CONVENTIONAL MACHINE TOOLS AND

MACHINING PROCESS

Manufacturing processes
Manufacturing process converts raw materials into finished
products with desired shape and size.
Chip less manufacturing Manufacturing process with
processes chip formation

Casting, forming, Sheet metal Material removal processes

operations, powder metallurgy

Material removal processes

Conventional Machining
Non-Traditional Machining

Machine Tools:

Power actuated machineries formed by a set of mechanisms, used to remove unwanted materials in the
form of chips by relative motion between cutting tool and workpiece.

Major Components of Machine tool: Transmission system, Job Holding device, Cutting tools

Commonly used conventional machine Tools: Lathe, Shaper, Planer, Milling machine, Drilling
machine, Grinding machine.
 Machine tool classification

Machining:

Machining is manufacturing process by which jobs are produced to the desired dimensions and
surface finish by gradually removing the unwanted material from the work piece in the form of
chips.
LATHE:

Lathe is a machine tool, which removes unwanted metal from workpiece in the form of chips to
provide the required shape & size. In lathe the workpiece rotates along with the spindle and
longitudinal feed is provided to the cutting tool. So lathe is also known as turning machine.
Used for turning, tapering, form turning, screw cutting, facing, drilling, boring, spinning,
grinding and polishing operations. Oldest, most basic, widely used machine tool, also known as
the mother of all machine tools.

Function of lathe:

For producing cylindrical jobs, flat surfaces and holes, With special attachments, it can be used
for producing different types of surfaces, cutting threads, cutting grooves, A skilled worker can
produce any type of job with a lathe.

Types of Lathe:

Engine lathe, Bench lathe, Tracer lathe, Automatic lathe, Turret lathe and CNC lathe

Engine Lathe: The most common form of lathe, motor driven and is available in large variety of
sizes and shapes.

Bench Lathe: A bench top model, usually of low power, machines small work pieces with
precision.

Tracer Lathe: A lathe that has the ability to follow a template to copy a shape or contour.

Automatic Lathe: It incorporates automatic loading and unloading of workpiece. Also, the
cutting operations are automatically controlled by a sequencer.

Turret Lathe: Turret lathe has a multisided tool post (known as turret), attached either to the
tailstock or to the cross-slide. It allows for quick changes in tooling and cutting operations. Used
when many duplicate parts are to be produced.

Computerized numerically controlled lathes: Cutting-tool movements controlled by

computer-controlled program to perform sequence of operations automatically.

Specification of lathe:

A lathe can be specified by following parameters.

Length of bed.

Center-to-Center distance: Maximum length of workpiece that can be mounted between the
lathe centers.
Center height: Height of the centers from lathe bed.

Swing diameter: Largest diameter of work that can revolve without touching the bed and it is
twice the height of the centre measured from the bed.

Maximum bar diameter: Maximum diameter of bar stock that will pass through the hole of the
head stock spindle.

Engine lathe or Centre lathe:

It is the oldest and most important machine tool ever developed. The job to be machined is
rotated and the cutting tool moves relative to the job. So, a lathe is also known as turning
machine. If the tool moves parallel to the job axis, cylindrical surface is produced, if the tool
moves perpendicular to the job axis, flat surface is produced and if the tool moves inclined to the
job axis a tapered surface is produced.

Working Principle of Engine Lathe: Workpiece is held in a chuck or between centers and
rotated about its own axis at uniform speed. The cutting tool is held in the tool post and is fed
into the workpiece for desired depth and desired direction.
Description of components in Engine Lathe: Major components are Bed, Headstock,
Tailstock, Carriage and Feed mechanism.
Lathe Bed:

It is the base or foundation of the lathe, which supports all major components. It is a heavy rigid
casting made of single piece gray cast iron or nodular cast iron. Cast iron provides self-
lubricating properties, high compressive strength, excellent shock absorbing capacity and can be
easily casted and machined. Top of the bed has two guide ways of flat or inverted-V shaped, to
provide support and sliding surfaces for the carriage and tailstock.

