A Scholarly Investigation of

Generational Workforce
Differences: Debunking the Myths
By Kevin J. Mlodzik, M.S. and Kenneth P. De Meuse, Ph.D.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Numerous stories
in the popular press
and media assert that
each generation has
different perceptions,
values, interests, and
expectations that must
be satisfactorily managed
if organizations are to be
successful.
We reviewed the scholarly
literature to ascertain
whether these popular
claims have any scientific
merit.
No study completely
supported differences
across all four
generations. The few
studies that found support
for popular media claims
had varying levels of
scientific rigor and limited
applicability within most
corporations.
At this point, current HR
best practices appear
to be sufficient to foster
employee engagement
and resolve conflicts
between the four
generations.
2
Generation Why. Words from the Ys. The Baby Boomer Exodus:
Educating Those Left Behind. Recruiting and Managing the Why?
Generation. The Trophy Kids Grow Up. One Size Doesnt Fit All. You
Raised Them, Now Manage Them. These headlines simply highlight
some of the perceptions regarding generational differences depicted in the
popular press today. A recent online search of the term generations within
the business literature yielded more than 700 articles, of which 200 were
located in peer-reviewed journals. Searching by specific generational terms
such as Gen Y, Xers, or Boomers resulted in a list of over 10,000
articles, with as many as 1400 appearing in peer-reviewed journals.
Why all the attention on this topic? Obviously, the face of the workforce is
changing rapidly today. Perhaps for the first time in history, we have four
different generations represented in the workplace. As they work side
by side, is there cooperation and collaboration or misunderstanding and
conflict? Do employees benefit from each others unique perspectives and
life experiences or is there apprehension, concern, and suspicion? The
popular press today contends problems abound as disgruntled employees
from different age groups work together.
Yet, many of the age-related stereotypes presented in the media and
popular press appear to be anecdotal, testimonial, or human interest
stories masquerading opinion as fact. Although such workforce
exhortations may be interesting, are they true? It is essential that we base
talent management strategies on generational differences supported
by science. In this study, we carefully compiled the findings reported in
peer-reviewed, scholarly journals and contrasted them to frequently cited
beliefs (myths) regarding generational differences. Our goal was to identify
which of these myths are supported by science and which ones simply are
fictional. Initially, we reviewed the popular press to search for commonly
held views about generations. Subsequently, we investigated the scientific
journals to ascertain which of these claims (if any) are true.
Review of the Concept of Generations
The term generation has been defined in a number of ways. One of the
most accepted definitions refers to a generation as a group of people
or cohorts who share birth years and experiences as they move through
time together (Kupperschmidt, 2000, p. 66). This definition, as well as
many others, indicates that generational units or cohorts tend to share
a common outlook (e.g., views, values, and attitudes) on the basis of
possessing of set of common life experiences (Edmunds and Turner, 2005; It is essential that we base
Ryder, 1965). The effects of these life experiences are seen as fairly stable talent management strategies
over their lives (Smola & Sutton, 2002) and can be used to distinguish one on generational differences
generation from another (Jurkiewicz & Brown, 1998). A generation also has supported by science.
been conceptualized in terms of career stage, such as executive, entry-
level manager, or MBA student (Kiely, 1997). Generational differences in the
workplace have been examined from many vantage points, including by
industry, consumer segment, national culture, and demographics (e.g., see
Carter, 2008; Eisner & OGrady Harvey, 2009; Lindquist, 2008).

Depending upon which author one reads, the precise age ranges and names
for each generation can vary. Generally, it is agreed that there are four distinct
generations in the workforce today, including:

 atures or Traditionals born between 1909 and 1945;

M
a 36-year period.

 oomers born between 1946 and 1964; an 18-year period.

B
A generation is a group of
 ers born between 1965 and 1979; a 14-year period.
X people or cohorts who share
birth years and experiences
 eneration Ys, Millennials, or Next Generation born 1980 or later;
G
as they move through time
a continuously increasing 29-year period.
together.
It is interesting to note that the Boomers and Xers have the shortest periods.
In part, it might be because it is easier for current researchers likely
Boomers and Xers to simply lump everyone before the end of WWII into
one category than to thoroughly understand nuances in their age differences.
For this reason, some researchers have chosen to break the generations
down further, such as World II-ers and Swingers (Matures) or Early Xers
and Late Xers (see DAmato & Herzfeldt, 2008; Smola & Sutton, 2002).
Likewise, the most recent generation of Gen Ys probably will be divided
sometime in the future. Perhaps, one generational classification will be from
1980 to 2000 (the beginning of the new century) and another one from 2001
(post-9/11) and after. For the purposes of our analysis in this paper, we used
the above conventional system of generational categories.

