Exploration Geology and

Geoinformatics

Editors

S. ANBAZHAGAN
R. VENKATACHALAPATHY
R. NEELAKANTAN

MACMILLAN
c Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 2009

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Benthic Foraminifera as Effective Tools
for Exploration of Gas Hydrate Rich
Zones at Blake Ridge, Northwest
Atlantic Ocean

               M. S U N D A R R A J, S O M A D E  A N D  A N I L K. G U P T A 
 

ABSTRACT

Gas hydrates, also known as methane hydrates, are solid ice like crystals composed of water
and methane molecules (with small amounts of carbon dioxide, propane and ethane), which
are stable under high pressure, low temperatures and adequate concentration of gas (Sloan,
1990; Kvenvolden, 1993). They are trapped in marine sediments and permafrost regions.
For the comprehensive study of methane rich zones, researchers have been using deep sea
benthic foraminifera and their carbon isotopic signatures, Total Organic Carbon; Dissolved
Inorganic Carbon, etc. as key indicators.

Blake Ridge is one of the earliest documented marine gas hydrate province in the
northwestern Atlantic Ocean (Katz et al., 1999; Holbrook et al., 2002; Robinson et al.,
2004). Blake Ridge consists of a pile of Tertiary to Quaternary drift deposits dominated by
fine grained nanno fossil bearing hemipelagic sediments (Markl et al., 1970). The organic
carbon content in the sediment often closely relates to the surface water productivity
(Pedersen and Calvert, 1990). Thus, variations of organic carbon in marine sediments can be
used as a proxy for productivity. While consistent abundance of intermediate to high organic
carbon associated biofacies and high TOC along with low carbon isotopic values indicate
increased marine biological productivity, lower TOC values indicate decreased terrigenous
flux. Presence of dysoxic species combined with geochemical data and physical properties
of sediments evidently indicates in-situ gas hydrates were formed at Blake Ridge using
biogenic methane (Bhaumik and Gupta, 2005).

Some benthic foraminiferal groups like Bolivina, Cassidulina, Chilostomella, Epistominella,

 32 EXPLORATION GEOLOGY AND GEOINFORMATICS

Gavelinopsis, Globobulimina, Nonionella, Trifarina, Uvigerina, etc. are known to colonize

hydrocarbon-seeped bacterial mats and may be attracted from methane gas or hydrogen
sulphide gas emissions (Torres et al., 2003; Hill et al., 2003, 2004; Robinson et al., 2004;
Gupta, 2004; Panieri, 2005). Also, highly depleted δ13C excursions of marine carbonates are
important indicators of gas hydrate rich environment (Hill et al., 2003; Hill et al., 2004).
Uvigerinids, Bolivinids, elongated benthics along with some other intermediate to high
organic carbon taxa (Cibicides kullenbergi, C. bradyi, Eggerella bradyi, Globocassidulina
subglobosa, Gyroidinoides cibaoensis, Robulus gibbus) are abundant in the methane and
hydrate rich zones of Blake Ridge indicating its adaptability to such highly reducing organic
carbon rich environment (Rathburn et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2003; Robinson et al., 2004;
Panieri, 2005; Bhaumik and Gupta, 2005). Thus, benthic foraminiferal analyses combined
with geochemical data are effective tools in exploring methane hydrate rich zones.

Keywords
Benthic Foraminifera, Gas Hydrate and Blake Ridge

1. INTRODUCTION

Presently, the world faces challenges to meet its requirements of conventional

sources of energy like coal, petroleum and natural gas whose continuous depletion
brings attention on alternative sources of energy. Researchers like MacDonald,
(1990) and Gupta, (2004) have mentioned that the energy potential of methane
hydrates is significantly larger than that of the other unconventional sources of gas,
such as coal beds, tight sands, black shales, deep aquifers and conventional natural
gas. Gas hydrates, solid ice like crystals composed of water and methane molecules,
are found in many regions of the world (Table 1).

