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The hearts function is to pump blood. The hearts of vertebrates consist of two
or more chambers. The main chambers are the atria and ventricles, which is further
divided in vertebrates with more than two chambers, to make up the left and right
atria and ventricles. The walls of the heart are made up of cardiac muscles. These
muscles contract spontaneously making up the heartbeat. The ventricles have
thicker muscles as they pump blood out of the heart to the rest of the body. The atria
on the other hand, receive blood from other parts of the body. For instance, the
unusual feature in a reptilian heart, they have the ability to control the amount of
blood going to the lungs and other parts of the body. Reptiles can bypass their blood
flow to the lungs and direct all their blood to the rest of their body when not breathing
(K.PURVES et al., 2004). This is possible with an additional aorta. This is of course
logical since theres no need for blood to go through the pulmonary circuit if theres
no breathing hence saving energy.
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Blood vessels also play a part in regulating blood flow. The major vessels are
the arteries, veins and capillaries. The arteries have the thickest walls to withstand
the high pressure of rapid flowing blood pumped out of the heart. The walls contain a
lot of elastic fibres and collagen for that specific function. Arteries and arterioles are
also known as resistance vessels as their resistance can vary (K.PURVES et al.,
2004). Smooth muscles in the arterial walls allows the vessels to be dilated or
constricted which then changes their resistance to blood flow and hence changes the
amount of blood that passes through. They also posses precapillary sphincters
(smooth muscle cuffs) which can block blood supply to the capillary bed. These
changes are controlled by neuronal and hormonal mechanisms.
Most arteries and arterioles are innervated by the autonomic nervous system,
especially the sympathetic division (K.PURVES et al., 2004). Norepinephrine are
released by most sympathetic neurone, which causes smooth muscle cells to
contract, constricting the vessels and hence reducing blood flow. Some specialized
sypathetic neurones in skeletal muscle however releases acetylcholine which does
the exact opposite to what norepinephrine does.Other hormones can also affect the
vessels such as epinephrine which is released during the fight-or-flight response,
angiotensin which is produced when blood pressure in the kidney falls and
vasopressin which is released by the posterior pituitary when blood pressure falls.
Hormone secretions can also be caused by changes in emotions. These hormones
affect the arterioles in the extremities or in tissues that do not need continuous
maintenance. They increase the central blood pressure and blood flow to important
organs , the heart, brain and kidneys.
The blood then goes back to the heart via the veins. Veins have a larger
lumen but a thinner wall compared to arteries. The large lumen allows larger
volumes of blood to flow back towards the heart. Furthermore, veins are the only
blood vessel that possesses valves. These valves are there to prevent the backflow
of blood and make sure that blood flow in one direction. Furthermore, veins have
thinner walls so they do not have adequate muscles, they then depend on
neighbouring muscles which helps to push blood upwards while doing movements
and even by breathing. As observed in the venules of the bat wing, peristaltic
contractions of the smooth muscle of venules (the vessel connecting capillaries and
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veins) can also help to promote venous flow towards the heart (RANDAL et al.,
2002).
To sum up, there are a lot of mechanisms at work to keep and control the
blood flow towards all the organs in a vertebrates body. A healthy body system could
sense if there was something in error (autoregulation) and produce a correcting
mechanism such as the negative feedback mechanism or by secreting hormones to
the desired area of the body and keep the blood pressure in check. The
cardiovascular system is an effective transport system for blood to reach every part
of the body. The highly branched vessels played a major role in regulating blood flow
as well. The heart keeps the motion going so without the heart theres no point in
having all these mechanisms as they will not work. The flow of blood toward organs
below the heart is also helped by the gravity force. On the other hand, the blood
flowing upwards is made possible with valves and movements of muscles around the
body. And lastly, these regulations are important to supply enough nutrients and
oxygen and remove waste products to and from cells to keep a vertebrate alive.
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
Bibliography
K.PURVES, William, David SADAVA, Gordon H. ORIANS, and H. Craig HELLER. 2004.
Circulatory systems. In: Sinauer ASSOCIATES, (ed). Life: The Science of Biology, U.S.A: W.
H. Freeman and Company, pp.940-960.
RANDAL, David, Warren BURGGREN, and Kathleen FRENCH. 2002. Circulation. In: Jason
NOE, Morgan RYAN, and Jane O'NEILL, (eds). Eckert Animal Physiology Mechanisms and
Adaptations, New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, pp.473-522.
