UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Class of 2016

Histology
Practicals Reviewer

Module 1: Cytology 1

1. Red Blood Cell

Characteristics: anucleated and spherical cells

2. Neuron
Specimen: Gray Matter of Spinal Cord

Characteristics: fish-eye nucleus, with Nissl Bodies due to RER

* Nissl Bodies: RER with free ribosomes, site of protein synthesis

3. Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Characteristics: multinucleated, with nuclei located at periphery;

presence of cross striations due to actin and myosin filaments

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 1

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

4. Megakaryocyte
Specimen: Bone Marrow

Yellow Marrow

Red Marrow

Megakaryocyte (pointed)

Characteristics: Megakaryocytes are responsible for platelet production and are the largest cells from bone marrow aspirates.
They undergo nuclear replication without cytokinesis, resulting in a large, irregular, multilobular nucleus devoid of nucleoli.

* Bone Marrow (contains reticular connective tissue):

(1) Yellow Marrow: predominance of fat cell and not active in hematopoiesis, found in diaphysis
(2) Red Marrow: hematopoietic, confined to spongy bone marrow

5. Pigmented Skin Cells

Specimen: Epidermis

Characteristics: melanocytes are responsible for pigmented skin cells, found in stratum basale and stratum spinosum of
epidermis

* 5 Layers of the skin from base to apex: (a) stratum basale; (b) stratum spinosum; (c) stratum granulosum; (d) stratum lucidum;
(e) stratum corneum

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 2

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Module 2: Cytology 2

1. Oocyte
Specimen: Ovary

Karyotype: 23X

2. Spermatozoa
Specimen: Testes

Karyotype: 23X/ 23Y

3. Apoptotic Body

Characteristic: cell fragments containing nuclear material, phagocytosed by

macrophages

* Apoptosis: works by mechanism of caspase cascade, wherein activated

enzymes cleave cell proteins and cell DNA. Occurs in stages: pyknosis
(condensation of chromatin), karryorhexis (breaking of nuclear fragments),
karyolysis (whole cell breaks up)

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 3

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

4. Mitotic Phases

(1) Prophase: chromosomes become visible in nucleus (start) to dissolution of nuclear envelope (end)
: chromosomes become condensed and shortened, nucleoli disappear
(2) Metaphase: formation of mitotic spindle, and chromosomes are arranged in equatorial position
(3) Anaphase: splitting of the centromere and chromatid migration to opposite ends of the spindle
(4) Telophase: nuclear envelope reassembles, chromosomes begin to uncoil, cytokinesis

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 4

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Module 3: The Epithelium

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Specimen: Bowmans Capsule

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Characteristics: single layer, flattened, irregularly-shaped

Function: passive transport of gas or fluid
Found in: lining of pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium with Secretory Cells

Specimen: Thyroid Follicle

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Thyroid Follicle

Note: Thyroid Gland is an unusual endocrine gland because it stores thyroxine within spherical cavities enclosed by secretory
cells. These units are termed as follicle. Secretion involves reabsorption of hormone from the follicular lumen, release into
interstitial space, and diffusion to capillaries.

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 5

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Specimen: Renal Tubule

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Lumen

Characteristics: single layer, square

Function: excretory, secretory, absorptive
Found in: collecting tubules of kidney, excretory ducts of salivary glands and pancreas

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium with Goblet Cells

Specimen: Gallbladder

Nucleus
Polarity: Basal

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Characteristics: tall columnar, elongated nuclei (varying in polarity- basal, central, apical)
Function: mainly absorptive, may be secretory
Found in: small intestine, stomach, gallbladder

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 6

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

4. Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Non-Keratinizing)

Apical Layer: squamous

Intermediate Layer: polygonal

Basal Layer: cuboidal

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Characteristics: cuboidal basal layer, polygonal intermediate layer, squamous apical layer
Function: protective lining
Found in: sites subject to mechanical abrasion but kept moist by gland secretions (eg. oral cavity, uterine cervix)

5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Keratinizing)

Keratin Layer

Apical Layer: squamous

Intermediate Layer: polygonal

Basal Layer: cuboidal

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Surface Specialization: Keratin- characterized by flattened apical layer without nuclei