Current geophysical surveys such as seismoprofiling, Well log methods and Bottom
Simulating Reflectors (BSRs) give indirect information about hydrate content of
sediments. But, they are not always reliable. For example BSRs have failed to locate
gas hydrate horizons at Ocean Drilling Program Site 994C located on the Blake
Ridge, North Atlantic, where much data comes from the geochemical and sediment
parameters (Paull, 1996). Thus the need arises to develop new methods for exploring
gas hydrates (Table 2). Key indicators like deep sea benthic foraminifera and their
carbon isotopic signatures, Total Organic Carbon; Dissolve Inorganic Carbon, etc.
have been used for the study of methane fluxes and seep zones.

Benthic foraminifera are an important component of the marine community and

sensitive to environmental changes. Benthic foraminifera has a capacity to adapt
and are able to survive and proliferate in a wide range of marine environments,
including extreme ecosystems, such as oligotrophic abyssal plains (Coull et al.,
1977) or hydrothermal vents (Sen Gupta and Aharon, 1994) as well as deep-sea
trenches.

 
 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA AS EFFECTIVE TOOLS FOR EXPLORATION OF… 33

Table 1. Some Major Gas ‐ Hydrate (Methane seepage) Zones of the World. 

Area  Water depth (m)  References 

Continental margin off Peru  252  Wefer et al., 1994 
Sen Gupta and Aharon, 1994; Sen 
Gulf of Mexico  150 ‐ 700 
Gupta et al., 1997 
Eel River, Northern California 
500 ‐ 525  Rathburn et al., 2000 
Margin 
Torres et al., 2003; Hill et al., 
Hydrate Ridge, Oregon  600 ‐ 900 
2004a; Cannariato and Stott, 2004 
Kennett et al., 2000; Hinrichs et 
Santa Barbara Channel  120 ‐ 580 
al., 2003; Hill et al., 2003, 2004b 
Katz et al., 1999; Dillon et al., 
Blake Ridge, northwest Atlantic  1981 ‐ 2158  2001; Holbrook et al., 2002; 
Robinson et al., 2004 
Miocene limestone of Italy  600 ‐ 100  Barbieri and Panieri, 2004 
Rockall Trough  800 ‐ 1000  Panieri, 2005 

Studies of dead and living benthic foraminifera have shown that benthic
foraminiferal distribution patterns are closely tied to the organic carbon flux and the
organic carbon content of the sediment (Fariduddin and Loubere, 1997; Schmiedl et
al., 1997; De Stigter et al., 1998; Gupta and Thomas, 1999; 2003; Gupta et al., 2004;
Singh and Gupta, 2004). Other studies have demonstrated the sensitivity of the
biofacies composition to changes in oxygen levels of the bottom water and pore
water oxygenation (Loubere, 1996; Jannink et al., 1998). Over the last three
decades, scientists have increased their interest to understand different aspects of
benthic foraminifera for paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Numerous species of
benthic foraminifera have been found in different methane rich marine settings and
have proved to be good indicator of methane releases (e.g. Wefer et al., 1994; Sen
Gupta et al., 1997; Rathburn et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2003).

Table 2.  Methane Fluxes Identified Using Different Methods.
Method  References 
Highly negative carbon isotopic  Wefer et al., 1994; Dickens et al., 1995; Katz et al., 1999; 
excursions of benthic and planktic  Kennett et al., 2000; Rathburn et al., 2000; Torres et al., 
foraminifera, total organic carbon  2003; Hill et al., 2003, 2004a,b 
Presence of chemosynthetic bacteria 
Hinrichs et al., 2003; Van Dover et al., 2003 
and biota 
Reflection seismic profiles  Dillon et al., 2001; Holbrook et al., 2002 
Pore water chemistry  Luff and Wallmann, 2003 
 34 EXPLORATION GEOLOGY AND GEOINFORMATICS

Some species are attracted to bacterial mats and feed on bacterial rich food near
methane seeps or hydrogen sulphide gas emissions showing their potential as
indicators of methane release in the geological record. Some methane loving benthic
foraminiferal groups include species of Bolivina, Cassidulina, Chilostomella,
Epistominella, Gavelinopsis, Globobulimina, Nonionella, Trifarina, Uvigerina etc.
(Sen Gupta and Aharon, 1994; Wefer et al., 1994; Sen Gupta et al., 1997; Rathburn
et al., 2000; Bernhard et al., 2001; Torres et al., 2003; Hill et al., 2003, 2004;
Robinson et al., 2004; Gupta, 2004; Panieri, 2005) which can withstand such
stressful conditions. A detailed table of environment inferred from each species is
given in Appendix1.