Essay Contents:
1. Essay on the Blood and Its Composition in Humans
2. Essay on the Blood Plasma
3. Essay on the Blood Cells in Humans
4. Essay on the Coagulation of Blood in Humans
5. Essay on the Functions of Blood in Humans
6. Essay on the Blood Groups
Composition of Blood:
Blood is composed of two components:
1. Blood Plasma:
A fluid which forms about 55% of the total volume of blood.
2. Blood Cells:
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Which are floating freely in the blood plasma. The amount is about
45% of the total volume of blood.
1. Water-90 to 92%
2. Solid substances 8 to 10%
Solid substance of blood plasma include the following
material:
(a) Protein 7.0%:
The important plasma proteins are Albumin (4.7 5.7%), Globulin
(1.3 2.5%), Fibrinogen (0.2 0.4%), Prothrombin (0.1 -1.0)
(d) Fat:
Phospholipids, natural fat, cholesterol etc.
(2) Many special substances are carried which combines with the
albumin.
Fibrinogen:
The amount of fibrinogen in blood plasma is about 0.2 0.4%. It is
essential for clotting of blood during which fibrinogen is converted
to fibrin.
Prothrombin:
0.1% of prothrombin are present in Blood plasma. They act as blood
clotting factor. Vitamin K helps in the formation of prothrombin in
the liver.
1. Erythrocytes:
The erythrocytes are minute circular discs, both sides of which are
concave. The central part of the cell is thinner than the
circumference. Each cubic millimeter of blood contains five millions
of red blood cells. They are so small that if placed flat edge to edge,
about 10 millions of R.B.C. can be kept in one square inch.
Composition of Erythrocytes:
It is composed of 65% water, 35% solids of which 33% is
haemoglobin bound with 2% of protein, phospholipids, cholesterol,
neutral fat and organic substances.
Structure of Erythrocytes:
The red blood cells resemble a sponge. They consists of an outer
elastic envelop which encloses a red pigment called haemoglobin.
R.B.C is covered by a very thin plasma membrane made up of lipid
and protein complex. Mature erythrocytes do not have any nucleus.
The red cells need protein and iron for their structure. So a
balanced diet containing some iron is necessary for the replacement
of R.B.C.
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The normal life span of R.B.C is about 120 days, then they are
destroyed. These cells are disintegrated in the spleen and liver. The
globin of the haemoglobin is broken down into amino acids to be
used as protein in the tissues.
The iron in the haem is removed for the formation of new R.B.C.
The rest of the haem is converted into bilirubin, an yellow pigment
and biliverdin, a green pigment. During severe bleeding, red-cells
with haemoglobin are lost. In moderate hemorrhage these red cells
are replaced when balanced diet is taken.
Functions of Erythrocytes:
1. Erythrocytes have respiratory function. Haemoglobin of R. B. C.
attracts oxygen from the air sacs and converted into oxy-
haemoglobin in the lungs. So that the blood is purified. Thus Red
cells supply oxygen to the tissues and cells remove the waste
product like carbon dioxide.
Haemoglobin:
Haemoglobin is the red pigment present in Red blood cells. It is a
complex protein rich in iron. It is consisting of two parts 96% of
globin, a protein substance and 4% of Hoem, an iron containing
pigment. Haemoglobin is synthesized inside the redcells in the bone
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Functions of Haemoglobin:
1. It is essential for oxygen carriage.
4. Various pigments of bile, stool urine etc. are formed from it.
Anaemia:
Anaemia is a condition in which there is a reduction in the total
circulating haemoglobin. In some severe forms of Anaemia, the
haemoglobin level may fall below 30% that is 5gms per 100 ml.
Deficiency of R.B.C. in blood causes anaemia.
Causes of Anaemia:
Causes of Anaemia are:
1. Excessive Blood loss due to hemorrhage, delivery, menstruation
etc.
i. Hypochromic Anaemia:
This is also known as iron deficiency anaemia. Iron deficiency
follows a specific sequence. First the iron reserves drop to lower
levels. At the last stage, there is no iron reserves and plasma iron
continue to fall and the cells are pale and reduced in size.
2. Leucocytes:
Leucocytes are transparent, colourless and irregular is shape.
Nucleus is present in white blood cells. The cells are larger in size
and fewer in number than erythrocytes. The size of W.B.C. varies
from 8 to 15 microns. Each cubic millimeter of blood contains 6000
-10000 of white cells with an average of 8000. The ratio of WBC
and R.B.C. is 1:500 or 600 i.e. for one W.B.C., there are 500 or 600
RBC.
White Blood cells are constantly changing their shape and thus
resemble a minute microscopic animal amoeba found in pond
water. By means of these movements they are capable of moving
from one place to another and even if come out through the thin
walls of the smallest blood vessels. They are able to take up the
foreign particle, disease germs etc. and protect the body.
