and practice advance
quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is re-
quired, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant
or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired by
the reader.

Principal Authors
Paul Scott, ConocoPhillips
Paul Broussard, Repsol
Mike Freeman, Schlumberger/M-I Swaco
Fred Growcock, Oxy
Ron Bland, Baker Hughes

Reviewers
Tom Carter, Chevron
Ben Bloys, Chevron
Malcolm Ellice, Halliburton
Joe Hurt, IADC
Alan Spackman, IADC
Paul Breaux, IADC
FLii DRILLING FLUIDS

This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.

Copyright 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

International Association of Drilling Contractors

10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760
Houston, Texas 77042
USA

ISBN: 978-0-9915095-4-6

Printed in the United States of America.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015


CHAPTER FL
DRILLING FLUIDS/CIRCULATING
SYSTEM/DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS
Introduction......................................................................FL-1
Drilling fluid function and performance...................FL-1
Physical operating principles...............................FL-2
Testing drilling fluid properties...................................FL-2
Purpose of testing...................................................FL-2
Density or mud weight..........................................FL-2
Viscosity....................................................................FL-2
Gel strengths........................................................... FL-4
Filtration or fluid loss............................................ FL-4
Sand content............................................................FL-5
Solids, oil and water content...............................FL-5
Chemical content....................................................FL-5
Importance of the drilling fluid...................................FL-5
General rig personnel involved...................................FL-5
Categories of drilling fluids..........................................FL-5
Pneumatic drilling fluids........................................FL-7
Dry gas...............................................................FL-7
Mist.................................................................... FL-8
Foam.................................................................. FL-8
Aerated fluids.................................................. FL-8
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)................ FL-8
Water or brine................................................. FL-8
Spud mud......................................................... FL-8
Native muds..................................................... FL-8
Low-solids systems........................................ FL-9
Low-solids/non-dispersed system............ FL-9
Polymer muds................................................. FL-9
Lightly treated muds..................................... FL-9
Flocculated bentonite systems................... FL-9
Dispersed muds.............................................. FL-9
Seawater or brackish water......................... FL-9
Saturated salt.................................................. FL-9
Inhibitive drilling fluid systems................. FL-10
Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer.......... FL-10
KCl polyglycol................................................ FL-10
Polyamine systems...................................... FL-10
Calcium systems.......................................... FL-10
Silicate systems............................................ FL-10
Encapsulating polymer systems.............. FL-10
High-performance water-based muds
(HPWBM)...................................................... FL-10
High-temperature (HT), high-temperature/
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS Contents FL-iii
Contents
high-pressure (HTHP) and ultra-HTHP
systems........................................................... FL-11
Non-aqueous-based mud
systems (oil-based)............................................. FL-11
Invert emulsions........................................... FL-11
Calcium soap systems................................ FL-12
Surfactant emulsifier systems.................. FL-12
Low-clay, flat rheology systems.............. FL-12
Relaxed fluid-loss systems........................ FL-12
All oil systems............................................... FL-12
Special application fluids................................... FL-12
Completion brines........................................ FL-12
Drill-in fluids.................................................. FL-12
Other special application fluids............... FL-12
Additives................................................................. FL-12
Weight materials.......................................... FL-13
Viscosifiers..................................................... FL-13
.Filtration control additives (fluid-loss control
additives)........................................................ FL-13
Thinners (deflocculants)............................ FL-13
pH/alkalinity control chemicals............... FL-13
Calcium removers........................................ FL-13
Surfactants and emulsifiers...................... FL-13
Shale inhibitors............................................. FL-14
Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/
biocides........................................................... FL-14
Lubricants....................................................... FL-14
Defoamers...................................................... FL-14
Flocculants..................................................... FL-14
Temperature stability agents.................... FL-15
Foaming agents............................................. FL-15
Hydrate supperssants................................. FL-15
LCM/bridging agents.................................. FL-15
Location on a rig site................................................... FL-15
Installation............................................................. FL-16
Safety and handling..................................................... FL-16
Proper handling for safety................................. FL16-
Fire hazards and zones............................... FL-16
Chemical hazards.........................................FL-17
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S).......................FL-17
Carbon dioxide (CO2)..........................FL-17
Carbon monoxide (CO)........................FL-17
Copyright 2015
FLiv DRILLING FLUIDS
Lime...........................................................FL-17
Caustic (sodium hydroxide or NaOH)
and caustic potash (Potassium hydroxide
or KOH)................................................... FL-18
OBM surfactants....................................FL-18
Physical hazards........................................... FL-18
Heat.......................................................... FL-18
Sack cutting............................................ FL-18
Cranes...................................................... FL-18
Noise..........................................................FL-19
Pits and walkways.................................FL-19
Closed-vessel entry...............................FL-19
Tank strength..........................................FL-19
Spills...........................................................FL-19
Lifting.........................................................FL-19
Waste disposal.......................................FL-19
Pressure washing/rig cleaning...........FL-19
Use of icons/colors/risk factors to visually
denote danger........................................................FL-19
System maintenance and contamination
treatments..................................................................... FL-20
General maintenance of drilling
fluid properties..................................................... FL-20
Density (mud weight)........................................ FL-20
Rheology increase........................................ FL-20
Rheology decrease....................................... FL-20
API and HTHP fluid loss.................................... FL-20
Salinity.................................................................... FL-20
Alkalinity (pH control)....................................... FL-20
Total hardness/excess lime content.............. FL-21
Sand content......................................................... FL-21
Solids, water and oil content............................ FL-21
Methylene blue test............................................ FL-21
Electrical stability................................................ FL-21
Contamination treatment for drilling fluids. FL-21
Potential problems that can affect
mud systems................................................................. FL-21
Weight material settling or sag....................... FL-21
Sag or settling treatment and prevention
recommendations................................................ FL-21
Static settling................................................. FL-21
Dynamic settling........................................... FL-25
Bed slumping................................................. FL-25
Corrosion................................................................ FL-25
General treatment procedures................. FL-25
Dissolved oxygen......................................... FL-25
Acid gases (CO2 and H2S)....................... FL-25
Bacterial degradation.................................. FL-25
Gas hydrates......................................................... FL-25
Prevention and mitigation recommendations
when drilling with a riser............................ FL-26
WBMs..................................................................... FL-26
NAFs........................................................................ FL-26
Well operations.................................................... FL-26
Deepwater riser issues....................................... FL-26
Hole cleaning................................................. FL-26
Rheology effects........................................... FL-26
Balling with WBM........................................ FL-26
Stuck pipe.............................................................. FL-26
Treatments..................................................... FL-26
Lost circulation..................................................... FL-27
Salt formations and rubble zones................... FL-27
Treatments............................................................ FL-27
HTHP conditions.................................................. FL-28
Wellbore stability issues................................... FL-28
Calculations and tables.............................................. FL-29
Brine tables............................................................ FL-29
Important calculations....................................... FL-29
Volume of mud in the circulating system..... FL-29
Surface system volume calculations.............. FL-29
Rectangular tank volume........................... FL-29
Upright cylindrical tank volume............... FL-31
Hole volume calculations (pipe in hole).FL-31
Annular volume (or pipe displacement).FL-31
Pipe (or hole) capacity....................................... FL-31
Circulation times and strokes........................... FL-31
Pump output and circulation rate............ FL-31
Triplex mud pumps............................. FL-31
Duplex mud pumps............................ FL-32
Mud cycle (complete circulation of active
system)................................................................... FL-32
Bottoms up (bit to surface).............................. FL-32
Surface to bit (pipe capacity displacement).FL-32
Hole cycle time..................................................... FL-33
Hole volume (pipe out of hole)........................ FL-33
Hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic
gradient................................................................... FL-34
Quantities of mud materials............................. FL-35
Weight-up formula....................................... FL-35
Volume increase due to material
additions......................................................... FL-35
Dilution and blending.................................. FL-35
Annular velocity................................................... FL-36
Government regulations............................................FL-40
Health and safety regulations..................................FL-40
Environmental regulations........................................ FL-41
Transportation regulations........................................FL-43
Cited references...........................................................FL-44
Additional references.................................................FL-45
Appendix: Safety data sheets, hazard labels
& NFPA Diamond........................................................ FL-A1

Introduction
Drilling fluids are fluids that are used during the drilling of
subterranean wells. They provide primary well control of
subsurface pressures by a combination of density and any
additional pressure acting on the fluid column (annular or
surface imposed). They are most often circulated down the
drill string, out the bit and back up the annulus to the surface
so that drill cuttings are removed from the wellbore.
Drilling fluids have a number of alternative names, acronyms
and slang terms used within
the industry. The most widely
used name is mud or drill-
ing mud and both these terms
will be used interchangeably
throughout this chapter. Oth-
er drilling fluid names and
acronyms are: water-based
mud (WBM), oil-based mud
(OBM), synthetic-based mud Figure FL-1: Drilling fluids are major factors in a successful drilling removal of drill cuttings in the
(SBM), non-aqueous fluid program. Courtesy MI-SWACO, a Schlumberger company.
(NAF), invert emulsion fluid
(IEF), high performance water-based mud (HPWBM), drill-in
fluid (DIF) and reservoir drilling fluid (RDF). Similar to drilling
fluids are so-called completion fluids that are used to finish
the well after drilling is completed. The fluids used during
completions are often referred to as workover and comple-
tion (WOC) fluids, clear brines and/or packer fluids.
Drilling fluid is a major factor in the success of the drilling
program and deserves careful study. Discussion in this man-
ual, however, is limited to its general features. A compre-
hensive and more academic text on drilling fluids is Com-
position and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids by
Caenn, Darley and Gray. The suppliers of drilling fluid mate-
rials also offer a wide range of publications and numerous
articles can be located in the technical literature of the oil
and gas industry.
Drilling fluid function and performance
Drilling fluids range from simply water or oil to compressed
air and pneumatic fluids to more complex water-based or
oil-based systems. Drilling fluid additives include weight-
ing materials; viscosifiers; filtration control additives; pH/
alkalinity control chemicals; dispersants/deflocculants/
thinners; surfactants and emulsifiers; shale inhibitors; corro-
sion inhibitors/oxygen scavengers/hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
scavengers; lubricants; and bridging agents/lost circulation
materials (LCMs). A brief description of these categories is
included later in this section.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-1
The principal functions of drilling fluid are to:
Control subsurface pressures, maintaining well control;
Remove drill cuttings from beneath the bit and circulate
them to the surface;
Maintain wellbore stability, mechanically and chemi-
cally;
Transmit hydraulic energy to the drill bit and downhole
tools;
Cool and lubricate the drill string and bit;
Allow adequate for-
mation evaluation;
Provide a completed
wellbore that will produce hy-
drocarbons;
Suspend or minimize
the settling of drill cuttings or
weight material when circula-
tion is stopped, yet allow the
surface fluids processing sys-
tem; and
Form a low permeability, thin and tough filter cake
across permeable formations.
The performance of these functions depends upon the type
of formation being drilled and the various properties of the
drilling fluid. Often, compromises are necessary due to a va-
riety of factors. The selection and design of a particular drill-
ing fluid and its properties depends on the complexity of the
well being drilled, subsurface pressures and temperatures,
logistics, cost and local experience. Drilling fluid perfor-
mance is also affected by the drilling equipment being used.
The properties of the drilling fluid should be adjusted to the
hydraulics available for the drilling operation and the well de-
sign. Rate of penetration (ROP) and bit life can be improved
by optimizing the hydraulic horsepower at the bit, especially
for roller cone bits. The ROP and bit life for polycrystalline
diamond compact (PDC) cutter bits is improved when an
adequate flowrate is used with minimal overbalance. Drilling
fluid properties and circulation rates determine the parasitic
pressure losses in the drill string and the available pressure at
the bit for optimized drilling performance. The ROP is also af-
fected by the density of the mud and nature of the suspended
solids. Regular and complete tests are essential to the control
of mud properties. The interpretation of the results of these
tests and treatments to maintain appropriate fluid properties
is vital to the success of the drilling program.
Copyright 2015
FL-2 DRILLING FLUIDS
Figure FL-2: Basic land rig circulating system.
Physical operating principles
The three main functions of drilling fluids are to:
Control subsurface pressures: These pressures are
controlled by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid plus any surface-imposed pressure on the annulus.
While circulating, annular pressure losses also impose
additional pressure on the wellbore. Hydrostatic
pressure is increased by increasing the density of the
drilling fluid. This is normally carried out by adding
barite (BaSO4), a high-density inert powder.
Circulate drill cuttings from the well: This is dependent
on a combination of fluid velocity, fluid viscosity, fluid
density and drill string rotation.
Maintain wellbore stability: This is dependent on the
strength of the rocks being drilled, local subsurface
stresses, differential pressure at the wellbore, drilling
fluid chemistry, formation composition, filtration
control, filter cake quality and bridging solids.
IADC Drilling Manual
Testing drilling fluid properties
Various properties of drilling fluid are monitored
and adjusted to achieve desired performance.
Procedures for measuring fluid properties can
be found in API Recommended Practice 13B-1
for water-based drilling fluids and Recommend-
ed Practice 13B-2 for oil-based drilling fluids.
These procedures are revised and extended pe-
riodically as improvements are made and new
tests are developed.
,
Purpose of testing
Routine testing is carried out on drilling fluids
to determine the following: the density or mud
weight; viscosity; gel strengths, filtration rate
(also called fluid loss); sand content; solids, oil
and water content; and chemical properties.
Density or mud weight
Density or mud weight is the mass per unit
volume. In the field, it is measured with a mud
balance and is most often reported in pounds
per gallon (lb/gal or ppg); specific gravity or
SG (g/ml); kilograms per cubic meter (kg/cu
m); or pounds per cubic foot (lb/cu ft). Density
is used to determine the hydrostatic pressure
of the mud column and can also be measured
and expressed as a gradient such as pounds per
square inch per thousand feet (psi/1,000 ft).
This allows for easy calculation of the hydro-
static pressure at any depth.
The mud scale is calibrated with water (freshwater weighs
8.34 lb/gal and seawater weighs 8.55 lb/gal). The mud
scale has four units scales graduated on the beam: lb/gal
or ppg, g/cc, lb/cu ft and psi/1,000 ft. Please refer to the
section entitled Calculations and Tables for the appropriate
calculations and unit conversions.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the drilling fluids internal resis-
tance to flow, or how thick or thin it is. Drilling fluids are
non-Newtonian, meaning that their viscosity is not constant
for all shear rates. These non-Newtonian fluids behave very
differently than liquids like water or oil which are Newtonian
with a constant viscosity regardless of shear rate. Non-New-
tonian drilling fluids are shear thinning such that they have
lower viscosity at high-shear rates and higher viscosity at
low-shear rates. This is desirable for drilling where minimum
pressure losses are wanted for the high-shear conditions in-
side the narrow bore of the drill string. Higher viscosity is
wanted in the low-shear conditions of the larger annulus.
Viscosity depends on the viscosity of the base liquid and the
Copyright 2015
 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-3

type and concentration of solids in the drilling fluid. Viscos-

ity is usually higher for higher density fluids due to the in-
creased concentration of weight material such as barite. As
a general rule, thicker fluids are needed for larger diameter
hole sizes and thinner fluids are needed for smaller hole siz-
es which have smaller annular flow areas.

Viscosity is measured with two primary tools; a) the Marsh

funnel (Figure FL-3) which is used to frequently measure
relative changes in viscosity, and b) a direct reading viscom-
eter (Figure FL-4), which is used to measure the viscosity,
gel strengths, and non-Newtonian characteristics precisely.

The Marsh funnel is used to monitor relative changes in vis-

cosity and is commonly reported as funnel viscosity. The
Marsh funnel viscosity is reported as the number of seconds
required for a given fluid to flow a volume of 1 qt into a grad-
Figure FL-3: Drilling fluid balance and Marsh
uated mud cup. Its design and calibration can be verified us-
funnel are used to measure fluid viscosity.
ing water. One quart of fresh water should be collected in 26
(0.5) sec at a temperature of 70 (5) F.

A direct indicating rotational viscometer is used to measure

the viscosity at different shear rates to determine the rhe-
ology model coefficients. For field operations, the Bingham
plastic rheology model coefficients of plastic viscosity (PV)
and yield point (YP) are monitored. These two coefficients
are used to monitor the non-Newtonian properties of the
drilling fluid. These viscometers indicate the shear stress as
a dial unit or degree () at a given shear rate (one dial
unit equals about 1 lb/100 sq ft). The dimensions of the di-
rect indicating viscometer are selected so that the PV and
YP can be quickly calculated from the shear stress values
measured at shear rates of 600 and 300 rpm. The PV in
centipoise (cps) is calculated from the 600-rpm dial read-
ing (600) minus the 300-rpm dial reading (300). The YP in
lb/100 sq ft is then calculated from the 300-rpm dial read-
ing minus the PV.

PV (cps) = 600 300 Eq 1

YP (lb/100 sq ft) = 300 PV

Eq 2
Viscosity should be measured and reported at standard tem-
peratures which are usually 120F for most wells or 150F for
high-temperature wells. Shear stress values should also be
measured at other shear rates for improved accuracy when
calculating pressure losses and when cleaning the hole. Typ-
ical six speed shear rates are taken at 600, 300, 200, 100,
6 and 3 rpm. The Bingham plastic YP overestimates the real
YP for most drilling fluids as well as the shear stress values
at lower shear rates. For this reason, using better rheology
models such as the Herschel Bulkley model is recommend-
ed for improved accuracy.
Figure FL-4: Direct indicating viscometer (6 speed).
The PV depends mainly on the concentration of solids and
the viscosity of the base liquid. It is representative of high-
shear rate viscosity such as is present inside the bore of the
drill string. The YP is a measure of the degree of non-New-
tonian shear thinning behavior (increased thickening at low-
shear rates is implied from higher YPs). The YP is a result of
the attractive forces between particles in the fluid at lower
shear rate conditions. It is also a measure of the hole clean-
ing capabilities of a fluid in vertical intervals. Often, a low-

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-4 DRILLING FLUIDS
Figure FL-5: API low-temperature, low-pressure filter press.
shear-rate yield point (LSRYP) is calculated using the shear
stress values at 6 rpm and 3 rpm to better evaluate the real
YP, the hole cleaning potential and the propensity for having
barite sag.
LSRYP = (2 x 3) - 6 Eq 3
Gel strengths
Gel strengths refer to the shear stress required to initiate
flow after static periods of time. They are a measure of the
degree of gelation that occurs due to the attractive forces
between particles over time. Higher gel strengths are re-
ported in the same units as YP (lb/100 sq ft). Sufficient
gel strength will suspend drill cuttings and weighting ma-
terials during connections and other static conditions. Gel
strengths directly affect surge and swabbing pressures
when making connections, tripping pipe or running casing.
They also affect the pressure required to break circulation
and the ease of releasing entrained gas or air. Gels are deter-
mined using the same direct indicating rotational viscome-
ter as is used for viscosity. They are measured by observing
the maximum shear stress value while slowly turning the ro-
tor or by using the 3-rpm setting after being static for some
period of time. Standard values for gel strength are taken af-
ter 10 sec, 10 min and sometimes after 30 min. The change
in gel strength values between these time periods also give
IADC Drilling Manual
an indication if the fluid is continuing to gel with longer pe-
riods of time (called progressive gels) or if it has reached a
relatively constant value (called flat gels).
Filtration or fluid loss
Filtration or fluid loss is a relative measure of the liquid that
could invade a permeable formation through deposited mud
solids. This liquid is called filtrate and the deposited solids
are called filter cake or mud cake. There are two standard
filtration tests that measure the volume of filtrate collected
after a 30-min period of time using filter paper. These tests
are the low-temperature/low-pressure fluid loss test, often
called the American Petroleum Institute (API) test, and the
high-temperature high-pressure (HTHP) test. Results are
reported as the milliliters (ml) which flow through a 7.1-sq
in. area. The HTHP filtration test unit is a half-area (3.5-sq
in.) press; therefore, the measured filtrate value is doubled
for reporting. Filter cake thickness is measured and reported
in units of 1/32 in. (or millimeters where SI units are used). A
filter cake thickness of 3 means 3/32 in.
The basic filtration test is called the low-temperature/
low-pressure or API fluid loss test and is performed at am-
bient temperatures and 100 psi. The more advanced test is
the HTHP filtration test that is performed at a temperature
closer to the bottomhole temperature and at a 500-psi dif-
ferential pressure. While there is no standard temperature
for the HTHP test, temperatures between 275F and 325F
are often set as the standard. This, of course, is dependent
on the area and operator. The HTHP test should preferably
be run at the actual bottomhole temperatures and differen-
tial pressures existing in the wellbore, if possible.
Filtration rate and filter cake thickness are both monitored
and reported properties. High fluid loss and thick filter cakes
significantly increase the possibility of having differentially
stuck pipe. A desirable filter cake is one that has ultralow
permeability and is thin, tough, compressible and slick (lu-
bricious). These desirable properties cannot be determined
from the fluid loss values alone and many low fluid loss drill-
ing fluids do not have a good quality filter cake. A desirable
filter cake is achieved by minimizing the drill solids content
(colloidal-sized solids) of the drilling fluid and maintaining
the proper concentration of filtration control additives. For
most WBMs, the best quality filter cake is achieved by using
an adequate quantity of high-quality bentonite.
There are many factors affecting filtration control including:
thermal stability of the system; concentration, size, and type
of solids; the type and concentration of filtration control ad-
ditives being used; and the presence of any contaminants in
the mud. Filtration control comes with increased cost. Local
experience and the frequency of stuck pipe should be used
to establish the target values for fluid loss and filter cake for
the formation and hole interval.
Copyright 2015

Sand content
Sand content refers to the volume percent of whole mud that
are sand sized particles, meaning they are larger than 74
microns and do not pass through a 200 mesh screen. These
may be actual quartz sand or may be the coarse-sized bar-
ite particles, sized bridging solids, LCM, drilled solids or any
other particles larger than 74 microns. Sand content is mea-
sured using a sand content graduated glass tube, funnel and
200 mesh sieve. It is monitored to gauge the effectiveness
of solids control equipment, the shale shaker screen condi-
tion and the potential for increased abrasion to mud pumps
and other equipment in the circulating system including drill
string and downhole equipment.
Solids, oil and water content
Solids, oil and water content are measured using a distilla-
tion report. With this information and other data from the
chemical analysis, a complete breakdown of the composi-
tion of the drilling fluid can be made, often called a solids
analysis. This will include oil content, water or brine content,
low-gravity solids (mainly drill solids) and high-gravity sol-
ids (normally barite). Solids content affects drilling rate, flow
properties, gel strengths and the overall stability of the mud.
Often, the frequency of dilution and chemical treatments
are based on the results from this analysis. Optimum solids
content and good solids control is essential for overall supe-
rior mud performance.
Chemical content
Chemical tests are carried out on the whole mud and filtrate
to monitor specifications and to identify contamination. De-
pending on the type of drilling fluid being used, these tests
may include: pH, various measures of alkalinity (PM, PF, and
MF for WBM and POM for NAF), lime content, chloride (or
salt), calcium (or total hardness), carbonate/bicarbonate,
sulfate, methylene blue test (MBT), H2S, electrical stability,
water activity and others. A description of these chemical
tests is outside the scope of this document, although the sig-
nificance of some of these tests is shown in the section en-
titled System Maintenance and Contamination Treatments.
Importance of the drilling fluid
The performance of the drilling fluid is critical to everyone
involved with the operation and to all aspects of the drill-
ing operation. The drilling fluid is the primary means to keep
the well from blowing out and it is responsible for keeping
the hole in good condition such that drilling operations can
continue to the desired depth. Drilling and completion fluids
are one of the most important parts of the well construction
process and ultimately the performance of the fluid will de-
termine the success or failure of the operation. The respon-
sibility of the proper selection and application of the drilling
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-5
fluid is held jointly between the fluids supplier, the drilling
contractor and the operator.
General rig personnel involved
The general rig personnel involved with monitoring, oper-
ating and maintaining the drilling fluid are the drilling fluids
technician (called the mud engineer) and one or more of the
drilling crew. The drilling fluids technician is normally em-
ployed by the drilling fluids supplier or may be a consultant
working for the operator or drilling contractor. The mud en-
gineer performs periodic testing of the drilling fluid proper-
ties and recommends the treatments to be made. The der-
rickman is most often the rigsite worker who monitors mud
weight and funnel viscosity, adds chemicals and controls the
fluid processing equipment. The driller controls flow of the
drilling fluid to the wellbore with the mud pumps. On more
complicated operations such as deepwater and offshore op-
erations, the drilling fluid responsibilities described above
for the derrickman may be performed by additional rig crew.
This is usually someone assigned to monitor the shale shak-
ers, mud pits and/or mixing operations.
Categories of drilling fluids
There are three broad categories of drilling fluids:
Pneumatic fluids, which use compressed air or gas,
foam and aerated muds;
WBMs, which use water or brine as the base fluids; and
NAFs, which use oil or other non-aqueous base fluids
called OBMs or SBMs.
Within each of these three broad categories, there are nu-
merous variations in fluid properties and products that may
be used dependent on the practices in an area and the drill-
ing fluids supplier. Numerous common names, acronyms,
abbreviations and trade names can describe the particular
system being used.
The selection of the drilling fluid system for a particular well
is based on numerous factors including: local practices; op-
erator preferences; suppliers range of systems and prod-
ucts; density required to control subsurface pressures; hole
size; characteristics of the formations to be drilled (including
wellbore stability); anticipated temperature and pressure;
completion type; common regional drilling problems; logis-
tics; cost and quality; and health, safety and environmental
(HSE) considerations.
Wells are spudded with simple low-density drilling fluids
and altered with each interval to address the conditions
of the particular interval being drilled. Generally, the den-
sity and complexity of the drilling fluid system being used
increases with depth due to increased pressures and tem-
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FL-6 DRILLING FLUIDS

