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Waste bio-reneries for the cassava starch industry: New trends and review MARK
of alternatives
Antonio Santos Sncheza, , Yuri Lopes Silvaa, Ricardo Arajo Kalidb, Eduardo Cohimc, Ednildo
Andrade Torresa
a
Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
b
Federal University of South Bahia, Brazil
c
State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T
Keywords: The cassava starch industrial process generates very pollutant euents that need to be treated before discharge.
Bio-renery A series of successful experiences concerning the transformation of treatment ponds into covered lagoons have
Biogas been conducted in the last years in Brazil, proving that the use of anaerobic digesters could make the worldwide
Co-generation cassava industry more protable. The circular economy approach is used to add the balance of greenhouse
Cassava pulp waste
gases, water and land use to the assessment of a set of waste-to-resource alternatives for this particular
Circular economy
industrial process. The results point out to the convenience of upgrading the covered lagoon solution to a more
complete waste bio-renery that not only focus in electric power generation but also recovers process heat and
biofertilizers as byproducts. Co-generation is very attractive for the resource recovery of this agricultural
residue. It was also found that the higher eciency that characterizes co-generation leads to the lowest level of
greenhouse gases emissions.
1. Introduction The rst cassava biomass residue is available on the elds after the
harvest. The roots are collected, carried and transported. Some stems
Cassava, tapioca or mandioca (Manihot esculenta) is a native plant are used for the further propagation of the crop while the greatest part
from South America that has a huge nutritional importance in the of the green mass is left on the soil. There, it decomposes and some
tropics, where its root is one of the main sources of carbohydrates. nutrients return to the soil. A cassava plantation produces 200 kg of
Besides the fact that only sugarcane and sugar beet have higher yield of usable dry mass for each ton of cassava roots that is harvested [13].
carbohydrates per hectare, cassava has the advantage of requiring a low Cassava stalk can also undergo fast pyrolysis producing bio-oil [14], in
agrochemical input [13]. It is also one of the most drought-tolerant yields of around 63 wt% in a uidised-bed reactor [15] or around 70 wt
crops and can be successfully grown on marginal soils. It constitutes a % in a free-fall reactor [16]. But this rst form of cassava residues
valuable agricultural resource that can be either processed and appears scattered among the cultivation elds, where there is no other
exported or consumed locally as a staple crop. In addition, it is a energy demand besides the harvest machinery. It could be pre-
common practice for local farmers to use Cassava hay and tubers for processed and transported to facilities located in the villages for direct
animal feed, as it is done worldwide in the Tropics. But it is in times of burning or pyrolysation at the expense of the energy required in its
drought where the importance of this plant arises as it becomes a transportation. A second form of cassava residues appears in a more
survival crop for cattle and goats. Cassava can also be a source of concentrated form and where there is indeed an energy demand.
biofuel [46]. Its root stores starch which can be transformed into Cassava roots are transported to facilities and undergo two dierent
glucose and then undergo alcoholic fermentation. One ton of cassava industrial processes with the aim to obtain two products: starch and
roots can produce 188 l of ethanol [79] and the stillage that is our. Both processes generate solid and liquid wastes that have
generated during the distillation process can undergo anaerobic bioenergy potential, especially as sources of biogas. In addition, both
fermentation and produce biogas [1012]. However, given the im- processes are energy-intense, in particular the processing of starch that
portance of this crop as a food source for humans and animals, its requires about 2208 MJ/ton of cassava roots in electricity and heat [7].