At present, there are approximately 150 million employees in the United

States workforce (U.S. Department of Labor, 2009). By the year 2010, it
is estimated that roughly 5% of these employees will be Matures, 38%
Boomers, 32% Xers, and 25% Generation Ys. See Figure 1. It is projected
that the number of Gen Ys in the workforce will increase markedly. According
to the U.S. Department of Labor (2009), the Gen Ys will fill the 20-40 age

3
 group by 2020, accounting for 42% of the workforce (an increase of 75%
between 2010 and 2020). Likewise, the number of Matures and Boomers in
the workforce will reduce significantly by 68% and 37%, respectively, over
the same period. By 2020, Matures are projected to occupy only 1% of the
workforce and Boomers 22%. The Xers will show the least change during
the next decade, remaining at approximately 30% of the workforce in 2020
(a loss of less than 1%). It also should be recognized that four generations
in the workforce will be maintained, since a new generation of employees
(sometimes referred to as Generation Z) is projected to begin entering the
workforce around 2020.

Figure 1

Actual and Projected Percentages of

Members of Each Generation in the
Workforce by 10-Year Intervals
Methodology
To determine if the popular medias claims have any scientific credibility,
we conducted a comprehensive examination of sources on generational
differences. Initially, we performed a search in Business Source Premier,
PsychINFO, and Academic Search Premier using terms such as generational
differences, Boomers, and Millennials (as well as the other generational
label variants). We targeted two groups of articles: (a) those publications that
appeared in popular magazines and (b) those studies that came from peer-
reviewed scholarly journals. Many of the articles were excluded, because
they investigated generational differences either in non-workplace settings
or with regard to general business topics such as marketing. All remaining
articles were considered if they examined generational differences from an
organizational perspective. In addition, we included books if they presented
seminal ideas or scholarly research.

4
In an attempt to quantify the degree of scientific support for a generational
claim by the media, we used a 3-point scale, ranging from low (one ) to
high (three ). A claim received one check when the measure of the
variable in question was ill-defined or the result demonstrated was limited
to differences across only two generational cohorts. Three checks were
employed when the variable measured aligned closely with the media
claim and the results generalized across all (or most) of the generations.
In addition, the extent of scientific rigor was assessed for each study
employing a 3-point scale. Similarly, more checks denoted larger sample
sizes, more psychometric soundness of measures, and a more rigorous
research design.

Results
In the following section, we initially highlight the generational claims from
the popular press and media. Subsequently, we review the findings from
the peer-reviewed literature both those results supporting and refuting
generational differences. Finally, we methodically align the claims made by
popular media with the supporting empirical evidence, assessing both the
level of support and empirical rigor.

Findings Reported in the Popular Press

It seems that nearly every day there is a story in the newspaper, an article
in a magazine, or a news item on television or radio about generational
differences. The popular media tends to take a current events approach
to explaining generations. They consistently comment on the homogeneity
of the generational cohorts and identify vast differences between them. For
example, they assert that the Matures were born and raised during difficult
times, including the two World Wars, the Great Depression, and the birth of The popular media tends to take
the Nuclear Age. The Boomers, in contrast, began their lives during times of a current events approach to
optimism, surrounded by healthy economies and inundated with abundant explaining generations. They
employment opportunities. The Xers saw the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Gulf consistently comment on the
War, and the prelude to diversity of all types (from alternative lifestyles to the homogeneity of the generational
rapid influx of immigrants). Finally, the Gen Ys had to deal with corporate cohorts and identify vast
globalization and global warming, as well as the advent of the Internet, cell differences between them.
phones, text messaging, and social media websites. The popular press
suggests that these significant life experiences largely explain why the
generations possess different characteristics in the workplace. It is almost
as though the latest generation is the only generation to experience these
current events or that the older generations perceive them entirely different
because of their age.

5
 Career management and organizational loyalty. The popular press and the
media readily offer many stereotypical examples of generational differences.
For example, the concepts of career management and loyalty to employers
are reportedly different. It has been estimated that Xers and Gen Ys are likely
to change their careers as much as six or seven times during their lifetime
and probably will pursue higher education multiple times and for
longer periods (Burmeister, 2009; Dolezalek, 2007). In particular,
It is almost as though the latest
it is contended that Xers place a great deal of value on flexible
generation is the only generation to
work arrangements, long-term marketability, and professional
experience these current events or
growth (Conlin, 2003; Gutner, 2002). Generation Y, in contrast,
that the older generations perceive
tends to show loyalty as long as they are accomplishing their
them entirely different because of goals, then move on for a new challenge (Kerslake, 2005). It also
their age. is alleged that job security is not a motivator for Gen Ys, since
they are more interested in finding meaning from their work and
self-development (Logan, 2008). The poor saving habits of the Boomers, in
conjunction with plummeting stocks during the last few years, have been
caused Boomers to delay retirement (Gandel, 2009).