Oil Base Special Application

Pneumatic Water Base
( Non Aqueous) Fluids

Completion Fluids
Dry Gas Water or Brine 100% or All Oil (Clear Brines)
(air, N2 or field gas)

Drill-In Fluids
Emulsions
Spud Muds
Mist
Other (milling,
packers, spacers,
pills, spotting fluids

Native Muds

Foam
Low Solids; low-
solids/ non-dispersed,
polymer, lightly-
treated

Aerated liquids
Dispersed

Inhibitive; potassium,
calcium, silicate,
Polymer
encapsulating

High Performance
WBM

Figure FL-6: General classification of drilling fluids.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-7

peratures. The categories of products used in drilling fluids Dry gas and mist drilling use a blooie line to contain the flow
by functionality are: base fluid; weight material; viscosifiers; and direct it to a cuttings pit which is a sufficient distance
fluid loss control additives; pH or alkalinity control; viscosity from the rig. Air, mist and foam drilling are open-ended cir-
thinners; surfactants or emulsifiers; shale inhibitors; corro- culating systems where the fluids are not recirculated.
sion inhibitors; lubricants; bridging agents; and LCMs.
Mist
The required density is one of the primary considerations Mist drilling is similar to dry air drilling except it uses a small
when selecting a drilling fluid. Table FL-1 gives the approx- volume of injected surfactant and water. This prevents
imate minimum and maximum density values for drilling
Table FL-1: Density of drilling fluids.
fluids while Table FL-2 provides the approximate minimum
and maximum density values for completion brines which Minimum Density Maximum Density
are sometimes used as the base fluid for drilling muds. The Drilling Fluids
listed minimum densities are the lowest densities that make lb/gal g/ml lb/gal g/ml

economic sense for a particular salt. Air Gas Mist 0.0 0.00 0.5 0.06

Pneumatic drilling fluids Foam 0.3 0.04 3.6 0.43

Pneumatic drilling fluids comprise: Foam with

2.0 0.24 5.8 0.70
Dry gas, including air, nitrogen and field gas; Back Pressure
Mist;
Oil 6.3 0.76 7.5 0.90
Foam;
Aerated fluids. Aerated Mud 4.0 0.48 8.3 1.00

Fresh Water/
Drilling with pneumatic fluids is covered extensively in the 8.3 1.00 8.6 1.03
Seawater
Managed Pressure, Underbalanced and Air/Gas/Mist/
Native/
Foam Drilling Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th Unweighted 8.3 1.00 10.5 1.26
edition. Mud

Weighted Mud 8.3 1.00 22.5 2.70

Dry gas
Dry gas drilling is often called air or dust drilling. It is used
mainly in areas with hard, competent and dry formations,
Table FL-2: Density of completion brines.
especially in areas where severe lost circulation occurs.
Pneumatic fluids include air or dust drilling, nitrogen (gen- Minimum Density Maximum Density
Completion
erated with membrane units), natural gas, mist, foam and Brines
aerated liquid systems. Drilling with pneumatic systems is lb/gal g/ml lb/gal g/ml

often referred to as underbalanced drilling or UBD because KCl (Potassium

Chloride) and
the hydrostatic pressure is less than the pore pressure of the 8.3 1.00 10.0 1.20
NaCl (Sodium
formation. The advantages of using pneumatic fluids are an Chloride)
elimination or reduction in lost circulation and much higher Na Formate
ROPs, often more than three times that of mud drilling. Air (Sodium 8.3 1.00 11.1 1.33
Formate)
hammers and special hammer bits can be used with air or
mist drilling which significantly increases ROP and bit life. CaCl2 (Calcium
8.3 1.00 11.6 1.39
Chloride)
Disadvantages of pneumatic operations include: addition-
al equipment; complexity; possibility of downhole fires or NaBr (Sodium
10.0 1.20 12.5 1.50
flammability of produced fluids at the surface; and the po- Bromide)

tential for aggressive corrosion. K Formate

(Potassium 8.3 1.00 13.2 1.58
Formate)
For dry gas drilling, compressed gas is injected at the stand-
CaBr2 (Calcium
pipe at a volumetric flowrate that is sufficient to circulate Bromide)
11.7 1.40 15.1 1.81
cuttings from the hole based on the size of the hole, ROP and
depth. Dust is expelled from the well at the outlet. Dry gas ZnBr2 (Zinc
15.1 1.81 19.2 2.30
Bromide)
can be used until significant amounts of formation water or
oil are produced into the annulus. All pneumatic fluids use a Cs Formate
(Cesium 8.3 1.00 20.0 2.40
rotating control device (rotating head) to seal the annulus at Formate)
the surface and direct the flow safely away from the rig floor.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-8 DRILLING FLUIDS
downhole fluid intrusions from aggregating drill cuttings
and dust into an annular plug called a mud ring. Mist injec-
tion fluid formulations can include inhibitors and additives to
minimize problems related to water-reactive shales. Dry gas
and mist drilling allows productive formations to be evaluat-
ed as the drilling progresses.
Foam
Foam drilling uses a lower volume of compressed gas and in-
jects a higher volume of surfactant and water than mist drill-
ing. Foam is generated at the surface and circulates through
the well. Compared to mist drilling, foam drilling provides
a higher hydrostatic pressure, better hole cleaning and can
tolerate higher water or oil intrusions. It is used when a high-
er density is needed to control downhole water or oil flows
or for better wellbore stability. Foam is also applicable to
larger diameter sections or for workover operations when
cleaning out sand or other debris from the wellbore. Foam
formulations can include clays and polymers for increased
carrying capacity and stability as well as inhibitors to mini-
mize problems related to water-reactive shales.
Aerated fluids
Aerated drilling is used for intermediate density applications
where the density required is less than water but more than
can be achieved with foam. Aerated mud drilling involves
using mud pumps to pump a normal liquid drilling mud at a
reduced rate and injecting compressed gas at the standpipe
such that the wellbore is circulated with two-phase aerated
flow. The ratio of injected gas to the liquid flowrate deter-
mines the downhole density and the propensity for surging
in the annulus. Surging is where the two-phase flow is un-
stable and flow from the well is intermittent. Aerated muds
offer many of the advantages of drilling with mud in that the
mud properties can be adjusted and the liquid is recirculat-
ed through the mud pits. Aerated drilling is also done with
straight water, brine or oil.
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)
Water-based fluids, or water-based muds (WBMs), are the
most widely used type of drilling fluid systems and are al-
most always used to spud the well. They range from simply
drilling with water to formulated water-based systems with
targeted property specifications and concentrations for var-
ious additives that are used to achieve the desired proper-
ties. The type of system to be used on a particular well is de-
pendent on the type of water locally available, the required
mud weight, local drilling practices and potential problems
that may be encountered.
WBMs comprise a mixture of water and reactive solids, in-
ert solids, functional chemicals and sometimes non-aque-
ous liquids. Most WBM systems can be formulated from
freshwater or seawater.
IADC Drilling Manual
Some of the common water-based systems are:
Water or brine;
Spud muds;
Native muds;
Low solids; low-solids/non-dispersed, polymer, &
lightly treated
Dispersed;
Seawater;
Saturated salt water;
Inhibitive; and
High-performance WBMs.
Water or brine
Freshwater, seawater or field brine can be used in many lo-
cations to effectively drill where higher mud weight is not
needed. When this can be done with minimal drilling prob-
lems, straight water usually produces the highest rates of
penetration and delivers a well at the lowest possible cost.
On land, large horseshoe circulating pits are sometimes
used to settle drill solids. Large volume-inclined plate sepa-
rators can also be used to remove drill solids so that drilling
can continue with basically just water.
Spud mud
Spud muds are high-viscosity fluids used to spud the larg-
er diameter and shallow first interval of each well. They
are prepared from whatever water source is available and
whatever clay or polymer will yield sufficient viscosity in this
water. For freshwater or drill water, bentonite (called gel)
is most often used. 20 to 50 lb/bbl of bentonite is pre-hy-
drated in freshwater four to six hours. It is then usually floc-
culated with lime or seawater to increase viscosity prior
to spudding to carry large cuttings or gravel from the well.
Bentonite does not fully yield in salty or hard waters (above
about 1,500 mg/l chlorides or 320 mg/l total hardness). For
locations without access to fresh or drill water, attapulgite,
guar gum, xanthan gum or other products are required to
generate viscosity in salty or hard waters.
Native muds
Native muds are simply water or spud mud that incorporate
native clays and drill solids to form a low quality but often
effective drilling fluid. Native muds have: increased viscosity
for better hole cleaning; slightly higher mud weights (limit-
ed to about 10.5 ppg); the ability to bridge solids to seal off
high-permeability zones and form a filter cake; and a lim-
ited degree of filtration control. All of these depend on the
formations being drilled and the characteristics of the water
being used. Native muds often suffer from being unstable
and having high fluid loss and thick filter cakes that can lead
to stuck pipe. Once chemical treatments are used to achieve
target viscosity and fluid loss properties (called mudding
up), these systems would be more appropriately called
lightly treated systems.
Copyright 2015

Low-solids systems
The names of these systems are often misused and inter-
changed. They are usually termed low-density systems.
Low-solids/non-dispersed (LSND) system
This is a polymer-exended bentonite freshwater system
with minimal drill solids. Only polymers are used for fluid
loss and viscosity control. Originally, these were unweighted
muds with <6% solids with a drilled solids to bentonite ratio
of <3:1. They did not use any lignosulfonate, lignite or tan-
nin thinners (often called dispersants). These systems have
been shown to produce higher penetration rates than higher
solids systems. The modern use of the LSND term includes
systems that are more accurately described by the polymer
or lightly treated systems below.
Polymer muds
These muds can have a wide variety of formulations. Nor-
mally, polymer systems use polymers such as xanthan gum
for viscosity and polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or sodium
polyacrylate (SPA) for fluid loss control. Only a minimal
amount of bentonite is added. Many polymer systems, such
as the encapsulating polymer systems discussed later, are
considered to be inhibitive due to their ability to coat or en-
capsulate reactive shale cuttings. This keeps them from de-
grading in size and dispersing.
Lightly treated muds
These muds are drilling fluids which use a minimum amount
of thinners such as lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin, phosphate
or a deflocculating polymer to maintain their properties.
Lightly treated systems often use fluid loss control additives
and other additives in low concentrations to achieve targeted
properties. These lightly treated systems are distinguished
from the dispersed systems discussed below mainly due to
the minimal amount of thinners (dispersants) used. Lightly
treated systems most often use bentonite for viscosity and
lignite or polymers for fluid loss control.
Flocculated bentonite systems
This type of system uses mixed metal hydroxide (MMH),
mixed metal oxide (MMO), mixed metal silicate (MMS), soda
ash or Na2CO3, lime, gyp and any number of other chemicals
to flocculate bentonite slurries. These systems have high YPs
and gel strengths for good hole cleaning and suspension due
to the flocculation. Due to the flocculated state of the clays,
however, fluid loss control is difficult and many products can-
not be used because they neutralize the flocculation. Floc-
culated systems are also limited in the density that can be
achieved with good properties. The maximum is often about
12.0 ppg.
Dispersed muds
Dispersed muds contain high concentrations of lignosul-
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-9
fonate, lignite or tannin thinners (often called dispersants).
They are often referred to as lignosulfonate, ligno, chrome
lignosufonate (CLS) and chrome-free lignosulfonate (CFLS)
systems. These types of thinners/dispersants/deflocculants
are often called black powders. The high concentration of
thinners keeps the clays in a deflocculated state and pro-
vides good filtration control. The high concentration of thin-
ners allows the system to tolerate higher concentrations of
drill solids before becoming overly viscous or unstable. The
temperature stability of most dispersed muds is about 325F
and this is the temperature at which the thinners begin to de-
grade. High-temperature fluid loss control additives, such as
sulfonated phenolic resins or asphalt, may be used to achieve
lower levels of fluid loss. Occasionally, potassium or alumina
chemicals are added in an attempt to provide improved shale
inhibition.
Seawater or brackish water
Systems formulated from seawater or brackish water are
most often dispersed muds but may also be polymer or light-
ly treated systems. They are different from fresh water muds
in that they use attapulgite clay, pre-hydrated bentonite or
xanthan gum for viscosity. They also differ in that many mud
products are not effective due to the high chlorides or high
levels of calcium/magnesium. Caustic soda and soda ash
are used to reduce calcium and magnesium levels to a point
where products are more effective. Starch or a PAC polymer
is most often used for fluid loss control.
Saturated salt
Saturated salt systems are used to prevent wellbore enlarge-
ment when drilling salt stringers or salt sections and are nor-
mally sodium chloride based. They are also used in deepwater
drilling applications to reduce the risk of having ice-like gas
hydrates form at high pressures. Saturated salt muds can be
dispersed or non-dispersed, such as non-dispersed polymer
based systems. They are usually formulated from saturated
sodium chloride (NaCl) brine. They are different from fresh
water muds in that they use attapulgite clay or xanthan gum
for viscosity and other mud products that are still effective in
the high chlorides environment. Unlike seawater muds, satu-
rated salt systems typically do not have high levels of divalent
cations (like calcium and magnesium), except for areas where
the salt formation being drilled contains divalent cations such
as the Zechstein salt formation found in Northwest Europe.
Starch or a PAC polymer is most often used for fluid loss con-
trol in these systems.
Inhibitive drilling fluid systems
There are a wide variety of drilling fluids which incorporate
shale inhibitors and have chemistries that inhibit problems
from water-reactive shales (tight hole/shale swelling, slough-
ing shale and bit/Bottomhole Assembly or BHA balling).
These include:
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FL-10 DRILLING FLUIDS
Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer
Potassium is an inhibitor that can base-exchange with sodi-
um in water-sensitive smectite-containing shales. It is used
at concentrations between 3 and 12% weight for most appli-
cations. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymer (PHPA)
is a long chain polymer that will encapsulate reactive drill
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. These systems nor-
mally use xanthan gum for viscosity and PAC polymer for fluid
loss control with minimal amounts of added bentonite. These
products are the basis for many KCl polymer systems. Oth-
er encapsulating and fluid loss polymers such as PAC, sodi-
um polyacrylate (SPA) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) may also
be used. These systems can use freshwater or seawater as
the base fluid. Other sources of potassium are also used to
formulate chlorides-free potassium-inhibitive mud. These
include potassium acetate (KC2H3O2), potassium sulfate
(K 2SO4), potassium formate (KCOOH) and potassium hy-
droxide (KOH) neutralized products.
KCl polyglycol
This is an improvement on the KCl polymer system that utilizes
a polyglycol selected to be water insoluble at the salinity and
temperature of the formation (called cloud point). The poly-
glycol is thought to: displace water adsorbed on the surface of
drill cuttings or reactive formations preventing swelling and
dispersion; form insoluble blocking of shale pores preventing
water entry and pressure transmission into shale pores; and
improve lubricity. These systems typically use much higher
concentrations of KCl, often 12 to over 20% weight.
Polyamine systems
Amine, polyamine and quaternary amine chemicals are wide-
ly used as shale inhibitors. They are most often used in poly-
mer systems and high-performance WBMs such as those
discussed below. These amine-based products can range
from simple low molecular weight additives to medium mo-
lecular weight polyamines as substitutes for KCl
Calcium systems
Calcium, similar to potassium, is an inhibitor that can base-ex-
change with sodium in water-sensitive smectite-containing
shales. Inhibitive calcium systems must have high levels of
filtrate calcium to function. While not as widely used today
as in the past, calcium-treated systems include gyp, lime, and
calcium chloride or CaCl2-based systems. Gyp and lime muds
are usually freshwater muds that are often heavily treated
with thinners such as lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin. The
mud-up conversion to a gyp or lime mud can be quite difficult
as they go through a viscosity hump during the breakover..
Calcium systems are usually polymer systems based on spe-
cial polymers that perform in high calcium levels. Many poly-
mers used in other systems are not effective in calcium-treat-
ed systems. Calcium-treated muds are less susceptible to
IADC Drilling Manual
contamination from contaminants like drilling salt or anhy-
drite. They are, however, prone to gelation which may lead to
solidification at high temperatures unless the MBT is kept low
and the concentration of other additives properly maintained
Silicate systems
Sodium and potassium silicate (K2SiO3) are high pH chemi-
cals that precipitate on the surface of reactive drill cuttings
and formations as they are exposed to calcium, magnesium or
low pH environments. They form a glass-like coating on these
water-reactive shales and prevent swelling and dispersion.
Silicate systems do not tolerate calcium, magnesium and oth-
er multivalent cations. Silicate systems may need a special
silicate-compatible lubricant for deviated wells.
Encapsulating polymer systems
PHPA, PAC/SPA, or cationic polymer systems with sufficient
concentrations of polymers will encapsulate reactive drill
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. Encapsulation cou-
pled with low fluid loss provides a fluid with good inhibition
for water-sensitive shales. KCl polymer and polyamine poly-
mer systems are more inhibitive versions of encapsulating
polymer systems.
Any number of other inhibitive systems are available. No-
table examples include diammonium phosphate or calci-
um-ammonium nitrate and methylglycoside.
High-performance water-based muds (HPWBM)
These complex WBM systems come closest to providing
the drilling performance and wellbore stability given by oil-
based systems. They typically contain a shale inhibitor (salt
or polyamine), encapsulating polymer, anti-balling additive
or ROP enhancer, lubricant, fluid loss control additives and
viscosifying polymers. HPWBMs have higher cost, require
more intensive wellsite engineering and require higher
maintenance treatments than other WBMs.
High-temperature (HT), high-temperature/high
pressure (HTHP)and ultra-HTHP systems
These systems are used to drill in high-temperature forma-
tions, generally defined as formation temperatures above
300F (150C). High-temperature muds would be ones with
lower mud weights such as those used in geothermal drill-
ing. HTHP muds are used in wells with a Bottomhole Pres-
sure (BHP) above 10,000 lb/sq in. (69 MPa). Ultra-HTHP
systems would indicate a formation temperature above
400F (205C) and BHP above 20,000 lb/sq in. (139 MPa).
These mud systems could be water-based or oil-based.
These systems are also specially formulated to be stable un-
der hostile conditions where conventional systems are not
stable or economical to maintain. An in-depth discussion of
these systems is outside the scope of this manual. The main
Copyright 2015

