Indian Journal of Marine Sciences

Vol. 36(4), December 2007, pp. 332-341

Paleoceanographic evolution of the northeastern Indian Ocean during the

Miocene: Evidence from deep-sea benthic foraminifera (DSDP Hole 216A)
Ajoy K. Bhaumik, Anil K. Gupta*, M. Sundar Raj, K. Mohan, Soma De & Sudipta Sarkar
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721 302, India
*[E-mail: anilg@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in ]

Statistical analyses (factor and cluster) were performed on 30 highest ranked deep-sea benthic foraminifer species from
>149 µm size fraction from Deep Sea Drilling Project Hole 216A to understand Miocene (~20.5 to ~7 Ma)
paleoceanographic evolution of the northeastern Indian Ocean. Factor and cluster analyses enabled us to identify five
biofacies defining five clusters. Known ecological preferences of benthic foraminifera were used for environmental
interpretations. The faunal data documents a shift in deep-sea ventilation and productivity at 15-14 Ma, coinciding with the
abrupt cooling in the middle Miocene. This coincides with the beginning of permanent ice sheets in Antarctica during the
middle Miocene.

[Key words: Benthic foraminifera, Indian Ocean, paleoceanography, Miocene]

Introduction deep-sea benthic foraminifera combined with

Benthic foraminifera have good potential for
paleoenvironmental reconstruction owing to their
diverse morphological variations, greater abundance,
wide distribution and well preserved fossil record.
The vertical distribution of benthic foraminifera is
mainly controlled by the quality and quantity of food
and deep-sea oxygenation1-8. The eutrophic regions
are characterized by the dominance of low-oxygen
species due to decreasing oxygen content along the
sediment water interface. The oligotrophic
environments are favorable for epifaunal, well-
oxygenated species9, 10. Some workers have found a
relation between benthic foraminifera and deep-sea
water masses. For instance, Cibicides wuellerstorfi is
widely used as an indicator of well ventilated North
Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) whereas Nuttallides
umbonifera is widely used as an indicator of
carbonate undersaturated Antarctic Bottom Water
(AABW)4, 11-13. Some attempts have been made to
reconstruct paleoclimate variability including the
Indian monsoon during the Quaternary and older
intervals using this group7, 10, 14, 15.
In the present study we attempt to understand
paleoceanographic changes in the northeastern Indian
Ocean during the Miocene using multivariate data of
_________
*Corresponding author:
Ph: +91-3222-283368
Fax: +91-3222-282700
published stable oxygen and carbon isotopic values of
Oridorsalis umbonatus16 from Deep Sea Drilling
Project Hole 216A, Leg 22 (Fig. 1). Known
ecological preferences of benthic foraminifera from
different ocean basins have been used to understand
paleoceanographic changes in the northeastern Indian
Ocean.
Materials and Methods
Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Hole 216A
(lat 01° 27.73΄ N; long 90° 12.48΄ E; water depth
2262 m) is located on the northern side of the
Ninetyeast Ridge below the equatorial divergence in
the northeastern Indian Ocean basin (Fig. 1). The
deep and intermediate currents in the eastern Indian
Ocean are generated by the mixing of water masses
from the Atlantic and Southern oceans17 as shown in
Fig. 1. The top 1000 m water column in the equatorial
Indian Ocean is characterized by high productivity,