Life values and work ethic. Another consistent claim is that each generation
is motivated by a different mixture of life values and work ethics (Waxer,
2009). For illustration, Boomers tend to work hard and remain loyal to their
employers; whereas, Xers emphasize personal fulfillment and development
(Crainer & Dearlove, 1999) and have been labeled the whats in it for me?
generation (Karp, Sirias, & Arnold, 1999). Boomers often proclaim that Xers
represent the slacker or lazy generation (Chatzky & Weisser, 2002; Tulgan,
2000) and are more interested in taking than giving at work. In contrast,
Generation Y is motivated more by social responsibility and green initiatives
(English, 2009). Supposedly, Boomers also maintain less work/life balance
than Xers (Krug, 1998).

If the popular press is correct that the career preferences, motivators, and
work-related attitudes vary significantly between generations, then business
managers and human resources professionals ought to provide differentiated
solutions to recruit, engage, and retain their workers. The popular press has
been quick to provide such suggestions. For example, training, rewards,
feedback, and coaching should be varied by generation according to their
suggestions. Social media should be used for recruitment. Also, frequently
included are modifications to work/life flexibility, the use of technology,
and communication methods. However, if the generations truly are not
significantly different, these suggestions become inconsequential.

6
Findings from the Peer-Reviewed Literature
We next review articles from the scientific literature. As discussed above,
only articles addressing generational differences in the workplace were
included. We initially examine those studies finding differences across the
four generations. Subsequently, we investigate those studies finding no
differences.

Empirical research supporting generational differences. Several empirical

studies provide moderate support for some of the purported intergenerational
differences. There were a few reported differences in how the generations
viewed the concept of career management and organizational loyalty. In a
Belgium sample, Dries, Pepermans, and De Kerpel (2008) found that career The peer-reviewed literature
types varied across generations, although the preference for different types of investigated three categories of
careers showed little differences. Also noted in this sample was that Matures generational differences:
and Gen Ys placed a higher level of importance on job security as a career
1. Organizational loyalty
influence than did Boomers or Gen Xers (Dries et al., 2008). In a sample of
European managers, DAmato and Herzfeldt (2008) found that for younger 2. Employee motivation
managers (i.e., Xers), organizational commitment mediated the relationship
between learning orientation and intention to stay with the organization. 3. Work-related values
For older managers (Boomers and Early Xers), commitment mediated the & attitudes
relationship between leadership development intentions and intention to stay.
Overall, younger generations generally demonstrated higher levels of learning
orientation and lower organizational commitment. Interestingly, Boomers
seem to feel more compelled to stay with an organization because they see
few other choices; whereas, Xers stay because it seems like the right thing to
do (Davis, Pawlowski, & Houston, 2006).

Beyond the articles that addressed career-related differences, nearly all of

them investigated the extent to which each generation possesses different
work-related values and attitudes. Twenge and Campbell (2008) observed
that, compared to older generations, Gen Ys had higher self-esteem,
narcissism, anxiety, and depression, and a lower need for social approval
and more external locus of control. In contrast, Smola and Sutton (2002)
found mixed results in the attitudes of Gen Xers and Boomers toward work.
For example, they reported no significant differences between Boomers and
Gen Xers on a pride of craftsmanship scale. To the contrary, they did find
there were significant differences between the generations on a desirability
of work outcomes scale Gen Xers desire to be promoted more quickly
than Boomers. Boomers and Xers also differed on the scale measuring the
moral importance of work. Yu and Miller (2003) also found some significant
differences between Boomers and Xers on work values, attitudes, and