Headstock:

Secured permanently at the left hand end of the lathe bed. It incorporates the spindle and driving
mechanism for the spindle. The spindle speed can be set through speed selector knobs. The
spindle is hollow to facilitate holding of the live centre. The chuck is mounted over the spindle
that grips the workpiece.
Tailstock:

Located at the right hand side of the bed. Can be moved along the guide ways and can be
clamped in any position on the bed. Main purpose is to hold the dead centre and to support the
long workpieces during machining. It has a quill or barrel, into which the dead centre, drills,
reamers can be fixed. The quill can move in and out with the help of hand wheel.

Carriage:

The carriage slides along the guide ways between tailstock and headstock, thus providing
longitudinal feed to the cutting tool. It incorporates apron, cross slide, compound slide (or
compound rest) and tool post. Apron is equipped with mechanisms for both manual and
mechanized movements of the carriage and the cross-slide, by means of lead screw and feed rod.
The cross slide moves radially in and out, thus controlling the radial position and providing cross
feed to the cutting tool. The compound slide is mounted on the top of the cross slide and has
circular base graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short tapers. The
compound slide swivels the tool for positioning and adjustment. The tool post consists the
cutting tool and is located on the top of the compound rest.
Feed Mechanism:

It provides longitudinal feed, cross feed and angular feed to the cutting tool. It consists of feed
gear box, feed reverse lever, gear change mechanism, apron mechanism, half nut mechanism,
lead screw and feed rod.
Feed rod and lead screw:

The feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the head stock. It rotates during the operation of
the lathe and provides mechanized movement to the carriage or the cross-slide by means of
gears, a friction clutch and a keyway. The lead screw is also powered by the gears from the
headstock and is used for providing mechanized movement to the carriage for cutting threads on
the work piece. A split nut in the apron is used to engage the lead screw with the carriage. In
some lathes, the lead screw performs the functions of feed rod and there is no separate feed rod.

Back Gear:

Back gear is mounted behind the headstock and it allows the spindle to rotate at slow speed (25
to 50 rpm) in reverse direction. Back gear is used during thread cutting, heavy-duty drilling, big
hole boring and large diameter turning.
Operations performed in lathe:

Facing, Turning, Chamfering, Grooving, Forming, Knurling, Under cutting, Eccentric turning,
Drilling, Reaming, Boring, Counter boring, Counter sinking, Tapping, Taper turning, Thread
cutting.

Facing: Length reduces, but diameter remains unchanged. Operation of machining the ends of a
workpiece to produce flat surface. It involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the work.

Turning: Diameter reduces, but length remains unchanged. Removal of excess material from the
workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface of required shape and size.

-Straight turning: Feed direction is parallel to the axis of workpiece. It produces a

cylindrical workpiece.

-Step turning: Process of turning different surfaces having different diameters. The work
is held between centres and the tool is moved parallel to the axis of the lathe. It is also called
shoulder turning.
Chamfering: Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the workpiece. The
form tool used for taper turning may be used for this purpose.

Grooving: Grooving is the process of cutting a narrow groove on the cylindrical surface of the
workpiece.

Forming: Forming is a process of turning a convex, concave or any irregular shape. For turning
a small length formed surface, a forming tool having cutting edges conforming to the shape
required is fed straight into the work.

Knurling: Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of the
workpiece. The knurling tool holder has one or two hardened steel rollers with edges of required
pattern. The tool holder is pressed against the rotating work. The rollers emboss the required
pattern. The tool holder is fed automatically to the required length. The purpose of knurling is to
provide an effective gripping surface and to provide better appearance to the work.

Undercutting: It is a process of enlarging the diameter if done internally and reducing the
diameter if done externally over a short length. It is useful mainly to make fits perfect. Boring
tools and parting tools are used for this operation.
Eccentric turning: If a cylindrical workpiece has two separate axes of rotation, one being out of
centre to the other, the workpiece is termed as eccentric and turning of different surfaces of the
workpiece is known as eccentric turning.