low salinity and oxygen-poor deep watermass18.
Depths between 1000 and 4000 m are bathed by the
southward flowing North Indian Deep Water
(NIDW), which is a mixture of NADW, AABW and
deep water mass of northern Indian Ocean19. The
well-oxygenated, cold AABW (having
a potential temperature 0.9°C to 1.2°C) lies below
4000 m, which originates from the Weddell Sea
and the Ross Sea20, 21. The benthic foraminiferal
lysocline14 lies near 3600 m. The present day deep-
 BHAUMIK et al.: FORAMINIFERA OF DSDP HOLE 216A
Fig. 1—Location map of DSDP Hole 216A in the northeastern Indian Ocean. Also shown are main deep-ocean currents (modified from
Kawagata et al.17).
water temperature, salinity and oxygen concentration
at DSDP Hole 216A are 2.36°C, 34.75 and
135 µM/kg, respectively22.
DSDP Hole 216A has good sediment preservation
and was further south of its present position, during
the Miocene15, 23. In the earliest Miocene (22 Ma),
Hole 216A was situated ~11° S from its present
position within the equatorial high productivity belt24.
This Site has also been above the Calcite
Compensation Depth (CCD) since the Miocene. The
paleodepth of Hole 216A was 1869 m in the early
Miocene (22 Ma) and 2182 m in the late Miocene24
at 8 Ma.
This study is based on the data from seventy
samples from the Miocene sequence of Hole 216A
(Srinivasan & Gupta25). Samples were processed as
described in Srinivasan & Gupta25. Each sample of
10 cc volume was soaked in water with 4-5 drops of
H2O2 for 8-12 hours and washed over 63 µm size
sieve. Samples were dried at ~50-60°C and then
transferred into glass vials. For microscopic
observations, samples were dry-sieved over a 149 µm
sieve and all specimens of benthic foraminifera from
the entire sample were picked and counted. Relative
abundances of all benthic foraminiferal species were
calculated. Ages are based on planktic foraminiferal
faunal datums25 and updated to the age model of
Berggren et al.26.
333
Table 1—List of species with relative abundance >5% and
present at least in five samples, used in R-mode factor and
Q-mode cluster analyses.
Anomalina globulosa Chapman and parr, 1937
Astrononion umbilicatulum Uchio, 1952
Bulimina alazanensis Cushman, 1927
Buliminella carteri Bhatia, 1955
Chrysalogonium equisetiformis Schwager, 1866
Cibicides bradyi (Trauth, 1918)
Cibicides kullenbergi Parker, 1953
Cibicides wuellerstorfi Schwager, 1866
Eggerella bradyi (Cushman, 1911)
Ehrenbergina hystrix Brady, 1884
Epistominella exigua (Brady, 1884)
Favocassidulina favus Brady, 1884
Favocassidulina indica Gupta and Srinivasan, 1990
Globocassudulina pacifica Cushman, 1925
Globocassudulina subglobosa (Brady, 1884)
Gyroidinoides cibaoensis (Bermudez, 1949)
Gyroidinoides nitidula (Schwager, 1866)
Laticarinina pauperata Parker and Jones, 1865
Martinotiella scabra Cushman, 1936
Osangularia culter (Parker and Jones, 1865)
Planulina marialina gigus Keijzer, 1845
Pleurostomella alternans Schwager, 1866
Pullenia bulloides (d'Orbigny, 1846)
Pullenia osloensis Feyling-Hanssen, 1954
Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss, 1851)
Sphaeroidina bulloides d'Orbigny, 1826
Stilostomella lepidula (Schwager, 1866)
Uvigerina proboscidea Schwager, 1866
Vagunilina elegans d'Orbigny, 1933
Vulvulina nicobarica Schwager, 1866
334 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 36, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2007

Table 2—Interpretation of characteristic species comprising different biofacies at Hole 216A