7

Most of the research studies we
located found little or no support
for generational differences.
8
expectations in the Taiwanese manufacturing industry. However, they found
no differences within the education sector in Taiwan, suggesting that the
nature of the industry may be an important consideration when assessing
generational differences. Lyons, Higgins, and Duxbury (2007) examined basic
human value differences between the generations using the Schwartz Value
Survey. They observed a difference between Millennials and Generation
Xers with respect to openness to change and self-enhancement. Finally,
Cennamo and Gardner (2008) found that Boomers reported enhanced
person-organization fit between extrinsic values and status values relative to
Xers or Gen Ys.
Empirical research refuting generational differences. Most of the research
studies we located found little or no support for generational differences.
Researchers have examined the career focus, employer loyalty, and factors
that motivate the different generational cohorts. Xers and Gen Ys were
found to have the same top work motivators continuous employment and
opportunities for promotion; Boomers and Matures were motivated by similar
factors (Montana & Lenaghan, 1999; Montana & Petit, 2008). Yang and Guy
(2006) also found little difference between the Boomers and Gen Xers in
terms of their appraisal of work motivation factors.
In addition, some research suggested the psychological contract may be
stronger for young employees than old ones, as they feel the burden of the
reciprocal relationship more than older employees who paid their debt years
ago (Schambach, 2001). Wesner and Miller (2008) found that when Boomers
entered the workforce during the 1960s and 1970s, they held similar needs
for meaningful work and successful careers as Millennials do today. Johnson
and Lopes (2008) concluded that level of commitment remains the same
across generations, although younger generations may accept a higher
level of risk in their early career path. Wong, Gardiner, Lang, and Coulon
(2008) found little support for generational stereotypes on motivational driver
and personality differences across Australian Boomers, Xers, and Gen Ys.
Although Smola and Sutton (2002) reported some significant differences
between Gen X and Boomers, De Meuse, Bergmann, and Lester (2001)
observed no differences in the manner in which the psychological contract
was perceived across generations. They found all participants in their study
viewed the emotional connection between employers and employees
substantially decreased during the past 50 years.
A few older studies reported mixed results in their examination of differences
in work values and attitudes throughout the generations, including the
Protestant work ethic (Furnham, 1982; Tang & Tzeng, 1992) and work
attitudes such as pride in craftsmanship (Cherrington, 1980). Some of the
studies found that work values change as workers progress through their
career stages (Rhodes, 1983), although others found no changes in work
values over time (Singer & Abramson, 1973). More recently, Boomers and
Xers were found to share similar perceptions of leadership, organizational
climate, and work attitudes (Hart, Schembri, Bell, & Armstrong, 2003).
Another current study found that Xers and Gen Ys varied little in their
attitude toward leaders (Levy, Carroll, Francoeur, & Logue, 2005). In a study
of online classrooms, the research suggested that there are no significant
generational differences in student responses to online classrooms,
including perceived satisfaction, perceived learning, and motivation
toward online learning systems (Stapleton, Wen, Starrett, & Kilburn, 2007).
Jurkiewicz (2000) observed that employees in the public sector held
cross-generational differences on only 3 of 15 factors. Xers were higher in
freedom from supervision; whereas, Boomers were higher on chance to
learn new things and freedom from pressures to conform both on and off
the job. The lack of significant differences on the other 12 factors suggests
that there are far more similarities than differences between these two
generations.

One of the largest generational research studies occurred within the

last few years at the Center for Creative Leadership. Summarized in
Some studies clearly were more
a recent book by Deal (2007), a sample of 3,200 U.S. participants
relevant than others, focusing
was surveyed on 10 different work-related areas (e.g., values,
interpersonal trust, organizational politics). Overall, Deals research
on how the generations differ
found little support for generational differences. When differences
on very central organizational
emerged with regard to workplace conflict, they typically stemmed variables such as commitment
from other sources. Deal concluded that often underlying the and work/life balance.
specific complaints is the belief that the individual isnt doing things
as he or she should with the attendant assumption that the person
complaining gets to decide how someone should behave (2007, p. 211).

Upon reviewing the scholarly literature, it became apparent that the

results more often than not have found few or no consistent differences
between the generations in the workplace. Some studies clearly were more
relevant than others, focusing on how the generations differ on very central
organizational variables such as commitment and work/life balance. Other
studies were less germane, examining such variables as different styles of
classroom learning and differences in personality dimensions across the
four generations. In total, 26 peer-reviewed studies were identified. Eight of
those studies reported some support for generational differences; 18 did

9
 not. When we examine the level of scientific support for these differences,
the findings are quite illuminating. No study completely supported
differences across all four generations (see Table 1). Further, when we
consider the degree of scientific rigor of those studies, the findings are
further diminished. Overall, the peer-reviewed research does not support
the abundance of popular media proclaiming a workplace crisis due to vast
generational differences.