direct use for bioenergy doesnt seem as a convenient option. The production of our is generally performed by small facilities using
Correspondence to: PEI Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia, Rua Aristides Novis 2, CEP 40.210-630 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail address: sanchezbahia@gmail.com (A.S. Snchez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.02.007
Received 15 February 2016; Received in revised form 3 December 2016; Accepted 2 February 2017
Available online 16 February 2017
1364-0321/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.S. Snchez et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 12651275
traditional techniques, especially in Africa and Northeast Brazil, and the sieves, a more starch-concentrated pulp continues the process
the production of starch is much more mechanized and concentrated in while the obtained bers are pumped to a tank that stores them
bigger facilities. Two types of biomass are produced in both cassava-to- together with cassava husk and peels. This residual biomass is valuable
our and cassava-to-starch processes: solid residuals and a liquid as can be used as animal fodder. Meanwhile, the starch-rich pulp
euent. While the conuence of energy needs and biomass in the same undergoes a further concentration stage. In this stage, the pulp is fed
place invites to think in any sort of bioenergy exploitation, other from the top of the equipment and the centrifugal force separates a
options must also be considered for the residual biomass, aiming solid concentrate, mostly starch, of a liquid euent, mostly water. The
byproducts with the highest added value [1723]. resulting water is reused in the previous washing of the roots, which
The main solid residuals produced are peel, husk and, in the case of greatly decreases the water consumption of the whole industrial
our processing, a small portion of the our that is wasted and dragged process. The remaining water within the solid starch must be removed.
during the cleaning of the facility. Cassava peel has interest as animal To do so, a rst mechanical treatment is performed using hydrocyclone
feed [24] or can be mixed with dung to produce biogas. Cassava husk or centrifugal dewatering equipment. The second treatment consists in
can be used as an adsorbent for the removal of metal ions from natural drying. A ash dryer is generally used. It consists in an air lter, a heat
river water [25] or combusted in the form of pellets, either directly exchanger, an exhaust fan and a pipe. In its nal stage, it has a dust
(3694 kcal/kg) or after pyrolysation (5198 kcal/kg) [26]. In the starch washing system, which decreases the quantity of starch that is lost
processing, it is produced a brous material called bagasse that within the air. The resulting product is a starch with moisture content
contains about 3050% starch on dry weight basis and can serve as a from 12% to 14%, ready to be packed and commercialized.
substrate for microbial processes for the production of value added
products (organic acids, cellulose composites, compounds, mush- 3. The problem with cassava pulp euent
rooms) [23]. Regarding energy uses of cassava bagasse, it can be
hydrolysated in order to produce bio-butanol using fed-batch fermen- The obtaining of starch from cassava is very water intensive and
tation with gas stripping [27] or used as feedstock for microbial fuel generates a polluting wastewater stream. Studies assessing the cassava
cells [28]. Bagasse from starch processing can also produce ethanol starch processing in Southern Asia have reported a consumption of
through a rst enzymatic hydrolysis that converts cellulosic materials 20 m3 of freshwater and a generation of 12 m3 of euent stream
and starch to fermentable sugar and further ethanol fermentation [29 (wastewater) for each ton of cassava processed [40] although other
33]. The liquid euent is constituted of water, starch, bers, minerals studies for that region decrease that value to 11 m3 of freshwater
and cyanogenic compounds. This waste stream, despite being diluted in consumption for each ton of cassava processed [41]. Modern cassava-
water, presents a signicant concentration of organic matter and to-starch factories in Southern Asia have reported water consumption
requires to be treated before being discharged into the nearby water- values per ton of 4.3 m3 [39]. Freshwater intake can be signicantly
courses. Some research has been conducted in the direction of reduced with the reuse of water within the process stages. State-of-the-
producing valuable products from this euent [1723]. The presence art values of 6 m3 of freshwater and 6.1 m3 of euent stream are
of cyanogenics dierentiates cassava solid and liquid process waste currently reached by the cassava starch industry in Brazil, as re-
from other agricultural residues. In Brazil, the extraction of cyanogenic searched by the authors. The processing of cassava in small-scale
compounds from cassava waste has already been tested for larvicides traditional facilities makes a less intensive use of water. In such
against the Aedes aegypti mosquito [34] and aiming the utilization of facilities, peeling and washing of the raw material are generally not
cyanine acetone against tumor cells [35]. an automated and continuous process and most of the euent is
produced during the pressing of the peeled roots, due to their own
2. An insight to the industrial process of cassava starch water content. This yields a smaller amount of euent, however more
concentrated. Average values of 0.3 m3 of euent for each ton of
Cassava starch (either raw or in its modied form) has several processed raw material have been reported for this type of facilities
industrial applications [3638] which creates a huge global business. [42]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the small-scale processing involves root
The raw material is cassava roots. The starch content in the roots varies preparation (peeling and slicing), size reduction of the root through
by region, climate, soil and cultivation, ranging from 20% to 32%, while grating, and then fermentation followed by drying. Water is squeezed
the water content in the roots is around 60% [39]. out of the fermented material to reduce moisture, generating a
The industry of cassava starch is composed by a set of process polluting euent [43]. In semi-arid regions such as, for example,
equipment that aims to conduct the selection and grinding of cassava Northeast Brazil (where the fermentation stage is not used), most of the
roots, extracting the starch from the plant bers and then performing cassava processing occurs in small facilities that discharge this euent
the drying and subsequent storage of the product. Following, Fig. 1 without any treatment to the surroundings, thus polluting groundwater
depicts a complete process diagram of the industrial processing of and rivers. The particular hydrologic conditions of this region, with
cassava, from the arrival of the loaded trucks with the raw product to intermittent rivers, aggravate this problem.