Species Interpretation

Astrononion umbilicatulum
Bulimina alazanensis
Buliminella carteri
Cibicides bradyi
Cibicides kullenbergi
Cibicides wuellerstorfi
Eggerella bradyi
Epistominella exigua
Favocassidulina favus
Globocassidulina pacifica
Gyroidinoides cibaoensis
Gyroidinoides nitidula
Laticarinina pauperata
Pleurostomella alternans
Pullenia osloensis
Sphaeroidina bulloides
Stilostomella lepidula
Uvigerina proboscidea
Oligotrophic, well ventilation10, 29, 30, High salinity29, 31, High organic carbon7, 32, 33
Infaunal, low oxygen, high food34, High continuous food supply7, NADW and
warm benthos fauna4
Infaunal34, Low oxygen, intermediate organic flux10
Well oxygen7, 10, 35, 36, Adaptive to low oxygen37
Intermediate to low organic flux13, 38, warm deep water39, 40, NADW41, 42
Epibenthic, prefers to live on elevated substrate, suspension feeder, high
energy12, 43, 44, Oligotrophic44, Seasonal food supply45, NADW4, 12, 13, AABW46, 47
Moderate, degraded organic matter, well oxygenated condition31-33, High organic
flux, low seasonality33
Epibenthic, cosmopolitan, abyssal, opportunistic, phytodetritus feeders48, 49,
Low organic flux, well oxygenation32
Suboxic50
Cosmopolitan51, 52, Low oxygen, intermediate food7
Food limited or pulsed food12, 53, Oligotrophic10
Intermediate organic flux, high seasonality33, 54
Strongly pulsed, low to intermediate organic flux54
Deep infaunal, low oxygen, high organic carbon55, 56
High food supply7
High productivity13, 57, Low oxygen species58, 59
Cosmopolitan38, 61-63, Low oxygen and High organic carbon55, 64, 65
High organic carbon, independent of oxygenation37, 38,
High productivity7, 10, 14, 31, 66

To remove post-depositional noise from the dataset 5 bio-facies were identified and their paleo-
for better paleoceanographic interpretations, factor environmental preferences were inferred based on the
and cluster analyses were performed on census counts recent distribution of benthic foraminifera (Table 2).
of 30 highest ranked benthic species using SAS/STAT Stable oxygen and carbon isotope data of benthic
package27. Species were selected on the basis of their foraminifer Oridorsalis umbonatus (Fig. 3) is from
relative abundance of 5% or more in any one sample Vincent et al.16.
and present in at least 5 samples (Table 1). R-mode
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed Results
on the correlation matrix. A scree (x-y) plot of eigen Following biofacies were identified that define
values versus the number of factors and screening of benthic assemblages at Hole 216A:
factor scores allowed us to retain 5 factors, accounting
for 60.14% of the total variance. The missing values Biofacies Sl-Vn
were coded to obtain a better result, because the This biofacies is defined by the species having high
presence of large number of zeros can bias the negative scores on Factor 1, ranging from 20.4 to 14.5
result28. Ma. The characteristic species of this biofacies are
Q-mode cluster analysis was performed using Stilostomella lepidula, Vulvulina nicobarica,
Ward’s Minimum Variance method to identify sample Buliminella carteri, Sphaeroidina bulloides,
groups. To standardize the dataset, a PCA was Pleurostomella alternans, Gyroidinoides nitidula and
performed on the covariance matrix of 30 highest Globocassidulina pacifica indicating oxygen-
ranked benthic foraminifer species prior to cluster depleted, organic carbon rich deep-sea environment
analysis. Based on the plot of semi-partial R-squared (Tables 2 and 3).
values versus the number of clusters, 5 clusters were
identified (Fig. 2). Principal Components (PCs) that Biofacies Cw-Lp
show significant species associations were considered Cibicides wuellerstorfi, Laticarinina pauperata,
to define biofacies. Factors that do not show Vaginulina elegans, Bulimina alazanensis,
significant species associations were not used to Gyroidinoides cibaoensis, Cibicides kullenbergi,
define benthic faunal biofacies. In this way, Favocassidulina favus and Epistominella exigua are
 BHAUMIK et al.: FORAMINIFERA OF DSDP HOLE 216A 335

Fig. 2—Dendogram based on Q-mode cluster analysis of 70 samples from Hole 216A during the Miocene using Ward’s Minimum
Variance method. Five clusters have been identified on the basis of the number of clusters versus semi-partial R2. Each cluster was
assigned a biofacies named after the most dominant species.
336 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 36, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2007