differences between these and conventional systems is that
all the products used must be stable at these elevated tem-
peratures. Conventional viscosifiers, like bentonite or xan-
than gum for WBM or amine-treated bentonite for NAFs,
are not stable and alternative products must be used. For
WBMs, this may be a product like sepiolite clay or a HT-sta-
ble synthetic polymer. For NAFs, it may be wet-processed
amine-treated hectorite. For filtration control, products like
PAC for WBMs and gilsonite for NAFs would need to be re-
placed with a HT-stable synthetic polymer. The same holds
true for thinners (deflocculants) for WBMs and emulsifiers/
wetting agents for NAFs. Conventional products like ligno-
sulfonate, lignite and tannin in WBMs are not effective and
would need to be replaced with anionic synthetic polymer
deflocculants or other HT stable additives.
Non-aqueous-based mud systems (oil-based)
Non-aqueous drilling fluids (NAFs) are formulated with a
non-aqueous base fluid (oil) as the main liquid phase. The
NAFs are insoluble in water, oil-wet drill cuttings and ex-
posed formations. This prevents them from hydrating by
contact with water. Non-aqueous based systems are also
referred to as NAFs, OBMs, invert emulsions or just inverts.
NAFs formulated from synthetic oils are often called SBMs.
Shales that swell, disperse, ball and become unstable when
drilled with WBMs do not exhibit these problems when
drilled with OBMs. In general, NAFs:
Tolerate higher concentrations of drill solids;
Are less susceptible to chemical contamination;
Can be used to drill salt formations;
Are generally more temperature stable;
Provide better lubricity;
Have lower fluid loss;
Reduce the risk of stuck pipe;
Produce higher rates of penetration;
Cause less wellbore enlargement;
Limit corrosion;
Reduce the risk and consequence of gas hydrates;
Cause less formation damage; and
Provide improved wellbore stability.
For these reasons, NAFs result in fewer drilling problems
and are widely used throughout the industry.
The disadvantages of using NAFs (oil-based muds) are the
higher cost, extra handling and disposal controls for both
mud and drill cuttings due to HSE considerations, more dif-
ficult supply logistics of base oil, and have the potential for
water contamination and water-wet solids. NAFs have more
problems with lost circulation and remedying lost circula-
tion with these systems is more difficult.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-11
In addition, natural gas and other gasses are highly soluble in
NAFs at higher pressures, such that influxes may be difficult
to detect. After an influx, the solubilized gas does not ex-
pand as in a WBM. The fluid is circulated up the annulus to
a fairly shallow depth where the pressure is low enough that
the gas comes out of the solution and begins to expand rap-
idly. For this reason, it is important to be able to detect small
volume influxes when drilling with NAFs and to be cautious
when circulating influxes from the well. It is also important
to understand that NAFs expand more than WBMs with
increases in temperature such that the density is lower (as
volume expands) at high temperatures. For this reason, the
influence of temperature on density and wellbore volumes
needs to be understood and considered for critical opera-
tions.
The base fluids used to formulate NAFs include No.2 diesel,
mineral oils, white oils and synthetic oils (i.e. olefins, esters,
ethers, acetals and paraffins). While NAFs were once for-
mulated with crude oil, this practice is rare today due to the
low flash point and HSE considerations of using crude oil.
The two broad divisions of oil-based systems are invert
emulsions and all-oil systems.
Invert emulsions
Invert emulsions are the most common category of NAFs.
They have oil as the external phase and a lesser volume of
emulsified calcium chloride (or other) brine as the internal
phase. Typical ratios of oil to water are 70/30 to 90/10.
The emulsified brine is emulsified as micron-sized droplets
which are trapped in the filter cake with other solids. This
results in invert emulsions having very low fluid loss and a
thin filter cake as compared to WBMs.
While there are a number of invert emulsion systems in the
market, the broad types can be differentiated by the type
of emulsifier used and special features the system provides.
Invert emulsion NAF types are:
Calcium soap systems
These systems use an emulsifier based on calcium soap
chemistry, formed by the reaction of oxidized tall oil (derived
from pine trees) and large additions of calcium hydroxide or
Ca(OH)2 (lime). This system is the most common and eco-
nomical type of NAF system.
Surfactant emulsifier systems
These systems use amine or amide-type fatty acid emulsifi-
ers such as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty
acid or imidazoline. These systems may not require as much
lime and use lower concentrations of chemicals to form a
stable emulsion.
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FL-12 DRILLING FLUIDS
Low clay, flat rheology systems
These NAF systems contain little or no amine-treated clay
for viscosity and use emulsifiers, viscosifiers and other addi-
tives which produce rheology properties that do not change
much with changes in temperature. These systems have YP,
gel strength and low-shear rate viscosity values that change
less than about 25% between 40F and 150F.
Relaxed fluid loss systems
These specially formulated NAF systems are designed to
have much higher HTHP fluid loss and higher oil/water ra-
tios (OWRs) than the conventional NAFs described above.
These systems are used where higher penetration rates are
desired such as in areas that are often referred to as hard
rock drilling. They may even have measureable API fluid
loss values.
All oil systems
All oil systems are similar in formulation to invert emulsion
NAF muds with the exception that there is no added brine
used in the formulation. In practice, they generally pick up
0-5% water. Formulations for all oil systems generally use
higher concentrations of organophilic clay with lower con-
centrations of emulsifiers and wetting agents. Some wells
are actually drilled with just base oil and no additives, al-
though this is rare.
Special application fluids
There are a number of different special application fluids:
Completion brines
A wide variety of heavy brines are used during completion
operations to control subsurface pressures and prevent for-
mation damage (See Table FL-2). These are solid-free fluids
often referred to as clear brines. They are selected based on
the density needed and are often a mixture of several brines.
Drill-in fluids
Drill-in fluids are special formulations designed to be min-
imally damaging to producing formations, or to be easily
cleaned-up. They can be either water-based or oil-based.
The most common drill-in fluids are water or brine-based
formulations that use calcium carbonate or CaCO3 for den-
sity/bridging and starch for fluid loss. When treated with
acid, the filter cakes from these formulations will degrade
and dissolve resulting in an effective clean-up.
Another drill-in fluid system is based on saturated sodium
chloride brine and sized salt for bridging/additional densi-
ty and starch for fluid loss. When treated with freshwater
or other clean-up treatments, the salt particle-based filter
cakes dissolve resulting in an effective clean-up.
Coring Fluids: So called Low Invasion Coring fluids are used
IADC Drilling Manual
when coring permeable formations to minimize contamina-
tion and displacement of native formation fluids (usually oil)
and preserve certain properties of the recovered rock. They
can be water-based or oil-based and typically use benign
products which do not change the wettability of the forma-
tion and have high concentrations of ultrafine-sized calcium
carbonate for bridging.
Other special application fluids
A number of other fluids are used for special operations.
Milling fluids are high-viscosity fluids for milling casing or a
fish. Packer fluids are fluids that are left in the annulus above
the production packer and can be water-based, oil-based or
brine. Spacers and flushes are fluids used to help displace
one system with another or during cementing to help get a
good mud displacement and cement bond. Fluid loss con-
trol pills are solids laden or viscous fluids used to prevent or
minimize the loss of brine to open perforations during com-
pletion operations. Sweeps are a slurry pumped through
the well on a once around basis, usually used for improved
hole cleaning or treating lost circulation. Stuck pipe spotting
fluids are special fluids used to free stuck pipe. Most often
spotting fluids are OBMs with special additives to help pen-
etrate the filter cake; however, for some formations, acid or
other spotting fluids may be used. Lost circulation pills are
fluids containing LCMs or settable slurries that help remedy
lost circulation.
Additives
Drilling fluid additives include weight materials, viscosifiers,
filtration control additives, pH/alkalinity control chemicals,
dispersants/deflocculants/thinners, surfactants and emul-
sifiers, shale inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors/oxygen scav-
engers/H2S scavengers, lubricants and bridging agents/
LCMs. The descriptions below are intended to include only
the most common products used and do not address the
multitude of potential products available in the market.
Weight materials
Barite or barium sulfate is the predominant weight material
used to increase density worldwide. It is an inert and insol-
uble mineral that is ground to meet API specifications and
has a medium material hardness that minimizes erosion.
For offshore usage, barite may need to meet mercury and
cadmium limits. Iron oxide products are also used as weight
materials including hematite (ferric oxide or Fe2O3) and il-
menite (iron titanium oxide or FeTiO3). These products have
a higher hardness and can be abrasive unless the particle
size is sufficiently small and void of any large particles. API
specifications for hematite call for less than 1.5% above 75
microns (200 mesh). Manganese tetraoxide (Mn3O4) is also
used as a weight material. All of the weight materials listed
above may also be produced with particle size distributions
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(below about 5 microns) and called micronized so that they
do not sag in highly directional wells.
For non-damaging drill-in fluids and other light-weight drill-
ing fluids, calcium carbonate is often used as the weight ma-
terial and can be used to formulate fluids up to about 12 lb/
gal. Heavy-weight brines such as sodium chloride, potassi-
um chloride, calcium chloride, sodium formate (NaCOOH)
and potassium formate (KCOOH) are also used for density
in special fluids like drill-in fluids.
Viscosifiers
Bentonite (called gel) and xanthan gum polymer are used
to increase viscosity for fresh WBMs. Seawater and saturat-
ed WBMs use attapulgite clay, guar or xanthan gum or other
natural or synthetic high-molecular weight polymer prod-
ucts for viscosity. NAFs use amine-treated bentonite (called
organophilic clay) as the primary viscosifer. Other NAF vis-
cosifiers include dimer-trimer fatty acids and co-polymer
filtration control additives. The quantity of emulsified brine
and other products in a formulation will also contribute to
viscosity. Chemical flocculants like lime or soda ash plus any
number of polymers may be used to increase viscosity by
flocculation in clay-based WBMs. These are discussed be-
low under flocculants.
Filtration control additives (fluid loss control
additives)
Filtration control additives reduce the filtrate that will in-
vade a permeable formation and limit the filter cake thick-
ness. For WBMs, these products range from bentonite clay
used in fresh water and starch (used in salt water) to lig-
nite, polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), sodium polyacrylate (SPA), carboxymethyl starch
(CM starch), blown asphalt, sulfonated phenolic resins, as-
phalt, gilsonite and any number of other medium-molecu-
lar weight polymers. For NAFs, gilsonite (natural asphalt),
asphalt, amine-treated lignite and methyl styrene acrylate
co-polymers are the primary filtration control additives
used.
Thinners (deflocculants)
Thinners are products that reduce the viscosity of a fluid by
chemical actions to maintain its pumpability. For WBMs,
the thinning action is caused by deflocculation of clays and
reactive drill solids with anionic chemicals which neutralize
the cationic-charged clay edges. These products include
lignosulfonate, lignite, tannins (quebracho), various poly-
phosphates such as sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and
sodium tetraphosphate and low molecular weight polymers.
For NAFs, thinning is achieved by adding surfactants (emul-
sifiers and wetting agents) that neutralize the tendency of
the emulsified brine and organo clays to coalesce.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-13
pH/alkalinity control chemicals
These refer to chemicals that increase or decrease pH or
alkalinity (relative acidity or alkalinity). Products which in-
crease pH include lime (calcium hydroxide), caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide), soda ash (sodium carbonate) and mag
ox (magnesium oxide). Products which reduce pH include
bicarb (sodium bicarbonate), SAPP, citric acid and acetic
acid. These pH reducing products are most often used to
reduce pH when drilling cement.
Calcium removers
Calcium is detrimental to the yield of clays and the per-
formance of many drilling fluid additives. For this reason,
calcium is often precipitated from high calcium make-up
waters and from drilling fluids which incorporate calcium
from drilling anhydrite formations (calcium sulfate) or after
drilling cement. Depending on the situation, soda ash, caus-
tic soda, bicarbonate of soda, Ethylene-diamine-tetra acetic
acid (EDTA) or a polyphosphate (SAPP or sodium tetrap-
hosphate) may be used for this purpose.
Surfactants and emulsifiers
Surfactants and emulsifiers are used in all NAFs and in some
WBMs. For NAFs, they are used to form the brine-in-water
emulsion and to oil-wet solids. The emulsifiers and wetting
agents used for NAFs include tall oil-based chemicals (de-
rived from pine trees), amine or amide-type fatty acids such
as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty acid
and imidazoline. Surfactants reduce the surface tension
between two incompatible liquids and two contacting solid
surfaces. Dish washing detergent is a common household
example of a water-wetting surfactant.
In WBMs, soaps or detergents are surfactants that are used
to prevent bit and bottomhole assembly (BHA) balling when
drilling reactive clays and shales (called gumbo) and to
water-wet certain oil-wet additives (like the so called cou-
pler used to water wet gilsonite or asphalt to keep it from
coating out or being removed at the shale shaker). Foaming
agents are discussed briefly below and are used when air
or foam drilling. Many additives have some secondary func-
tionality as emulsifiers and surfactants; for example, ligno-
sulfonates, lignite, tannins and humates.
De-emulsifiers are surfactants that prevent an emulsion
from forming. They are occasionally used in completion flu-
ids and drill-in fluids to prevent an emulsion from forming in
a producing formation and causing formation damage.
Shale inhibitors
Shale inhibitors are products used in WBMs to prevent clays
and shales from hydrating and becoming unstable or from
having excessive wellbore enlargement. Some shale inhibi-
tors are used as the basis for formulating inhibitive systems
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FL-14 DRILLING FLUIDS
like gypsum or lime, potassium compounds, sodium or po-
tassium silicate, various brines, polyglycols and amine/poly-
amine/quaternary amines. Many polymers are also cited as
shale inhibitors as they slow the reaction of WBFs with re-
active shales.
Polymers may tie up the water, limiting invasion and filtration
and/or encapsulate or coat the reactive solids. Examples Lubricants
of these high or medium molecular weight polymers include
PHPA, SPA, PVA, PAC, and CMC. Often plating agents such
as asphalt, gilsonite and sulfonated asphalt are added to
improve wellbore stability. Other shale inhibitors that have
been used are diammonium phosphate, calcium-ammoni-
um nitrate, and methyl glycoside
Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/biocides
Corrosion inhibitors are products used to prevent or lim-
it corrosion rates. They are most often used in WBMs and
completion brines. Scavengers are products that precipitate
a certain undesirable chemical that causes excessive corro-
sion. For drilling applications, these include oxygen scaven-
gers and hydrogen sulfide scavengers. Biocides (also called
bactericides) are used to prevent fermentation or biodegra-
dation of certain additives (most notably organic materials
like starch, xanthan gum and LCMs).
Common corrosion inhibitors are amine-based additives that
coat steel surfaces or products like organophosphate-based
additives that passivate sites where corrosion may occur.
Oxygen scavengers are usually sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) or
ammonium bisulfite-based additives, frequently catalyzed
with heavy metals such as nickel or cobalt. Oxygen scaven-
gers react with dissolved oxygen in the water phase and re-
move it through this chemical reaction. Oxygen scavengers
should be injected into the suction line of the mud pump
and not added directly to the suction pit. H2S scavengers are
iron or zinc chemicals, which under proper conditions, can
chemically precipitate or neutralize H2S. Zinc oxide (ZnO)
and zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) are two common H2S scaven-
gers. Although not a true scavenger, it is recommended to
add caustic soda and/or lime to raise and maintain the pH of
the mud to >11.0 in WBMs, or add lime to maintain >5lb/bbl in
NAFs if H2S is detected.
Biocides are chemicals that either kill or inhibit bacterial and
possibly fungal growth in drilling and completion fluids. Bac-
terial growth is often first indicated by a foul odor that can
smell like yeast (fermenting beer) or rotten eggs (sulfate- re-
ducing bacteria) and possibly foaming or frothing in the pits.
Biocides are industrial strength products and special care
should be taken in selecting and using these products. As
is the case when using any drilling fluid chemical, the proper
PPE should be used to prevent exposure.
IADC Drilling Manual
Biocides range from simple inorganic chemicals like bleach
(hypochlorite) and swimming pool chlorine products to
those which increase pH such as soda ash, caustic soda
and lime. More complex organic industrial biocides include
products such as glutaraldehyde, isothiazolone, triazine,
carbamates and bronopol.
Lubricants are products used to reduce the coefficient of
friction of the drilling fluid to reduce torque and drag be-
tween the drill string and casing or open hole. Lubricants
are most often used in WBMs and include: straight oils such
as diesel, mineral and synthetic oils (olefins and esters) and
vegetable oils; blends of oils and oil-based materials; graph-
ite; polyglycols; glycerin; fatty acid blends; asphalt; gilsonite;
and sulfonated asphalt. Solid lubricants such as glass and
copolymer beads are also used as ball bearing type friction
reducers.
Defoamers
These are products designed to control foam and foaming
action in WBMs, particularly that which occurs in brackish,
seawater or saturated salt systems. Defoamers include:
octyl alcohol and other fatty alcohols; aluminum stearate
which is mixed onsite in diesel oil or delivered as a liquid sus-
pension; polyglycols; butyl phosphate; and silicone based
products.
Flocculants
Flocculants refer to high molecular weight polyacrylamide
polymers that can be used to flocculate and aggregate re-
active drill solids so that they can be removed at the shale
shaker or with a centrifuge and products used to flocculate
bentonite-based muds for improved hole cleaning. Similar
polymer products are added in small quantities to dry ben-
tonite or bentonite slurries to increase viscosity. Inorganic
chemicals can also be used to flocculate slurries including
many chemicals that are a source of soluble calcium or other
multivalent ions like aluminum or iron or products that are
a source of chlorides or carbonates such as sodium chloride
or soda ash. Lime, gypsum, soda ash or even seawater are
commonly used to flocculate.
Temperature stability agents
These are products used to improve the temperature sta-
bility (rheology and filtration) of a fluid formulation and/or
individual product above its normal range. For some appli-
cations, these are the base fluids chosen for the formulation
such as saturated brines or fluids with anti-oxidant char-
acteristics like formate brines. In other applications, these
products are additives like pH buffers, alcohols, glycols,
amines, synthetic polymers and organic chemicals.
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Foaming agents
Foamers are chemicals which are surfactants (surface ac-
tive agents) that create foam for air drilling with mist or foam
operations.
Hydrate suppressants
These are brines or low molecular weight alcohol or gly-
col-based additives which are used in WBMs for hydrate
inhibition in deepwater and cold climate operations.
LCM/bridging agents
These products are used to remedy downhole mud losses to
highly permeable zones, fractures or faults. Most LCMs are
low-cost agricultural or industrial waste products that vary
by geographic region.
There is no standard sizing convention for LCMs between
LCM type or between manufacturers. Names like fine, me-
dium and coarse are relative (even within one companys
product line); for example, coarse calcium carbonate is usu-
ally smaller than fine nut shells. Likewise, numbers given to
products can be misleading. Some companies use a number
to indicate the median particle size and other companies
use a number to indicate the screen size used to classify the
product. A number like 300 could mean the median size is
300 micron or that the product was sized with a 300 mesh
screen meaning the median size might be on the order of 55
microns.
Bridging agents are most often applicable for sealing
high-permeability formations like coarse sands, gravel beds
and other forms of high matrix permeability. These bridg-
ing products include granular materials like coarse calcium
carbonate, ground nut shells, and granular graphite or flake
materials like mica or ground plastic laminate. Bridging
agents are also the LCMs that are most often used for well-
bore strengthening preventative practices where 10 to 50
lb/bbl of LCM is carried in the fluid while drilling.
Conventional LCMs are categorized by particle type: gran-
ular, fibrous, and flake. They are limited to a maximum size
of about 2 mm for most applications where mud motors and
measurement while drilling (MWD) tools are used.
Granular materials can be made from any material. Com-
mon granular LCMs are nut shells, granular graphite, pe-
troleum coke, ground coal, sized wood chips or tree bark,
ground rubber, sized plastic, swellable polymers and sized
calcium carbonate.
Fibrous materials include products like cedar fiber, shredded
cane stalks, cotton seed hulls/cotton lint, mineral fiber (rock
wool), sawdust, fiberglass, shredded paper and cloth, nylon
and other synthetic fibers, carpet fiber, foam and animal hair.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-15
Flake materials include mica, cellulose, cellophane, flaked
graphite, flaked calcium carbonate and ground plastic lam-
inate.
A common all-purpose LCM product is a blend of fibers and
granular and flake materials. These sealing blends are effec-
tive for porous loss zones, vugs and fractures. The blend of
various types of materials allows a larger diameter opening
to be sealed than would be possible if a singular additive was
used.
Natural fractures, induced fractures and losses associated
with faults are the predominant cause of lost circulation and
are often difficult to cure. For severe and total lost circulation
situations, other special application fluids are used. These
include high-fluid-loss/high-solids squeezes (diatomaceous
earth), settable slurries (resins, cross-linked polymers,
magnesium based cements, thixotropic cement), down-
hole mixed diesel oil bentonite squeezes (called gunk) for
WBMs and organophilic clay in water squeezes for NAFs
(reverse gunk).
Special care should be taken when selecting LCM products
to resolve downhole losses in producing reservoir hole inter-
vals. The intent is to avoid damage to the producing forma-
tion and subsequent reduction in well productivity.
Location on a rig site
Drilling fluids circulate through the wellbore (Figure FL-2)
from a reserve volume of fluid in the mud pits at the surface.
High-pressure reciprocating piston mud pumps pump the
mud from the mud pits to the standpipe then to the top drive
or kelly and into the bore of the drill string at high velocity.
The mud exits the drill string at the bit nozzles at extreme
velocity to clean the bit and cuttings from beneath the bit.
In the annulus, the velocity is reduced and the non-Newto-
nian mud becomes more viscous which helps carry cuttings
from the well. At the surface, the shale shakers screen out
drill cuttings and return the mud to the mud pits for re-cir-
culation. Additional fluid processing equipment is located
on or near the mud pits. These may include the mud/gas
separator, degasser, desander, desilter, mud cleaner and
centrifuge.
Installation
Drilling fluids are normally mixed on location in the mud
pits by adding dry and liquid products. Dry products are in-
troduced into the fluid with a jet mixing hopper while liquid
products are most often poured directly into the suction pit
over a location that has good stirring. Products are usually
protected from the weather and stored in a covered shed/
container or room normally located adjacent to the mud
pumps and suction mud pit. Bulk materials such as barite or
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FL-16 DRILLING FLUIDS
bentonite are stored in silos and pneumatically transferred
to a mixing hopper. Drill water, base oil or brine is stored in
large tanks and pumped to the mud pits.
Safety and handling
Drilling fluids and general rig operations use a number of dif-
ferent chemicals for various operations. Each chemical has
unique chemical and physical properties which need to be
considered for safe handling. Information about chemicals
and hazards is provided by the supplier in several forms.
These include the: safety data sheets or SDS (previously re-
ferred to as the MSDS or material safety data sheets); prod-
uct labels; transportation labels; National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) labels or other labels used in transpor-
tation; and hazardous materials information system (HMIS)
labels.
The United Nations (UN) has sponsored a global standard
for the classification and labeling of chemicals called the
globally harmonized system (GHS). This system has stan-
dard formats for SDS and product labels. GHS addresses
the hazards related to physical, health, and environmental
dangers. Information on the SDS and product labels should
be used to determine safe handling procedures and the PPE
required. See the Appendix for information on GHS safety
data sheets and product labels, plus information on NFPA
and HMIS labels.
Proper handling for safety
Fire hazards and zones
When drilling wells to collect hydrocarbons, it is possible
for hydrocarbons to be returned with the circulating fluids.
Wherever the returning fluid is open to the air, flammable
Table FL-3: DNV fire hazard zones.
Hazardous areas are divided into zones depending upon the grade
(frequency and duration) of release*:
Zone 0: Explosive gas atmosphere is continuously present or present for
long periods (typical for continuous grade source present for more than
1000 hours a year or that occurs frequently for short periods).
Zone 1: Explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation
(typical for primary grade source present between 10 and 1000 hours
a year).
Zone 2: Explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal
operation and if it does occur, is likely to do so infrequently and will exist
for a short period only (typical for secondary grade source present for
less than 10 hours per year and for short periods only).
Non-hazardous areas are areas, which are not hazardous according to
the definitions above.
Guidance note: Note that conditions of ventilation may change the zone
definition for each grade of release. The likelihood of detecting the leak
may also influence the zone.
* VERITAS, Det Norske, OFFSHORE STANDARD DNV-OS-A101 and
DNV-OS-A101.
IADC Drilling Manual
natural gas and light hydrocarbons can be released. The risk
of fire can be greatly reduced by eliminating sources of ig-
nition from those areas. Rig areas are classified into three
zones based on the potential for explosive mixtures to be
present (Table FL-3):
Zone 0 includes production-related equipment or
internal tanks and piping used for drilling fluids that
have a high frequency of containing gas
Zone 1 includes the bell nipple, exposed areas of the
flowline, shale shakers and other areas where gas is
often present. If gas has been picked up while drilling, it
comes out of the solution as it passes through the
screens. Even without formation hydrocarbons, OBM
may release flammable vapors if it arrives at the shaker
at temperatures above its flashpoint. Enclosure and
ventilation of the shaker area can significantly reduce
vapor concentrations and risk of fire.
Zone 2 consists of the rest of the drilling area which is
made up of the derrick, drilling floor, degassers and
Blowout Preventer (BOP) area. This may also include
active mud in open gutters (troughs) before final
degassing, the vent from the degasser system and
racked drill pipe if it is coated with drilling mud.
In Zones 1 and 2, sources of ignition (such as lighting fix-
tures, motors and switches) are tightly controlled to elimi-
nate propagation of a flame. Cell phones, electronic camer-
as and other electrified equipment cannot be used in these
areas.
Oily rags saturated with diesel fuel, mineral oil or formation
fluids represent a significant risk of spontaneous combus-
tion. These rags can be accumulated in large numbers be-
cause rags are conveniently used to wipe mud balances and
other pieces of drilling equipment. The oil adsorbed onto the
fabric presents a high-surface area, allowing the normal-
ly slow oxidation by air to proceed much faster than when
stored as a liquid. When stored as an open pile, the resulting
heat can result in spontaneous combustion and fire. All oily
rags and similar materials must be stored in proper, air-re-
stricting containers.
Chemical hazards
It is impossible to list all the chemicals used in drilling op-
erations or to predict what products may be used in the fu-
ture. The hazards of storing and handling each product must
be evaluated on both an individual basis and in conjunction
with the other products already present. Chemical handling
hazard recognition posters and similar guides can be useful
in reminding the crew of the need to properly classify, han-
dle and store materials.
Products that can react with each other should be stored
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separately; for example, acids like citric acid should be
stored in a separate area from caustics (bases) like caus-
tic soda. The best guide to the safe handling and storage of
drilling fluid products is the SDS that accompanies it. It may
be called a product data safety sheet or MSDS depending
on the jurisdiction. Recommendations for storage appear in
Section 7 of the SDS.
Even non-reactive chemical products must be protected
from rainwater and wash water. Wet sacks can fail, exposing
the contents to personnel and the drilling environment. A
spill of bentonite clay, for example, becomes slippery when
wet. Big bags of barite and other fine solids can become al-
most solid blocks of paste if rainwater is allowed to enter
them.
Some chemical hazards include hydrogen sulfide (H2S), car-
bon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lime, caustics
and OBM surfactants.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
H2S represents a special hazard. It is colorless and both
highly poisonous at very low levels and highly flammable.
While it has a strong odor at low concentrations, it may
be undetectable at high concentrations. H2S can come
from drilled gases and from biodegradation of drilling fluid
and completion fluids, especially when seawater or sulfate
brines are used. Even in routine operations, there must be
continual monitoring of H2S gas at the shale shaker area,
mud tank area, drill floor and above or in the mud flow line.
Because H2S is heavier than air, testing for it should always
be performed prior to entering any closed or confined spac-
es that have contained drilling or other well work-related
fluids, particularly confined spaces, in low-lying areas, and
below grade (such as underground or underdeck tanks or
enclosed areas).
Almost any untreated seawater system will develop H2S if
it is untreated and stored under static conditions. The nat-
urally occurring sulfate-reducing bacteria use the sulfates
found in seawater to digest hydrocarbons, polysaccharides
and other oilfield materials. This results in the generation of
H2S as a waste product. This is especially common in packer
fluids or temporary abandonment fluids. Where formation
fluids containing H2S are likely to be encountered, additional
contingencies such as self-contained breathing apparatus
and dual flare lines must be employed. See the H2S Hand-
book and API RP 49 Recommended Practice for Drilling and
Well Servicing Operations Involving H2S for more detailed
recommendations.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is a common component of diesel exhausts
and formation fluids. It can be produced by thermal and bio-
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-17
degradation of drilling and completion fluid products. Col-
orless and odorless, it acts as an intoxicant at low concen-
trations (2 to 3%) and an asphyxiant at high concentrations
(>10%). Proper ventilation and control of confined space
entry, especially of pits and other areas where gases can
collect, is required for protection.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is also a common component of diesel
exhaust but is rarely found in drilling fluids. Unlike carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide is poisonous and can cause head-
aches and nausea at low concentrations (<400 ppm) and
death at high concentrations (800 ppm and above). Carbon
monoxide can be produced as a byproduct of the firing of
certain perforating charges and appears in returned fluids.
Proper ventilation is required for protection.
Lime
There are two products used in drilling fluids which are of-
ten referred to as lime, hot or quicklime and hydrated or
slacked lime. These lime products can generate heat and
form a high pH when mixed in water or when exposed to
water vapor. This heat can then accelerate other chemical
reactions. Due to the heat of hydration and resulting high
pH, these materials should be handled with utmost care and
proper PPE protection.
Hot lime or quicklime is calcium oxide (CaO), it is more
hazardous to use than hydrated lime because it generates
more heat when mixed and is more reactive such that it can
cause chemical and thermal burns. Quick lime can even
generate heat when it reacts with humidity in air. Empty
bags of quick lime exposed to humid air can generate suffi-
cient heat to smolder and ignite. It is used most often at oil
based mud mixing plants where it is preferred to slaked lime
because it generates heat and speeds the emulsification
process due to a quicker reaction with emulsifiers.
The other product is hydrated lime or slaked lime. It is
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Hydrated lime generates one
fifth the heat of solution (in water) and is slower to reac-
tive than quicklime. This makes it less hazardous and safer
to handle. Hydrated lime can be used to form stable NAF
emulsions in mud mixing plants if sufficient shear and mix-
ing energy is used.
Caustic (Sodium hydroxide or NaOH) and caustic
potash (Potassium hydroxide or KOH)
Caustic and caustic potash are solid materials that create
heat and high pH when exposed to water or water vapor. If
mixed with an equal volume of water, the resulting mixture
will spontaneously boil. Due to the heat of hydration and re-
sulting high pH, these materials should be handled with ut-
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FL-18 DRILLING FLUIDS
most care and proper PPE protection. The heat and high pH
can also adversely affect many mud systems. These prod-
ucts are usually best added by first diluting them with water
such as with a chemical barrel. Caustic should ALWAYS be
added to water because of the threat of boiling. NEVER add
water to caustic.
In some operations, the risks of handling caustic and caustic
potash are regarded as too high and less reactive agents are
used to raise pH. Exposure to these dry products can cause
severe skin burns. Soda ash (sodium carbonate or Na2CO3)
and/or slaked lime are less aggressive. When used in com-
bination, they can be effective at increasing pH. Soda ash
and lime can be added directly to the mud.
OBM surfactants
Almost all drilling fluids can be irritating to the skin if not
promptly washed off. The base oil and surfactants in OBM,
however, require additional precautions. These can be ir-
ritating to the skin on first exposure and can sensitize it to
produce an allergic response on repeated exposures. Chem-
ical resistant clothing, gloves, barrier creams, and other PPE
can reduce or eliminate direct exposure. Clothing and oth-
er fabric items that are exposed to OBM, or the surfactants
used in it, must be carefully laundered to remove all traces
of these materials before reuse. Even clothing that has not
been directly exposed can pick up surfactants from contam-
inated clothing while being laundered. For this reason, it is
recommended that separate washing machines be used for
OBM-contaminated and uncontaminated clothing. While the
initial irritation can appear to be minor, the long-term effects
can become quite severe if left untreated. All skin irritations
should be promptly reported and treated.
Physical hazards
There are a number of physical hazards that may impact
safety and need to be properly addressed.
Heat
Working in hot and humid environments, like the area around
the shakers or above enclosed mud pits, can bring on heat
stroke and heat exhaustion. This is particularly true when
wearing PPE to reduce chemical exposure. Extra ventilation,
readily available water, sun protection and frequent breaks
may be required to avoid injury and lost time. All applicable
health and safety regulatory requirements should be ob-
served.
In addition, hot drilling fluid returning from the well can cause
thermal burns. Fluid can splash from flowlines and shakers
and the flowline itself can become too hot to touch safely.
In certain operations the drilling fluid can flash into steam or
vapor as it is circulated from the well. The extent of thermal
injury from contact with drilling fluid depends on the heat ca-
pacity, composition, density, viscosity, chemical properties,
IADC Drilling Manual
how much is in contact and how long it is in contact. This
makes it impossible to set specific limits as to the risk of ex-
posure to the fluid.
Similarly, the pipes and flowlines carrying hot mud can also
cause burns. Here too, there are many contributing factors
and there are only limited regulatory guidelines beyond the
requirement to prevent personal injury. The ASTM Standard
Guide for Heated System Conditions that Produce Contact
Burn Injuries (C 1055-92) provides a method for evaluating
risk. As a rule, contact with surfaces above 104 F can cause
discomfort. Bath water at 120 F can cause third degree
burns within five minutes of exposure and this temperature
is often chosen as the maximum temperature for surfaces
that people may momentarily contact. Water at 150 F can
produce third degree burns in one second. While surfaces
may transfer heat more or less effectively than bath water,
many organizations require insulation or guards to prevent
accidental contact.
Sack cutting
Many products come in sacks that must be cut or torn open.
Proper cutting tools, protective gloves and other PPE should
be used. Handling the sack and pouring the contents into a
chemical hopper puts the operator close to the contents,
calling for proper respiratory and eye protection.
Cranes
Small leaks of liquid chemical products, particularly comple-
tion brines from totes and other containers, can result in a
rain of small drops when the container is hoisted. Safety
glasses, hard hats and other appropriate PPE should always
be worn when observing lifts and any drips or spills should be
immediately addressed.
Noise
Working in and around the pump room, engine room, shale
shakers or in other areas with loud noises requires hearing
protection.
Pits and walkways
Walkways on and around the drilling fluid circulating system
are prone to condensation, corrosion and areas of spilled
fluids. These areas must be routinely inspected and good
housekeeping strictly enforced.
Closed vessel entry
Precautions related to closed vessel and confined space
entry are outside the scope of this manual. Any entry into
a closed vessel or confined space can be dangerous and ad-
equate precautions must be followed. One source of infor-
mation on confined space entry is the IADC Health, Safety &
Environmental Reference Guide. Operators and contractors
Copyright 2015

