Journal of Ship Research, Vol. 42, No. 2, June 1998, pp.

113-119

Ship Seakeeping Through the = 114 Critical Frequency

D. C. K r i n g 1

This study demonstrates that a bounded, physically relevant solution does exist at the so-called 7-
= UW/K = 1/4 resonance in the linear seakeeping problem for a realistic ship with forward speed,
U, frequency of encounter, ~J, and gravitational acceleration, g. The solution of the seakeeping
problem by a linear, three dimensional, time-domain Rankine panel method, validated through
numerical analysis, testing, and comparison to physical experiments, supports this claim. The
solution can also be obtained with equal validity through frequencies both above and below the
critical frequency.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n formulation should not lead to an unbounded solution in gen-

LINEAR SEAKEEPING simulations for ships and offshore plat-
forms can predict useful quantities such as absolute and relative
motions, global and local loads, and added resistance. A linear
simulation can also provide a basis for extensions such as the
prediction of nonlinear structural loads and offshore platform
slow drift damping. However, at certain important combina-
tions of ship speed and wave period, linear seakeeping studies
based upon approximate analytical or numerical models have
had limited applicability due to the presense of a critical fre-
quency in the dispersion relation for wave propagation. A few
examples of where this problem occurs in practice include ships
operating in survival conditions at low speeds and vessels ma-
neuvering through following seas.
This critical frequency, T, for deep water occurs at 7- -- u~
g _
14, with forward speed, U, encounter frequency, w, and gravita-
tional acceleration, g. An associated problem, ship motions in
shallow water, also possesses a critical frequency similar to the
deep water value of T -- .
Dagan & Miloh (1982) claim it is well known that the lin-
earized solution at this frequency ceases to be valid and remove
this singularity by considering nonlinearity. The unbounded na-
ture of the linear problem is revealed through the examination
of the Green function for a single point source (Haskind 1954),
which seems to be confirmed by approximate, slender body
theories such as those proposed by Newman (1959) and Maruo
(1966). Exactly at T = , certain components of the wave sys-
tem have a group velocity equal to the velocity of the ship.
These theories imply that energy becomes trapped and cannot
radiate away so the solution continues to grow if there is con-
tinued forcing. Some purely two-dimensional approaches such
as strip theory avoid this singularity, but, as stated by Ogilvie
&= Tuck (1969) in their rational approach, these methods are
only valid at frequencies well above critical.
The numerical studies of Grue & Palm (1985) and the an-
alytic treatment of Liu & Yue (1993) indicate that the linear
1Department of Ocean Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Manuscript received at SNAME headquarters March 11, 1997;
revised manuscript received November 14, 1997.
eral. The study of Grue &: Palm (1985) and related work by
Mo & Palm (1987) examined the linear solution of the two-
dimensional problem as it approached the critical frequency
and demonstrated that it is bounded. The three-dimensional
time domain solution for the impulse response function of the
ship radiation problem by Bingham et al (1993), also indicates
that the linear solution should exist. In their analytical treat-
ment of a two-dimensional flow, Liu & Yue (1993) propose that
the solution is bounded for surface piercing bodies of non-zero
thickness. The resonance at critical frequency encountered by
slender body theory may be peculiar to its approximation of
the geometry. A point source or distribution of sources col-
lapsed onto a plane will encounter this singular behavior, but a
linear method that has no approximation for the hull geometry
should have a bounded solution.
By examining the wave pattern, either in the two- or three-
dimensional problem, a mechanism to propagate wave energy
away from the ship at the critical frequency becomes apparent.
Above the critical frequency there are two components in the
wave system that both travel downstream in relation to the
ship-fixed frame of reference. Below the critical frequency there
are three wave components traveling downstream and one wave
component propagating upstream that travels faster than the
ship. Exactly at T = ~1 there are two wave components that act
as standing waves in the ship-fixed frame, but there are two
more wave components that may travel downstream and allow
energy to radiate away.
This paper will demonstrate that there is, indeed, a bounded,
physically relevant solution for linearized theory by the appli-
cation of a fully three-dimensional solution through this critical
frequency for realistic, surface-piercing ship hulls.
The three-dimensional Rankine panel method applied to this
problem, known as SWAN (Ship Wave ANalysis), has been de-
veloped over the last ten years for the frequency and time do-
main analysis of ship flows. It is based upon a set of numerical
stability analyses that govern both the propagation of waves
over a discrete free surface (Sclavounos 1988, Vada &: Nakos
1992, Nakos, Kring, &: Sclavounos 1993) and the numerical in-
tegration of the equations of ship motion (Kring ~ Sclavounos
1995). Extensive numerical testing and comparison to experi-
ments have validated this method for a wide range of applica-
tions in wave regimes above T = 1, and it has recently been