Fig. 3—Vertical distribution of benthic foraminiferal biofacies with cumulative percentages of the major species combined with isotope
data of Vincent et al.16. The shaded zone during the middle Miocene (15 to 14 Ma) marks a shift from organic carbon rich and oxygen-
depleted environment to more oxygenated, strongly pulsed organic carbon environment, corresponding to the major increase in Antarctic
ice volume and deep-sea cooling.
 BHAUMIK et al.: FORAMINIFERA OF DSDP HOLE 216A
Table 3—Benthic foraminiferal biofacies and their interpreted environments at Hole
216A, northeastern Indian Ocean based on Table 2. Stable isotope analysis was done
on benthic foraminifer Oridorsalis umbonatus (adapted from Vincent et al.16).
Biofacies Factor scores
Sl-Vn (Factor 1 negative)
Stilostomella lepidula -0.76
Vulvulina nicobarica -0.75
Buliminella carteri -0.65
Sphaeroidina bulloides -0.63
Pleurostomella alternans -0.56
Gyroidinoides nitidula -0.54
Globocassudulina pacifica -0.52
Cw-Lp (Factor 1 positive)
Cibicides wuellerstorfi 0.74
Laticarinina pauperata 0.68
Vagunilina elegans 0.57
Bulimina alazanensis 0.53
Gyroidinoides cibaoensis 0.51
Cibicides kullenbergi 0.50
Favocassidulina favus 0.45
Epistominella exigua 0.36
Ck-Cb (Factor 2 negative)
Cibicides kullenbergi -0.52
Cibicides bradyi -0.51
Pullenia osloensis -0.51
Favocassidulina indica -0.47
Eggerella bradyi -0.46
Fi-Pg (Factor 6 positive)
Favocassidulina indica 0.48
Planulina marialina gigus 0.39
Up-Au (Factor 4 negative)
Uvigerina proboscidea -0.65
Astrononion umbilicatulum -0.46
Martinottiella scabra -0.33
the characteristic species of this biofacies having high
positive scores on Factor 1. This biofacies ranges
from 14.5 to 7.1 Ma and is distributed over 27
samples. Species association of this biofacies
indicates pulsed, low flux of organic matter, well-
oxygenated environment and strong ocean current
(Tables 2 and 3).
Biofacies Ck-Cb
Dominant species of this biofacies are Cibicides
kullenbergi, Cibicides bradyi, Pullenia osloensis,
Favocassidulina indica and Eggerella bradyi with
high negative scores on Factor 2, spreading over 12.1
to 11.4 Ma in 12 samples. This biofacies also has a
short-lived presence at 10.1 Ma. Species assemblage
of this biofacies indicates presence of NADW-like
watermass characterized by high oxygen and low
organic carbon (Tables 2 and 3).
337
Environment
Warm interval with oxygen
depleted, organic carbon rich
environment
Pulsed, low flux organic matter
(oligotrophic), well oxygenated
environment with strong ocean
current, high seasonality
NADW like water mass, high
oxygen, low organic carbon
environment
Well-oxygenated, low-organic
carbon environment
High, sustained flux of organic
matter, low seasonality
Biofacies Fi-Pg
This biofacies consists of two species,
Favocassidulina indica and Planulina marialina
gigus, bearing high positive scores on Factor 6. This
biofacies has a short-lived presence during 11.8 to
10.7 Ma (5 samples). These species have rare and
sporadic occurrence in the Indian Ocean and not
much is known about their environmental
preferences51. Their association with C. wuellerstorfi
as reported in few studies from the Indian Ocean
suggests their preference to low-organic flux and
well-oxygenated environment51.
Biofacies Up-Au
Biofacies Up-Au comprises Uvigerina probos-
cidea, Astrononion umbilicatulum and Martinottiella
scabra, showing high negative scores on Factor 4.
This biofacies occurs in only 3 samples (10.9 to 10.6
338 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 36, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2007
Ma) and indicates the presence of a short period of
high, sustained flux organic matter. This was also a
time of major change in the Indian monsoon system14.
The distribution of biofacies shows a major change
at ~14.5 Ma (Fig. 3) coinciding with the major
increase in Antarctic ice volume during the
Miocene16,67. From 20.5 to 14.5 Ma the benthic fauna