the packaging and storing of the processed starch. The rst eect in a water course after the discharge of the euent
The process begins with the reception, weighing and unloading of would be a dramatic drop in the levels of oxygen, due to its high content
the roots. In a starch industrial plant, platforms weigh the loaded of organic compounds. The analysis of cassava euent available in
trucks and then tilt to unload them with the use of a front hydraulic lift. literature conrm high values of both biochemical and chemical oxygen
After the unload process, a vibrating screen removes the excess of earth demand (BOD and COD), as shown on Table 1.
and impurities that comes with the roots. The product is then Besides the organic pollutants, cassava wastewater presents other
transported to the hopper, where is stored and fed to the washing- hazards that make this euent unique. Cassava toxicity arises from a
peeling system. Most of the water used in the washing-peeling process glycoside called linamarin present in every part of the plant which by
is produced during a later industrial stage: the starch separation hydrolysis yields glucose, acetone and hydrocyanic acid [48]. The toxic
process. The resulting euent is directed to the treatment lagoons and polluting potential is aggravated by the fact that linamarin is very
(aerated lagoons and settling ponds) while the peeled roots are soluble in water. Therefore, the discharge of the untreated euent from
transported through a belt conveyor to the crushing stage. The crushing cassava processing can pose a serious threat to the fauna from the
is performed by a rotating cylinder that works at high speed, causing surrounding water courses. Linamarin and its methylated relative
the cells to break and subsequently release the starch. The result is a lotaustralin can decompose to the toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide
ow of crushed pulp that must undergo another process that separates through the enzymes and gut ora present in the intestines of shes or
the starch from the cassava bers using rotating conical sieves. After other animals. The concentrations of organic matter and linamarin in
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the resulting euent are higher in the production of cassava our than 4. Bio-digesters as a zero discharge, advanced biological
in the cassava-to-starch process, as the latter uses more water and the treatment solution for cassava pulp euent
pollutants are thus more diluted. Average values for Northeast Brazil
indicate 25 g/L of COD and 80 ppm for cassava-to-our euent and The production of biogas from agricultural waste is based on two
50 g/L of COD and 140 ppm for cassava-to-our euent [42]. In well-dened technological routes: anaerobic bio-digestion and gasica-
addition to the afore-mentioned contaminants, cassava pulp waste also tion, the latter consisting in the thermochemical conversion of biomass
presents a relative high content of organic acids. Mean concentrations (which has carbon in its composition) to a gaseous fuel product
of 1.4 g/L of Lactic acid and 0.35 mg/L of Acetic acid have been [52,53]. Gasication technology is generally considered for solid
reported in facilities that use around 11 m3 of water for each ton of biomass waste with low humidity and high caloric value (for example
cassava processed [41]. lignocellulosic materials). Bio-digestion is a more appropriate solution
Cassava factories that treat their euents use decant ponds to for the energetic transformation of an aqueous organic euent such as
remove settleable matter and turbidity and to give a sort of biological cassava pulp waste [54].