Types of Leucocytes:
The leucocytes are broadly classified into two categories:
A. Granulocytes or granular leucocytes.
A. Granulocytes:
These are also known as polymer pronuclear Leucocytes. All types
of granulocytes are formed and stored in the bone marrow until
they are required in the circulatory system. The cytoplasm of these
cells contains specific granules and the nucleus is divided into many
lobes. They form almost 70% of the total white cell count.
(iii) Basophils:
These cells take the basic dyes and stain blue. The number of these
cells is 1% in the blood. The nucleus is lobed and S shaped in these
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(ii) Lymphocytes:
They form about 25% of the total white cells count. They are smaller
than monocytes but larger than R.B.C. They have a large nucleus.
These cells are developed in the lymph glands, the spleen, liver,
lymphatic tissues and bone marrow. They have no power of
amoeboid movement. They do not ingest bacteria but make valuable
antibodies to protect the body against chronic infection and
maintaining the immunity power.
Functions of Leucocytes:
i. Phagocytosis:
The granulocytes and monocytes play an important role in
protecting the body from microorganisms. They ingest foreign
particles and living bacteria from the blood. This action of W.B.C. is
called phagocytic action (Phago -I eat) or phagocytosis. By their
power of amoeboid movement they can move freely in the blood
vessels take in living organisms and destroy them.
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
v. Manufacture of Trephones:
Leucocytes manufacture a substance called trephone from plasma
protein which have great influence on the nutrition, growth and
repair of tissues.
Functions:
i. Blood Clotting:
Clotting or coagulation of blood is the main function of Blood
platelets. At the time of bleeding the platelets disintegrate and
liberate thromboplastin which converts prothrombin into thrombin.
When thrombin is combined with fibrinogen, fibrin results and
there is clotting of blood.
These threads entangle the blood cells and form the clot together
with them. Thrombin is not present in normal unshed blood but its
precursor pro-thrombin is present and is converted into the active
ferment thrombin by the action of thrombokinase.
Blood does not clot under normal condition inside blood vessels.
When there is a rupture in a blood vessel the blood comes in contact
with the damaged epithelial tissues and collagen fibers. The
procoagulants become active and then the blood clot develops.
4. Addition of thrombin.
5. Addition of thromboplastin.
5. Precipitation of fibrinogen.
2. Transport of Nutrients:
It carries nutrients to the different tissues and cells which are
required for the nourishment of the body, so that the normal
functions are performed.
Blood maintains water balance of the body and ion balance between
the cells and the surrounding fluids.
1. A Blood Group:
A antigen on the surface of RBC and B antibody in plasma. Group
A is subdivided into A1 and A2.
2. B Blood Group:
B antigens on the surface of RBC and A antibody in plasma.
3. AB Blood Group:
Both A and B antigen on the surface of RBC and no antibodies in
plasma. Group AB is subdivided into A1B and A2B.
4. O Blood Group:
Both A and B antigens are absent on the surface of RBC but both A
and B antibodies are present in plasma. Besides these groups thirty
different types of blood groups have been reported to be present in
man now-a-days. But this ABO group and RH group of antigens are
responsible for the transfusion reaction in the body.
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
Donors of Blood:
Group AB may give blood to AB
Group A to A and AB
Group B to B and AB
Recipients of Blood:
Group AB is a universal Recipient
The terms universal donors and universal recipients are not always
applicable, as Rh blood group also plays an important role in
transfusion reaction. So it is safe to transfuse blood of the same
group. Group A and B can give blood to their own groups and also
to AB group and can take blood from their own group and from the
Group O. Other combinations are not compatible. Before blood
transfusion, it is necessary to take precautions of testing the serum
of the recipient against the RBC of the donor to confirm that the
mixture is compatible.
Rh Factor:
In the year 1940 Landsteiner and Weiner discovered a type of
antigen on the surface of RBC of Rhesus monkey. They discovered
the same antigen on the red cells of 85% of human being. They
named this antigen as Rhesus factor or Rh factor. This can be
divided into two groups. Persons with Rh factor are known as Rh-
positive (85%) and without this factor are called Rh-negative (15%).
This disease of the foetus and the new born infants is known
as Erythroblastosis Fetalis. These disastrous consequences do
not occur in every case of mother child Rh incompatibility. First
born children are not usually affected because it takes certain time
for the mother to develop anti Rh-antibodies but in subsequent
pregnancies these Rh-antibodies may cause transfusion reaction
like abortion and death also. It is observed that Erythroblastosis
occurs only in about one out of every 200 pregnancies. The
incompatibility between the blood of mother and the child is caused
by the irritancy of the Rh factor.