JUNE 1998 0022-4502/98/4202-00113500.39/0 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH 113

extended to nonlinear seakeeping studies (Kring et al 1996). A
survey of the applications of the frequency and time domain
versions of this method can be found in Sclavounos (1996).
This work examines the applicability of the linear, time do-
main method to the combination of ship speeds and wave fre-
quencies through T ---- by numerical testing and comparison
to experiments. In the time domain the critical frequency can
be isolated by forcing the body to oscillate at that one period,
or it can be extracted by Fourier transform from a response
record for a complete forcing spectrum.
2. F o r m u l a t i o n o f the time domain problem
A coordinate system Oxyz fixed to the mean position of the
ship provides the frame of reference for this problem. The z-
axis points upward and the x-axis points upstream. A point in
the inertial frame relates to the ship-fixed observer through the
ship's mean velocity, 14~ = (U, V, 0), assumed to be steady in
time, and parallel to the mean free surface.
Within the fluid, under the assumption of inviscid, irrota-
tional flow, the Laplace equation governs the total disturbance
velocity potential. The gradients of the potential are assumed
to decay to zero infinitely far from the ship, and a radiation
condition is imposed to prevent the return of body generated
waves.
Decomposition of the total disturbance potential, kO,
kO(Z, t) = (I)(Z) + ~(Z, t)
into a basis flow component, ~, and a wave flow component, ~,
assumes that the basis flow provides the dominant contribution
to the total flow. The basis flow used in this study is the double-
body flow, which ensures that (I)z = 0 on z = 0. A Taylor
expansion from the instantaneous position of the free surface
to the mean position of the free surface at z = 0 leads to the
linearized kinematic and dynamic free surface conditions,
02,:I) 0~
O<Ot (l~" - V(I)) V~ = ~-~-z2~ + ~ on z = 0
(o_(~_~0).v)(~)___g~+E~.V0_~v0.v01
on z = 0
where, ~(x, y, t) is the Eulerian description of the wave eleva-
tion.
The body boundary condition is linearized by applying a
Taylor expansion about the mean position of the ship. The no-
flux condition results,
O-~(~+#)=~7"E+L(~tnJ+(jrn3) onSB (4)
j=l
with
( - ~ l , m 2 , m 3 ) = (ft. V ) ( W - V ~ )
(m4, ms, m6) = (~. v ) ( ~ x ( ~ - v ~ ) )
and n 3 a generalized normal. The basis flow accounts for the
steady component and the wave flow accounts for the unsteady
components. If the ship displacements, ( j , and velocities, ~-t,
were to be determined from the equations of free ship motion, a
further decomposition of the wave flow into instantaneous and
memory components would be necessary for numerical stability
as demonstrated in Kring & Sclavounos (1995). In this work,
the ship displacement and velocity will be imposed as part of
the forced motion radiation problem (Newman 1978). The na-
ture of the 7 ---- 1 singularity will not directly effect the numer-
ical stability properties of the equations of motion, if the wave
solution is bounded.
Although the double body linearization is used here rather
than the Neumann-Kelvin formulation which has the free
114 JUNE 1998
stream as its basis the principal conclusions are valid for both
linearizations. The double body model does not change the fun-
damental nature of the dispersion relation, and, on the order