Drilling: It is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in a
workpiece.

Reaming: The holes that are produced by drilling are rarely straight and cylindrical in form. The
reaming operation finishes and sizes the hole already drilled into the workpiece.

Boring : It is the process of enlarging a previously drilled hole by means of a single-point cutting
tool or a boring head. Example: Boring a gun barrel or an engine cylinder.

Tapping: A process of internal thread cutting.

Counter boring and Counter sinking: Counter-boring is done to accommodate pan-head or

round-head screws or other screws with flat-bottomed undersides. Counter-sinking is often done
to accommodate flat head screws with tapered bottom.
Tapers and taper turning:

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a workpiece, measured

along its length. In a lathe taper turning produces a conical surface by gradual reduction in
diameter from a cylindrical work piece.

Let, D1 = larger diameter of tapered bar, mm

D2 = smaller diameter of tapered bar, mm

L= length of tapered part, mm

2= angle of taper

= semi angle of taper

From the geometry,

Conicity of Taper:

Conicity (K) or amount of taper is specified by the ratio of the difference in diameters to its
length.

Methods of Taper Turning:

Using Form Tool, Swiveling Compound Rest, Taper Turning Attachment, Simultaneous
Longitudinal and Cross Feeds, Tailstock set over.
Taper Turning using Form Tool:

Shape of the tool is same as the shape of the component to be produced. Accuracy of taper
produced depends on accuracy of taper present on tool. Width of tool must be greater than or
equal to the length of taper.

Limitation: This method is limited for short length tapers (20 mm only). Because wider cutting
edge of the tool requires excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to vibration
and spoil the work piece. Only external taper turning is possible.

Taper Turning by Swiveling the Compound Rest:

The compound rest has a circular base graduated in degrees, which can be swiveled at any angle.
While turning a taper, the base of compound rest is swiveled through half taper angle. The tool is
then fed by hand. This method is limited to turn a short but steep taper, due to the limited
movement of the cross slide. As the movement of the tool is controlled by hand, this method
gives a low production capacity and poor surface finish.
Taper Turning by a Taper Attachment:

The principle of turning taper by a taper attachment is to guide the tool in a straight path set at an
angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece. A taper turning attachment consists of a bracket or
frame which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar pivoted at the
center. The bar having graduations in degrees may be swiveled on either side of the zero
graduation and is set at the desired angle with the lathe axis. When the taper turning attachment
is used, the cross slide is first made free from the lead screw. The rear end the cross slide is then
tightened with the guide block by means of a bolt. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the
tool mounted on the cross slide will follow the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the
gear bar at an angle to the lathe axis. The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide
which is placed at right angles to the lathe axis.

The guide bar must be set at half taper angle. The maximum angle through which the guide bar
may be swiveled is 10 degree to 12 degree on either side of the centre line. If the diameters D1,
D2 and the length L of the taper are specified, the swivel angle of the guide bar can be
determined from equation

Advantage of using a taper turning attachment: The alignment of live and dead centers are
not disturbed. Once the taper is set, any length of a piece of work may be turned within its limit.
Very steep taper on a long work piece may be turned, which cannot be done by any other
method. Accurate taper may be turned. Internal tapers can be turned.

Taper turning by combining feeds

feeds:

Taper turning by combining feeds is a more specialized method. In certain lathes both
longitudinal and cross feeds may be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a
diagonal path which is the resultant of the magnitude of the two feeds to machine a taper.