1.1. Origin of Gas Hydrates

Gas hydrates occur mainly in two geologic settings viz. permafrost regions on land
or oceanic sediments of continental margins. These are also found in deep lakes,
inland seas, arctic localities associated with petroleum accumulations etc. (Shipley et
al, 1979; Kvenvolden, 1990, 1993a, 1998). The methane formed in gas hydrates may
be biogenic (Claypool and Kaplan, 1974) or thermogenic (Hyndman and Davis,
1992) in origin. Biogenic methane is formed from bacterial decomposition of
sedimentary organic matter (SOM) in low temperature and anaerobic condition at
shallow depths (Paul et al, 1994) which produce food for benthic foraminifera. On
the contrary if the SOM breaks in high temperature (80°C-150°C) to produce
primary and secondary thermogenic gases containing less methane and more short
chain hydrocarbons like ethane, propane, butane etc., accounts for their thermogenic
origin. The gas hydrate formed from biogenic hydrocarbon is mainly 99% pure
methane.

2. LOCATION AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTINGS

Blake Ridge, in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean (Fig.1) (Katz et al., 1999; Holbrook
et al., 2002; Robinson et al., 2004) contains nearly 15 Gt (Gt = 1015 gm) (Dickens et
al, 1997) to 40 Gt (Holbrook et al., 1996) of stored carbon in the form of gas
hydrates. Presently the area underlies the periphery of the subtropical central gyre
and is influenced by the northerly flowing, warm, saline Gulf Stream surface current
as well as the southerly flowing Western Boundary Under Current (WBUC). While
bottom water temperature of the Blake Ridge Diaper (water depth 2155m) is of 3.2
ºC (Van Dover et al., 2003), the modern lysocline lies in between the 4000 to 4350
m water depth, which is linked to the mixing zone of Antarctic Bottom Water
(AABW) and North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) in the subtropical northwest
Atlantic (Balsam, 1983). The disseminated gas hydrate rich sediments lies
approximately 185 to 450 meter below sea floor sandwiched between methane rich
sediments below and methane free sediments above. Blake Ridge is a well
established gas hydrate field and provides an ample opportunity to understand
methane genesis and eruptions using various proxies during the Quaternary.
 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA AS EFFECTIVE TOOLS FOR EXPLORATION OF… 35

Fig. 1. Location map of Gas Hydrate rich zones (ODP Holes 991 to 997), Blake
Ridge, Northwest Atlantic.

2.1. Lithology

Blake Ridge consists of a pile of Tertiary to Quaternary drift deposits dominated by

fine grained nannofossil bearing hemipelagic mud and silty clay (Markl et al., 1970;
Shipboard Scientific Party, 1996). The thickness of the methane-hydrate stability
zone in this region ranges from zero along the northwestern edge of the continental
shelf to a maximum thickness of about 700 m along the eastern edge of the Blake
Ridge (Collett, 1993). The gas thus produced from deep beneath oceanic sediments
enters into Gas Hydrate Stability Zone (GSHZ) and forms gas hydrates while the
free gas persists beneath it. Favorable factors for the formation of gas hydrate in this
region include high pressure (~2.6 Mpa), low temperature (0-10oC), high organic
carbon (2.0%-3.5%), high porosity, adequate amount of methane and pore water,
water depths of 300-1000 m and rapid sedimentation rate (Claypool and Kaplan
1974; Kvenvolden, 1993, 1998; Malone, 1994; Ginsberg and Soloviev, 1997; Sloan,
1990; Fehn et al., 2000). Figure 2 shows a cross section along the Blake Ridge
depicting the bathymetry and temperature variance in the area. Shipboard
examinations of smear slides indicate that clays, calcite, and quartz are the dominant
mineral components; feldspars, dolomite, and pyrite are minor components.
Siliceous microfossils are present primarily as diatoms, although there are some
sponge spicules and radiolarians. The presence of strong BSR is found in Blake
Ridge, with other proxies it is also evident that disseminated methane hydrates
occurs through out sedimentary section between ~180 and ~450 m below seafloor,
which may extend about ~30 mbsf (Paull et al, 1996; Lorenson, T. D. and Shipboard
Scientific Party, 2000).
 36 EXPLORATION GEOLOGY AND GEOINFORMATICS