of one beam away from the ship, the double body influence is
negligible and the linear conditions approach the Kelvin form.
3. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n by a Rankine panel method
The Laplace equation governing the fluid volume is satisfied
through the application of Green's Theorem,
2~(~) - f~ 0 ~ ( ~ ' ) G ( i ; ~)dx'
FUSB On
fs
+
,~USB~....x _~.)~----n
oG(; ~ )aX
., = 0 (6)
where O ( i ' ; ~) is the Rankine source potential,
G(~'; Z) -
J ~ -1i ' l (7)
so that both the free surface, Sp, and hull surface, SB, must
be explicitly considered.
As the discrete formulation is detailed in Nakos, Kring, ~z
Sclavounos (1993), the spatial and temporal discretizations are
only summarized here. The unknowns on the boundaries, po-
(i) tential, ~ ( i , t), normal derivative of the potential, ~n (i, t), and
wave elevation, ~(x, y, t), are related through the boundary con-
ditions which must be discretized in space and time. The free
surface conditions, treated as two independent evolution equa-
tions, along with the body boundary condition provide the forc-
ing to equation (6) which becomes a mixed boundary value
problem. A linear system of equations results from this bound-
ary integral after approximating the unknowns as a set of hi-
quadratic spline sheets over the domain boundaries.
(2) The relationship between the spatial discretization, a bi-
quadratic spline sheet, and the temporal discretization of the
free surface conditions was crucial for numerical stability and
accuracy. The choice for these was dictated by a rational error
(3) analysis of waves propagating over a discrete free surface by
Vada & Nakos (1992). This led to two time evolution schemes
that exhibit the very favorable properties of no error in wave
dissipation and error in wave dispersion no more than third or-
der in the characteristic panel length. The first scheme, a com-
bination of explicit and implicit Euler integrations, is numeri-
cally efficient for low speeds, less than about Froude number,
Fn = U/V/'(gL ) = 0.4, where L is the ship waterline length.
The other scheme found to be neutrally stable is a combination
of Leapfrog and Trapezoidal integrations that is numerically ef-
ficient for high speeds.
The seakeeping simulation leads to a solution for the local
pressures on the hull and the wave pattern across the free sur-
face. These pressures are integrated along the hull to produce
(5)
a time history of the forces acting on the ship which can be
Fourier transformed for comparison with experimental results
as shown in the next section. Figure 1 illustrates the wave pat-
tern after the force signal has achieved steady state. In this
case, a Lewis form ship was forced to heave at a period corre-
sponding to the critical frequency, 7- = 1, at Froude number,
F n = 0.1. When animated and viewed in a frame of reference
fixed to the ship, this wave pattern appears as a skewed con-
centric ring of standing waves with a secondary wave system
traveling downstream. There is a compression of the ring sys-
tem upstream with a corresponding dilation downstream. In
the figure, the computational mesh is also presented to help
illustrate the numerical method. A round grid was chosen since
waves can be expected to radiate in all directions from the ship
below T ---- 1.
JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH
 Direction of forward motion