have specific safety procedures and protocols for closed ves-
sel entry which should be followed.
Tank strength
Drilling and completion fluids often have densities twice that
of water. Tanks and other vessels must be built strong enough
to contain the pressures these fluids exert on the bottom and
sides. Occasionally, a higher-density fluid may be required
for unusual well operations or as a spike fluid which has a
density almost three times that of water. If such fluid densi-
ties have not been used recently, the mechanical integrity of
the tanks and facilities should be checked before use.
Spills
Drilling fluids are viscous and usually treated to be lubri-
cious. This makes them slippery when spilled or splashed
onto walking surfaces. Completion brines may be hygro-
scopic as well and so puddles of them never dry out. All
spills should be immediately cleaned up and proper equip-
ment available at all times.
Lifting
Drilling fluid products are routinely packaged in 50 lb
sacks. Barite and other weighting agents may come as 100
lb sacks. Proper lifting techniques, including teamwork for
heavy loads, are necessary to prevent injury.
Waste disposal
Many areas are subject to restrictions on discharge into the
environment. This may require segregation of empty chem-
ical containers from normal trash as well as the collection of
all washing and rainwater run-off, etc. All such requirements
should be clearly posted and periodically reviewed with the
crew.
Pressure washing/rig cleaning
Pressure washing involves a high pressure jet of water, occa-
sionally containing soaps or surfactants. Very high-pressure
jets may be used to break up a settled bed of barite in pits.
Using wands that extend beyond the feet of the operator can
reduce injuries due to jet impact. Appropriate eye protec-
tion, particularly goggles and other splash-proof equipment,
should always be worn. Jets may contain or lift up chemicals
and surfactants so the appropriate respiratory protections
must be used. Where appropriate, dermal protection such
as water-resistant coveralls may also be required.
High-pressure jets of base oil and diesel have also been used
but are banned in some jurisdictions. These create an aero-
sol of oil droplets that can be ignited at temperatures far be-
low the closed-cup flashpoint of the oil, resulting in an explo-
sion. The oil mists are also hazardous to breathe, requiring
oil-proof respirators and other specialized PPE.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-19
Pressure washing around stored products presents an ad-
ditional hazard. Some products react violently with water
or with other products once they are dissolved. Great care
must be taken not to contact stored sacks with water, either
directly or indirectly.
Use of icons/colors/risk factors to visually
denote danger
The hazardous nature of chemical products must be prop-
erly identified by permanently attached labels. The exact
requirements for labeling are given in the applicable regu-
lations which vary depending on where the drilling opera-
tion is taking place and regulatory oversight. These agencies
include the International Maritime Organization or IMO,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA
(USA), Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
(CCOHS) and the Work Health and Safety or WHS (Aus-
tralia). Most jurisdictions, however, are adopting the GHS
standards for labeling (See Appendix.)
Chemical storage and use areas must be properly identified
with placards that convey the nature of the hazardous mate-
rials they contain. The exact requirements for placarding are
also given in the applicable regulations. These regulations
detail which chemicals must be identified and how the plac-
ards must be worded. Drilling operations usually require a
higher degree of placarding than most workplaces because
they are usually staffed by employees from several different
companies.
In general, placards must be located within the workplace at
the relevant storage locations so that they are clearly visible
from normal approaches. For hazardous chemicals stored in
an indoor area, the information placards must be located:
At the main point of entry to the building where the
goods are stored, and,
At the entry to each room or area where the goods are
stored.
For hazardous chemicals stored in an outdoor area, the plac-
ard should be located either:
Adjacent to the stored goods or,
On the external surface of the tank or adjacent to the
tank when goods are stored in a tank.
Copyright 2015
FL-20 DRILLING FLUIDS
System maintenance and contamination
treatments
General maintenance of drilling fluid properties
Drilling fluid properties must be monitored and adjusted as
the well is drilled. In addition, a number of forms of contam-
ination can occur and degrade the properties or stability of
the drilling fluid. This section describes common mainte-
nance and contamination treatments.
Density (mud weight)
To increase mud weight, weighting materials such as bar-
ite, calcium carbonate or hematite may be added. These
products are small-sized powders with high-surface areas.
A base fluid (water or oil) is often required to be added si-
multaneously when weighting-up to properly wet the mate-
rial and maintain the desired viscosity and rheology values.
Adding salts such as NaCl, CaCl2 or KCl will also increase
the mud weight.
To decrease mud weight, water or base oil should be added.
The efficient use of selective flocculants to reduce solids (in
WBM) or the use of mechanical solids removal equipment
will reduce or control fluid density when excess mud weight
is due to the build-up of unwanted low specific gravity drill
solids. Centrifuges are particularly effective at reducing mud
weight between intervals or wells.
Rheology (viscosity, yield point and gel
strengths)
Rheology increase
Products such as bentonite, xanthan gum polymer, welan
gum, guar gum and certain polymeric additives are added
to increase rheology in WBMs. Organophilic clays, fatty ac-
ids and polymeric additives are used to increase rheology
in NAFs.
Rheology decrease
High rheology can be caused by contamination, overtreat-
ment or excessive drill solids build-up. The addition of water
for WBM or base oil for NAFs will decrease rheology and is
used for dilution to correct overtreatment or to reduce drill
solids content. Chemical thinners (dispersants and polymer-
ic deflocculants) are often used in WBMs. In NAFs, surfac-
tant thinners and wetting agents can sometimes be effective
for reducing viscosity. If the cause is drill solids build-up, the
efficient use of solids control equipment can be effective for
reducing rheology, usually in conjunction with dilution. High
rheology caused by chemical contamination must be treat-
ed by neutralizing the contaminant first.
IADC Drilling Manual
API and HTHP filtration
API fluid loss can be reduced with the addition of: a num-
ber of additives such as bentonite, PAC and other types of
polymers; starch; lignite; particle plugging materials; as-
phaltenes; and resin materials. Most often, combinations of
these different products are utilized for fluid loss reduction.
HTHP fluid loss can be reduced with temperature- stable
products that are stable at the bottomhole temperature
(BHT) of the well. Commonly used additives for this purpose
include products such as temperature-stable polymers, sul-
fonated phenolic resin materials, lignite, asphaltenes and
gilsonite. The most commonly used products in NAFs are
amine-treated lignite, gilsonite (a naturally weathered as-
phalt) and methyl styrene acrylate co-polymers.
Salinity
Salts such as NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 are used to increase the
salinity of WBMs. For clearwater brines or completion flu-
ids, a variety of salts are available: the most common are the
chlorides salts; NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, followed by the bromides
(sodium, calcium and zinc) and formates (sodium, potassi-
um and cesium). These salts can be used individually or in
special cases as mixtures. This is dependent on its applica-
tion as a base fluid and whether the purpose is to increase
salinity or increase density.
In NAFs, CaCl2 is used to increase salt content in the inter-
nal water phase to reduce the water activity. Increases in
salinity usually occur when drilling through salt formations.
Although not common, other chemicals may be used in the
internal water phase for salinity (or reducing water activity)
including NaCl, MgCl2, calcium ammonium nitrate and for-
mate-based brines.
Alkalinity (pH control)
In WBMs, alkalinity is normally increased by the addition of
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, or Na2CO3. Additions of mud prod-
ucts that have a high pH such as silicates and some polyam-
ines will also increase the pH of the system.
For NAFs, alkalinity is most often increased through the ad-
dition of lime.
Total hardness / excess lime content
The total hardness (calcium and magnesium content) in
WBMs can be reduced with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate
(bicarb). Cement contamination or too much excess lime
can be reduced with bicarb, SAPP, or citric acid. The soluble
calcium and/or excess gyp or lime content can be increased
with the addition of products such as lime or gypsum and by
adjusting the pH to the correct range.
Copyright 2015

Sand content
Sand-sized particles are measured and reported as the
sand content, although the particles may not actually be
sand. Higher concentrations of these sand-sized particles
are detrimental and increased wear circulating system com-
ponents, especially mud pump parts. Sand-sized particles
are removed through the use of solids-control equipment
(desander, desilter, fine mesh shaker screens or mud clean-
er) and by settling in a sand trap or settling pit. Reducing the
mesh size of shale shaker screens (API 200 mesh size or
finer) will also reduce sand content.
Solids, water and oil content
The addition of water or base oil and the efficient use of sol-
ids control equipment can usually reduce the total solids in
the system. The addition of water can increase water con-
tent and the addition of base oil in NAFs will increase oil con-
tent (Oil/Water Ratio or OWR and Synthetic/Water Ratio
or SWR) as seen in the distillation retort analysis.
Methylene blue test
The MBT results are used to monitor the bentonite and
reactive solids content for WBMs. The reduction of these
solids is accomplished by the addition of water or selective
flocculants. Reduction can also be achieved through solids
removal equipment or by using inhibitive mud systems as a
preventative measure.
Electrical stability
Electrical stability or ES is a measure of the relative emulsion
stability of NAFs. It refers to the voltage required to break
the emulsion and establish a current flow. A number of
things can influence this value including the amount of shear
to the system, contaminants and the addition of solids. An
increase of ES is usually accomplished by additional shear
(circulating through the bit), reducing water contamination
or brine content and through the addition of emulsifier or oil
wetting surfactants/chemicals.
Contamination treatment for drilling fluids
A number of contaminants can be encountered in the nor-
mal drilling process. Some of these contaminants will affect
the mud systems (WBMs and NAFs) in detrimental ways
and must be dealt with in an efficient and expedited manner.
A complete mud property analysis (called a mud check) is
required to isolate the contaminant and decide what treat-
ment is necessary. The following pages identify the most
common contaminants and the suggested treatment to the
mud system to alleviate or eliminate the symptoms of con-
tamination. Separate tables are used for WBMs and NAFs
(OBM and SBM) as they are affected differently.
Adding more of the liquid phase to the system reduces the
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-21
concentration of drill solids, thus reducing the plastic vis-
cosity. Removal of drilled solids during the early circula-
tion stages with solids removal equipment at the surface is
much simpler and less expensive. Obviously, these benefits
are the result of planning prior to drilling a well and are ac-
complished through the use of properly designed, sized and
operated solids removal equipment. The drilling crew has an
obligation to become knowledgeable in the proper use of the
equipment: otherwise, its potential benefits may be reduced
or nullified.
Potential problems affecting mud systems
Weight material settling or sag
Weight material sag is when the weight material partially
settles out of the drilling fluid. It is most often associated
with deviated well sections with angles of 50 to 80. While
it tends to occur more often with NAFs, it can happen in
WBMs. Settling or sag problems can be broken down into
several types: dynamic settling, static settling and slumping
beds. Dynamic settling typically occurs when circulating at
low rates in a deviated well. Static settling occurs when the
fluid is not flowing. Bed slumping occurs in deviated holes
(50 to 80) and is more often seen under static conditions.
Sag or settling treatment and prevention
recommendations
Static settling
For static settling:
Maintain LSRYP (LSRYP = (2 x 3) - 6) and initial gel
strength values of 7 to 15 lb/100 sq ft.
Minimize viscosity reductions through large dilutions or
large additions of deflocculants/thinners or surfactants.
If sag is suspected:
Stage in hole in 1,000-ft to 2,000-ft (305-m to 610-m)
intervals and circulate bottoms up after being out of
hole for an extended period of time.
Monitor sag tendency with static heat aging and by
measuring static sag. Keep the difference in mud weight
from the bottom of the cell to <1.0 lb/gal.
Dynamic settling
For dynamic settling:
Maintain LSRYP (LSRYP=(2 x 3) - 6) and initial gel
strength values of 7-15 lb/100 sq ft.
Minimize viscosity reductions through large dilutions or
large additions of deflocculants/thinners or surfactants.
Avoid long periods of low flowrates prior to pulling out
open hole (POOH).
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FL-22 DRILLING FLUIDS

Table FL-4: Water-Based Mud Contaminants

Contamination Type Indications in Mud System Recommended Treatment Options

-High PV (possibly high gels & YP)

-Optimized use of solids control equipment
-Increase in LGS %
Excessive Drill Solids -Water dilution
-Increase of the MBT
(Low Gravity Solids or LGS) -Use thinner like lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin or low mol wt
-Increase in total solids or mud weight
polymer
-Increase in filter cake thickness

-Treat excess lime and calcium with sodium bicarbonate,

- Increase in pH and excess lime
- Increase in Pm and Pf
Cement - High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels)
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
-Possible increase of calcium in the filtrate
SAPP or citric acid
- Optimize solids control equipment to discard cement solids
- Use of thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin
-Water dilution
-May need to add an citric or acetic acid to reduce pH (espe-
cially if pH sensitive polymers are used)

-If possible, dump contaminated mud at surface (volume

Increase in chlorides
permitting)
-High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels)*
-Water dilution
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
-Use of thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin and
Salt formations Halite, -High Funnel Viscosity*
increase pH
Sylvite, Carnallite, & saltwa- -Potential decrease in Mud Wt.
- If the contamination is severe and persistent, convert to
ter flows -Lower Pf, Mf, Pm and pH
a saturated or high salt mud system or displace to a NAF
-Increase in mud pit level*
system.
-Raise mud weight to control saltwater flows
*saltwater flows will sometimes reduce viscosity due to dilution
-If calcium and magnesium are high treat out with soda ash

Use soda ash or SAPP to reduce calcium content

Increase in calcium
-Use of thinner such as lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin or
-High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels)
SAPP (if temperatures are low)
Gypsum Anhydrite -Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
- Water dilution
-Lower Pf, Mf, Pm and pH
-Adjust pH to 9.5-10.5 with soda ash or caustic soda
-Cuttings shows traces of calcium sulfate minerals
-Consider converting system to gyp system

-Reduction in calcium and excess lime
-Presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (high Mf, low pH, Pf
Carbonates/Bicarbonates
may be high if carbonates)
(CO3)
-High rheology (FV, PV, YP, Gels)
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
Use lime / gyp to precipitate CO3 and give an excess of
lime, increase pH >10, use caustic to increase Pf
-Increase thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin to
deflocculate
-May require additional fluid loss additives

-Reduction in calcium and excess lime

-Presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (high Mf, low pH, Pf
may be high if carbonates)
-High rheology (FV, PV, YP, Gels)
Carbon dioxide - CO2
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
-If severe influx, mud weight at shaker could be decreased due
to gas cut
-Foaming in pits
Use lime to treat out CO2 gas and give an excess of lime ,
increase pH >10, use caustic to increase Pf
--Increase thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin to
deflocculate
-Raise mud weight to control CO2 influx
-May require additional fluid loss additives

Increase pH to >11.5
-Reduction in pH
-Keep 2+ ppb excess lime in system and a Pf >1.0 using lime
-Discoloration of mud system
and caustic soda or convert to lime-based mud
-Rotten egg odor to mud
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S -Use zinc oxide, zinc carbonate or iron oxide to precipitate
-Rheology and Filtrate increases
sulfides
-Formation of black scale on DP
-Raise mud weight to control H2S influx
-Foaming in pits
-Consider using hematite for slugs and density

-Excess mud flow and pit increase
-Increase in gas content from the gas detector
-Reduction in mud weight at shaker due to gas cut
Formation Gas
Foaming in pits
-Well flows when pumps shut off
-Increased viscosity
Begin well control procedures if a kick has occurred
-Raise mud weight to control gas influx
-Route return mud flow through gas separator and/or
degasser
-Use defoamer for entrained gas in mud pits
-Treat mud properties as necessary

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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-23

Table FL-5: NAF (OBM, MOBM, SBM) Fluids Contaminants.

Contamination Type Indications in Mud System Recommended Treatment Options

-Increased water content variation of the OWR/SWR

-Add emulsifier and wetting agents
-Lower electrical stability (ES)
Water Influx -Add base fluid to correct OWR / SWR
-Grainy or dull appearance to mud in pits
(Rain, formation water, -Add fresh mud volume to the system
-Increase in mud pit level
saltwater flow or any other -Add lime to increase lime content
-Presence of water in the HTHP filtrate
source) -Adjust chloride content of water phase
-Increased rheology (PV, YP, Gels)
-If downhole influx, increase mud weight to control flow
-Reduction in excess lime and Pom

-Lower ES Readings
-Grainy or dull appearance of mud in pits
-Add significant amounts of emulsifier and wetting agent
-Water-wet barite being discarded at shale shaker
-Add lime to maintain excess lime
Water-Wet Solids -Decrease in mud weight
-Add barite to maintain mud weight
-Sticky solids or barite sag
-Add fresh uncontaminated mud volume
-Water in HTHP filtrate
-Cuttings integrity decrease

-Add water to prevent super saturation (especially for

-Presence of salt crystals on shale shaker screens
Salt (Halite, Sylvite, Carnal- -Increase in water phase salinity
lite, Zechstein) -Reduced Electrical Stability
-Possible reduction in excess lime
Carnallite)
-Add emulsifier/wetting agents to coat cuttings
-Monitoring of Pm & lime content if Carnallite is seen to
minimize precipitation of MgOH2
-Monitor binary salt content

-High PV (possibly high gels & YP)

-Increase in LGS %
-Optimized use of solids control equipment
-Increase in total solids or mud weight
Excessive Drill Solids -Base fluid dilution
-Increase in filter cake thickness
(Low Gravity Solids or LGS) -Use thinner
-
-Dilution with whole mud/premix
-Higher Funnel Viscosity
-Reduction of electrical stability

-Reduction of excess lime content & POM
-Reduction in ES
-Mud weight reduction at shaker due to gas cut
Acid Gas (H2S or CO2) -For H2S, smell of rotten eggs
-Discoloration of mud and drill pipe (dark or black)
-Foaming in pits
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake thickness
-Increase the mud weight to control gas
-Increase excess lime content to >5 ppb
-Use of H2S scavenger if H2S detected
-Add emulsifier and wetting agent to keep ES >300 volts
-Use Garrett Gas Train or other method to test for acid
gases while drilling section
-Consider using hematite for slugs and density

-Reduction in the mud weight or gas cut mud
-Reduction in viscosity
-Increase in OWR / SWR
Reservoir Hydrocarbon en-
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake
trained in the mud system
-Decrease in excess lime & Pom
-Discoloration of mud or oil floating on top of mud system
-Smell of crude or increased vapors
-Increase mud weight to control influx
-Increase emulsifier content
-Add fluid loss additives
-Add lime if needed
-Skim off any oil floating on the mud system
-Zero discharge should be evaluated if discharging cuttings
-Adjust OWR/SWR with water and salt or brine

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FL-24 DRILLING FLUIDS

Table FL-6: Common Drilling Fluid Chemicals.