Fig 2. Depth vs Temperature Plot at Blake Ridge (Courtesy: Ocean Data View).

3. EXPLORATION OF GAS HYDRATE RICH ZONES

As Gas hydrates are not preserved in cores or in exposed outcrops, it is necessary to

find digenetic “finger prints” (or proxies) to identify sediments that contained gas
hydrate (Rodriguez et.al, 2000). Also, in the absence of free methane gas emission,
BSR’s are unable to detect gas hydrate deposits, particularly in Blake Ridge as free
methane is believed to have already escaped to the atmosphere, so here
micropaleontological fingerprints can be regarded as more suitable tools in studying
gas hydrate deposits. Uvigerinids, Bolivinids, elongated benthics along with some
other intermediate to high organic carbon taxa (e.g. Cibicides kullenbergi, C. bradyi,
Eggerella bradyi, Globocassidulina subglobosa, Gyroidinoides cibaoensis, Robulus
gibbus) are abundant in the methane and hydrate rich zones of Blake Ridge which
indicates their adaptability to such highly reducing organic carbon rich environment
(Rathburn et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2003; Robinson et al., 2004; Panieri, 2005;
Bhaumik and Gupta, 2005).

Often surface water productivity is closely related to the organic carbon content in
the sediment (Muller and Suess, 1979; Pederson, 1983; Sarnthein et al., 1987;
Pedersen and Calvert, 1990) and thus, variations of organic carbon in marine
sediments can be used as a proxy for productivity. The Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
concentrations transformed into mass accumulation rates of TOC can be used for the
interpretation of changes in preservation conditions or supply of OM (Jia, et al.,
2002). For example: the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal with thick pile of
sediments (3 - 4 km) and high organic carbon content (in the Arabian Sea, total
organic carbon (TOC) ranges from 0.48 to 4% and in the Bay of Bengal from 0.26 to
2%), are potential areas for gas hydrate rich zones (Gupta, et al., 1998, 2003;
Kuldeep et al., 1998; Veerayya et al., 1998; Subrahmanium et al., 1999).
 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA AS EFFECTIVE TOOLS FOR EXPLORATION OF… 37

While high TOC and low carbon isotopic values along with consistent abundance of
intermediate to high organic carbon associated biofacies indicate increased marine
biological productivity, lower TOC values indicate decreased terrigenous flux. At
Blake Ridge, the occurrence of dysoxic species along with geochemical data and
physical properties of sediments evidently indicates in-situ gas hydrates were
formed using biogenic methane (Bhaumik and Gupta, 2005).

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 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA AS EFFECTIVE TOOLS FOR EXPLORATION OF… 43

APPENDIX

Appendix 1. List of Benthic Foraminiferal Species and their Inferred Environments.