Fig. 1 W a v e p a t t e r n and c o m p u t a t i o n a l grid for a Lewis hull oscillating in heave at ~- = 1 / 4 w i t h f o r w a r d

speed Fn = 0 . i

A second wave system traveling d o w n s t r e a m from the ship to avoid overdamping the evanescant modes in the free surface
can not be easily discerned since the figure is not animated, near the ship's waterline. This periodic application of the spa-
but the simulation t h a t produced this wave p a t t e r n did achieve tial filter has proven sufficient to control the error in the small
steady state as shown in Fig. 2. In this case there was positive wavelengths as reported in Nakos, Kring, & Sclavounos (1993).
damping. T h e d a m p i n g must result from the physical propaga- The forces acting on the b o d y can be shown to be insensitive
tion of waves d o w n s t r e a m and not from numerical dissipation to this filter for a wave p a t t e r n t h a t has numerically converged.
as confirmed by t h e numerical testing in this paper. T h e second numerical issue involves the modeling of the open
It has been r e p o r t e d in Grue & P a h n (1985) and N e w m a n boundary. In order to do this an efficient and practical numer-
(1961) t h a t negative damping, or incoming energy flux, can ical beach is applied as in Nakos et al (1993). This numerical
exist at forward speed for a two-dimensional, submerged, oscil- beach dissipates outgoing waves w i t h o u t reflection by modify-
lating ellipsoid. This case has not been encountered with the ing the kinematic condition in an outer ring of the c o m p u t a -
present m e t h o d for a three-dimensional, surface piercing ship tional domain. The modified kinematic condition in the zone
but the formulation does allow for negative damping. In the of the numerical beach appears as,
case of forced or prescribed b o d y motion, negative d a m p i n g
indicates t h a t the b o d y is extracting energy from the waves. ~ 02a5 0~o ~,2
T h e t i m e history of the radiation force will simply exhibit a -(W-VE~).V4= ~Zz2 ~ + ~ - z - 2 , ~ + - - ~ onz=0 (8)
negative phase shift. For free motion, however, where the equa- 9
tions of motion are being solved in the time-domain, negative where, u, is a damping parameter. These added terms act like
d a m p i n g may lead to an u n b o u n d e d ship motion, unless some Newtonian cooling and Rayleigh viscosity to dissipate the waves
physical model such as nonlinear viscous d a m p i n g or energy while avoiding artificial dispersion. This m e t h o d was a d a p t e d
e x t r a c t i o n system is included. T h r o u g h o u t this paper, only the from the work of Israeli & Orszag (1981) and Cointe (1989).
forced m o t i o n problem is considered. If a sufficiently large t r u n c a t i o n distance is used in the com-
T h e validity of this solution will be illustrated in the next putational mesh, there will be no influence on the solution as
section, but several numerical issues critical to the m e t h o d must d e m o n s t r a t e d by the d o m a i n sensitivity study presented in the
first be introduced. These issues are as follow: next section.
Small wavelengths and the resolution of the grid scale,
Long wavelengths and the modeling of the open boundary, ...... t~t (g/L)'~= 0.04
T e m p o r a l and spatial convergence and the accuracy of the 10 ........ At (g/L)~= 0.02
discrete model. _ _ At (g/L)'~= 0.01
FJpgV
T h e first numerical issue has been examined by the error
analysis of waves propagating over a discrete free surface. As 5
t i m e step and panel size become infinitesimal, the m e t h o d is
consistent and reduces to the continuous formulation, but for
practical discretization sizes, the presence of waves shorter t h a n
a few panel lengths can introduce some error.
T h e stability analysis has shown t h a t the waves are neutrally
stable in time, but the numerical dispersion relation reveals
-5
some error in the group velocity of very short waves. In order
to correct this numerical problem a low-pass spatial filter is . . . . i . . . . i . . . .
applied at periodic time steps in order to prevent the spurious 0 20 40 6'0 8'0 1C)O
t (g/L) v~
waves from c o n t a m i n a t i n g the solution. T h e filter has been de-
signed to m a t c h the properties of the error uncovered by the Fig. 2 H i s t o r y o f vertical force f o r a Lewis hull in heave (T = 1 / 4 , Fn
numerical analysis. It is not applied at every t i m e step in order = 0.1) f o r three t i m e - s t e p sizes