treatment. The ponds can be upgraded to aerated lagoons for an A waste bio-renery based on the bio-digestion of the process
improved removal of the biochemical oxygen demand. However, decant wastewater aims to achieve a double objective. First, the mitigation of
ponds and lagoons produce bad smell and require a considerable area an environmental problem as the anaerobic digestion neutralizes the
around the factories. Some factories as well as governmental agencies polluting potential of the euent. Secondly, signicant resources can
are starting to consider the adoption of anaerobic treatment as the be recovered. Among them, the methane produced through the
most convenient option for this liquid stream. Anaerobic treatment is anaerobic decomposition is especially valuable as can be used locally
eective in minimizing the cyanide toxicity of this wastewater [49,50]. for process heat and electricity [55]. Other researches address the
Meanwhile, the current solution for the euent before its nal production of bio-hydrogen from cassava wastewater using dark
discharge is the use of a series of open ponds. The retention time of fermentation by hydrogen-producing bacteria [11,46,5659] although
the wastewater in such a system is around 30 days [51]. The rst this option requires more advanced and robust equipment to deal with
lagoon serves as a decantation pond as the microbiological activity is hydrogen. Therefore, this work will focus on the decomposition of the
limited by the high level of cyanides and only around 30% of the DBO is organic euent into a biogas with a methane content ranging from
removed. In the subsequent ponds (anaerobic lagoon and facultative 40% to 70%. The required technology to do so is mature and reliable
pond), a substantial decrease in the DBO and DQO occurs. Overall, [6063]. It is based on a two-step anaerobic bio-digester. In an
such a system of lagoons can achieve eciencies of 95% in the removal anaerobic digestion where both acidogenic and methanogenic bacteria
of DBO and DQO from the waste euent of cassava processing [51]. are in the same chamber, the process has to deal with instabilities due
Table 1
Analytical values of the effluent from the cassava starch process.
(Paixo et al.) [44] (Colin et al.) [41] (Zhang et al.) [45] (Wang et al.) [46] (Sun et al.) [47]
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Fig. 3. Alternative 1: CHP (combined heat and power) bio-renery for the treatment and resource recovery of cassava wastewater.
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Table 2
Characteristics of the options for the treatment of the waste effluent.
digester with 0.6 ha, which is the area used by a covered lagoon system value-added industrialized product must be performed using minimal
in the Brazilian cassava starch factories [64]. Table 2 summarizes the external resources, measured in terms of water, fuel, electricity and
starting point of this comparison: land usage. Following this approach, it is necessary to characterize the
The references for the data (land use, methane yield, volume of resource consumption and the products/emissions generated for each
treated euent) are current values taken from Brazilian cassava starch ton of raw material that is processed. The results are illustrated
factories that are using covered lagoon systems. The productivity is graphically for each of the three considered options in the form of
3.11 Nm3 of methane for each m3 of fed euent after a retention time process diagrams (Figs. 57) and a nal balance of resource consump-
of 30 days. These factories use rewood to supply process heat for the tion and emissions is made in order to compare them.
ash dryer, at a rate of 90 kg for each ton of processed cassava [64]. If Fig. 5 shows the inputs and outputs of a cassava-to-starch industrial
biogas is used to replace rewood the thermal eciency in the process that uses the rst option (treatment ponds) for the euent.
production of process heat rises from 26.5% (wood furnace) to 45.2% The reader would note that the process needs signicant amounts
(CHP engine) or 50.9% (direct burning). The thermal needs of the of water, heat and electricity. Regarding water consumption, the reuse
process of ash drying were evaluated as 405.5 MJ/ton of starch of water within the process stages leads to consumption values of 6 m3
processed. The NPK content of the bio-fertilizer is taken also from of freshwater and to the generation of 6.1 m3 of euent stream for each
data reported by Brazilian factories that irrigate pasture with the ton of cassava that is processed. This wastewater stream enters the
euent. The production of bio-fertilizer was considered as 1.86 kg for treatment ponds system. From there, after decantation and biological
each to of cassava processed. In order to assess the emissions that activity, 20% of the wastewater is evaporated and the rest is discharged
would be avoided with the use of this bio-fertilizer, it was regarded the to the local natural water courses. The drying process requires heat to
CO2 footprint of an equivalent chemical fertilizer, which is 3.6 kg CO2/ reduce the moisture content in the starch from 30% to 14%, consuming
kg of N-based fertilizer [98]. 90 kg of rewood for each ton of raw material with a thermal eciency
The electricity consumption of the process was assessed as 70 kWh of 26.5%. In addition, 70 kWh of electricity are required to power the
for modern cassava starch factories with a process capacity of 200 t/ electric motors used in the process stages: washing, crushing, centri-
day. The electricity supplied from the grid has a carbon footprint that fugal dewatering, etc. The treatment of the euent through ponds also
has to be taken into consideration for the analysis. The CO2 content for requires electricity as input. It was considered an average of three
each kWh that is consumed from the grid varies from country to consecutive pumping processes: a rst one between the decantation
country. For this assessment, the Brazilian electric grid will be pond and an anaerobic lagoon, a further to a facultative lagoon, and a
considered. This is one of the world's cleanest energy matrix [99], third one that nally discharges the euent to natural water streams
whose composition was considered for this study as 2.5% coal, 8.5% such as a local river or lake. No aerators were considered for the
natural gas, 6.5% oil and the rest a mixture of renewable sources (69% treatment lagoons. Considering 0.1 kWh/m3 for each pumping, the
hydro, 7% sugarcane bagasse, 4.5% wind, 2% nuclear). The indirect total energy consumption is 0.3 kWh for each m3 of treated euent.