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 7

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

5. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Specimen: Bronchus
Cilia

Goblet Cell

Nucleus

Basement
Membrane

Tunica Propria

Proximal End

Distal End

Specimen: Epididymis
Stereocilia

Goblet Cell

Nucleus

Basement Membrane

Tunica Propria

Proximal End

Distal End

Characteristics: nuclei have different polarity

Function: if with cilia, propels secretions in the form of mucus produced by goblet cells (mucociliary elevator)
Found in: airways of respiratory system

Surface Specializations:
a. Cilia
- beat in wave-like synchronous rhythm
- with 20 microtubules arranged as a central pair surrounded by 9 peripheral doublets, continuous with
basal body
- dynein is responsible for its movement
b. Stereocilia
- extremely long microvilli, facilitate absorption
c. Goblet Cells
- synthesize mucigen, which combines with water to form mucus
- with abundant RER and prominent Golgi Apparatus

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 8

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

6. Transitional Epithelium
Specimen: Urinary Bladder (Non-Distended)

Nucleus

Umbrella/ Dome Cells

Intermediate Cells

Basal Cells

Basement Membrane

Proximal End

Distal End

Characteristics: (1) Non-distended- basal cuboidal, intermediate polygonal, surface umbrella/dome cells
(2) Distended- basal cuboidal, intermediate and surface flattened
Function: elasticity, withstand toxicity of urine
Found in: urinary tract

7. Glands

a. Serous
Specimen: Parotid Gland

Characteristics: acidophilic, striated granular, with canaliculi, bound

nucleus, narrow lumen

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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

b. Mucuous
Specimen: Submaxillary Gland

Characteristics: basophilic, reticulated, no canaliculi, flattened

nucleus, wide lumen

7. Electronmicrographs of Tight Junction, Gap Junction, and Desmosome

(1) Tight Junction: block passage of

molecules in between cells
(2) Zona Adherens: link
cytoskeletons of adjacent cells, link
microfilaments
(3) Desmosome (macula adherens):
link cytoskeletons of adjacent cells,
link intermediate filaments
* Junctional Complez: combination
of Zona Occludens, Zona Adherens,
and Desmosome

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 10

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

(4) Gap Junction: conduit for passage of small molecules between

cells, channels are called connexions

(5) Hemidesmosome: bind base f cell to underlying basement membrane, link to

intermediate filaments

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 11

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Module 4: Connective Tissues

Mesodermal in origin
Function in structural and metabolic support, exchange of substances
Have support cells that function in production of ECM (ground substance + fibers)
Cell density is generally low

Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissues

I. Supporting Cells
A. Fibroblast: secrete ECM in most tissues
B. Chondrocytes and Osteocytes: secrete ECM in cartilage and bone
C. Myofibroblasts: added contractile function
D. Adipocytes: storage and metabolism of fat

A C

B D

II. Fibers
A. Collagen
- provide tensile strength, secreted in ECM in the form of tropocollagen
1. Type I: in fibrous supporting tissue, dermis, tendons, ligaments, bone
2. Type II: hyaline cartilage
3. Type III: reticulin, form branched reticular supporting meshwork in highly
cellular tissues such as liver, bone marrow, and lymph organs
4. Type IV: basement membrane
5. Type VII: anchoring fibrils for basement membrane
B. Elastin
- found in skin, lung, blood vessels
- property of stretching or elastic recoil
- synthesized in fibroblasts from precursor known as tropoelastin
C.* Reticulin- classified under collagen

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 12

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Types of Connective Tissue

1. Loose Collagenous Areolar Connective Tissue

Elastin Fibers

Collagen Fibers

Ground Substance

Characteristics: few collagen fibers

Function: structural support
Found in: submucosa of bowel

2. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue

Collagen Fiber

Tendon Cells

Characteristics: fibers oriented unidirectionally

Function: mechanical support, transmit forces of contraction
Found in: tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 13

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

3. Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue

Fibroblast Nuclei

Collagen Fibers

Characteristics: fibers oriented multi-directionally

Function: structural support
Found in: dermis, GIT submucosa, perichondrium

4. Reticular Connective Tissue

Specimen: Liver

Reticular Fibers

Sinusoids

Hepatocytes

Characteristics: seen in argyrophyllic staining

Function: supporting framework for hematopoietic and lymphoid organs
Found in: endocrine glands, liver, lymph nodes

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 14

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

5. Elastic Connective Tissue

Elastic Fibers

Characteristics: contains elastin fibers, slender, refractile

Function: elasticity
Found in: wall of hollow organs, blood vessels, trachea, bronchi, ligaments