J U N E 1998 J O U R N A L OF SHIP RESEARCH 115

 The last issue is the accuracy of the numerical model. Along of the domain from returning to the ship. Domain sizes can be
with the stability analysis and sensitivity studies, convergence quite small at these frequencies and are, typically, only one ship
proves this method faithfully represents the continuous formu- length in width.
lation. Spatial and temporal convergence are demonstrated in For practical cases like slow forward speed in following seas,
the next section for a Lewis form ship for which experimental however, the mechanism to model open boundaries must be
evidence exists. able to completely absorb outgoing waves, since the reduced
Related to the issue of accuracy is the ability of the method frequency will be at or below critical. An extreme case is zero
to simulate, with precision, the wave flow at the critical fre- speed. Although there is no issue of critical frequency in the
quency. For a frequency domain formulation, where the forcing limit of zero speed, this is a good test case to demonstrate
frequency must be supplied, the critical frequency can not be the strength of the numerical beach since the waves propagate
selected precisely on a digital computer. In a time domain for- equally in all directions. Figure 3 illustrates the convergence of
mulation, such as used in this study, the critical frequency can heave added mass and damping for the Lewis form ship with
be captured exactly. Because the simulation has an impulsive respect to increasing domain sizes with outer radii, r, of r / L =
startup, which contains all possible frequencies, the 7 -- } dis- 6, r / L = 9, r / L = 12, where L is the ship waterline length that
turbance is always present. If the linear T = solution was is used throughout this work as a reference length scale.
unbounded, any numerical testing would immediately reveal Clearly, at r / L = 9, the solution is sufficiently insensitive
this contamination through an inability to achieve steady state to domain truncation, and the results agree very well with ex-
results and a total lack of numerical convergence. periments. As expected, the domain must be larger for longer
wavelengths.
4. N u m e r i c a l validation In Fig. 4, the sensitivity test for heave radiation is extended
The results in this section illustrate sensitivity to domain to Froude numbers, F n = U / V / ( ( g L ) , of F n = 0.1 and F n =
size and numerical convergence. The representative hull form 0.2. At forward speed F n = 0.1 the forces are even less sensitive
used in the paper is a Lewis form ship proposed by Maruo &: than zero speed to the effect of domain truncation, even at the
Matsunaga (1983) in which experimental results are provided. critical frequency. At the higher Froude number, F n = 0.2,
To obtain these results the ship was forced to oscillate in both there is slightly more domain sensitivity than at F n = 0.1. This
heave and pitch modes at prescribed frequencies. A Fourier is because the characteristic wavelengths associated with T =
analysis was then applied to obtain added mass and damp- grow with forward speed, so a larger domain is required. The
ing coefficients for comparison to the experiments of Maruo & pitch radiation problem showed similar domain insensitivity.
Matsunaga (1983).
6. C o n v e r g e n c e
5. D o m a i n sensitivity
After the issues of numerical stability and domain sensitivity
The issue of wave damping through radiation is critical to the have been addressed, only numerical convergence remains to
understanding of the wave behavior at the critical frequency, be demonstrated. The method is consistent, stable, and con-
since, in the analytical solution for the oscillating point source, vergent. Along with comparison to experiments, this validates
there is no damping mechanism at all. The method used to the discrete numerical solution.
model the open boundary must be demonstrated to have no This section reports the convergence for both the heave and
effect on the forces acting on the ship. The results presented pitch radiation forces for the Lewis form hull of Maruo ~ Mat-
in this section confirm that the solution is insensitive to the sunaga (1983). Comparison to those experiments shows the
domain truncation. Therefore, there is no artificial damping physical relevance of this solution.
due to the finite size of the domain. Temporal convergence was achieved, using the error analysis
The numerical beach has been thoroughly validated at for- as a baseline for the choice of time step size. This convergence
ward speed for reduced frequencies above T = (Nakos, Kring,
is shown in the force history of Fig. 2, at time step sizes of
8z Sclavounos 1993), but this is not a good indication of the
quality of the beach. At these high reduced frequencies, with At v/gv/gv/~= 0.04, 0.02, 0.01. The solution has fully converged at
no waves traveling upstream from the ship, there is a strong Atv/~ = 0.02, so that value is used throughout the study.
convective effect that prevents any reflections at the borders The small spikes that can be observed in the force record are a

' ' i . . . . I . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i ' ' ' ' i . . . . i . . . . I . . . . i . . . . i ' ,

SWAN
2.0 - A3.~pV ........ r/L= 6. 2.0 - B ~ / p V ( g / L ) '~
......... r / L = 9.
r / L = 12.
",, m Exp. (Maruo)

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

Q//
0.5 0.5
, , i . . . . I . . . . i . . . . ~ . . . . i , , , , I . . . . i . . . . i . . . . I . . . . ] , .