Tail stock off-set:

Taper turning by tail stock offsetting method is based on the principle of shifting the axis of
rotation of the job at an angle (semi taper angle) to the lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to
the lathe axis. During this method body of the tail stock is made to slide towards or away from
the operator by a set over screw. If the tailstock is set away from the operator, the taper will have
the bigger diameter towards the tailstock. On the contrary if the tailstoctailstock
k is set towards the
operator, the taper will have the bigger diameter towards the headstock. The reduction of
diameter will be twice the offset of tailstock center, if entire length is turned. Major disadvantage
is that the live and dead centers are not eequally
qually stressed and the wear is not uniform. It is useful
for machining long tapers, but of very small angle (up to 50).
Calculation of Set over (S):

From geometry of the fig.,

sin = BC/AB

Where, BC = amount of set over = S and AB = length of workpiece = L

Let, l = length of taper, For small angles, sin tan ;

So, set over , S = BC = AB sin = AB tan

=> S = L tan = L(D1-D2)/2l

Thread Cutting in Lathe:

Thread cutting is the operation of producing helical groove of a specific shape (square or V-
shape) on a cylindrical workpiece. External and internal threads can be cut on lathe by using die
and tap respectively, or by using a thread cutting tool. To cut the threads, tool is given a small
depth of cut by cross slide and the carriage is engaged with lead screw by half nut. After a single
pass of thread cutting throughout the length of the job, the lead screw is disengaged from
carriage and the process is repeated by giving some more depth of cut until the threads of desired
depth is obtained.

For cutting threads using thread cutting tools, certain relationship is required between the speed
(rpm) of workpiece and speed (rpm) of lead screw to control the linear movement of the tool. In
modern lathes (quick change gear type), different sp
speed
eed ratios are readily obtained by shifting the
gear change lever. But in simple lathes (change gear type), one has to calculate the gear ratio or
speed ratio between the driver gear (stud gear) and the driven gear (gear on the lead screw), and
accordingly,, the intermediate gears are adjusted to cut threads of different pitches. During thread
cutting, only stud gear (driver) and lead screw gear (driven) along with their intermediate gears
are changed to get threads of different pitches.
Lead: It is the axial distance travelled in one complete revolution of a thread. For a single start
screw thread, Lead = Pitch. But for a multi-start screw thread, Lead = Pitch x No. of starts.

Gear Ratio between the stud gear and lead screw gear is the ratio between the number of teeth
on the stud gear (T1) and number of teeth on the lead screw gear (T2). So, Gear Ratio = T1/T2.

In thread cutting operation, the gear ratio must be equal to the ratio between lead of threads to be
cut on job (L3) and lead of threads on the lead screw (L2).

So, for thread cutting, the condition is Gear Ratio = L3/L2.

After finding the gear ratio between the stud gear (driver) and the lead screw gear (driven), the
next step is to decide the type of intermediate gears or gear trains to fill up the gap between the
stud gear and lead screw gear. Two types of gear trains are normally used, i.e. simple gear train
and compound gear train.
Machining parameters during turning
turning:

Cutting speed, V (m/min):: During turning, cutting speed is the peripheral speed of the work
piece past the cutting tool. Cutting speed= (DN/1000) m/min, Where D= diameter of the work
piece in mm. N = rpm of the work

Feed, f (mm/rev):: Distance travelled by the cutting tool in one complete revolution of work
piece.

Depth of cut, d (mm):: Radial distance travelled by the cutting tool from the un-machined
un
surface during turning. d = (D1 - D2) / 2, D1 & D2 are diameter of un-machined
machined and machined
workpieces, respectively.

Machining time: It is the time required to machine a component. It depends upon work piece
dimention, amount of material removed and machining parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut).
cut)

Machining time per pass (min), Tm = L/f.N, where, f = feed (mm/rev), and N = Spindle speed
(rpm), L = Total distance travelled
led by tool (mm) = Lm + l1 + l2, Lm = Machining length, l1 = Tool
approach, and l2 = Over travel of tool. For a single point cutting tool, l1 and l2 are neglected.

If np is number of passes to complete a job, then total machining time, T = Tm x np

Manufacturing time = machining time + set up time + moving and waiting time+ inspection
time,

where, Set up time is the time required for setting the ttool
ool , work piece and machine, Movement
time is the time required for a component to m
move from one machinee to another, Waiting time of
a job is the idlele period before its processing and Inspection time is the time required for
inspection of a component during and after machining.