Upon reviewing the empirical literature, it became apparent that the results
more often than not have found few or no significant differences between
the generations in the workplace. Generally, the empirical research does
Table 1

Claims Made by Popular Media Empirical Support for Level of Scientific

Claims Support Rigor
Career Gen Ys and Xers change careers more
Management frequently and pursue more education
Dries, Pepermans,
Boomers maintain less work/life & De Kerpel (2008)
balance than younger generations, and
may retire later
Organizational Gen Ys show loyalty as long as they are
Loyalty accomplishing their goals DAmato & Herzfeldt
(2008)
Xers are more committed to the right
leader than to an organization
Davis, Pawlowski,

Boomers are loyal at the expense of
self and family & Houston (2006)

Employee Gen Ys seek immediate gratification

Motivation
Xers work for self-promotion
Twenge & Campbell
Boomers are workaholics and expect (2008)
to be rewarded
Matures are dutiful and self-sacrificing
Work Values Cennamo & Gardner
and Attitudes Gen Ys value self-development (2008)

Xers value flexible work arrangements Lyons, Higgins,
and long-term marketability & Duxbury (2007)
Boomers and Matures value
Smola & Sutton (2002)
contributing to the greater good of the
organization
Yu & Miller (2003)

10
not support the abundance of popular media proclaiming a workplace crisis
due to vast generational differences. This finding leaves their suggestions for
companies somewhat suspect.

Discussion
If one is to believe the popular press, there are many significant differences Monitoring Risk of
among the four generations in the workforce today. Accordingly, these Generational Stereotypes
differences have a major impact on how business management programs There is potential for the mere
should be implemented. Our review of the peer-reviewed literature found perception of generational
little scientific support for this claim. There appears to be many, many more differences to cause damage
similarities than differences across generations. in the workforce. HR and talent
It generally is believed that the shared, significant life experiences at critical management professionals
developmental stages make a generational cohort possess homogeneous should strive to build a supportive,
characteristics (Kupperschmidt, 2000; Noble & Schewe, 2003). If, indeed, diverse culture.
there are few generational differences, what are we to make of the impact
of these shared experiences? Perhaps, the effects of these experiences are
not sufficiently strong to overcome within-generational variance due to other
factors. Such factors as age, maturity, career stage, and life-cycle stage all
have been identified as other variables that can create a cohort difference
unrelated to a specific generation (see Rhodes, 1983). Other factors
highlighted include years of company service and variable organizational
experiences (Macky, Gardner, & Forsyth, 2008). The heterogeneity of the
generational cohorts also could dilute the effect of shared cohort experiences.
In a study of cohorts, Noble and Schewe (2001) found that significant life
events predicted cohort membership in only 45% of the cases.

Even the mere perception of generational differences by employees could Dealing with
account for an erroneous acceptance that they exist. Managers who Intergenerational Conflict
possess stereotypes of the generational cohorts, whether accurate or not, Since we uncovered only one
may unknowingly create factions within the organization. As with other empirical study that directly
stereotypes, managers may consciously or unconsciously adopt attitudes, examined intergenerational
behaviors, or decisions based on sweeping generalizations rather than reality. conflict in the business setting, no
The presence of conflict between demographic groups also may explain firm conclusions can be drawn.
some of the popular press observations. The popular press frequently Nevertheless, managers should
claims that there is much conflict in the workforce due to inter-generational be sensitive to potential conflict in
misperceptions, misunderstandings, and miscommunication. Since we diverse workgroups.
uncovered only one empirical study that directly examined inter-generational
conflict in the business setting (see Deal, 2007), no firm conclusions can be
gleaned on this point.