6. Adipose Connective Tissue

Nucleus

Cell Membrane

Lipid Droplet

Characteristics: with signet ring appearance, nucleus at periphery, highly vascularized

Function: fat storage and heat production, secretion of certain proteins (adipocytokines) that modulate energy metabolism,
Cushion against mechanical shock
Found in: clumps around loose connective tissue
Types: (1) White/ Yellow Adult Adipose Tissue- unilocular, distributed throughout body of adult
(2) Brown Fetal Adipose Tissue- multilocular, mainly for body temperature regulation, found in newborns

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UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

7. Mucuous Embryonic Connective Tissue

Specimen: Umbilical Cord

Whartons Jelly

Umbilical Arteries

Umbilical Vein

Characteristics: distinctive cell is the primitive fibroblast, spindle-shaped/ stellate

Found in: Whartons Jelly of Umbilical Cord

8. Macrophage

Macrophage

Nucleus

Pseudopodia

Characteristics: irregular nucleus, cytoplasm has lysosomes and residual bodies, with irregular cytoplasmic projections called
pseudopodia which are involved in amoeboid movement and phagocytosis
Function: tissue scavengers, antigen presenting cells, involved in process of opsonisation (enhanced phagocytic function
through coating of antigens with antibodies and complements)
Found in: sites where immune response is required

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 16

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Module 5: Skeletal Tissues

Cartilages
Provides rigidity and resilience to counteract pressure and abrasion
Predominance of proteoglycan ground substance in ECM
Matrix is maintained by chondrocytes clustered in 2 or 3, lodged in spaces called lacuna
Ground substance mainly composed of chondroitin sulfate
Mature cartilage has very limited capacity for repair and regeneration due to poor blood
supply
Perichondrium: dense fibrous connective tissue surrounding cartilage, have spindle-
shaped cells that transform into chondroblasts for appositional growth

1. Fetal Hyaline Cartilage

Proliferative Zone

Resting Zone

Hypertrophic Cartilage Zone

Characteristics: cartilage in an early stage of development, lacunae are still not visible around the chondroblasts; chondroblasts
resemble superficial mesenchymal cells
Found in: skeletal system of developing embryo except skull and face

2. Adult Hyaline Cartilage

Chondrocytes

Matrix

Lacuna

Characteristics: amorphous matrix, with collagen type II

Function: precursor in developing bone
Found in: respiratory system, developing bone

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 17

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

3. Elastic Cartilage
Specimen: Epiglottis

Matrix

Chondrocyte

Fatty Degeneration

Perichondrium

Characteristics: has collagen and elastic fibers

Function: elasticity due to presence of elastic fibers in matrix
Found in: epiglottis, external ear, laryngeal cartilage, walls of Eustachian tubes

4. Fibrocartilage

Chondrocyte

Matrix

Collagenous
Fiber Bundle

Characteristics: no perichondrium, few chondrocytes; alternating layer of matrix and dense collagen fibers oriented in direction
of functional stress
Function: tensile strength and support
Found in: intervertebral disks

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 18

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Bones
Composition: cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts), osteoid (type I collagen), and
mineral deposits (calcium hydroxypatite)
Organic Elements: chondroitin sulphate, protein polysaccharides, collagen
Inorganic Elements: calcium, magnesium, sodium
Periosteum: connective tissue surrounding bone that has osteogenic potential

1. Bone Cells

(1) Osteoblasts: synthesize osteoid and mediate its mineralization, derived from osteoprogenitor cells (primitive mesenchyme)
(2) Osteocytes: inactive osteoblasts found within formed bone, provide nutrition of bone, derived from osteoprogenitor cells
(3) Osteoclasts: phagocytic cells that erode bone for constant turnover and refashioning, multinucleate and derived from
macrophage-monocyte cell line; confined in lacuna of howship

2. Lamellar and Woven Bone

(1) Lamellar Bone: regular and parallel arranged collagen, synthesized slowly, stronger and common in adults
(2) Woven Bone: immature form, randomly arranged collagen, fabricated during rapid bone growth, prone to green stick
fracture