COMMON NAME CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA USAGE

Ammonium Stearate Aluminum Stearate Al(C18H3O2)3 Foaming problems

Ammonium Bisulfite Ammonium Bisulfite (NH4)HSO3 Oxygen Scavenger
Anhydrite Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 Calcium Source
Barite Barium Sulfate BaSO4 Weighting Agent
Bicarbonate (Baking Soda) Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3 Treat out calcium from cement
Borax Sodium Borate Pentahydrate Na2B4O75H2O Crosslinking Agent
Calcium Bromide Calcium Bromide CaBr2 Completion Fluids
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 Weighting agent, LCM material
Calcium Chloride Calcium Chloride CaCl2 Chloride source
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH Alkalinity
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Alkalinity
CMC Polymer Carboxymethylcellulose Polymer Numerous takes on many forms Fluid Loss Additive
Galena Lead Sulfide PbS Weighting Agent
Gypsum Calcium Sulfate CaSO42H20 Calcium Source
Hematite Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 Weighting Agent
HEC Polymer Hydroxyethylcellulose Polymer [C6H7O2OH3-x(OCHOHCH3)x]n Viscosity
Iron Oxide Iron Oxide FeO Treat H2S gas
Gel Bentonite Al2O34SiO2H2O Viscosity
NaLS (various, depending on man-
Lignosulfonate Sodium or Calcium Lignosulfonate Dispersant / Deflocculant
ufacture)
Lignite Lignite None Fluid Loss / Dispersant
Mag Ox Magnesium Oxide MgO Alkalinity
Mica (LCM) Mica Numerous takes on many forms LCM Material
PAC Polymer Polyanionic Cellulose Polymer C6H7O2(OH)2CH2COONa Fluid Loss Additive
Pecan Nut Hull (LCM) Pecan Nut Hull None LCM Material
Salt (Drillers Salt, Salt Evaporate,
Sodium Chloride NaCl Chloride Source
Halite)
Hydrous Magnesium Aluminum
Salt Gel, attapulgite 3MgO1.5Al2O38SiO29H2O Viscosity in salt muds
Silicate
SAPP Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate Na2H2P2O7 Treat Calcium / Dispersant
STP Sodium Tetraphosphate Na3PO4 Treat Calcium / Dispersant
Sodium Bromide Sodium Bromide NaBr Completion Fluids
Sodium Ash Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 Treat out calcium
Walnut Hull (LCM) Walnut Hull None LCM Material
XCD XC Polymer Xanthan Gum Polymer (C35H49O29)n Viscosity
Zinc Bromide Zinc Bromide ZnBr2 Completion Fluids
Zinc Carbonate Zinc Carbonate ZnCO3 Sulfide Scavenger

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015


If sag is suspected:
Clean up sagged barite beds by high flowrates and
rotation (> 75 rpm) prior to POOH.
Monitor sag tendency with a Viscometer Sag Shoe Test
(VSST), keeping the difference in mud weight to <1.0
lb/gal.
Bed slumping
For bed slumping:
Stage in hole and circulate bottoms up at each depth
after being out of hole for extended periods of time.
Minimize bed creation, if possible, by minimizing low
annular velocity situations or extended periods of
sliding while doing directional work.
Follow the sliding operation with a period of high
flowrate and rotation (>75 rpm) to move cuttings up
and out of the hole.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal surface due to re-
action to its environment. It is a particular issue for low pH
WBMs, aerated fluids, packer fluids and completion brines.
There are many forms of corrosion: general, pitting, stress
corrosion cracking, sulfide stress cracking, erosion corro-
sion, corrosion fatigue, galvanic corrosion, and de-alloying.
These types of corrosion can be accelerated by low pH, salt
concentration, dissolved oxygen, acid gases (CO2 and H2S),
higher temperatures and pressures, bacterial degradation
and scale. Corrosion is monitored and diagnosed by using
drill string corrosion coupons installed in the last joint of
pipe above the BHA and one installed near the surface (such
as in the Kelly safer sub).
General treatment procedures
Dissolved oxygen
For dissolved oxygen:
Maintain ph >10.0.
Submerge mud-mixing guns. Only operate mixing
equipment when needed and minimize all sources of air
entrainment.
Add defoamer to the mud system.
Add oxygen scavenger, film-forming amine or a
passivating inhibitor. If scale is observed on the
corrosion monitoring coupons, add a scale inhibitor.
Acid gases (CO2 and H2S)
For acid gases:
Raise pH to 10-11.5, depending on the acid gas
encountered and increase PF to >1.0.
Monitor acid gas levels with the Garrett Gas Train and
appropriate Drger tubes or other procedures.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-25
Add the appropriate scavenger or chemicals to treat out
acid gas (lime for CO2 or a scavenger for H2S).
Consider a change to the NAF mud system.
Consider using hematite for slugs or density to react
with and neutralize the H2S.
Bacterial degradation
For bacterial degradation:
Add bactericide and maintain an active concentration.
Raise the pH to 11.5 or above if it is not detrimental to
other drilling fluid additives.
Consider changing from products that are susceptible
to bacterial degradation (such as starch and xanthan
gum) to products that are resistant to biodegradation.
Increase the salinity to near saturation if that is an
option.
Gas hydrates
Gas hydrates are ice-like materials that can form in WBMs
when mixed with gas at low temperatures and high pres-
sures. This can happen in deepwater operations and in arc-
tic locations. When gas mixes with a WBM, the combination
of high pressure and/or low temperatures can form gas hy-
drates at temperatures much higher than the freezing point
of water. Hydrates are also found in shallow formations be-
low the seabed in deep or cold oceans and in arctic perma-
frost land areas.
Hydrate formation can cause serious well control problems
in deepwater wells: plugging of choke and kill lines, plugging
in and around BOP equipment; and loss of water from the
drilling fluid. Periods of no circulation with gas entering the
wellbore are the most susceptible times when hydrates are
likely to form, especially in the BOP stack and choke and kill
lines.
Prevention and mitigation recommendations (when
drilling with a riser):
WBMs
Elevate the salt content to >20% by weight or close to satura-
tion. Add sufficient concentrations of diethylene glycol (DEG)
or monoethylene glycol (MEG) inhibitors. In sufficient quan-
tities, these chemical inhibitors can prevent hydrate crystal
formation. Other types of inhibitors are kinetic inhibitors
that allow the hydrates to form but restrict the crystal growth
in such a way that the fluid should stay pumpable.
Non-aqueous fluids (NAF)
Since the internal phase of these systems is water, they are
susceptible to gas hydrate formation as well. Due to the re-
duced amount of water in the system (15-30%), if hydrates
form, they will not form a solid blockage and are likely to re-
main pumpable. There will, however, still be a need to inhibit
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FL-26 DRILLING FLUIDS
gas hydrates. This is done through maintaining the concen-
tration of calcium chloride in the brine phase. Typically, >25%
by weight of calcium chloride is kept in the water phase as
inhibition against hydrates.
Well operations
Maintain adequate mud weight to keep gas out of the well-
bore! No available gas means no hydrates will form. If us-
ing WBMs, spot high-salt or glycol-treated fluids across the
BOP stack and in the choke and kill lines as a preventative
measure. High concentrations of natural gas hydrates can
sometimes be found near the base of permafrost in arctic
locations. If hydrates are encountered, lower the ROP sub-
stantially to bring up the gas slowly and in a manageable
fashion.
Deepwater riser issues
Hole cleaning
Due to the larger internal diameters of a riser when drilling
smaller hole size intervals, the annular velocity in the riser is
typically very low and poor hole cleaning may be a problem.
Elevating the viscosity by increasing the YP, LSRYP and low-
shear rate viscosity (three and six rpm shear stress values) will
aid hole cleaning. Muds which become more viscous at cold
temperatures and those with high progressive gel strengths
are detrimental when the mud sits in the riser for an extended
period of time, such as during a trip. The use of flat rheology
NAF systems will help mitigate the cold temperature affects.
After increased viscosity, the other factor that improves hole
cleaning is annular velocity. When drilling with fast ROPs in
large diameter sections (>17.5 in.), it is often necessary to use
flowrates over 1400-1600 gal/min to clean the riser (espe-
cially large PDC cuttings). The use of a riser boost pump is
recommended to aid with hole cleaning and to maintain a
clean riser.
Rheology effects
During periods of shut down, cold-water temperature effects
will raise the rheology of the system. The use of flat rheol-
ogy mud systems for deepwater applications is becoming
more commonplace. These systems maintain a fairly level
YP and gel strength throughout the 40F-150F temperature
range. They also minimize the higher annular pressure that
occurs during circulation after long static periods of time as
the mud system heats up and thins down.
Balling with WBM
If WBM is used, shallow reactive formations (gumbo) or a
long trip might lead to softening and hydration of reactive
cuttings entrained in the mud system which have not been
cleaned from the riser, even if the WBM system is thought to
be inhibitive. This could lead to cuttings sticking and aggre-
IADC Drilling Manual
gating together to form mud rings or restrictions inside of the
riser. Treatments with surfactants and other anti-balling ad-
ditives or a cleanout trip may be needed if the problem is se-
vere. Use a riser boost pump and adequate circulation times
prior to trips to clear cuttings from the riser.
Stuck pipe
Stuck pipe issues can be divided into mechanical and dif-
ferential causes. Some of the causes of mechanical stick-
ing include hole packoff /bridges, settled cuttings, shale
instability, loosely consolidated formations and junk in the
hole. Wellbore geometry issues may also lead to mechani-
cal sticking and include key-seats, an undergauge hole, stiff
BHA, severe doglegs, mobile formations and casing failures.
Differential sticking is caused by high overbalance, station-
ary drill string, high fluid loss or a thick filter-cake. It is worse
with high-density or high-solids mud systems.
Treatments for differential sticking
Reduce mud weight if possible.
Use NAF spotting fluid to crack the filter-cake and
equalize differential pressures between the formation
and the borehole.
Reduce the API and HTHP fluid loss to create a thin and
low-permeability filter cake for WBMs.
Use lubricants and additives that will make the lubricity
of the filter lower and less susceptible to differential
sticking.
Note: Spotting fluids utilized in offshore environments may
be subject to regulatory limitations for discharge.
Lost circulation
The partial or complete loss of mud returns is a lost circu-
lation event. It is typically seen by reduced pit volume, loss
of pump pressure and reduced volume of return flow at the
shale shaker. Keeping the hole full when the loss event oc-
curs is paramount for wellbore stability and maintaining well
control.
Loss mechanisms are: surface system losses; naturally oc-
curring faults and open fractures; high-permeability forma-
tions (such as shallow gravel and dolomite or carbonate for-
mations with vugs); induced fractures; and fracture wellbore
breathing (ballooning).
Induced fracture losses are one of the most common causes
of lost circulation. This often happens when the mud weight
is increased while drilling deeper during an interval to control
increasing pore pressure at greater depths. This increase in
density may exceed the fracture pressure somewhere above
in the open hole, inducing a fracture. This induced fracture
is most often near the last casing shoe or in a severely de-
pleted formation. While LCM treatments may be effective,
Copyright 2015

it is often necessary to find a way to drill ahead to the casing
point with the losses or run the casing early.
Wellbore strengthening is a drilling fluid technique that uses
a certain concentration of sized LCM to prevent lost circu-
lation by preventing or limiting induced fractures. Theories
vary on how wellbore strengthening works and on what con-
centration or particle size should be used. The concentration
and particles need to be in the drilling fluid prior to drilling
the interval and they need to be maintained continuously.
Concentrations in the order of 20 to 50 lb/bbl are used
for wellbore strengthening and particle sizes range from a
narrow 250-650 micron range to a wide 50-2000 micron
range. Wellbore strengthening has allowed intervals to be
drilled without losses using mud weights that are several
pounds per gallon higher than offset wells where this strat-
egy was not used.
Losses to high-permeable formations or natural subsurface
conditions, such as a fault or open fracture, are often iden-
tified by a drilling break just prior to the loss event. These
kinds of loss zones can normally be treated with LCM if a
large enough material can be used. Effective bridging can be
achieved at concentrations as low as 10 lb/bbl if the size of
the material is half the diameter of the fracture or pore open-
ing. Keep in mind that most LCMs have a wide particle size
distribution and it is only the larger particles that initiate the
bridge or sealing process. LCM sizes are also limited by drill
string components, with 2 mm being about the largest size
that can be used with most LWDs/MWDs and mud motors.
LCM material types for seepage to moderate losses would
include granular (particulate), fibrous/cellulosic, flakes/
platelets and mixed LCM types. These are often locally
sourced low-cost agricultural or industrial byproducts.
Pills, squeezes and spotting solutions for persistent loss
zones include: dilatant slurries; high fluid-loss, high-solids
dewatering squeezes; cross-linked polymer pills; gunk or
reverse gunk squeezes activated downhole; sodium silicate
pills; latex pills; swellable polymer pills; mud gelling material
pills; barite/hematite plugs; thixotropic LCM/WSM (well-
bore strengthening material) plugs; cement plugs; and res-
in-coated sand pills.
An important tool to have before drilling is a lost circulation
decision tree. This helps determine the proper treatment
based on the amount of losses, local experience and avail-
ability of products. An example is provided in Figure FL-7.
Note that this is only an example.
Salt formations and rubble zones
The major problems typically associated with drilling salt
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-27
formations are: stuck pipe; managing salt saturation or over-
saturation of mud system, bit-balling and losses when en-
countering salt inclusions; wellbore enlargement when drill-
ing through the salt formation and/or through shales above
or below the salt formation (rubble zones); excessive torque
and pack-offs caused by salt creep; difficulty evaluating the
required mud weight; well control issues; and excessive mud
losses. The rubble zone that might lie beneath, adjacent to
or on top of the salt section usually consists of a series of
highly reactive shale stringers that are embedded with un-
consolidated sands. This zone could be over-pressured at
the entry point because of a gas pocket under the salt or
other reasons. For the remainder of the section, it could be
under-pressured (leading to numerous problems) or uncon-
solidated (causing severe lost circulation problems). Deter-
mining the mud weight needed to drill out the bottom of the
salt is difficult as salt does not have a true pore pressure and
can be drilled significantly over-pressured or under-pres-
sured.
Treatments
Treatment methods include the following:
Wellbore Enlargement in Salt: Drill with saturated salt
WBMs or NAFs. Minimize the addition of water and
monitor chlorides;
Formation Gas or Saltwater in the Rubble Zone:
Increase mud weight to the safest level to control the
intrusions;
Lost Circulation: Pretreat with LCM before entering the
rubble zones. The LCM might include calcium
carbonate, graphite materials and cellulosic LCM. Other
LCM types might be needed if losses are severe.
Develop a lost circulation strategy for the rubble zone
prior to the start of the well;
Drilling Below Salt: Have a salt exit strategy developed
prior to drilling below the bottom of the salt. This might
include entraining the mud system with a variety and
high concentration of LCM, having a LCM pill built and
ready to pump and other operational procedures;
Stuck in Salt: Spot a fresh water pill across the
suspected stuck pipe zone to dissolve the salt.
HTHP conditions
When using WBM and NAF systems, HTHP wells are sus-
ceptible to problems such as high-temperature gelation,
barite sag, high-solids content, dehydration, decreases in
total alkalinity and increased fluid losses. The use of tem-
perature stable mud products is key to minimizing these po-
tential problems. Rheology stabilizers, thinners, chemicals
to reduce fluid loss and aid in filter cake building, barite sag
treatment chemicals and others must be stable to the high-
est BHT expected to be seen. The mud system should be run
with minimum low gravity solids (LGS) to reduce or prevent
HTHP gelation problems. Higher concentrations and tem-
Copyright 2015
FL-28 DRILLING FLUIDS

Lost Circulation Remedial

Treatment Options
(based on loss type / amount).

Matrix Natural Fractures

Permeability Induced Fractures
Depeleted Zones Vugs / Fractured
Microfractures Limestone

See page losses Partial losses (20 Severe or Total

(<20 bbls/hr - 100 bbls/hr losses (>100
WBM or 1-10 WBM or 10-30 bbls/hr WBM or
bbls /hr NAF bbls /hr NAF >30 bbls /hr NAF

Water Base Non-Aqueous Water Base Non-Aqueous Water Base Non-Aqueous

Mud Fluid Mud Fluid Mud Fluid

LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials:
10 ppb Fiber 2 ppb Wetting Agent 20 ppb CaCO3 - Med 2 ppb Wetting Agent 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C 2 ppb Wetting Agent
10 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 20 ppb CaCO3 F/M 20 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 30 ppb CaCO3 F/M 30 ppb Graphite Med 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C
10 ppb CaCO3 - Med 20 ppb Graphite Med 15 ppb Nut Shells- Med 30 ppb Graphite Med 10 ppb Nut Shells - Med 40 ppb Graphite Med
15 ppb Nut Shells - Med 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 15 ppb Fiber LCM F 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M

No success No success No success

High Fluid Loss Pills Cross-Linked Large Particulate Soft / Hard

Misc Materials
Reactive Pills Polymer Pills LCM Pills Plugs

Attapulgite Squeeze Crome-Polymer Conventional LCM Gunk Squeeze Swellable CoPolymers

Diatomaceous Earth Crosslinked Pills - 140-160 ppb Reverse-Gunk Squeeze Sodium Silicate Pills
/ LCM Squeeze Borate-Polymer (Fibers, Granular, Base Oil-Bentonite-Squeeze Thixotropic LCM Pills
Diaseal-M Squeeze Crosslinked Pills Flakes, Mixed LCM) Base Oil-Bentonite-Cmt Squeeze
Reactive, Non- Barilte Plugs
Particulate LCM Pill Cemet Plugs

Figure FL-7: Lost-circulation decision tree example.

perature stabilizing additives may be required to make the
system tolerant of HTHP conditions. One means of address-
ing the gelation potential is to spot a pill on the bottom with
increased additions of temperature stable products prior
to making a trip. Have a HTHP drilling plan in place prior to
the start of a well. For a NAF system, the utilization of tem-
perature-stable organophilic clays and emulsifiers/wetting
agents should be selected to minimize problems.
Wellbore stability issues
Wellbore stability issues are often exemplified by excess
shale cuttings coming over the shaker, splintery shale cut-
tings, mud losses, tight holes on trips or connections, hole
fill-up while tripping, the need for excessive reaming when
making connections and other drilling problems. High-an-
gle wellbores and certain directions will require higher mud
weights than a vertical well to maintain stability. Some
things to keep in mind for the mud system include:
Keep the mud weight high enough to maintain
mechanical hole stability and prevent sloughing;
Keep fluid loss as low as possible and use deformable
plugging agents to keep micro-fractured shales from
being invaded and swelling, crumbling or delaminating;
Increase rheology to increase the hole cleaning ability
of mud and address the pack-off issues;
Keep shales from swelling or failing from chemical
interactions by using a NAF system or inhibitive WBM
system.
Calculations and tables
Brine tables
Brines and fluids containing salts, are often used as the base
fluid for drilling fluids and for completion fluids. Sodium
chloride and calcium chloride are the most common salts
used. The density of all brines changes significantly with
temperature. It is critical to know the temperature at which
the density is measured as well as the temperature of a giv-
en application.
The freezing points and crystallization temperatures listed
in Table FL-7 for sodium chloride and Table FL-8 for calcium
chloride are examples only. These values vary significantly
depending on the purity of the salt or brine being used and
with contamination.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-29

Important calculations Rect. tank vol. (cu m)

= length (m) x width (m) x depth (m) Eq 6
Volume of mud in the circulating system
Everyone involved with managing the circulation system
needs to know the volume of the circulating system and the Upright cylindrical tank volume
volume of the hole at all times. They must also be able to de-
termine changes and circulation requirements for perform- Cyl. tank vol. (bbl)
ing various operations. This includes the mud in the active = 0.14 x [ dia. (ft) ]2 x height (ft) Eq 7
pits and the mud in the hole, both with pipe in the hole (at
any depth) and with no pipe in the hole. Cyl. tank vol. (cu m)
= 0.7854 x [ dia. (m) ]2 x height (m) Eq 8
Circulating system vol.= surface system vol. + hole vol. Eq 4
Note: 1 cu m = 1,000 liters
Similar calculations can be made to determine the volume
in reserve or storage tanks and pits. Customary units for Surf. system vol.
drilling fluid volumes are oilfield barrels (42 US gallons) ab- = tank1 + tank 2 + tank 3 +...+ tankn Eq 9
breviated by bbl or cubic meters (cu m). (1 cu m = 6.29 bbl.)
Note: Many surface systems have substantial volumes of
Surface system volume calculations mud in piping or troughs that lead to and from the wellhead.
These volumes should be estimated and included in the sur-
Rectangular tank volume face volume. Rounded tank bottoms and internal piping not
Rect. tank vol. (bbl) filled with active mud should likewise be excluded from sur-
length (ft) x width (ft) x depth (ft) face volume calculations.
=  Eq 5
5.61 cu ft/bbl

Table FL-7: Sodium chloride brine (100% pure NaCl).

Density Sodium Sodium Freezing Pt or
Specific Sodium
@ 68F Chloride Chloride Water Sodium Ion Chloride Ion Crystallization Water Activity
Gravity Chloride
(20C) (100%) (100%) Temp*
(lb/gal) (g/mL) (wt %) (lb/bbl) (kg/m3) (vol / final vol) (mg/L) (mg/L) F C aw
8.34 1.000 0.0 0.0 0 1.000 0 0 32 0 1.000
8.4 1.007 1.0 3.6 10 0.996 0 0 31 -1 0.995
8.5 1.019 2.7 9.7 28 0.991 0 0 29 -2 0.986
8.6 1.031 4.4 15.8 45 0.985 0 0 27 -3 0.976
8.7 1.043 6.0 22.0 63 0.979 0 0 25 -4 0.965
8.8 1.055 7.7 28.4 81 0.972 0 0 23 -5 0.954
8.9 1.067 9.3 34.8 99 0.966 0 0 21 -6 0.941
9.0 1.079 10.9 41.3 118 0.960 0 0 19 -7 0.928
9.1 1.091 12.5 47.9 137 0.953 0 0 16 -9 0.914
9.2 1.103 14.1 54.6 156 0.946 0 0 14 -10 0.900
9.3 1.115 15.7 61.3 175 0.939 0 0 11 -12 0.884
9.4 1.127 17.2 68.0 194 0.932 0 0 8 -13 0.868
9.5 1.139 18.7 74.8 214 0.925 0 0 5 -15 0.852
9.6 1.151 20.2 81.7 233 0.917 0 0 2 -17 0.835
9.7 1.163 21.7 88.5 253 0.909 0 0 -2 -19 0.817
9.8 1.175 23.2 95.4 272 0.902 0 0 -6 -21 0.799
9.9 1.187 24.6 102.3 292 0.894 0 0 8 -13 0.781
10.0 1.199 26.0 109.1 311 0.886 0 0 27 -3 0.762

* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-30 DRILLING FLUIDS

Table FL-8: Calcium chloride brine (94-97% grade powder).

Density Freezing Pt or
Specific Calcium Calcium Calcium
@ 68F Water Calcium Ion Chloride Ion Crystallization Water Activity
Gravity Chloride Chloride Chloride
(20C) Temp*
(lb/gal) (g/mL) (wt %) (lb/bbl) (kg/m3) (vol / final vol) (mg/L) (mg/L) F C aw
8.34 1.000 0.0 0.0 0 1.000 0 0 32 0 1.000
8.5 1.019 2.3 8.4 24 0.995 8,200 14,500 28 -2 0.997
8.6 1.031 3.7 13.7 39 0.991 13,500 23,900 26 -3 0.992
8.7 1.043 5.1 19.2 55 0.988 18,800 33,300 25 -4 0.986
8.8 1.055 6.5 24.7 70 0.984 24,300 43,000 23 -5 0.978
8.9 1.067 7.9 30.3 87 0.981 29,800 52,800 21 -6 0.969
9.0 1.079 9.2 36.0 103 0.977 35,400 62,700 19 -7 0.959
9.1 1.091 10.6 41.8 119 0.973 41,100 72,800 17 -8 0.948
9.2 1.103 11.9 47.7 136 0.969 46,900 83,000 15 -9 0.936
9.3 1.115 13.2 53.6 153 0.965 52,700 93,300 12 -11 0.923
9.4 1.127 14.5 59.6 170 0.961 58,600 103,700 9 -13 0.908
9.5 1.139 15.8 65.6 187 0.957 64,600 114,200 6 -14 0.893
9.6 1.151 17.0 71.7 205 0.953 70,600 124,800 3 -16 0.876
9.7 1.163 18.3 77.9 222 0.948 76,600 135,500 0 -18 0.859
9.8 1.175 19.5 84.1 240 0.944 82,700 146,300 -4 -20 0.841
9.9 1.187 20.7 90.3 258 0.939 88,800 157,200 -8 -22 0.822
10.0 1.199 22.0 96.6 276 0.934 95,000 168,100 -13 -25 0.802
10.1 1.211 23.1 102.9 294 0.929 101,200 179,100 -18 -28 0.782
10.2 1.223 24.3 109.2 312 0.924 107,500 190,100 -23 -31 0.760
10.3 1.235 25.5 115.6 330 0.919 113,700 201,200 -29 -34 0.739
10.4 1.247 26.6 121.9 348 0.914 120,000 212,300 -36 -38 0.716
10.5 1.259 27.8 128.3 366 0.908 126,300 223,400 -43 -42 0.693
10.6 1.271 28.9 134.8 384 0.903 132,600 234,600 -51 -46 0.669
10.7 1.283 30.0 141.2 403 0.897 138,900 245,700 -59 -51 0.645
10.8 1.295 31.1 147.6 421 0.892 145,200 256,900 -40 -40 0.620
10.9 1.307 32.1 154.0 439 0.886 151,500 268,100 -22 -30 0.595
11.0 1.319 33.2 160.4 458 0.880 157,900 279,300 -11 -24 0.569
11.1 1.331 34.2 166.9 476 0.874 164,200 290,500 0 -18 0.543
11.2 1.343 35.3 173.3 494 0.868 170,500 301,600 13 -11 0.516
11.3 1.355 36.3 179.7 513 0.862 176,800 312,700 25 -4 0.489
11.4 1.367 37.3 186.0 531 0.855 183,100 323,800 35 2 0.462
11.5 1.379 38.3 192.4 549 0.849 189,300 334,900 44 7 0.435
11.6 1.391 39.2 198.7 567 0.842 195,500 345,900 51 10 0.407

* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015


Hole volume calculations (pipe in hole)
Hole vol. = ann. vol. + pipe cap.  Eq 10
Annular volume (or pipe displacement):
For each section with different annular dimensions (inside
diameter (ID) casing or open hole or outside diameter (OD)
pipe), calculate:
[ ID (in.)2 OD (in.)2 ]
Ann. vol. (bbl/ft) =  Eq 11
1,029
[ ID (mm)2 OD (mm)2 ]
Ann. vol. (cu m/m) =  Eq 12
1.273 x 106
The values from Eq 11 and Eq 12 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the annular volume for each
section.
The total annular volume is then the sum of each annular
volume from the surface to the total depth:
Total ann. vol. = AV1 + AV2 + AV3 +...+ AVn  Eq 13
Note: Pipe displacement volumes are important when de-
termining if the hole is taking or giving the correct volume
of fluid when tripping pipe or running casing. While these
values can be calculated with Equations 11 or 12 (if the di-
mensions of the tool joints or casing collars are taken into
account), it is recommended that displacement volumes be
obtained from tables for the particular size and weight of
pipe that includes the specific tool joint or casing connec-
tion dimensions.
Pipe (or hole) capacity
Pipe capacity is used to determine the volume of fluid in-
side the drill string. Hole capacity is used to determine the
volume of fluid in the wellbore when the drill string is not in
the well.
For each section with different pipe (or hole) size, use the ID
dimension of the pipe (or hole) and then calculate as follows:
Pipe (or hole) cap. (bbl/ft) = ID (in.)2 Eq14
1,029

2
Pipe (or hole) cap. (cu m/m) = ID (mm.) 6 Eq15
1,273 x 10
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-31
The values from Eq 14 and Eq 15 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the pipe (or hole) capacity
for each section.
The total pipe (or hole capacity) is then the sum of each dif-
ferent section volume from surface to total depth.
Pipe cap. = PCap1 + PCap2 + PCap3 +...+ PCapn  Eq 16
Note: When calculating the hole capacity of the open hole,
use the bit diameter multiplied by a factor to account for
wellbore enlargement (typical values are 1.1 for OBMs and
1.25 to 1.5 for WBMs). These washout values can vary wide-
ly and are highly dependent on the formation drilled and
other factors.
Hole cap. = HCap1 + HCap2 + HCap3 +...+ HCapn  Eq 17
Circulation times and strokes
Pump output and circulation rate
The pump output (PO) can be calculated using Equations
18-19 or 21-22 for any liner size or stroke length. These val-
ues can also be found in the manufacturers tables or in ge-
neric tables like Tables FL-9 and FL-10.
Mud pump efficiency is affected by many factors with oper-
ating pressure, pump RPM, mud weight, suction pressure,
and the presence of larger mud particles (LCM and sand)
having the greatest influence. Mud pump efficiency values
are normally in the 75 to 95% range.
Triplex Mud Pumps
Triplex pumps have three pistons and pump fluid on the
forward stroke only (single acting). As compared to duplex
pumps, triplex pumps often have shorter stroke lengths (6-
12 in.), operate at higher speeds (50-150 strokes/minute)
and have higher efficiency (85-95%).
PO (bbl/ Stk)
= liner ID (in.)2 x stk (in.) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 18

4,118
PO output (l/Stk)
= liner ID (mm)2 x stk (mm) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 19

424,413
Circ. rate (bbl/min)
= bbl/stk x stk/min + bbl/stk x stk/min Eq 20
(Total for all pumps being used.)
Copyright 2015
FL-32 DRILLING FLUIDS

circ. system vol. (cu m)

Duplex mud pumps
Duplex pumps have two piston rods and four pump cham-
bers so that they pump fluid on both the forward and back-
ward stroke (double acting). On the backward stroke, the
rod displaces some of the liner-swept volume and must be
considered in the pump output calculation. Since rod diam-
eters are different, it is important to use the correct value.
Table FL-8 is an example and uses a typical rod diameter. As
compared to triplex pumps, duplex pumps often have longer
stroke lengths (8-18 in.), operate at lower speeds (40-80
strokes/minute)and have lower efficiency (75-90%).
Mud cycle (stk) = Eq 26
circ. rate (cu m/stk) 
Bottoms-up (bit to surface)
During drilling operations, it is important to know the bot-
toms-up (BU) or bit to surface time. This is the time required
for the mud at the bit to be circulated up the annulus to the
surface. It is important to know this time when circulating the
hole clean prior to tripping, estimating the depth at which cut-
tings are being generated or when circulating and evaluating an
influx from the well.