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
o~(L/g)

Fig. 3 A d d e d mass a n d d a m p i n g coefficients for a Lewis hull in heave at zero speed for three domain sizes

]].6 JUNE ]998 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH

 3.0 i . . . . I . . . . I . . . . i ' ' 2.5 , , . . . . ~ . . . . ~ . . . . m ' ' '

SWAN
A33/p v ......... r/L= 5.
2.5 ! ,, ......... r/1_=9.
'~ r/L= 12. i B~pV(g/L) '~
D Exp. (Maruo)
2.0 =.
2.0
1,5
1.5
1.0
O

0,5
1.0
0.0 I , , i , I . . . . L . . . . m . . i . . . . q . . . . I . . . . i , ,

0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45

= Ucdg ~= U~g

Fig. 4 Added mass and d a m p i n g coefficients for a Lewis hull in heave at Fn = 0.1 and Fn = 0.2 for
three d o m a i n sizes

3.0 I'~I I . . . . I . . . . ] . . . . I ' ' I

I . . . . I

SWAN Ass/PVL2
AJpV ........ 2~ ~ s
2.5 ~ ................. 3700pImels - 0.15
\ - - 4290 panels

Exp. (Maruo)
2.0

0.10
..j
1.5 Fn=0.2

\ W
1.0 :
1 0.05

0.5 ~

0.0 t . . . . I . . . . I . . . . I . . ; 0 . 0 0 I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i

0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45

~=U~g 1:= Uco/g
2.5 . ~ . . . . ~ . . . . ~ . . . . , i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . .

BJpV(g/L) 1~ Bss/pV(gL)1~
,,',~ 0.10

2.0 Fn=0.2

!/':'~Fn=0.2
1.S / ~ ~ ~ " ~ m 0.05

o I

1.0
i .... i .... i .... i , , 0.00
0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 1.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
~= UoYg ~= Um/g

Fig. 5 Added mass and d a m p i n g coefficients for a Lewis hull in heave and pitch at Fn = 0.1 and Fn = 0.2 for
three grid densities

JUNE 1998 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH 117

result of the periodic application of the spatial filter. The spa- While there are two well defined peaks in the damping coeffi-
tial filter eliminates energy at short wavelengths, but also forces cients for both heave and pitch, neither of these occurs exactly
a temporary, impulsive error in the free surface near the ship. at T ---- . This is reasonable since theory indicates no reason
However, since the numerical method is neutrally stable, the to expect maximum damping at the critical frequency. There is
free surface quickly rebounds to its proper equilibrium condi- a sharp peak in the added mass coefficient for pitch radiation,
tion, and the error decays to insignificance within two to three but this does not represent an unbounded solution. The simu-
time steps. These error spikes only occur at isolated time steps lations did achieve steady state and the solution is converging
and are of no practical importance.
to a specific, finite value. This is also consistent with the pre-
Spatial convergence is illustrated in the heave and pitch diag-
dictions of Liu & Yue (1993). For certain physical problems,
onal added mass and damping coefficients of Fig. 5. The cross-
coupling coefficients were also convergent, but there were no an amplified, but strictly finite, peak in added mass can be ex-
experiments available for comparison so they are not shown in pected, while for other problems such as heave radiation there
this paper. The radiation forces are clearly converging for both may be no evident peak.
heave and pitch, although the convergence is poorest near the The convergence of the cross-coupling coefficients for the
critical frequency. At the critical frequency two factors made Lewis form at two speeds in heave and pitch show a clear cusp
convergence more difficult to obtain. First, both long wave- in Fig. 6. They also show some degree of symmetry which is
lengths, requiring a large domain size, and short wavelengths, consistent with the Timman-Newman (1962) relations. For the
requiring a fine grid resolution, were present. This diversity of damping coefficient this cusp is exactly at ~" = , which agrees
length scales in the wave pattern appears to be a feature of with the observation of Grue (1986) concerning radiation forces
the critical frequency. At the higher ship speed, F n = 0.2, this at the critical frequency for a submerged ellipsoid. In general,
factor became more pronounced. Also, since the short waves however, for a surface-piercing, three-dimensional ship, a cusp
were clustered near the bow and the stern of the ship, the
may not exist at T = as demonstrated both by the experimen-
pitch problem demonstrated the most sensitive convergence.
tal and the numerical results in this paper. Grue's argument
The second factor effecting convergence was the slow decay of
the ~- = transients in the time record. In order to achieve that there is a different physical interpretation if approaching
steady-state results, long time records were required. For the the formulation from above or below the critical frequency is
higher Froude number, as many as one hundred periods were valid, but its contribution to the total wave flow may not be
observed before transients became insignificant. These slowly significant for real ships. This is especially evident for the lower
decaying transients are consistent with the theory of Liu & speed where no cusp is visible, and in the diagonal heave added
Yue (1993). Although more delicate near the critical frequency, mass at the higher speed, where a small, insignificant oscillation
the method does converge and compare well with experiments. in the force can be seen near the critical frequency.