11

Managing Confirmed
Generational Differences
Although there only may be a few
demonstrated differences, the
changing demographic base of
the workforce may have a positive
impact on workplace creativity
and innovation.
Preparing for Major
Shifts in Talent
The exodus of Matures and
Boomers and the increase of
Xers and Ys will cause a strain on
HR practices. HR professionals
should assess their workforce
planning procedures to ensure
proper succession strategies are
now in place.
Much of the focus of generational research, and popular media commentary,
has been on the negative impact of having a multigenerational workforce.
However, even if there only are a few demonstrated differences between
generational cohorts, the changing demographic base of the workforce may
have a positive impact on the collective skills, capabilities, and experiences
available to employers. There is maybe much potential for creativity
and innovation to be enhanced by the expanded range of generational
experiences represented in the workforce. Clausing, Kurtz, Prendeville, and
Walt (2003) asserted that embracing the diversity of a multigenerational
workforce helps create a satisfying and rewarding work environment.
Suggestions have been made to capitalize on the unique interests of younger
generations to increase creativity and productivity (Birkinshaw & Crainer,
2008). Although the differences among generational differences appear to be
greatly exaggerated, there likely are many benefits in harnessing the few that
exist as drivers of creativity and innovation within organizations.
Finally, it should be noted that these research results may not result so
much from the generational differences themselves, but rather the shift of
demographics projected to occur during the next few decades. As noted
previously, the Gen Ys is projected to increase by 75% between 2010
and 2020, whereas the number of Matures and Boomers in the workforce
is forecasted to reduce by as much as 68% over the same period (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2009). The massive exodus of Matures and Boomers
and the concomitant increase in Xers and Ys will cause a greater strain
on talent management practices than occurred in previous decades when
retirement and succession occurred more gradually. These changing
workforce demographics will have a profound impact on the corporate
pipeline of talent.
Much future research needs to be performed. What are the core
competencies or skills future business leaders need for leading the
multigenerational workforce? Do companies that have multigenerational
workforces differ significantly in terms of operations or performance
from those with only two generations represented? What is the overall
effectiveness of programs designed to capitalize on potential generational
differences? How should leaders respond to changing workforce
demographics? There have been few noteworthy studies attempting to
address cross-cultural generational differences, and even fewer studies
utilizing cross-cultural generational samples (see Egri & Ralston, 2004).
Much more research is needed to determine whether the Western-centric
generational differences noted by the popular media will be substantiated
12
across the globe. As people are living and working longer, it is likely that
having multiple generations in the workplace will become the norm for
decades to come.

However, research on the generational cohorts carries difficulties. Readers

should use caution when concluding there are no generational differences.
It is plausible that future studies may find different results if they utilize Examining Cross-Cultural
more rigorous methodological research designs. One explanation for the Generation Differences
prevalence of numerous generational myths is that there are few conceptual Distinctions in national culture
or theoretical frameworks for understanding generational characteristics in and unique historical experiences
the workplace (see McGuire, By, & Hutchings, 2007). Since the exploration of may create regional generational
generational differences is fairly new in the empirical arena, there have been difference effects. However, due
few if any models proposed in the literature. Many of the studies reviewed to limited attention in research,
here investigated differences between only two generations as opposed to it is difficult to draw global HR
four. Most often, the research centered on identifying differences between implications at this point.
Boomers and Xers. Examining only two contiguous generational groups
within a study limits the ability to find significant differences. In addition,
much of the research attempting to identify generational differences is cross-
sectional in nature rather than longitudinal. That is, researchers contrast 50-
year old Boomers with 30-year old Xers to ascertain how they behave today.
Although on one hand it makes sense to use this approach since both groups
are simultaneously in the workforce, such 30-year old Xers might become
very similar to the 50-year old Boomers in 20 years. Anthropologists and
sociologists focus on longitudinal differences when studying generations.

Even the notion of a generation is disputed. One problem with the study
of generational cohorts is that they are too broad in span of years to explain
nuances of experiences held by smaller divisions of people. Members of
each generation may perceive critical life events differently or identify with
more than one generation (see Giancola, 2006). Simply because a cohort of
individuals all live through the Cold War, does not connote they all perceive it
the same or draw the same conclusions. Further, generational cohorts may
be defined differently across the world, as countries tend to value their unique It is plausible that future
historical events. It is also difficult to determine if the observed generational studies may find different
differences are due to common developmental experiences or age- results if they utilize more
related patterns. The relationship between chronological age, generational rigorous methodological
membership, and work values has been the subject of much research for research designs.
a long time (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Tulgan, 2000). Are the cohorts merely
age brackets, or rather a collective of similar developmental influences?
Researchers will need to continue exploring these issues to bring more
definitive clarity to the concept of generational differences in the workforce.

13
 Conclusion
The popular press and media contend that there are distinct and powerful
differences between the generations. These differences generally were not
supported by the empirical research examined in this paper. The literature
was fairly sparse with grounded empirical studies, and most empirical studies
were focused on specific work-related variables (such as organizational
commitment or personality variables). It is recommended that all conclusions
regarding the impact of the four generations on business management
strategies be viewed cautiously. Researchers may yet find other factors
responsible for the effects reported by the media. At this point, however,
companies using a best practices approach to talent management should
be fairly confident that these approaches are sufficient to foster employee
engagement and resolve conflicts between the four generations.