carbon emissions from these renewable sources were disregarded and Considering that 6.1 m3 of euent for each ton of cassava that is
thus only the percentage due to coal, natural gas and oil has an impact processed, the energy requirement in the treatment lagoons results in
on the CO2 content of the grid's electricity. 1.8 kWh/ton of cassava input.
Finally, for the CHP unit used on Alternative 1 it was considered a Following, the substitution of the treatment ponds by a waste bio-
GE's Jenbacher type 4 engine running on biogas, whose characteristics renery is proposed. As said, two alternatives are available. Both of
are included in the following Table 3. It is considered that all the them use only one pumping for the treated euent, which is later
available methane reacts to CO2 during its combustion. Therefore, for applied as fertigation water. Note that due to the use of closed bio-
every ton of cassava that is processed are generated 19 Nm3 of CH4 that digesters, no loss of wastewater due to evaporation is considered. For
in the case of Alternative 1 produce 342 MJ of usable thermal energy Alternative 1, Fig. 6 shows the new conguration of inputs and
and 84.9 kWh of electricity while in the case of Alternative 2 produce outputs, some of which (heat and electric power) are reused in the
385.3 MJ of usable thermal energy. industrial process.
Alternative 2 considers a covered lagoon and direct burning of the
biogas for process heat. Fig. 7 shows the new conguration of inputs
7. Assessment through the circular economy approach and and outputs:
results
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Table 3
Values of the parameters used in the calculation.
CHP biogas unit el 40.4% Electric efficiency of the engine, at 1800 rpm (60 Hz) and emissions of 500 mg/m3N of NOX
th 45.2% Thermal efficiency of the engine, at 1800 rpm (60 Hz) and emissions of 500 mg/m3N of NOX
tot 85.6% Total efficiency of the CHP gas engine: overall efficiency in the conversion of biogas calorific value
to electric and thermal power
Texhaust 180 C Exhaust gas outlet temperature
Level of incomplete 0% It is considered that all the methane is combusted (no incomplete combustion that would produce
combustion: CO)
Biogas CH4: 55.4% Volumetric composition of the biogas produced in the bio-digester
CO2: 35.0%
CH4: 19 Nm3 Biogas yield per ton of cassava processed
CO2: 12 Nm3
CVCH4 39.82 MJ/Nm3 Calorific value of methane
Firewood CVwood 17 MJ/kg Calorific value of wood with 10% moisture and 45% carbon contents
CO2 content, wood 0.068 kg CO2 produced in the combustion of 1 kg of wood
Electricity from the grid CO2 content, coal 0.9843 kg/kWh Composition of the electricity matrix: 2.5% coal, 8.5% natural gas, 6.5% oil
CO2 content, gas 0.5488 kg/kWh No CO content in the 82.5% remaining (hydro, sugarcane bagasse, wind, nuclear)
TOTAL CO emissions=0.1205 kg/kWh
2
CO2 content, oil 0.7575 kg/kWh 2
Fig. 5. Inputs and outputs of the process, using a lagoon system to treat the euent.
Fig. 7. Inputs and outputs of the process, using a covered lagoon bio-renery to treat the
euent and recover resources.
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