0.3.5 0
SWAN f
AsJPVL .

.......
. . . 2~opan=,
3700
0.3 42g0
panels
panels
-0.05
Fn= 0.1
0.25 -0.1

0.2 -0.15

0.15 -0.2

0.1 -0.25

0.05 -0.3 A~/pVL

, , I , , , , I ,
0 I i ' ' , i , ,
0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
~=UoYg ~=UoYg

0.1
Ss3/PVL(g/L)~
0

-0.1

-0.2
0.4

r
A Fn=0.2

-0.3
.2F F:0.x \

-0.4

-0.5
I . . . . I , , , , I . . . . i ,

0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45

~=U~/g '~=UoYg
Fig. 6 Cross-coupling added mass and damping coefficients for a Lewis form in heave and
pitch at F n ~ - 0.1 and F n - ~ 0.2 for three grid densities

118 JUNE 1998 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH

 7. D i s c u s s i o n
T h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of a linear, fully t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l , R a n k i n e
p a n e l m e t h o d t h r o u g h frequencies i n c l u d i n g 7- = a c c u r a t e l y
r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o n t i n u o u s f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e ship seakeeping
p r o b l e m . T h r o u g h n u m e r i c a l analysis, testing, a n d c o m p a r i -
son to e x p e r i m e n t s , this s t u d y d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e r e is a
b o u n d e d , physically r e l e v a n t s o l u t i o n to t h e linear p r o b l e m for
realistic ships. W h i l e t h e 7- = 1 s i m u l a t i o n does converge m o r e
slowly t h a n a t o t h e r frequencies, due to t h e presence of dis-
p a r a t e l e n g t h scales a n d m o r e p e r s i s t e n t t r a n s i e n t s , a n a c c u r a t e
s o l u t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d by t h i s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m e t h o d .
In p r a c t i c a l t e r m s , t h i s m e t h o d provides a equally valid, use-
ful s o l u t i o n a t forward speeds d o w n to t h e limit of zero s p e e d
a n d t h r o u g h T = to very low frequencies. It is only l i m i t e d
b y grid scale r e s o l u t i o n for s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s a n d b y d o m a i n
size for long wavelengths. However, t h e scope of t h e s e limita-
t i o n s is easily large e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s t h e significant e n e r g y
of all design sea states. B e y o n d t h e scope of this m e t h o d , sim-
ple a s y m p t o t i c solutions are valid. Yklrthermore, a l t h o u g h t h i s
s o l u t i o n h a s only b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d for t h e vertical m o t i o n s
of h e a v e a n d p i t c h for w h i c h e x p e r i m e n t s were available, t h e
m e t h o d h a s b e e n e x t e n d e d to t h e full six degrees of rigid b o d y
m o t i o n . T h e conclusions of t h i s p a p e r are also valid for t h e
h o r i z o n t a l modes.
T h e m e t h o d m a y b e equally valid for t h e p r o b l e m of ship sea-
keeping in shallow water, since t h e f u n d a m e n t a l physics r e m a i n
t h e same, b u t t h i s r e m a i n s to b e tested. T h e only significant
difference is t h a t t h e r e d u c e d frequency for critical b e h a v i o r
varies a c c o r d i n g t o t h e dispersion relation.
Acknowledgments
Special a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s h o u l d b e given to Professor P a u l
D. Sclavounos w h o h a s b e e n a c o n s t a n t source of advice a n d
g u i d a n c e d u r i n g t h i s work. T h i s a u t h o r is also g r a t e f u l for sup-
p o r t f r o m t h e Office of Naval Research, u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of
Dr. E d w i n R o o d , from t h e D a v i d Taylor M o d e l Basin, a n d from
D e t Norkse Veritas.
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