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
Blood has three main functions in the human body. These are: Transport of substances (like
respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide; digested food or nutrients; waste products;
hormones; enzymes and ions) from one part of the body to the other, Protection against disease,
and Regulation of body temperature. We can now say that: The important functions of blood in
our body are as follows:
1. Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to different parts of the body.
2. Blood carries carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for breathing out.
3. Blood carries digested food from the small intestine to all the parts of the body.
4. Blood carries hormones from the endocrine glands to different organs of the body (where they
are needed).
5. Blood carries a waste product called urea from the liver to the kidneys for excretion in urine.
6. Blood protects the body from diseases. This is because white blood cells kill the bacteria and
other germs which cause diseases.
7. Blood regulates the body temperature. This is because the blood capillaries in our skin help to
keep our body temperature constant at about 37C.
Transport in Humans :
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
The main transport system in human beings (or man) is the 'blood circulatory system' (which is
sometimes called just 'circulatory system' for the sake of convenience). In the human circulatory
system, blood carries oxygen, digested food and other chemicals like hormones and enzymes to
all the parts of the body.
It also takes away the waste products (or excretory products) like carbon dioxide and urea
produced in the body cells. The human blood circulatory system consists of the heart (the organ
which pumps and receives the blood) and the blood vessels (or tubes) through which the blood
flows in the body. In blood circulatory system, the blood flows through three types of blood
vessels:
(i) arteries,
(iii) capillaries.
The blood vessels of the circulatory system are present in each and every part of the human body
due to which the blood reaches all the parts of the body.
In addition to the blood circulatory system for the transport in human beings, there is another
system called lymphatic system which also helps in the transport of materials in the human body.
The liquid which circulates and carries materials in the lymphatic system is called lymph. Thus,
in human beings, the various substances are transported through two liquids called 'blood' and
'lymph'. We will first describe the blood circulatory system which is the main transport system in
humans.
Blood is a fluid substance that circulates in the arteries and veins of the body. Blood is bright
red or scarlet when it has been oxygenated in the lungs and passes into the arteries; it
becomes bluish red when it has given up its oxygen to nourish the tissues of the body and is
returning to the lungs through the veins and the tiny vessels called capillaries. In the lungs,
the blood gives up the carbon dioxide wastes it has taken from the tissues, receives a new
supply of oxygen, and begins a new cycle. This movement of blood is brought about by the
coordinate activity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels.
Blood performs many functions essential to life and often can reveal much about our
state of health. Blood is a connective tissue that consists of cells and cell fragments
surrounded by a liquid matrix. Cells of the blood are formed elements. Plasma is the
liquid substance in the blood. Plasma accounts for slightly one-half of the total blood
volume. The average adult female has a blood volume of four to five liters. The
average male has five to six liters. Blood makes up about eight percent of the total
body weight.
We can write a custom term paper on Blood for you!
Plasma is the pale yellow fluid that consist of about ninety-two percent water and
eight percent substances such as protein, ion nutrients, gases, and waste products.
Plasma accounts for slightly one-half of the blood's volume. Proteins in the plasma are
albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. Albumin makes up about sixty percent of the
plasma proteins. Globulin is part of the immune system and function to transport
molecules. Fibrinogen makes up four percent of the plasma and is responsible for
blood clotting.
Erythrocytes are disk-shaped cells with edges that are thicker than the center of the
cell. During development, they lose all their nuclei and most of their organelles; so
they are unable to divide. They live for about one hundred and twenty days in males
and one hundred and ten days in females. The main component of an erythrocyte is
the pigmented protein hemoglobin. Hemoglobin accounts for one-third of the cell's
volume and is responsible for its red color. Erythrocytes function to transport oxygen
from the lungs to...
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Introduction
Anticoagulants are medicines that help
prevent blood clots. They're given to people
at a high risk of getting clots, to reduce their
chances of developing serious conditions
such as strokes and heart attacks.
A blood clot is a seal created by the blood to stop
bleeding from wounds. While they're useful in
stopping bleeding, they can block blood vessels
and stop blood flowing to organs such as the
brain, heart or lungs if they form in the wrong
place.
Anticoagulants work by interrupting the process
involved in the formation of blood clots. They're
Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
Types of anticoagulants
The most commonly
prescribed anticoagulant is warfarin.
Newer types of anticoagulants are also available
and are becoming increasingly common. These
include:
rivaroxaban (Xarelto)
dabigatran (Pradaxa)
apixaban (Eliquis)
edoxaban (Lixiana)
Warfarin and the newer alternatives are taken as
tablets or capsules. There's also an anticoagulant
called heparin that can be given by injection.