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 19

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

3. Long Bone

(1) Epiphyseal Plate

(2) Diaphysis: shaft consisting of compact bone
(3) Epiphysis: ends of the bone
(4) Metaphysis: area in between diaphysis and epiphyseal plate
(5) Periosteum: dense fibrous layer in external surface of bone, with osteogenic properties; flattened with spindle-shaped
nuclei
(6) Sharpeys Fibers: binds periosteum to underlying bone
(7) Endosteum: layer that protects inner surface of bone, with osteogienic properties
(8) Trabeculae: network of fine, irregular plates separated by intercommunicating spaces in cancellous bone
(9) Articular Cartilage: hyaline cartilage that protects the epiphyses

4. Developing Bone

Fetal
Perichondrium
(pointed)

Characteristics: young chondroblasts that are numerous and irregular in shape, no cell nest/ cell families

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 20

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

4. Compact Bone

Haversian Canal

Haversian Lamellae

Lacunae containing
Osteocyte

Volkmanns Canal

Interstitial System

Canaliculi

Characteristics: parallel and compact arrangement, with haversian system

Found in: inner and outer tables of flat bone, outside surface of long bones

(1) Haversian System: haversian canal with concentric lamellae

(2) Haversian Canal: contains neurovascular structures in a central channel
(3) Lamellae: concentric bony layers surrounding canal (inner circumferential- line cortical bone; outer
circumferential- line outer surface with periosteum)
(4) Volkmanns Canals: interconnect with endosteum and periosteum and pierce column at right angles to Haversian Canals
(5) Lacunae: spaces in the matrix containing osteocytes
(6) Interstitial System: remnants of lamellae no longer having Haversian Canal
(7) Canaliculi: passage for circulation of ECF and diffusion of metabolites between lacunae and haversian canal; function in cell
communication via gap junctions

5. Spongy Bone

Spongy Bone

Marrow Space

Hematopoietic Cells

Characteristics: irregular branching bony spicules, thin trabeculae, no haversian system

Found in: diploe of flat bones, medullary cavity of long bones

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 21

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Formation of Bone

1. Intracartilaginous Ossification

Flattened Cartilage

Degenerating Cartilage

Primary Spongiosa

Characteristics:
Happens in all bones except face and skull
Fetal Hyaline Cartilage Model is formed first prior to ossification
Occurs when mineral salts calcify along the scaffolding of cartilage formed in the developing fetus beginning about
the fifth week after conception. This process, known as calcification, takes place in the presence of vitamin D and a
hormone from the parathyroid gland. The absence of any one of these substances causes a child to have soft bone,
resulting in a disorder called rickets.

Joints

1. Synovial Joint

Characteristics: maintained in apposition by fibrous capsule and

ligaments and lubricated by synovial fluid
Function: allows extensive movement

(1) Articular Cartilage: hyaline cartilage attached to the cortical bone,

provides resistance to compression, maintained by chondrocytes
(2) Ligament: connects two bones
(3) Bursa: fluid-filled sac that functions as a gliding surface to reduce
friction between tissues of the body
(4) Syovial Fluid: fluid-like material that is present in many of the joints
of the body, serves the purpose of lubricating and nourishing certain
parts of the joint
(5) Tendon:connects muscle to bone

2. Non-synovial Joint

Characteristics: no free articular surfaces, joined by dense collagenous tissue (eg. dense fibous, hyaline, fibrocartilage)
Function: limited movement

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 22

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Others

1. Annulate Lamellae

Characteristics: parallel arrays of cisternae with small pores at regular interval

along length, functional significance not known

2. Golgi Apparatus

Characteristics: stacked saucer-shaped

cisternae with transit vesicles that bring
secretory granules that are accepted in Cis
Face and exit in Trans Face

3. Cilia

Characteristics: 9 + 2 array of microtubules

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 23

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

4. Centriole (differentiate from Cilia)

5. Heterochromatin vs. Euchromatin

Euchromatin: dispersed, less coiled, active

Heterochromatin: condensed, coiled, inert

6. Barr Body

Characteristics: inactivated X chromosomes, dark spots in nuclei

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 24

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

7. Other Parts of the Cell

References:

Young, B., Lowe, J., Stevens, A. Heath, J. (2006). Wheaters Functional Histology: A Text and
Colour Atlas. Philadelphia: Elsevier

UST Histology Staff. (n.d.). Atlas of Histology. Manila: UST Publishing House

Histology Lecture Notes

Pictures from other students and the internet

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 25