References
Aldag, R. J., & Brief, A. P. (1975).
Some correlates of work values.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(6),
757-760.
Birkinshaw, J., & Crainer, S. (2008).
Game on: Theory Y meets Generation
Y. Business Strategy Review, 19(4),
4-10.
Burmeister, M. (2009). Its all about
me becomes a cross-generational
conversation. T+D, 63(5), 92-93.
Carter, E. (2008). Mobile marketing
and Generation Y African-American
mobile consumers: The issues and
opportunities. International Journal of
Mobile Marketing, 3(1), 62-66.
Cennamo, L., & Gardner, D. (2008).
Generational differences in work
values, outcomes and person-
organization values fit. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 891-
906.
Chatzky, J., & Weisser, C. (2002). Gen
Xers arent slackers after all. Time,
159(14), 87.
Cherrington, D. J. (1980). The work
ethic: Working values and values that
work. New York: AMACOM.
Clausing, S. L., Kurtz, D. L.,
Prendeville, J., & Walt, J. L. (2003).
Generational diversity: The Nexters.
Association of Operating Room Nurses
Journal, 78, 373-379.
Conlin, M. (2003, June). For Gen X, its
paradise lost. BusinessWeek, 3839,
72-74.
Crainer, S., & Dearlove, D. (1999).
Death of executive talent. Management
Review, 88(7), 8-13.
DAmato, A., & Herzfeldt, R. (2008).
Learning orientation, organizational
commitment and talent retention
across generations: A study of
European managers. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 929-
953.
Davis, J. B., Pawlowski, S. D.,
& Houston, A. (2006). Work
commitments of baby boomers
and Gen-Xers in the IT profession:
Generational differences or myths?
Journal of Computer Information
Systems, 46(3), 43-49.
De Meuse, K. P., Bergmann, T. J., &
Lester, S. W. (2001). An investigation
of the relational component of the
psychological contract across time,
generation, and employment status.
Journal of Managerial Issues, 13(1),
102-118.
Deal, J. J. (2007). Retiring the
generation gap: How employees young
and old can find common ground.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Dolezalek, H. (2007). X-Y vision.
Training, 44(6), 22-27.
Dries, N., Pepermans, R., & De Kerpel,
E. (2008). Exploring four generations
beliefs about career: Is satisfied
the new successful? Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 907-
928.
Edmunds, J., & Turner, B. (2005).
Global generations: Social change
in the twentieth century. The British
Journal of Sociology, 56(4), 559-577.
Egri, C. P., & Ralston, D. A. (2004).
Generation cohorts and personal
values: A comparison of China and the
United States. Organization Science,
15, 210-220.
Eisner, S. P., & OGrady Harvey, M.
E. (2009). C-change? Generation Y
and the glass ceiling. SAM Advanced
Management Journal, 74(1), 13-28.
English, D. B. (2009). Sustaining Gen
Y. California CPA, 77(7), 12-14.
Furnham, A. (1982). The Protestant
work ethic and attitudes toward
unemployment. Journal of
Occupational Psychology, 55(4), 277-
285.
Gandel, S. (2009). Why boomers cant
quit. Time, 173(20), 46.
Giancola, F. (2006). The generation
gap: More myth than reality. Human
Resource Planning, 29(4), 32-37.
Gutner, T. (2002, January). A balancing
act for Gen X women. BusinessWeek,
3766, 82.