Genus  Environment  References 
Bolivina  d’Orbigny, 1839  Opportunists, cosmopolitan,  Sen  Gupta  and 
infaunal taxon, associated with  Machain‐Castillo,  1993; 
the OMZ, found in phytodetritus  Gupta  and  Satapathy, 
rich dysaerobic environments.  2000; Gooday, 2003 
Cassidulina  d’Orbigny, 1826  C. laevigata related to cold  Murray,  1991;  Loubere 
waters, high seasonality  and  Fariduddin,  1999; 
environment and enhanced  Schmiedl et al., 1997 
organic carbon influx. 
Chilostomella  Reus, 1849  Methane‐loving  taxa  found  in  Sen Gupta, and Aharon, 
hydrocarbon‐seep  bacterial  mats  1994,  Wefer,  et  al., 
and  hydrocarbon  vents  and  seep  1994;  Rathburn,  et  al., 
zone.  2000,  Hill,  et  al.,  2003, 
Torres, et al., 2003, Sen 
Gupta,  et  al.,  1997,  Hill, 
et al., 2004. 
Cibicides  Montfort, 1808  Epifaunal,  well‐aerated  bottom  Hayward  et  al,  2002; 
waters and low organic flux.  Fariduddin and Loubere, 
1997;  Schmiedl,  et  al., 
1997 
Eggerella  Cushman, 1935  Eggerella  advena  is  related  to  Thomas,  et  al,  2004; 
eutrophication  and  increased  Akira  Tsujimoto  et  al., 
nutrient  supply;  indicative  of  2006;  Clark  ,1971; 
pollution;  found  in  semi‐open  Annin,  2001;  Gupta 
inlet  environments  with  silt  1997 
substrate  and  reflect 
intermediate  flux  of  relatively 
degraded organic matter.  
Epistominella  Husezima  and  Opportunistically exploit  Gooday ,1993 
Maruhasi, 1944  phytodetritus (‘phytodetritus 
species’). 
Gavelinopsis  Hofker, 1951  Well‐oxygenated bottom water,  Hayward, 2002 
influenced by lateral input of 
organic particulate matter 
transported by bottom current 
Globobulimina  Cushman, 1927  Infaunal, associated with high  Gooday, 2003; 
food supply, and refractory  Fontanier et al., 2002 
organic carbon input. 

 
 44 EXPLORATION GEOLOGY AND GEOINFORMATICS

Genus  Environment  References 

Globocassidulina  Voloshinova,  Infaunal, year round high  Rathburn and 
1960  nutrient supply.  Corliss, 1994; 
Mackensen et al., 
1995 
Gyroidinoides  Brotzen, 1942  G. cibaoensis reported from  Gupta, and Thomas,  
low oxygenated deep waters  1999 
of the northwestern Indian 
Ocean having moderate flux of 
organic matter. 
Noninella  Cushman,  Infaunal species N. auris prefer  Wefer et al. 1994 
1926  anoxic, H2S‐containing 
sediments, feed on methane 
oxidizing bacteria and could be 
an indicator of biogenic 
methane below the sediment 
surface. 
Robulus  de Montfort,  Marked species of upper part  Hermelin and 
1808  of Oxygen Minimum Zone  Shimmield, 1990 
(OMZ) and indicative of high 
organic carbon flux and low 
oxygen content. 
Trifarina  Cushman,  T. angulosa is infaunal, free‐ Hayward et al. 2002; 
1923  living, related to low  Murray, 1991, 
temperatures, low salinity and  Gupta, 1997; 
high sand content, variable  Mackensen, et al., 
organic flux rates, outer shelf  1995; Harloff and 
to upper slope, well‐ Mackensen, 1997 
oxygenated environments. 
Uvigerina  d’Orbigny,  U.  peregrina  is  shallow  Sen Gupta and 
1826  infaunal,  thriving  underneath  Machain‐Castillo, 
OMZ, associated with high and  1993; Altenbach et 
sustained  flux  of  organic  al., 1999, Torres et 
matter. In the Cascadia Margin  al., 2003, Gupta and 
U.  peregrina  was  found  Thomas, 1999; 
attracted to rich bacterial food  Almogi‐Labin et al., 
source  at  methane  seeps.  U.  2000, Thomas et al., 
proboscidea  blooms  in  high  1995, Woodruff, 
productivity  regions  of  the  1985 
Indian,  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans  where  productivity  is 
high  throughout  the  year  and 
seasonality  of  the  food  supply 
is low or absent.