[ 2 x liner ID (in.)2 - Rod OD (in.)2]

PO (bbl/Stk) = ann. vol. (bbl)
6,177  BU (min) =
circ. rate (bbl/min)  Eq 27
x Stk (in.) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 21

[ 2 x liner ID (mm)2 - Rod OD (mm)2 ] ann. vol. (cu m)

PO (l/Stk) = BU (min) =
circ. rate (cu m/min)  Eq 28
636,620

x Stk (mm) x Eff. (decimal)  Eq 22
ann. vol. (bbl)
BU (stk) =
circ. rate (bbl/stk)  Eq 29
The circulation rate (bbl/min) is the same as Equation 20.

Mud cycle (complete circulation of active system) ann. vol. (cu m)

In mud conditioning, it is important to know the mud cycle BU (stk) =
circ. rate (cu m/stk)  Eq 30
time. This is the time required for the mud in the active system
to make one complete circulation - mud from the pump suc-
tion is circulated to the bottom of the hole, out the bit, up the Surface to bit (pipe capacity/displacement)
annulus, through the pits and back to the pump suction. When During drilling operations, it is important to know the pipe ca-
adding weight material or chemical treatments, it is often rec- pacity (or pipe displacement) and surface to bit time. This is the
ommended to add these materials at such a rate that the mud time required for the mud at the pump suction to be pumped
will make at least one complete cycle during the treatment so down the drill string to the bit. This is used when displacing ce-
that they are evenly distributed. ment jobs, spotting pills for lost circulation, stuck pipe or other
operations and during well control procedures to know when a
Circulating system volume is calculated from Equation 4 new mud weight has reached the bit.
(surface system volume + hole volume).
pipe cap. (bbl)
Surf. to bit (min) = Eq 31
circ. system vol. (bbl) circ. rate (bbl/min)
Mud cycle (min) = Eq 23 
circ. rate (bbl/min)

Note: Circ. rate (bbl/min) pipe cap. (cu m)
Surf. to bit (min) = Eq 32
= Circ. rate (gal/min) 42 gal/bbl circ. rate (cu m/min)

circ. system vol. (cu m) pipe cap. (bbl)
Mud cycle (min) = Eq 24
circ. rate (cu m/min) Surf. to bit (stk) = Eq 33
 circ. rate (bbl/stk)


circ. system vol. (bbl) pipe cap. (cu m) Eq 34
Mud cycle (stk) = Eq 25 Surf. to bit (stk) =
circ. rate (bbl/stk)  circ. rate (cu m/stk) 

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-33

Table FL-9: Triplex mud pump output.

TRIPLEX MUD PUMP OUTPUT (barrels/stroke) 100% Efficiency

Liner ID Stroke Length (in.)

(in.) 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 11.0 12.0
3.00 0.0131 0.0142 0.0153 0.0164 0.0175 0.0186 0.0197
3.25 0.0154 0.0167 0.0180 0.0192 0.0205 0.0218 0.0231
3.50 0.0178 0.0193 0.0208 0.0223 0.0238 0.0253 0.0268 0.0283
3.75 0.0205 0.0222 0.0239 0.0256 0.0273 0.0290 0.0307 0.0324

4.00 0.0233 0.0253 0.0272 0.0291 0.0311 0.0330 0.0350 0.0369 0.0389

4.25 0.0263 0.0285 0.0307 0.0329 0.0351 0.0373 0.0395 0.0417 0.0439
4.50 0.0295 0.0320 0.0344 0.0369 0.0393 0.0418 0.0443 0.0467 0.0492 0.0541
4.75 0.0329 0.0356 0.0384 0.0411 0.0438 0.0466 0.0493 0.0521 0.0548 0.0603
5.00 0.0364 0.0395 0.0425 0.0455 0.0486 0.0516 0.0546 0.0577 0.0607 0.0668 0.0729
5.25 0.0402 0.0435 0.0469 0.0502 0.0535 0.0569 0.0602 0.0636 0.0669 0.0736 0.0803
5.50 0.0441 0.0477 0.0514 0.0551 0.0588 0.0624 0.0661 0.0698 0.0735 0.0808 0.0881
5.75 0.0482 0.0522 0.0562 0.0602 0.0642 0.0682 0.0723 0.0763 0.0803 0.0883 0.0963
6.00 0.0525 0.0568 0.0612 0.0656 0.0699 0.0743 0.0787 0.0831 0.0874 0.0962 0.1049
6.25 0.0569 0.0617 0.0664 0.0711 0.0759 0.0806 0.0854 0.0901 0.0949 0.1043 0.1138
6.50 0.0616 0.0667 0.0718 0.0769 0.0821 0.0872 0.0923 0.0975 0.1026 0.1129 0.1231
6.75 0.0664 0.0719 0.0774 0.0830 0.0885 0.0940 0.0996 0.1051 0.1106 0.1217 0.1328
7.00 0.1309 0.1428
7.50 0.1503 0.1639

To convert to gallons/stroke multiply barrels/stroke x 42

To convert to liters/stroke multiply barrels/stroke x 159

ID (in.)2
Hole cycle time Hole vol (bbl/ft) = Eq 36
During drilling operations, it is important to know the time or 1,029 
strokes for mud at the pump suction to be circulated down the
drill string out the bit and up the annulus to the shale shakers. ID (mm)2
This is most often needed when increasing the mud weight to Hole vol (cu m/m) = Eq 37
1.273 x 106
determine when the wellbore is fully displaced to the new mud 
weight.
The values from Eq 36 and Eq 37 are then multiplied times the
Hole cycle = surf. to bit + BU Eq 35
interval lengths to calculate the hole volume for each selection.

The total hole volume with no pipe in the hole is then the sum
Hole volume (pipe out of hole) of each different hole section volume from the surface to the
Hole volumes are important to know when tripping in or out total depth:
of the hole as they determine if the surface volume and pit
capacity is sufficient. Hole volumes can be calculated in the Hole vol. (no pipe)
same way pipe capacity is calculated (as shown below or
= HV1 + HV2 + HV3 + .......... +HVn Eq 38
found in the tables). 

For each hole section with different ID dimensions for the cas- Hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic gradient
ing or open hole, calculate: The hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) is the pressure the fluid column
exerts on the wellbore. It is primarily controlled by increasing or
decreasing the drilling fluid density or mud weight (MW).

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-34 DRILLING FLUIDS

Table FL-10: Duplex Mud Pump Output.

DUPLEX MUD PUMP OUTPUT (barrels/stroke) 100% Efficiency

Stroke Length (in.)

Liner ID 8 10 12 14 15 16 18
(in.) Rod size (in.)
1.75 2.0 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.50 3.0
4.00 0.0375 0.0453 0.0544 0.0611 0.0625 0.0667 0.0670
4.25 0.0428 0.0520 0.0624 0.0704 0.0725 0.0774 0.0790
4.50 0.0485 0.0591 0.0709 0.0803 0.0832 0.0887 0.0918
4.75 0.0545 0.0666 0.0799 0.0908 0.0944 0.1007 0.1053
5.00 0.0608 0.0745 0.0894 0.1018 0.1062 0.1133 0.1195
5.25 0.0674 0.0828 0.0993 0.1135 0.1187 0.1266 0.1344
5.50 0.0744 0.0915 0.1098 0.1256 0.1317 0.1405 0.1501
5.75 0.0817 0.1006 0.1207 0.1384 0.1454 0.1551 0.1665
6.00 0.0893 0.1101 0.1321 0.1517 0.1597 0.1703 0.1836
6.25 0.0972 0.1200 0.1440 0.1656 0.1745 0.1862 0.2014
6.50 0.1055 0.1303 0.1564 0.1800 0.1900 0.2027 0.2200
6.75 0.1141 0.1410 0.1693 0.1951 0.2061 0.2198 0.2393
7.00 0.1230 0.1522 0.1826 0.2106 0.2228 0.2377 0.2593
7.25 0.1322 0.1637 0.1965 0.2268 0.2401 0.2561 0.2801
7.50 0.1417 0.1757 0.2108 0.2435 0.2580 0.2752 0.3016
7.75 0.1516 0.1880 0.2256 0.2608 0.2765 0.2950 0.3238
8.00 0.1618 0.2007 0.2409 0.2786 0.2957 0.3154 0.3468

To convert to gallons/stroke multiply bbl/stroke x 42

To convert to liters/stroke multiply bbl/stroke x 159

While circulating, the annular pressure losses (APL) act to in-

PHYD (lb/in.2) = MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 x TVD (ft) Eq 39 crease the pressure on the wellbore. This is called the equiva-
lent circulating density (ECD).

PHYD (kPa) = MW (kg/cu m) x 0.00981 x TVD (m) Eq 40 PHYD + APL

The hydrostatic pressure gradient (PHYD: G) is the rate at which
the hydrostatic pressure increases with true vertical depth and
has units of pressure per depth. The hydrostatic gradient for
a given area is often compared to the gradient for fresh water
(0.433 psi/ft) or seawater (0.465 psi/ft).
PHYD: G (psi/ft) = MW (lb/gal) x 0.052
PHYD: G (kPa/m) = MW (kg/cu m) x 0.00981
 (SG) for barite are either 4.2 or 4.1. Density expressed as spe-
ECD = Eq 43
 TVD x K (units conversion)
During well control and managed pressure drilling operations,
surface pressures act on the hydrostatic column such that
downhole wellbore pressures are increased by the amount of
the surface pressure.
Eq 41
Quantities of mud materials
Mud weight can be increased with barite. The quantity of barite
needed to increase the mud weight depends on the density of
Eq 42 the barite. Currently, the two most common Specific Gravities
cific gravity (g/ml) or using kg/l units have the same numerical
value.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-35

Weight-up formula For 4.1 SG barite these become:

The generalized weight-up formula is:
lb barite added
Vol. inc. (bbl) = Eq 50
Weight material (lb/bbl)
=
1,435

SGwt mat x 350[MW2 (lb/gal) - MW1 lb/gal]
W2 Eq 44
SGwt mat x 8.345 MW2 (lb/gal) 
kg barite added
Vol. inc. (cu m) = Eq 51
Weight material (kg/cu
= m) 4,100

SGwt mat x 1000 [MW2 (kg/l) MW1 (kg/l)]
Eq 45
SGwt mat MW2 (kg/l)  Note: As an approximation, for every 14 sacks (100 lb) of bar-
ite, the volume will increase 1 bbl. For every 100 sacks (100 lb)
MW1 = initial mud weight barite, the volume increases 6.9 bbl.
MW2 = desired mud weight
Dilution and blending
For 4.1 SG barite these become: It is common practice to blend two fluids or to dilute with water
or NAF base fluid to reduce mud weight.
Weight material (lb/bbl)
=
1,435 [MW2 (lb/gal) MW1 (lb/gal)]
Eq 46 The generalized dilution or blending formula (allowing the vol-
34.2 MW2 (lb/gal)  ume to increase) is:

Weight material (kg/cu

= m) Vorig x (MWorig MWdesired)
Eq 52
4,100 [MW2 (kg/l) MW1 (kg/l)]
Eq 47 
4.1 MW2 (kg/l)  
Vadded fluid is the volume of fluid to add to achieve the desired
Note: As an approximation, in the mud weight range between change in mud weight.
9 and 12 lb/gal, 60 lb/bbl (or 60 100 lb sacks barite/100 bbl) Vorig is the original mud volume.
increases the mud weight 1.0 lb/gal. For mud weights above 12 MWorig is the original mud weight.
lb/gal, divide the desired final weight by 0.2 to find the lb/bbl MWadded fluid is the mud weight for the fluid being added.
of barite needed to increase the mud weight 1.0 lb/gal (or the MWdesired is the desired final mud weight.
number of 100 lb sacks/100 bbl).
When diluting with fresh water (8.345 lb/gal or SG 1.0), this
Volume increase due to material additions becomes:
When weighting up and making other treatments, the volume
of material added increases the mud volume. For dry materials, Vwater (bbl) =
this volume must be calculated based on the SG of the material. Vorig (bbl) x [MWorig (lb/gal) MWdesired (lb/gal) ]
Eq 53
The generalized volume increase formulas for material addi- MWdesired (lb/gal) 8.345
tions are:
Vwater (cu m) =
lb material added
Vorig (cu m) x [MWorig (kg/l) MWdesired (kg/l)]
Vol. inc. (bbl) = Eq 48 Eq 54
SGmaterial x 350 MWdesired (kg/l) - 1.0


kg material added Annular velocity

Vol. inc. (cu m) = Eq 49 Annular velocity is the mud velocity in the annulus between the
SGmaterial x 1000
drill string and the OD of the open hole or casing. This value
 helps when evaluating hole cleaning, especially in vertical sec-
tions where a value of 100 ft/min is considered to be sufficient
for most situations. The usual US oilfield expression of this ve-
locity is in feet per minute.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-36 DRILLING FLUIDS

24.5 x circ. rate (gpm)

circ. rate Ann. Vel. (ft/min) = Eq 57
Ann. Vel. = Eq 55 hole ID (in.)2 pipe OD (in.)2

ann. vol.


circ. rate (cu m/min)

circ. rate (bbl/min) Ann. Vel. (m/min) = Eq 58
Ann. Vel. (ft/min) = Eq 56 ann. vol. (cu m/m)

ann. vol. (bbl/ft)


Drilling operations generally report the circulation rate in gal-

lons per minute (gpm) and use inches; therefore, a common
formula used for annular velocity is:

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

 mind weight materials are small sized powders with high-surface area. Base fluid (water or oil) is often required to be added

Table FL-11: Data shows the quantity of barite in lb/bbl (same as 100 lb sacks /100 bbl) needed to increase the mud weight
(upper right) and the volume of water in bbl water per bbl mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left). Keep in
simultaneously when weighting-up to properly wet the material and maintain the desired viscosity and rheology values.

Table FL-11: Weight-Up (Barite) and Dilution (Water).

Weight-up Chart for 4.1 SG Barite pounds of barite per bbl mud (upper right section) and Dilution with Fresh Water bbl water per bbl mud (lower left section)

Initial Desired Mud Weight (lbm/gal)

Mud
Weight
(lbm/ 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
gal)
IADC Drilling Manual

8.3 39.9 69.7 100.8 133.2 167.0 202.3 239.2 277.7 318.1 360.5 404.9 451.6 500.8 552.5 607.1 664.8 725.8 790.5 859.2
9.0 3.23 29.0 59.3 90.8 123.7 158.0 193.9 231.5 270.8 312.0 355.2 400.6 448.4 498.8 551.9 608.1 667.4 730.4 797.2
9.5 6.45 0.76 29.6 60.5 92.8 126.4 161.6 198.4 236.9 277.3 319.7 364.2 411.1 460.4 512.5 567.5 625.7 687.4 752.9
10.0 9.68 1.53 0.43 30.3 61.9 94.8 129.3 165.3 203.1 242.6 284.2 327.8 373.7 422.1 473.1 527.0 584.0 644.5 708.6

10.5 12.90 2.29 0.87 0.30 30.9 63.2 97.0 132.3 169.2 208.0 248.6 291.4 336.3 383.7 433.7 486.4 542.3 601.5 664.4

11.0 16.13 3.05 1.30 0.60 0.23 31.6 64.6 99.2 135.4 173.3 213.1 254.9 299.0 345.3 394.2 445.9 500.6 558.5 620.1
11.5 19.35 3.82 1.73 0.91 0.46 0.19 32.3 66.1 101.5 138.6 177.6 218.5 261.6 307.0 354.8 405.4 458.9 515.6 575.8
Copyright 2015

12.0 22.58 4.58 2.16 1.21 0.70 0.38 0.16 33.1 67.7 104.0 142.1 182.1 224.2 268.6 315.4 364.8 417.2 472.6 531.5
12.5 25.81 5.34 2.60 1.51 0.93 0.56 0.32 0.14 33.8 69.3 106.6 145.7 186.8 230.2 276.0 324.3 375.4 429.6 487.2
13.0 29.03 6.11 3.03 1.81 1.16 0.75 0.48 0.27 0.12 34.7 71.0 109.3 149.5 191.8 236.5 283.8 333.7 386.7 442.9
13.5 32.26 6.87 3.46 2.11 1.39 0.94 0.63 0.41 0.24 0.11 35.5 72.8 112.1 153.5 197.1 243.2 292.0 343.7 398.6
14.0 35.48 7.63 3.90 2.42 1.62 1.13 0.79 0.55 0.36 0.21 0.10 36.4 74.7 115.1 157.7 202.7 250.3 300.7 354.3
14.5 38.71 8.40 4.33 2.72 1.86 1.32 0.95 0.68 0.48 0.32 0.19 0.09 37.4 76.7 118.3 162.1 208.6 257.8 310.0

DRILLING FLUIDS
15.0 41.94 9.16 4.76 3.02 2.09 1.51 1.11 0.82 0.60 0.43 0.29 0.18 0.08 38.4 78.8 121.6 166.9 214.8 265.7
15.5 45.16 9.92 5.19 3.32 2.32 1.69 1.27 0.96 0.72 0.54 0.39 0.27 0.16 0.08 39.4 81.1 125.1 171.9 221.5
16.0 48.39 10.69 5.63 3.63 2.55 1.88 1.43 1.09 0.84 0.64 0.48 0.35 0.24 0.15 0.07 40.5 83.4 128.9 177.2
16.5 51.61 11.45 6.06 3.93 2.78 2.07 1.58 1.23 0.96 0.75 0.58 0.44 0.32 0.23 0.14 0.07 41.7 85.9 132.9
17.0 54.84 12.21 6.49 4.23 3.02 2.26 1.74 1.37 1.08 0.86 0.68 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.21 0.13 0.06 43.0 88.6
17.5 58.06 12.98 6.93 4.53 3.25 2.45 1.90 1.50 1.20 0.97 0.78 0.62 0.49 0.38 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.06 44.3
18.0 61.29 13.74 7.36 4.83 3.48 2.64 2.06 1.64 1.32 1.07 0.87 0.71 0.57 0.45 0.35 0.26 0.18 0.12 0.05

FL-37
 FL-38
Table FL-12: Weight-Up (Barite) and Dilution (Water) - SI units (metric)
Weight-up Chart for 4.1 SG Barite kg of barite per m3 mud (upper right section) and Dilution with Fresh Water m3 water per m3 mud (lower left section)

Initial Desired Mud Weight (kg/L)

Mud
Weight
(kg/ 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20
gal)

DRILLING FLUIDS
1.00 67.2 136.7 208.5 282.8 359.6 439.3 521.8 607.4 696.2 788.5 884.3 984.0 1087.8 1195.8 1308.5 1426.1 1548.9 1677.3 1811.6 1952.4 2100.0 2255.0 2417.9 2589.5
1.05 .50 68.3 139.0 212.1 287.7 366.1 447.3 531.5 618.9 709.6 803.9 902.0 1004.1 1110.4 1221.3 1337.0 1457.8 1584.1 1716.3 1854.8 2000.0 2152.5 2312.8 2481.6
1.10 4.00 1.00 69.5 141.4 215.8 292.9 372.7 455.6 541.5 630.8 723.5 820.0 920.4 1025.0 1134.0 1247.8 1366.7 1490.9 1620.9 1757.1 1900.0 2050.0 2207.7 2373.7
1.15 6.50 2.00 0.50 70.7 143.9 219.6 298.2 379.6 464.2 551.9 643.1 738.0 836.7 939.6 1046.8 1158.7 1275.6 1397.7 1525.6 1659.5 1800.0 1947.5 2102.6 2265.8

1.20 9.00 3.00 1.00 0.33 71.9 146.4 223.6 303.7 386.8 473.1 562.7 656.0 753.1 854.2 959.6 1069.6 1184.4 1304.5 1430.2 1561.9 1700.0 1845.0 1997.4 2157.9

1.25 11.50 4.00 1.50 0.67 0.25 73.2 149.1 227.8 309.4 394.2 482.4 574.0 669.4 768.8 872.3 980.4 1093.3 1211.4 1334.9 1464.3 1600.0 1742.5 1892.3 2050.0
1.30 14.00 5.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 0.20 74.5 151.9 232.1 315.4 402.0 492.0 585.7 683.3 785.1 891.3 1002.2 1118.2 1239.5 1366.7 1500.0 1640.0 1787.2 1942.1
IADC Drilling Manual

1.35 16.50 6.00 2.50 1.33 0.75 0.40 0.17 75.9 154.7 236.5 321.6 410.0 502.0 597.9 697.9 802.2 911.1 1025.0 1144.2 1269.0 1400.0 1537.5 1682.1 1834.2
1.40 19.00 7.00 3.00 1.67 1.00 0.60 0.33 0.14 77.4 157.7 241.2 328.0 418.4 512.5 610.6 713.0 820.0 931.8 1048.8 1171.4 1300.0 1435.0 1576.9 1726.3
1.45 21.50 8.00 3.50 2.00 1.25 0.80 0.50 0.29 0.13 78.8 160.8 246.0 334.7 427.1 523.4 623.9 728.9 838.6 953.5 1073.8 1200.0 1332.5 1471.8 1618.4
1.50 24.00 9.00 4.00 2.33 1.50 1.00 0.67 0.43 0.25 0.11 80.4 164.0 251.0 341.7 436.2 534.8 637.8 745.5 858.1 976.2 1100.0 1230.0 1366.7 1510.5
1.55 26.50 10.00 4.50 2.67 1.75 1.20 0.83 0.57 0.38 0.22 0.10 82.0 167.3 256.3 348.9 445.7 546.7 652.3 762.8 878.6 1000.0 1127.5 1261.5 1402.6
1.60 29.00 11.00 5.00 3.00 2.00 1.40 1.00 0.71 0.50 0.33 0.20 0.09 83.7 170.8 261.7 356.5 455.6 559.1 667.4 781.0 900.0 1025.0 1156.4 1294.7
1.65 31.50 12.00 5.50 3.33 2.25 1.60 1.17 0.86 0.63 0.44 0.30 0.18 0.08 85.4 174.5 267.4 364.4 465.9 572.1 683.3 800.0 922.5 1051.3 1186.8
1.70 34.00 13.00 6.00 3.67 2.50 1.80 1.33 1.00 0.75 0.56 0.40 0.27 0.17 0.08 87.2 178.3 273.3 372.7 476.7 585.7 700.0 820.0 946.2 1078.9
Copyright 2015

1.75 36.50 14.00 6.50 4.00 2.75 2.00 1.50 1.14 0.88 0.67 0.50 0.36 0.25 0.15 0.07 89.1 182.2 279.5 381.4 488.1 600.0 717.5 841.0 971.1
1.80 39.00 15.00 7.00 4.33 3.00 2.20 1.67 1.29 1.00 0.78 0.60 0.45 0.33 0.23 0.14 0.07 91.1 186.4 286.0 390.5 500.0 615.0 735.9 863.2
1.85 41.50 16.00 7.50 4.67 3.25 2.40 1.83 1.43 1.13 0.89 0.70 0.55 0.42 0.31 0.21 0.13 0.06 93.2 190.7 292.9 400.0 512.5 630.8 755.3
1.90 44.00 17.00 8.00 5.00 3.50 2.60 2.00 1.57 1.25 1.00 0.80 0.64 0.50 0.38 0.29 0.20 0.13 0.06 95.3 195.2 300.0 410.0 525.6 647.4
1.95 46.50 18.00 8.50 5.33 3.75 2.80 2.17 1.71 1.38 1.11 0.90 0.73 0.58 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.19 0.12 0.06 97.6 200.0 307.5 420.5 539.5
2.00 49.00 19.00 9.00 5.67 4.00 3.00 2.33 1.86 1.50 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.67 0.54 0.43 0.33 0.25 0.18 0.11 0.05 100.0 205.0 315.4 431.6
2.05 51.50 20.00 9.50 6.00 4.25 3.20 2.50 2.00 1.63 1.33 1.10 0.91 0.75 0.62 0.50 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.17 0.11 0.05 102.5 210.3 323.7
2.10 54.00 21.00 10.00 6.33 4.50 3.40 2.67 2.14 1.75 1.44 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.69 0.57 0.47 0.38 0.29 0.22 0.16 0.10 0.05 105.1 215.8
2.15 56.50 22.00 10.50 6.67 4.75 3.60 2.83 2.29 1.88 1.56 1.30 1.09 0.92 0.77 0.64 0.53 0.44 0.35 0.28 0.21 0.15 0.10 0.05 107.9
2.20 59.00 23.00 11.00 7.00 5.00 3.80 3.00 2.43 2.00 1.67 1.40 1.18 1.00 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.50 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.14 0.09 0.04

Table FL-12: For SI (metric) units,Table FL-12 shows the quantity of barite in kg/m3 needed to increase the mud weight (upper
right) and the volume of water in cu m water per cu m mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left).
 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-39

Table FL-13 : Unit Conversions for Density.