Lathe Accessories and Attachments

Attachments:

Lathe accessories are the devices used for holding and supporting a job on a lathe during
machining. Examples- Lathe centers, Face plate, Dog carrier, Chock, Angle plate, Mandrel,
Steady rest, Follower rest etc.

Lathe attachments are the devices used for special jobs on llathe. Examples: Taper turning
attachment, Thread cutting attachment, Grinding attachment etc.

Lathe Centers: Lathe centers are used during turning a job. The center which is fitted with
spindle nose and revolves with the job is called live center. The cent
center
er which is fitted in the tail
stock and is not revolved with the job is called dead center. Morse taper (600 center) is provided
to both the centers.

Faceplate: It is screwed on the spindle nose. Slots are provided in the face plate for bolting angle
plate,
ate, which holds typical right angled bend jobs for boring, etc. An open slot is provided in the
face plate for the dog carrier, which at one end grips the job and at the other end is hooked within
the open slot of the face plate.
Chucks: Chucks are screwed on to the nose of lathe spindle. Three-jaw jaw universal chuck (or
Self centering chuck): Used For holding only cylindrical jobs, as all the three jaws are moved
forward and backward simultaneously. Also used for facing and center drilling the end of
workpiece. Four-Jaw
Jaw Independent Chuck: Used for holding irregular shaped jobs. Consists
four jaws, which are adjusted individually by adjusting screws. Jaws can be reversed to hold the
work from inside diameter. Collet Chuck: Most accurate chuck,, Used for high-precision
high work,
Spring collets available to hold round, square or hexagon
hexagon-shaped workpieces. Magnetic Chuck:
Used to hold iron or steel parts that are too thin or may be damaged if held in conventional
chuck, Fitted to an adapter mounted on headstock spindle, Used only for light cuts and for
special grinding applications.

Four-Jaw
Jaw Independent Chuck

Three-jaw
jaw Universal Chuck

Magnetic Chuck
Steady Rest: Used to support long job held in chuck or between lathe centers. Prevents
springing of the job. Located on and aligned by guide ways of the lathe. Positioned at any point
along lathe bed. Three jaws tipped with plastic, bronze or rollers may be adjusted to support any
work diameter.

Follower Rest: Mounted on saddle and travels along with the carriage to prevent the work from
springing up and away from cutting tool. It is positioned just opposite to cutting tool. Provides
smooth bearing surface for the two jaws of follower rest.

Mandrel: Holds internally machined long workpieces between centers further further machining
operations. Several types, but most common are Plain mandrel, Expanding mandrel, Gang
mandrel and Stub mandrel.

Expanding mandrel

Plain mandrel

Gang mandrel Stub mandrel

Lathe Dogs: Drives work machined between centers. Has opening to receive work and setscrew
to fasten the dog to work. Tail of dog fits into slot on drive plate and provides drive to
workpiece. Made in variety of sizes and types to suit various workpieces.

Standard bent-tail lathe dog: Most commonly used for round workpieces, Available with
square-head setscrews of headless setscrews.

Straight-tail lathe dog: Driven by stud in drive plate, Used in precision turning.

Safety clamp lathe dog: Used to hold variety of work, Wide range of adjustment. Heavy Duty
Lathe Dog: Wider range than others, Used on all shapes.

Heavy Duty Lathe Dog: Wider range than others, Used on all shapes.

Standard bent-tail lathe dog

Straight-tail lathe dog

Safety clamp lathe dog Heavy Duty Lathe Dog:

Production Lathes- Capstan lathe and Turret lathe:

Capstan and Turret lathes are used for repetitive production of duplicate parts (i.e
interchangeable products). Tailstock is replaced by a hexagonal turret, which has an indexable
tool holder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a different cutting
tool.

Difference with centre lathe:

Difference between Capstan lathe & Turret lathe:
Fig. Turret Lathe