are dominated by biofacies Sl-Vn, which is replaced
by biofacies Cw-Lp, Ck-Cb, Fi-Pg and Up-Au during
14.5 to 7 Ma (Fig. 3, Table 3). The interval 14.5-10
Ma is marked by three biofacies Cw-Lp, Ck-Cb,
Fi-Pg and Up-Au, suggesting widespread changes in
the northeastern Indian Ocean.
Discussion
The Miocene represents a link between the warm
interval of the Paleogene and the cold sphere of the
Neogene67, 68. The Miocene was a critical time in the
evolution of Earth’s climate marked by a major
increase in Antarctic ice volume67, 68 and widespread
deep-sea hiatuses69. The Miocene ice volume brought
significant changes in the deep sea. To understand
these changes, numerous studies were taken up under
Cenozoic Paleoceanography Project (CENOP) using
faunal and geochemical proxies68, 70. The middle
Miocene marks a major shift towards cold climates
and deep waters that may have influenced the deep-
sea fauna. During this time, a major increase in δ18O
values has been observed throughout the Indian,
Pacific and Atlantic oceans representing a major and
permanent accumulation of East Antarctic ice sheet,
and cooling of deep waters16, 68, 71.
Benthic foraminiferal faunal and stable isotope
record shows a major transition across the early-
middle Miocene at Hole 216A. The deep-sea
conditions were warm, oxygen-depleted and organic
carbon rich during 20.4 to 14.5 Ma (biofacies Sl-Vn).
The δ18O values were lighter but δ13C values were
heavier during this time. The high δ13C values are at
odds to the dominance of high productivity deep-sea
benthic foraminifera during this time (Fig. 3). This
contradiction can be explained as the early Miocene
was an interval of climate warmth during which time
tropical forests were widespread and the continental
organic biosphere would have been more extensive,
which might have contributed to the positive δ13C
values in the early Miocene72. The warm deep-sea
temperatures may have also contributed to the heavier
values of δ13C in the early Miocene69.
Since the middle Miocene (~14.5 Ma), biofacies
Cw-Lp, Ck-Cb and Fi-Pg became dominant at Hole
216A indicating low organic flux (oligotrophic)
during a weaker Indian monsoon with high
seasonality, and stronger deep oceanic currents
(Fig. 3). The δ18O values also became heavier since
the middle Miocene indicating prolong deep-sea
cooling due to the formation of permanent ice sheets
in East Antarctica10, 67, 72-74. The interval 12-10 Ma is
characterized by four biofacies indicating widespread
changes in the northeastern Indian Ocean (Fig. 3). A
short-lived peak of biofacies Up-Au during 10.9 to
10.6 Ma indicates intense upwelling and high surface
productivity probably driven by the intense Indian
monsoon14, 75. The δ13C values became lighter since
the middle Miocene indicating increased productivity
in the ocean basins. The dominance of low
productivity benthic fauna at Hole 216A since the
middle Miocene may be attributed to increased
availability of suspended food particles and well
oxygenated, cold deep waters.
Conclusion
The biofacies distribution pattern at DSDP Hole
216A divides the Miocene interval into two climatic
realms across the early-middle Miocene boundary.
During the late early Miocene (20 to 14.5 Ma) warm
interval, the deep-sea was rich in organic food and
depleted in oxygen. The onset of permanent ice sheets
on Antarctica since the middle Miocene brought a
significant change in deep-sea circulation as well as
deep-sea fauna, increasing the vigor of deep-sea
circulation. The middle Miocene climate transition is
marked by a shift in δ13C towards lighter values and
δ18O towards heavier values, which is also visible in
other ocean basins. Thus, late Miocene was similar to
the present day world in many aspects.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge Deep Sea Drilling Project for
providing the core samples. We are thankful to Rajiv
Nigam for inviting us to contribute this article.
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