Desired Units (multiply by)

Original units
SG kg/cu m lb/gal lb/cu ft

SG (g/mL) 1 1,000 8.345 62.4

kg/cu m 0.001 1.0 0.008345 0.0624

lb/gal 0.12 120 1 7.48

lb/cu ft 0.016 16.0 0.1337 1

Table FL-14: Other Conversion Factors US Oilfield and SI (Metric).

Original Units Desired Units Multiply by
barrel (bbl) cubic feet (cu ft) 5.615
barrel (bbl) cubic meter (cu m) 0.159
barrel (bbl) US gallon (gal) 42
US gallon (gal) liter (l) 3.785

cubic meter (cu m) barrel (bbl) 6.289

cubic meter cu m) liter (l) 1,000

Mass (weight)

kilogram (kg) pound (lb) 2.204

pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.454
US ton (t) pound (lb) 2,000
metric ton (mt) kilogram (kg) 1,000
metric ton (mt) pound (lb) 2,204
Length or distance

feet (ft) meter (m) 0.3048

inch (in.) centimeter (cm) 2.54
inch (in.) millimeter (mm) 25.4
meter (m) feet (ft) 3.281
Pressure (force/area)

lb/sq in. (psi) kiloPascal (kPa) 6.895

lb/sq in. (psi) bar (bar) 0.06895
lb/sq in. (psi) kg/sq cm 0.0703
kiloPascal (kPa) lb/sq in. (psi) 0.145
bar (bar) kiloPascal (kPa) 100
Atmosphere (atm) lb/sq in. (psi) 14.7

bar lb/sq in. (psi) 14.5

Temperature

Centigrade (C) to Fahrenheit (F) F = ( C x 1.8 ) + 32

Fahrenheit (F) to Centigrade (C) C = (F 32 )

1.8

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015

FL-40 DRILLING FLUIDS
Government regulations
Regulations on the use and disposal of drilling fluids exist in
many forms. These regulations generally focus on the health
and safety of workers and the protection of the environment.
Potential hazards of drilling fluid materials are identified in
MSDSs1, along with recommended practices for managing
the HSE risks and regulations pertinent to the country (and
hemisphere) of origin of the material. Recent developments
have led to formation of the GHS which has modified the
MSDS requirements. 2 Among the changes, the word Ma-
terial has been dropped from the new standard forms and
they are now simply labeled SDS instead of MSDS. number of BAT and BEP recommendations for various in-
Drilling fluids may contain potentially hazardous materials
that are regulated either at the source, during storage or
transport, during use and/or during disposal. These include
the base fluid itself, which can range from fresh water to pro-
duced brines to various types of NAFs. In addition, various
additives can pose HSE risks. The types of materials that are
of particular concern include cationic polymers, surfactants,
biocides, trace heavy metals, alkalinity control agents, flam-
mable materials, oxidizers and other potentially corrosive
or reactive compounds as well as any material containing a
relevant concentration of a listed hazardous chemical. Even
generally innocuous materials like starches, which are nor-
mally used as filtration control agents, may pose a potential
explosion hazard as dusts. Various materials can also be an
environmental risk for low forms of life and are controlled
or banned in some applications. It is imperative that drilling
fluid suppliers, service companies and operators all have a
thorough understanding of the HSE limitations of each and
every material used to formulate drilling fluids.
Health and safety regulations
Workplace restrictions defined by individual companies and
governmental bodies like OSHA define limits of exposure
for workers to various materials to protect their health and
safety 3, 4. Engineering and administrative protocols, as well
as PPE, are also prescribed. Volatile, flammable and/or aro-
matic materials, such as diesel fuel oil, have received much
attention;
However, materials thought to be acutely and/or chronically
toxic, such as products containing heavy metals, have also
received scrutiny. 5-11
Various international organizations have attempted to pro-
vide some guidance on the use and disposal of materials
used in drilling oil and gas wells. OSPAR is the mechanism
by which fifteen European governments came together to
define protocols for the protection of the marine environ-
ment of the North-East Atlantic. It started in 1972 with the
Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cov-
IADC Drilling Manual
er land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris
Convention of 1974. These two conventions were unified
(hence OSPAR), up-datedand extended by the 1992 OSPAR
Convention. The new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems
was adopted in 1998 to cover non-polluting human activities
that can adversely affect the sea.
The OSPAR Convention requires application of best avail-
able techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice
(BEP) to prevent and eliminate marine pollution. OSPAR has
pioneered this concept internationally and adopted a large
dustrial technologies and sources of land-based pollution.
Indeed, the majority of governments involved in offshore
exploration and production or E & P (including Africa, the
Middle East and the Far East), but some onshore as well,
subscribe to the precepts of the OSPAR Convention. BAT is
defined by OSPAR as the latest stage of development (state
of the art) of processes, of facilities or of methods of oper-
ation which indicate the practical suitability of a particular
measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste. BEP
is defined as the application of the most appropriate com-
bination of environmental control measures and strategies.
Table FL-15 : Hazard ranking of
materials under charm model12
Key to HQ Bands
Min Value Max Value Category
>0 <1 Gold
>=1 <30 Silver
>=30 <100 White
>=100 <300 Blue
>=300 <1,000 Orange
>=1,000 Purple
At the beginning of 1996, OSPAR released the offshore
chemical notification scheme (OCNS) which manages
chemical use and discharge by offshore petroleum indus-
tries in the UK and the Netherlands. The OCNS uses the
OSPAR harmonized mandatory control scheme (HMCS) de-
veloped through the OSPAR Decision 2000/2. This scheme
ranks chemical products according to the hazard quotient
(HQ) which is calculated using the chemical hazard and risk
management (CHARM) model. The lower the HQ, the more
hazardous the material. The ranking is shown in Table FL-15.
Copyright 2015
 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-41

Table FL-16: E&P Waste Discharge Limitsa,b.

Electrical Conductivity Sodium Exchangeable

E&P Waste Disposal Technique pH Oil & Grease (%)
(mmhos/cm) Adsorption Ratio Sodium

(%) Oil & Grease (%) NPDESc NPDES NPDES NPDES NPDES
Roadspreading 6-9 <4 NA NA NA
d
Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
d
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Solids Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Burial or Landfill 6-9 <4 NA NA <1

a These requirements do not apply for deep wells or
annular injection.
b Concentration limits for heavy metals are also specified.
For example, for mercury the limit is 17 mg/kg of soil,
while for chromium the limit is 1,500 mg/kg of soil, as
measured by API method 3050.
c Follow NPDES permit requirements.
d Wetland is area inundated or saturated by surface/
ground water continually enough to support life
adapted to those conditions; Upland is area not
identified as Wetland.

Ecotoxicological information, partitioning between oil and
water, bioaccumulation potential, biodegradability, aquatic
toxicity, composition and usage are taken into account in the
ranking. 10
Environmental regulations
In addition to health and safety restrictions, environmental
standards and guidelines abound and often are combined
with health and safety standards and guidelines as per the
OSPAR conventions discussed in the previous section. Pro-
visions are also found in lease documents that impact how
waste drilling fluids or drilled cuttings can be handled. These
include the acceptability of storing waste fluid or cutting in
sumps, burying the waste, injecting the waste to the subsur-
face, land-farming the waste or discharging it to the ocean?
In most cases, before waste fluid and/or cuttings can be
discharged on site, analyses have to be carried out which
demonstrate that certain contaminants in the waste mate-
rial do not exceed some maximum value. Limitations may
be placed on groups of compounds such as organic materi-
als; specific compounds such as benzene; elements such as
mercury; and salts through the measurements of electrical
conductivity. Superseding these provisions are regulations
issued by each nation, including the USA (and even every
state within the USA) that restricts waste disposal methods
for drilling fluids and cuttings. The API has issued several
environmental guidance documents that address these is-
sues 11, 12, 13 A summary of current regulations on waste dis-
posal methods for fluids and solids from drilling operations
is provided by the drilling waste management information
system.
At the federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) develops and enforces regulations with the help of
other agencies. On federal and American Indian lands, the
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible. Off-
shore regulations are enforced by the Bureau of Ocean En-
ergy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and
Environmental Enforcement (BSEE). These agencies were
formed on October 1, 2011 from the Bureau of Ocean Ener-
gy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE)
which was previously known as the Minerals Management
Service or MMS.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), as
amended in 1980, describes the requirements for classify-
ing and managing solid waste. This became the mandate of
the EPA in 1988.14 Drilling fluid discharges are covered in the
Clean Water Act (CWA) and Emergency Planning and Com-
munity Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), along with the terms
of the Superfund Clean-Up Act (CERCLA) and the Super-
fund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), which
exempts classification of oil and gas discharges as hazard-
ous substances.15 Although not considered hazardous, such
discharges are still subject to some controls as shown in
Table FL-1614. Discharges of various materials above certain
threshold limits must be reported.15
Point source liquid/solid discharges onshore or to navigable
waters of the USA (including at sea out to 200 miles from
shore) are regulated by the CWAs National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elimination System (NPDES) program. The design of
reserve and waste pits, as well as the amounts of liquid and
solid waste that may be discharged into them, fall under the

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FL-42 DRILLING FLUIDS
jurisdiction of NPDES.14 Individual states provide their own
regulations as well. In Texas, the Railroad Commission of the
Texas Oil and Gas Division establishes the rules governing
discharges of waste liquids and cuttings. In Louisiana, it is
the Department of Natural Resources Office of Conserva-
tion. Consequently, oil and gas companies must check with
regulators in the state they wish to operate for specific state
discharge regulations. Although federal regulations general-
ly trump state regulations, if the state regulations are strict-
er, the state regulations must be followed.
A vast array of methods has been developed to reduce the
burden of disposing of waste fluids and solids.14 These in-
clude alternative methods of drilling; recycling or substitut-
ing less persistent, less harmful and even beneficial mate-
rials for existing drilling fluid components; and removing
the offending products. Many imaginative techniques have
been developed to remove waste products including filtra-
tion, distillation and destruction (via combustion, radiolysis,
etc.). Even fairly exotic techniques such as vermiculture (di-
gestion by worms) and bioreactors (digestion by microbes)
have been developed and used commercially to clean cut-
tings drilled with NADFs. Waste management regulations
usually target these oily cuttings, aiming not only to re-
duce the NAF on the drilled cuttings, but also the type of
NAF that is allowable. This is particularly true for offshore
drilling where nations have been concerned about the for-
mation of persistent piles of anaerobic cuttings on the sea-
bed and the toxicity of NAF to sea life.
Offshore use of drilling fluids in the USA beyond a three-mile
limit are controlled exclusively via federal regulations which
differ from region to region. Regulations for the Gulf of Mex-
ico, for example, include a static sheen test and two toxicity
tests: chronic marine toxicity tests (with mysid shrimp) and
sediment toxicity tests with marine and estuarine amphi-
pods (leptocheirus or chorophium). In California and else-
where along the Pacific coast, restrictions are different. In
Alaska (where drilling is permissible even within the three-
mile limit), the regulations are different again. Everyone,
however, must comply with the standards set forth by EPA,
as in CFR 40 of the Federal Register, which describes the
types of non-aqueous base fluids that may be used to drill
offshore wells:
No discharge of free oil (using a static sheen test);
There must be a 96-hour LC50 > 30,000 ppm as per
EPAs mysid shrimp toxicity text;
Limits of contaminants in barite used to densify the
drilling fluid are 1 mg/kg mercury and 3 mg/kg
cadmium;
No discharge of drilling wastes is allowed within three
miles of shore (except for Alaska).
IADC Drilling Manual
Additional requirements are set forth in CFR 40 for NAFs:
No NAFs may be discharged;
Cuttings coated with up to 6.9% NAF may be
discharged if the NAF is a member of a special class of
hydrocarbons. Cuttings coated with ester base fluids
may have up to 9.4% SBM on cuttings. The method for
calculating the residual oil on cuttings is spelled out in
the regulations;
Mass Ratio of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
(PAH) to base fluid must be 1 x 10-5;
Biodegradation rate of NAFs shall be no slower than
that of a reference olefin NAF;
Base fluids are tested using the marine
anaerobic closed bottle test;
Base fluid sediment toxicity shall be no more toxic than
that of a reference olefin NAF;
Base fluids are tested via a ten-day acute
solid-phase test using the amphipod
leptocherirus plumulous;
Discharged cuttings are tested the same way
via a four-day acute solid-phase test;
No discharge of formation oil is allowed;
Discharged cuttings are tested for crude oil
contamination by fluorescence method.
In the North Sea, discharges of NADFs are prohibited,
though non-diesel NADFs may be used in highly-controlled
closed loop operations. Indeed, the OSPAR conventions for
discharge of waste fluid and solids in offshore operations
are more restrictive than USA offshore regulations. In other
parts of the world, environmental impact analyses (EIA) are
usually required by contract with the host government or by
regulation/law. The EIA form will often dictate acceptable
methods of disposal of waste fluid and/or cuttings based
on the geology, groundwater and other considerations.
Regulations in each country are usually based on guidelines
established by international bodies and in many cases, the
OSPAR protocols are used for both offshore and onshore
operations. This is generally the case whether in Africa or
the Far East. In South America and Canada, the regulations
are more like those in the USA, but usually with additional
restrictions. In Canada, for example, all drilling fluid prod-
ucts must pass a microtox test which measures the effect
of the additive on the metabolism of a luminescent microbe.
This type of test is much more sensitive than tests on larger
forms of life. In South America, it is common to find severe
restrictions on the electrical conductivity (salt content) of
fluid or cuttings that can be buried, land-spread (land-treat-
ed) or land-farmed.
Copyright 2015

Transportation regulations
Transport of materials is regulated by agencies such as:
The United States Department of Transportation
(USDOT) which issues most regulations in the Title
49-Transportation Code of Federal Regulations (49
CFR);
The Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR) which
governs transportation of hazardous materials in all
modes of transportation whether air, highway, rail or
water.
Globally, the United Nations Economic and Social Council
issues the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dan-
gerous Goods and IMO issues the International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code for transport of dangerous goods
by sea. Another agency, the Intergovernmental Organiza-
tion for International Carriage by Rail, has developed Regu-
lations for the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by
Rail (RID). In the UN recommendations, dangerous goods
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-43
are divided into nine classes with each having a unique
graphic symbol and wording. Individual countries may not
use the same precise language or symbols but the GHS is
an internationally agreed upon system that brings consis-
tency across standards in different countries. This system
complements the OSPAR HMCS system mentioned earlier.
The regulations for marine transport and ship-borne pol-
lution may differ.In 1973, IMO adopted the Internation-
al Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships and
subsequently modified it by protocol in 1978. The Conven-
tion is known as MARPOL 73/78and its objective is to limit
ship-borne pollution by restricting operational pollution and
reducing the possibility of accidental pollution. Acceptance
of the convention by national governments obliges them to
make the requirements part of domestic law. Included in this
convention are guidelines for the design of ships (including
mobile offshore drilling units or MODUs) and the safe han-
dling and transport of chemicals from and to those ships.
IMO established various codes for chemicals that are re-
quired to be used.
Copyright 2015
FL-44 DRILLING FLUIDS
CITED REFERENCES
1. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 (CFR 29),1910
2. UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and La-
beling of Chemicals (GHS), Revision 3, issued in the Federal
Register, March 26, 2012.
3. ACGIH Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents (lat-
est edition). Saxs Dangerous Properties of Industrial Mate-
rials, 9th ed., Lewis, R.J. Sr., (ed.), VNR, New York, New York,
1997.
4. OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits, 29 CFR 1910, Subpart
Z, Section 1910.1000, Air Contaminants.
5. Kirkeleit, J., Riise, T., Brtveit, M., and Moen, B.E. In-
creased Risk of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia and Multi-
ple Myeloma in a Historical Cohort of Upstream Petroleum
Workers Exposed to Crude Oil. Cancer Causes & Control
19.1 (2008): pp 13-23.
6. Murray, C., Clark, G., Epps, L., Lin. Terry. Sampling for Oil
Mist and Hydrocarbons on Drilling Rigs in Northeast British
Columbia. WorkSafeBC (2009).
7. Steinsvag, K., Bratveit, M., Moen, B.E. Exposure to Oil
Mist and Oil Vapour During Offshore Drilling in Norway,
1979-2004. Ann. Occup. Hyg. (2006): pp 109-122.
8. Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management: A Guide for
Drilling Personnel, Managers, and Health Professionals in
the Oil and Gas Industry. International Association of Oil &
Gas Producers (2009).
IADC Drilling Manual
9. http://www.cefas.co.uk/ocns/index.htm.
10. http://www.cefas.co.uk/ocns/guidelines.pdf.
11. Environmental Guidance Document: Waste Manage-
ment in Exploration and Production Operations, API Bulletin
E5, 2nd Ed., Feb. 1997.
12. Environmental Guidance Document: Release Reporting
for the Oil and Gas E&P Industry as Required by the Clean
Water Act, the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act, and the Emergency Plan-
ning and Community Right-to-Know Act, Upstream Seg-
ment, API Bulletin E4, 2nd Ed, May 2003.
13. Guidance Document for the Development of a Safety
and Environmental Management System for Onshore Oil
and Natural Gas Production Operations and Associated Ac-
tivities, API Bulletin 75L, 1st Ed, Nov. 2007.
14. http://web.ead.anl.gov/dwm/techdesc/burial/index.
cfm.
15. Federal Register, Environmental Protection Agency 40
CFR Parts 9 and 435, Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Oil and Gas Ex-
traction Point Source Category, Jan 22, 2001.
Copyright 2015

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Principles Of Drilling Fluid Control, The University Of Texas
Petroleum Extension Service
World Oil, June Edition (yearly) Guide to Drilling, Completion
and Workover Fluids
API RP 13A Specification for Drilling Fluid Materials
API RP 13B Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Water
Based Drilling Fluids
API RP 13B-2 - Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Oil
Based Drilling Fluids
API RP 13C Recommended Practice for Drilling Fluid Pro-
cessing Systems Evaluation
API RP 13D - Rheology and Hydraulics for Oil Well Fluids
API RP 13I8 Recommended Practice for Laboratory Testing
of Drilling Fluids
API RP 13J Testing of Heavy Brines
API RP 13K Recommended Practice for Chemical Analysis
of Barite
API RP 13L Recommended Practice for Training and Qualifi-
cation of Drilling Fluid Technologists
API 13M Recommended Practice for Measurement of Vis-
cous Properties of Completion Fluids
OGP Report No. 342, May 2003, Environmental aspects of
the use and disposal of non aqueous drilling fluids associ-
ated with offshore oil & gas operations OGP, International
Association of Oil & Gas Producers, http://www.ogp.org.
uk/pubs/342.pdf
OGP Report No. 396, Drilling fluids and health risk man-
agement , (A guide for drilling personnel, managers and
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-45
health professionals in the oil and gas industry), OGP (In-
ternational Association of Oil & Gas Producers) and IPIECA
(International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conserva-
tion Association), http://www.ogp.org.uk/pubs/396.pdf
Caenn, Gray, Darley and Rogers, Composition and Proper-
ties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, Gulf Publishing, 2011, .
Lummus, J. J.and Azar, J. J., Drilling Fluids Optimization A
Practical Field Approach, Penwell, 1986.
Messenger, J.U., Lost Circulation, Penwell, 1981.
Planning for Drilling in Hydrogen Sulfide Zones: An Outline
of Safety and Health Procedures. Petroleum Extension Ser-
vice, The University of Texas at Austin.
A Primer of Oil Well Drilling: A Basic Text of Oil and Gas
Drilling. Baker, Ron, Petroleum Extension Service, The Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin.
OSHA, eTools Home :Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing
eTool, Drilling >> Drilling Ahead >> Drilling Fluid, https://
www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/oilandgas/drilling/drillingflu-
id.html
Online Drilling Waste Management Information System
Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energys
(DOEs) Natural Gas & Oil Technology Partnership program,
National Energy Technology Laboratory, http://web.ead.
anl.gov/dwm/index.cfm
Lyons, W.C., Guo, B.and Seidel, F. 2001. Air and Gas Drilling
Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Canadian Assn. of Petroleum Producers, TECHNICAL RE-
PORT, Offshore Drilling Waste Management Review, Feb-
ruary 2001, 2001-0007 (Country-Specific Requirements for
Discharge of Drilling Muds and Cuttings) Calgary.
Copyright 2015
THE IADC LEXICON
D E F I N I N G T H E D R I L L I N G S PAC E !

IADC Lexicon puts critical definitions at your fingertips.