14
Hart, P. M., Schembri, C., Bell,
C. A., & Armstrong, K. (2003).
Leadership, climate, work attitudes
and commitment: Is generation X
really different? Paper presented at the
Academy of Management Meeting,
Seattle, WA.
Johnson, J. A., & Lopes, J. (2008).
The international workforce, revisited.
Organization Development Journal,
26(1), 31-36.
Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2000). Generation
X and the public employee. Public
Personnel Management, 29(1), 55-74.
Jurkiewicz, C. L., & Brown, R. G.
(1998). GenXers vs. Boomers vs.
Matures. Review of Public Personnel
Administration, 18(4), 18-37.
Karp, H., Sirias, D., Arnold, K. (1999).
Teams: Why Generation X marks
the spot. The Journal for Quality and
Participation 22(4), 30-33. Montana, P. J., & Petit, F. (2008).
Kerslake, P. (2005). Words from the
Ys. New Zealand Management, 52(4),
44-46.
Kiely, T. (1997). Tomorrows leaders:
The world according to Generation
X. Harvard Business Review, 75(2),
12-13.
Krug, J. (1998). Understanding
Generation X. Journal of Management
in Engineering, 14(6), 18-19.
Kupperschmidt, B. (2000).
Multigeneration employees: Strategies
for effective management. Health Care
Manager, 19(1), 65-76.
Levy, L., Carroll, B., Francoeur,
J., & Logue, M. (2005). The
generational mirage? A pilot study
into the perceptions of leadership of
Generations X and Y. Sydney: Hudson
Global Resources.
Lindquist, T. M. (2008). Recruiting the
millennium generation: The new CPA.
The CPA Journal, 78(8), 56-59.
Logan, G. (2008, September).
Anatomy of a Gen Y-er. Personnel
Today, 24-25.
Lyons, S. T., Higgins, C., & Duxbury,
L. (2007). An empirical assessment
of generational differences in basic
human values. Psychological Reports,
101(2), 339-352.
Macky, K., Gardner, D., & Forsyth,
S. (2008). Generational differences
at work: Introduction and overview.
Journal of Managerial Psychology,
23(8), 857-861.
McGuire, D., By, R. T., & Hutchings,
K. (2007). Towards a model of human
resource solutions for achieving
intergenerational interaction in
organizations. Journal of European
Industrial Training, 31(8), 592-608.
Montana, P. J., & Lenaghan, J. A.
(1999). What motivates and matters
most to Generation X and Y? Journal
of Career Planning and Employment,
59(4), 27-30.
Motivating Generation X and Y on the
job and preparing Z. Global Journal of
Business Research, 2, 139-148.
Noble, S. M., & Schewe, C. D. (2003).
Cohort segmentation: An exploration
of its validity. Journal of Business
Research, 56(12), 979-987.
Rhodes, S. (1983). Age-related
differences in work attitudes and
behavior: A review and conceptual
analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 93(2),
328-367.
Ryder, N. B. (1965). The cohort as a
concept in the study of social change.
American Sociological Review, 30(6),
843-861.
Schambach, T. (2001). Age,
motivation, and participation in
professional development. Journal of
Computer Information Systems, 41(4),
57-64.
Singer, H. A., & Abramson, P.
R. (1973). Values of business
administrators: A longitudinal study.
Psychological Reports, 33, 43-46.
Smola, K. W., & Sutton, C. D. (2002).
Generational differences: Revisiting
generation work values for the new
millennium. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 23(4), 363-382.
Stapleton, J. L., Wen, H. J.,
Starrett, D., & Kilburn, M. (2007).
Generational differences in using online
learning systems. Human Systems
Management, 26(2), 99-109.
Tang, T. L.-P., & Tzeng, J. Y. (1992).
Demographic correlates of the
Protestant work ethic. Journal of
Psychology, 126(2), 163-170.
Tulgan, B. (2000). Managing
Generation X: How to bring out the
best in young talent. New York: W.W.
Norton & Company.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, S. M.
(2008). Generational differences in
psychological traits and their impact on
the workplace. Journal of Managerial
Psychology 23(8), 862-877.
U. S. Department of Labor. (2009).
Civilian labor force by age, sex, race,
and ethnicity, 1986, 1996, 2006, and
projected 2016. Retrieved September
8, 2009, from the Bureau of Labor
Statistics Web site: ftp://ftp.bls.gov/
pub/special.requests/ep/labor.force/
emplab06.txt.
Weiss, M. J. (2003, September). To be
about to be. American Demographics,
28-36.
Wesner, M. S., & Miller, T. (2008).
Boomers and millennials have much in
common. Organization Development
Journal, 26(3), 89-96.
Wong, M., Gardiner, E., Lang, W.,
& Coulon, L. (2008). Generational
differences in personality and
motivation: Do they exist and what are
the implications for the workplace?
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23,
878-890.
Yang, S.-B., & Guy, M. E. (2006).
GenXers versus Boomers: Work
motivators and management
implications. Public Performance &
Management Review, 29(3), 276-284.
Yu, H. C., & Miller, P. (2003). The
generational gap and culture influence:
A Taiwan empirical investigation. Cross
Cultural Management, 10(3), 23-41.
15
Kevin J. Mlodzik, M.S., is the Intellectual Property Research
Assistant with Korn/Ferry Leadership and Talent Consulting

Kenneth P. De Meuse, Ph.D., is the Associate

Vice President of Research with Korn/Ferry
Leadership and Talent Consulting

About The Korn/Ferry Institute

The Korn/Ferry Institute was founded to serve as a premier global
voice on a range of talent management and leadership issues. The
Institute commissions, originates and publishes groundbreaking
research utilizing Korn/Ferrys unparalleled expertise in executive
recruitment and talent development combined with its preeminent
behavioral research library. The Institute is dedicated to improving
the state of global human capital for businesses of all sizes around
the world.

About Korn/Ferry International

Korn/Ferry International, with more than 90 offices in 40 countries,
is a premier global provider of talent management solutions. Based
in Los Angeles, the firm delivers an array of solutions that help
clients to identify, deploy, develop, retain and reward their talent.

For more information on the Korn/Ferry International family of

companies, visit www.kornferry.com.

16