Imagine thousands of the most pertinent definitions and terms relevant to
drilling, all in a single convenient repository the IADC Lexicon. The IADC
Lexicon draws from the most critical legislation, regulations, standards and
guidelines worldwide.
The European Union requested that IADC, as the authority in the drilling
space, create the Lexicon to aid in regulation and understanding our industry.
Use the IADC Lexicon as a dictionary or to quickly and easily identify a
relevant standard, guideline or regulation. Or, use it as a template to develop
instructions for your own company.

www.iadclexicon.org

APPENDIX: SAFETY DATA SHEETS, HAZARD LABELS, AND NFPA DIAMOND
Drilling fluids and general rig operations use a number of
different chemicals for various operations; each product has
unique chemical and physical properties which need to be
considered for safe handling. Information about chemicals
and hazards is provided by the supplier in several forms.
These include the Safety Data Sheets (SDS), previously re-
ferred to as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), plus prod-
uct and shipping labels, transportation labels, US National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Diamond, American
Coatings Association Hazardous Materials Information Sys-
tem (HMIS) or other labels which are used in packaging or
transportation.
The United Nations has sponsored a global standard for
classification and labeling of chemicals called the Globally
Harmonized System (GHS). This GHS system has standard
formats for safety data sheets and product labels. GHS ad-
dresses the hazards related to physical, health, and environ-
mental dangers. Information on the safety data sheets and
product labels should be used to determine safe handling,
storage and disposal procedures plus the personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE) required. ( Additional information can
be found on the OSHA website https://www.osha.gov/dsg/
Figure FL-A1: Example SDS Hazard Information Section 2.
Figure FL-A2: Example SDS Exposure Controls / Personal Protection Section 8.
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-1
hazcom/index.html and on the UN website http://www.
unece.org/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_welcome_e.html).
GHS Safety Data Sheet
The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is the most comprehensive
source for information about a chemical product. The SDS
includes information on the physical and chemical prop-
erties, physical and health hazards, routes of exposure,
precautions for safe handling, storage, use and disposal,
emergency and first-aid procedures, PPE and other control
measures, plus additional information. Information on an
SDS should be reviewed and considered prior to handling
or applying a product or when responding to any accidental
exposure or emergency situation.
The GHS hazard categories are ranked from 1 to 5 with 1 be-
ing a severe hazard and 5 indicating a minimal hazard:
Category 1: Severe hazard;
Category 2: Serious hazard;
Category 3: Moderate hazard;
Category 4 Slight hazard;
Category 5: Minimal hazard.
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FL-A2 DRILLING FLUIDS

IMPORTANT: The GHS hazard numbering format is OP-
POSITE to NFPA 704 transportation labeling and HMIS III
labels. On NFPA 704 and HMIS III labels the categories
range from 0 to 4 with 4 being a severe hazard and 0 indi-
cating a minimal hazard.
SDSs are comprehensive for all applications of a chemical
product. For safe handling and usage, it is recommended
to concentrate on the information that is applicable to the
particular application of the product, especially the hazard
information in Section 2 (Figure FL-A1) and exposure con-
trols and personal protective measures covered in Section
8 (Figure FL-A2).
Some SDSs and labels use precautionary pictograms to in-
dicate the personal protective equipment which should be
used when handling a product or chemical (Figure FL-A3).
It is recommended that:
1. The supplier provide Safety Data Sheets for every
chemical or product being used.
2. That the location of SDSs be clearly communicated and
easily accessible for all workers at all times.
3. All workers handling or transporting a chemical prod-
uct should be trained on the information contained on
SDSs and product labels. This training should include
the location of the safe handling information, instruc-
tions on the other information contained on a SDS, and
how to properly make use of that information.

Key GHS terms

Hazard group: Three major hazard groups: 1) health, 2)
physical and 3) environmental.

Class: Class describes different types of hazards (see listing

of classes for each group below). Gases under Pressure
Eye protection Safety gloves and Self-Reactive Substances are examples of classes in
must be worn must be worn
the physical hazards group.

Category: Category describes sub-sections of classes. The

Self-Reactive Substances class has 7 categories. Each cat-
egory has standard criteria to determine which chemicals
belong in that category. Categories are assigned numbers
(or letters) with category 1 (or A) being the most hazardous.

Hazard Statement: For each category within a class, a stan-

dard hazard statement is used. As an example, the hazard
statement for chemicals in the Self-heating substances
Face protection Respiratory equipment and mixtures class, Category 1, the standard statement is
must be worn must be worn Self-heating; may catch fire. This hazard statement would
appear the product label and on the SDS in Section 2.

Signal word: Danger and Warning are the only two signal
words used. They are used to indicate the level of hazard
and are used on both the product label and the SDS. As an
example, the signal word for Self-heating substances and
mixtures class, Category 1, is Danger. Within this same
class, Warning is used for the less serious Category 2. For
other less hazardous categories, no signal word is used.

Pictogram: Pictogram refers to the GHS symbol on the la-

Safety overalls Safety boots
must be worn must be worn bel and SDS. Not all hazard categories have a pictogram as-
signed to them, see Figure FL-A4.
Figure FL-A3: Personal protective equipment
precautionary pictogram examples.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015


GHS Safety Data Sheets have 16 standard sections:
Section 1. Identification of the chemical and its supplier
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
Section 4. First-Aid Measures
Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures
Section 6. Accidental Release Measures
Section 7. Handling and Storage
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties
Section 10. Stability and Reactivity
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information
Section 12. Ecological Information (non-mandatory)
Section 13. Disposal Considerations (non-mandatory)
Section 14. Transport Information (non-mandatory)
Section 15. Regulatory Information (non-mandatory)
Section 16. Other Information, including date of SDS prepa-
ration or last revision
SDS Sections 1 through 8 contains general information about
the chemical, identification, hazards, composition, safe han-
dling practices, and emergency control measures.
SDS Sections 9 through 11 and 16 contain other technical and
scientific information, such as physical and chemical prop-
erties, information about stability and reactivity, toxicology,
exposure control, and other information for any required el-
ement.
SDS Sections
Section 1. Identification
This section identifies the chemical on the SDS as well as its
recommended uses. It also provides the essential contact
information of the supplier.
Product identifier used on the label and any other
common names or synonyms by which the substance is
known.
Name, address, phone number of the manufacturer,
importer, or other responsible party, and emergency
phone number.
Recommended use of the chemical (brief description of
what it actually does) and any restrictions on its use.
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification
This section identifies the hazards of the chemical present-
ed on the SDS and the appropriate warning information as-
sociated with those hazards (Figure FL-A1).
The hazard classification of the chemical (e.g.,
flammable liquid, category).
Signal word
Hazard statement(s)
Pictograms (these hazard symbols may be in black and
white or be a description of the name of the symbol
IADC Drilling Manual
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A3
(e.g., skull & crossbones, flame, etc.)
Precautionary statement(s)
Description of any hazards not otherwise classified
The pictograms used for this section in the GHS are shown
in Figure FL-A4, they have red borders. Hazard pictograms
are graphic symbols used to communicate specific informa-
tion about the hazards of a chemical. These pictograms are
also used on packaging or container labels and lab sample
or workplace. An easy to understand leaflet explaining the
pictograms can be found at: http://echa.europa.eu/docu-
ments/10162/2621167/eu-osha_chemical_hazard_picto-
grams_leaflet_en.pdf
Transportation, outer packaging and shipping label picto-
grams or placards have black borders with similar icons, also
shown in Figure FL-A5.
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
This section identifies the ingredient(s) contained in the
product indicated on the SDS, including impurities and sta-
bilizing additives. Includes information on substances, mix-
tures, and all chemicals except for special situations where a
trade secret is claimed.
Section 4. First-Aid Measures
This section describes the initial care that should be given
by untrained responders to an individual who has been ex-
posed to the chemical.
Necessary first-aid instructions by relevant routes of
exposure (inhalation, skin and eye contact, and
ingestion).
Description of the most important symptoms or effects,
and any symptoms that are acute or delayed.
Recommendations for immediate medical care and
special treatment.
Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures
This section provides recommendations for fighting a fire
caused by the chemical.
Recommendations of suitable extinguishing equipment,
and information about extinguishing equipment that is
not appropriate for a particular situation.
Advice on specific hazards that develop from the
chemical during the fire, such as any hazardous
combustion products created when the chemical burns.
Recommendations on special protective equipment or
precautions for firefighters.
Section 6. Accidental Release Measures
This section has recommendations on appropriate response
to spills, leaks, or releases, including containment and clean-
up practices to prevent or minimize exposure to people,
properties, or the environment. Its recommendations may
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FL-A4 DRILLING FLUIDS

Figure FL-A4: GHS

hazard pictograms.

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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A5

Flammable liquid Flammable solid Pyrophorics

Flammable gas Self-reactive substances (spontaneously
Flammable aerosol combustable) Self-
heating substances

Substances, which in Oxidizing gases Explosive

contact with water, Oxidizing liquids Divisions 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
emit flammable gases Oxidizing solids
(dangerous when wet)

Explosive Division 1.4 Explosive Division 1.5 Explosive Division 1.6

Compressed gases Acute toxicity (poison) Corrosive

Oral, dermal,
inhalation

Figure FL-A5: Examples

of GHS transportation
pictograms (not
comprehensive).
Marine pollutant Organic peroxides

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FL-A6 DRILLING FLUIDS
distinguish between responses for large and small spills
where the spill volume has a significant impact on the haz-
ard.
Use of personal precautions (such as removal of ignition
sources or providing sufficient ventilation) and
protective equipment to prevent the contamination of
skin, eyes, and clothing.
Emergency procedures, including instructions for
evacuations, consulting experts when needed, and
appropriate protective clothing.
Methods and materials used for containment (e.g.,
covering the drains and capping procedures).
Cleanup procedures (e.g., appropriate techniques for
neutralization, decontamination, cleaning or
vacuuming; absorbent materials; and/or equipment
required for containment/cleanup).
Section 7. Handling and Storage
This section provides guidance on the safe handling practic-
es and conditions for safe storage of chemicals.
Precautions for safe handling, including
recommendations for handling incompatible chemicals,
minimizing the release of the chemical into the
environment, and providing advice on general hygiene
practices (e.g., eating, drinking, and smoking in work
areas is prohibited).
Recommendations on the conditions for safe storage,
including any incompatibilities. Provide advice on
specific storage requirements (e.g., ventilation
requirements).
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
This section indicates the exposure limits, engineering con-
trols, and personal protective measures that can be used to
minimize worker exposure (Figure FL-A2).
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), and any other
exposure limit used or recommended by the chemical
manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the
safety data sheet, where available.
Appropriate engineering controls (e.g., use local
exhaust ventilation, or use only in an enclosed system).
Recommendations for personal protective measures to
prevent illness or injury from exposure to chemicals,
such as personal protective equipment (PPE.
Any special requirements for PPE, protective clothing or
respirators (e.g. type of glove material, such as PVC or
nitrile rubber gloves).
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties
This section identifies physical and chemical properties as-
sociated with the substance or mixture.
Appearance (physical state, color, etc.)
IADC Drilling Manual
Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits
Odor
pH
Relative density
Melting point/freezing point
Solubility
Initial boiling point and boiling range
Flash point
Evaporation rate
Flammability (solid, gas)
Vapor pressure
Vapor density
Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water
Auto-ignition temperature
Decomposition temperature
Viscosity
The SDS may not contain every item on the above list be-
cause information may not be relevant or is not available.
Manufacturers may also add other relevant properties.
Section 10. Stability and Reactivity
This section describes the reactivity hazards of the chem-
ical and the chemical stability information. This section is
broken into three parts: Reactivity, Chemical Stability, and
Other.:
Reactivity
Description of the specific test data for the
chemical(s).
Chemical Stability
Indication of whether the chemical is stable or
unstable under normal ambient temperature and
conditions while in storage and being handled.
Description of any stabilizers that may be needed
to maintain chemical stability.
Indication of any safety issues that may arise
should the product change in physical
appearance.
Other
Indication of the possibility of hazardous
reactions, including a statement whether the
chemical will react or polymerize, which could
release excess pressure or heat, or create other
hazardous conditions. Also, a description of the
conditions under which hazardous reactions may
occur.
List of all conditions that should be avoided that
may lead to hazardous conditions.
List of all classes of incompatible materials with
which the chemical could react to produce a
hazardous situation.
List of any known or anticipated hazardous
decomposition products that could be produced
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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A7

Figure FL-A6: Example of shipping label.

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 FL-A8 DRILLING FLUIDS

SAMPLE LABEL

ICK CODE _______________________________

Product Name________________________
} Product
Hazard Pictograms

ARD
TM
Identifier

}
Company Name_______________________
Street Address________________________

}
City_______________________ State_____ Supplier
Postal Code______________Country_____ Identification
Emergency Phone Number_____________
Labels Signal Word
ng of Keep container tightly closed. Store in a cool, Danger
well-ventilated place that is locked.
nication Keep away from heat/sparks/open flame. No smoking.
Only use non-sparking tools.

}
will be Use explosion-proof electrical equipment.
Take precautionary measures against static discharge. Highly flammable liquid and vapor. Hazard
azard and Ground and bond container and receiving equipment. May cause liver and kidney damage. Statements
Do not breathe vapors.
er, and Wear protective gloves.
abel, Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product. Precautionary
Wash hands thoroughly after handling. Statements
wn on the Dispose of in accordance with local, regional, national,
international regulations as specified. Supplemental Information
rovided
In Case of Fire: use dry chemical (BC) or Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Directions for Use
fire extinguisher to extinguish. __________________________________

OSHA 3492-02 2012

__________________________________
First Aid __________________________________
If exposed call Poison Center.
If on skin (or hair): Take off immediately any contaminated
OSHA (6742) Fill weight:____________ Lot Number:___________
clothing. Rinse skin with water.
Gross weight:__________ Fill Date:______________
a.gov
Expiration Date:________

Figure FL-A7: Example of product or chemical label.

because of use, storage, or heating
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information
This section identifies toxicological and health
effects information or indicates that such data are
not available.
Information on the likely routes of exposure (inhalation,
ingestion, skin and eye contact).
Description of the delayed, immediate, or chronic
effects from short-term and long-term exposure.
The numerical measures of toxicity
Description of the symptoms. This description includes
the symptoms associated with exposure to the chemical
including symptoms from the lowest to the most severe
exposure.
Indication of whether the chemical is listed as a known
or potential carcinogen.
Section 12. Ecological Information
This section provides information to evaluate the environ-
mental impact of the chemical(s) if it were released to the
environment.
Section 13. Disposal Considerations
This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices,
recycling or reclamation of the chemical(s) or its container,
and safe handling practices.
Section 14. Transport Information
This section provides guidance on classification information
for shipping and transporting of hazardous chemical(s) by
road, air, rail, or sea.
Section 15. Regulatory Information
This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental
regulations specific for the product that is not indicated any-
where else on the SDS.
Section 16. Other Information
This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when
the last known revision was made. The SDS may also state
where the changes have been made to the previous version.
You may wish to contact the supplier for an explanation of
the changes. Other useful information also may be included
here.
GHS product labels for packaging, shipping

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Information about chemicals and hazards is also provided by
the supplier on packaging or product labels and transporta-
tion labels using the same information contained on SDSs.
While these labels may look different depending on the
manufacturer, they all use a GHS defined standard format.
Due to the limited space on a product or shipping label, the
information is condensed from the comprehensive informa-
tion on the SDS to only the most important data.
Product and shipping labels contain:
1. Supplier Identification: Name, Address and Telephone
Number
2. Product Identifier(s)
3. Signal Word
4. Hazard Statement(s)
5. Precautionary Statement(s)
6. Hazard Pictogram(s)
7. Supplemental information (optional)
The elements of a product label are shown in Figure FL-A7:
Product and shipping label elements:
1. Supplier Name, Address and Telephone Number of the
chemical manufacturer, importer or other responsible
party.
2. Product Identifier: Product name or chemical name, a
product code number or batch number. It may include
the standard chemical descriptor or CAS number.
3. Signal Words are used to indicate the relative severity
of the hazard and alert to the potential hazard. There
are only two words used as signal words, Danger and
Warning. With Danger being the more severe haz- IMPORTANT: The numbering format used on NFPA 704
ard.
4. Hazard Statements describe the nature of the haz-
ard(s) of a chemical, including, where appropriate, the
degree and type of hazard. All of the applicable hazard
statements appear on the label.
5. Precautionary Statements describe recommended
measures to minimize or prevent adverse effects re-
sulting from exposure to, or improper storage or han-
dling, of a product. There are four types of precaution-
ary statements:
1. Prevention (to minimize exposure);
2. Response (accidental spillage or exposure emer-
gency response, and first-aid);
3. Storage;
4. Disposal.
Precautionary statements may be combined on the label to
save on space and improve readability. Where a chemical
is classified for a number of hazards and the precautionary
statements are similar, the most stringent statements are
included on the label.
6. Hazard pictograms are graphic symbols used to com-
municate specific information about the hazards of a
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DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A9
chemical and are the same ones used on the SDS. (See
Figure FL-A4.)
7. Supplementary information is optional. This is addi-
tional instructions or information that may be helpful.
It may also list hazards not otherwise described on the
label. Examples of supplementary information include;
personal protective equipment (PPE) pictograms indi-
cating what workers handling the chemical may need
to wear to protect themselves, directions for use, size,
weight, lot number, expiration date, or any similar rele-
vant data.
Shipping labels differ from product labels in that the picto-
grams used are of the transportation format, See Figure 5,
and other local transportation regulatory information (such
as US DOT) may be included.
Other Hazard Labels & NFPA 704 Label
(NFPA Diamond)
There are several other hazard labels and labeling criteria
that are often used. The most common are; 1) the US Na-
tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA) label or NFPA
Diamond, 2) American Coatings Association Hazardous
Materials Identification System (HMIS) labels (HMIS III),
3) Canadas Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
System (WHMIS), and 4) country specific regulatory re-
quirements. Only the NFPA Diamond and HMIS III will be
covered here.
and HMIS III labels is OPPOSITE to the GHS format. On
GHS SDSs and labels, 1 is the most severe hazard and 4 is
the least severe hazard.
NFPA 704 Labels (NFPA Diamond):
NFPA 704 diamonds provide basic information for emer-
gency personnel responding to a fire or spill and those
planning for emergency response. They are also sometimes
used on product packaging and for signs outside hazardous
materials storage areas. The information on the NFPA 704
Diamond is also useful for workers who use and manage
these materials.
The NFPA 704 label has 4 quadrants, the red top section
indicates flammability hazard, the blue left section indicates
health hazard, the yellow right section indicates instability
hazard and the white bottom section indicates special haz-
ards. A numerical rating is provided in each section to indi-
cate the severity of the hazard, with a 4 indicating the most
severe hazard and a 0 indicating no hazard. See Figure FL-
A8 below on how to read a NFPA diamond label.
Special Hazard symbols and abbreviations include:
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FL-A10 DRILLING FLUIDS
Flammability hazard
4 = Easily ignite, or ignite spontaneously
in air.
3 = Capable of igniting under most ambient
conditions.
2 = Must be moderately heated or exposed
to high ambient temperatures to ignite.
1 = Must be considerably pre-heated to
ignite.
0 = Will not burn.
Health hazard
4 = Materials that can be lethal.
3 = Materials that can cause serious or
permanent injury.
2 = Materials that can cause temporary
incapacitation or residual injury.
1 = Materials that can cause significant
irritation.
0 = Materials that offer no hazard beyond
that of ordinary combustible materials.
Figure FL-A8: How to read a NFPA 704 Hazard label.
1. Windicating that material reacts violently or explosive-
ly with water
2. OX indicating that material is an oxidizer and may be
unstable, possibly explosive or able to cause a violent
chemical reaction, even without oxygen or air
3. COR indicating that material is corrosive, a strong acid
or base
4. ACID indicating that material is acidic
5. ALK indicating that material is alkaline
6. POI indicating that material is poisonous
7. SA indicating that material is a simple asphyxiant gas
8. RAD (or ) indicating that material is a radioactive haz-
ard
9. BIO ( or ) indicating a biological hazard
10. CYL or CRYO indicating that material is cryogenic,
meaning they are liquid gases at ultra-low and danger-
ous temperatures, below about -150C (- 238F).
NFPA 704 diamonds used outside hazardous materials stor-
age areas indicate the most hazardous material in that loca-
IADC Drilling Manual
Instability hazard
4 = Materials readily capable of detonation
or explosive decomposition or explosive
reaction at normal temperatures and
pressures.
3 = Materials readily capable of detonation,
or explosive, but that require a strong
initiating source, or that must be heated
under confinement before initiation..
2 = Materials that readily undergo violent
chemical change at elevated temperatures
and pressures.
1 = Normally stable materials that can
become unstable at elevated temperatures
and pressures.
0 = Normally stable even under fire
conditions.
tion, but they might not provide specific chemical names or
quantities.
Not only is the NFPA numbering system opposite of the
GHS, but the criteria used for the various NFPA categories
is different than that used for GHS Safety Data Sheets and
labels. The NFPA rating system can be found in NFPA Fire
Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials or NFPA 704 Stan-
dard System for Identification of the Hazards of Materials
for Emergency Response. Tables 5.2, 6.2, 7.2 and Chapter
8 of NFPA 704.
HMIS III Labels
Another common labeling system used for packaging and
products is the American Coatings Association (ACA)
Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) labels
(currently referred to as the HMIS III system). The informa-
tion on HMIS labels does not replace or substitute for other
regulatory labeling requirements for chemical manufactur-
ers, importers, or distributors, but instead, supplements it
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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A11

Chemical name Table FL-A1: HMIS III Hazard Numbering System

HEALTH HMIS III HAZARD RATINGS

4 = SEVERE HAZARD
FLAMMABILITY

3 = SERIOUS HAZARD
PHYSICAL HAZARD

2 = MODERATE HAZARD

Personal Protection 1 = SLIGHT HAZARD

0 = MINIMAL HAZARD

Figure FL-A9: HMIS III Example Label.

CHRONIC HAZARD or additional information

HMIS III HAZARD RATINGS

Figure FL-A10: HMIS III system index and PPE letters.

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FL-A12 DRILLING FLUIDS

Table FL-A2 : HMIS III Health hazard ratings.

Health hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria

4 = SEVERE HAZARD Life-threatening, major or permanent damage may result from single or repeated overexposures

3 = SERIOUS HAZARD Major injury likely unless prompt action is taken and medical treatment is given

2 = MODERATE HAZARD Temporary or minor injury may occur

1 = SLIGHT HAZARD Irritation or minor reversible injury possible

0 = MINIMAL HAZARD No significant risk to health

*CHRONIC HAZARD or additional information Chronic (long-term) health effects may result from repeated overexposure

Table FL-A3 : HMIS III Flammability hazard ratings.

Flammability hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria

Flammable gases, or very volatile flammable liquids with flash points below 73F, and boiling points
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
below 100F. Materials may ignite spontaneously with air. (Class IA)
Materials capable of ignition under almost all normal temperature conditions. Includes flammable
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD liquids with flash points below 73F and boiling points above 100F as well as liquids with flash points
between 73F and 100F. (Classes IB & IC)
Materials which must be moderately heated or exposed to high ambient temperatures before ignition
2 = MODERATE HAZARD will occur. Includes liquids having a flash point at or above 100 F but below 200 F.
(Classes II & IIIA)
Materials that must be preheated before ignition will occur. Includes liquids, solids and semi solids
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD
having a flash point above 200 F. (Class IIIB)

0 = MINIMAL HAZARD Materials that will not burn

Table FL-A4 : HMIS III Physical hazard ratings.

Physical hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria

Materials that are readily capable of explosive water reaction, detonation or explosive decomposition,
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
polymerization, or self-reaction at normal temperature and pressure.
Materials that may form explosive mixtures with water and are capable of detonation or explosive
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD reaction in the presence of a strong initiating source. Materials may polymerize, decompose, self-react,
or undergo other chemical change at normal temperature and pressure with moderate risk of explosion
Materials that are unstable and may undergo violent chemical changes at normal temperature and
2 = MODERATE HAZARD pressure with low risk for explosion. Materials may react violently with water or form peroxides upon
exposure to air.
Materials that are normally stable but can become unstable (self-react) at high temperatures and
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD pressures. Materials may react non-violently with water or undergo hazardous polymerization in the
absence of inhibitors.

MaMaterials that are normally stable, even under fire conditions, and will NOT react with water,
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD
polymerize, decompose, condense, or self-react. Non-Explosives.

in a uniform and user-friendly way. This system is also often
used for the labeling of products and chemicals used in lab-
oratory and field testing.
The HMIS label conveys product identity by proper chemi-
cal or common names, code numbers, or other descriptive
terms that clearly identify the material to employees. The
presence of chronic health hazards is communicated by an
asterisk (*) linked to descriptive information on the Safety
Data Sheet. The severity of any acute Health, Flammability,
and Physical Hazards is communicated by numerical rat-
ings. These ratings range from 0 to 4, with 4 being a severe
hazard and 0 indicating a minimal hazard which is the same
as the NFPA system but opposite of the GHS system.
On HMIS III labels, required PPE for using a product is spec-
ified by a letter, with items identified either as groupings of
complementary equipment or as individual pieces of PPE
(Figure FL-A10). Icons may also be used.

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 DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A13

Table FL-A5: HMIS III PPE letter definitions.

Symbol Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Required

A Safety Glasses

B Safety Glasses & Gloves

C Safety Glasses & Gloves & Apron

D Face Shield & Gloves & Apron

E Safety Glasses & Gloves & Dust Respirator

F Safety Glasses & Gloves & Apron & Dust Respirator

G Safety Glasses & Gloves & Vapor Respirator

H Splash Goggles & Gloves & Apron & Vapor Respirator

I Safety Glasses & Gloves & Dust and Vapor Respirator

J Splash Goggles & Gloves & Apron & Dust and Vapor Respirator

K Air Line Hood or Mask & Gloves & Full Suit & Boots

X Ask supervisor or safety specialist or S.O.P. for SPECIAL handling instructions

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright 2015