Lecture 18: Unloading Behavior and

Plastic Instability
Jayadeep U. B.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NIT Calicut.
 Introduction
In uniaxial loading, unloading means a reduction in axial stress.
However, in a triaxial state of stress which is undergoing an
arbitrary change, it is not trivial to decide if the stress increment
is loading or unloading. We will come across an additional
terminology called neutral loading.
It is important to make this distinction as the material behavior is
very much different for loading and unloading.
The later half of this lecture is on instability associated with plastic
deformation, which includes:
Elasto-plastic buckling of columns
Instability in uniaxial tension
Instability of thin-walled pressure vessels under internal pressure
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 Unloading Behavior
Unloading or loading use the same set of equations in elastic case, and
hence is not a significant concern.
In most of the elasto-plastic problems, it can be assumed that the
unloading is completely elastic.
In case of uniaxial loading, unloading is easily recognized by a reduction
in the axial stress.
However, detecting whether loading or unloading has happened is not
trivial in a triaxial state of stress.
It is to be recalled that only two possible conditions for the material
point are either elastic if the state of stress falls inside the yield locus, or
plastic (elasto-plastic in case of strain hardening materials) if the state of
stress falls on yield locus.
Hence, unloading means that the state of stress changes from being on
the yield locus to its interior.
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 Plastic Loading and Unloading
In an actual plastic deformation situation, we have three possible
situations:
Loading, if the yield locus is expanding (not possible in case of non-
hardening materials).
Unloading, if the state of stress is shifting from the yield locus to its
interior (elastic region).
Neutral loading, if the state of stress is shifting on the same yield
locus (progressive plastic deformation for non-hardening materials).
f
Yield criterion: f ( ij ) = c; df = d ij
ij
Loading: f = c and df > 0
Unloading: f = c and df < 0
Neutral Loading: f = c and df = 0 (also loading in non-hardening cases)
4
Elastic Deformation: f < c
 Complete Stress Strain Relations
Based on these, the complete stress-strain relations for both
hardening and non-hardening materials can be written as follows:
d ij f d ij f
d ij =
+ d = +h df , for f = c & df 0
2G ij 2G ij
d ij
d ij = , for f < c OR f = c & df < 0
2G

d ii =
(1 2 )
d ii , everywhere
E
First equation includes loading and neutral loading from a yield
surface. Hence, deviatoric strain has elastic and plastic parts.
Second equation includes purely elastic deformation and
unloading. Hence, deviatoric strain has only elastic part.
5 Isotropic part of strain is always elastic (third equation).
 Pragers Consistency Condition
To determine the unknown scalar d, we need to use Pragers
consistency condition.
In this case, we assume the yield function to include the plastic
strains also, and hence df must be 0 at yield:
f f
f f ( ij , ) = c df =
p
d ij + p d ijp = 0
ij ij
ij

The consistency condition closes the set of equations, and the

system becomes solvable, at least in theory.
The consistency condition (in a slightly different form, called
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions or KKT conditions), becomes
very important in the large deformation theory.
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 Elasto-plastic Buckling
When a slender column (say, with pinned ends) undergo axial
compression, buckling instability occurs when the load reaches a
critical value (called Euler buckling load, Pcr = 2 EI L2 ).
The formula can be generalized for other end conditions, and
buckling occurs for many other geometric shapes also (we will not
pursue these matters here).
The axial stress in the column at buckling can be calculated by
dividing the critical load with the area of cross section: cr = Pcr A
If the column is sufficiently slender, the axial stress is below the
yield strength of the material, and buckling is purely elastic.
Otherwise, yielding happens before buckling, and Euler buckling
theory is not directly applicable.
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 Tangent Modulus Formula
The instability occurs at the final increment just before buckling.
The applicable modulus for this incremental stress can be
considered to be the corresponding tangent modulus.
The first suggestion to improve the Euler buckling formula was to
use this tangent modulus instead of Youngs modulus: Pcr = 2 Et I L2
If buckling occurs at a constant load, above formula is incorrect as
some parts (with tensile bending stresses) unload, and hence the
tangent modulus is not applicable.
However, if buckling occurs under increasing load, which usually
is the experimental condition, tangent modulus formula can be
used.
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 Double Modulus Formula
Buckling load is determined by determining the neutral stability
condition for which a bent configurations very close to the
straight configuration is in equilibrium.
If buckling occurs at constant load, the parts having tensile
bending stress have reduced compressive stress, which effectively
means an unloading for those parts.
Since unloading is entirely elastic, the applicable modulus in this
case is Youngs modulus.
Therefore, the column behaves as if it has two moduli: tangent
modulus for regions with compressive bending stress and Youngs
modulus for regions with tensile bending stress.
An effective modulus, called double modulus can be formulated, for
use in Euler buckling load formula (Self Study).
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 Comparison of the Two Formulae
Both the above formulae, and
Euler formula are the same for
elastic buckling.
For elasto-plastic buckling, both
these formula predict critical
loads less than that by Euler
formula.
Tangent modulus is always less
than the double modulus, and
hence is more conservative.
Experimental values generally lie
between these two limits.
Except for very short columns,
tangent modulus gives better
agreement with experiments.
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 Plastic Instability in Uniaxial Tension
In case of non-hardening materials, uniaxial tensile test specimen
becomes unstable on reaching the yield point.
In hardening materials, the material hardens on loading beyond yield
point, while the area reduces at the same time. Both these have
opposing effects as far as the loading is concerned.
Initially, the effect of rate of strain hardening is higher than that of
reduction in area resulting in an increase in the load.
With increase in plastic strain, the rate of hardening reduces, but the
rate of reduction in area increases.
Hence, there exists a maximum tension that can be applied, at which
the uniaxial state of stress to becomes unstable.
Necking occurs, with a strain localization and unloading in other parts.
A load-controlled experiment becomes unstable at this load.
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 Plastic Instability in Thin-walled Shells
When a thin-walled shell is loaded in external pressure or axial
compression, it buckles on reaching a critical load.
However, here we are concerned with the plastic instability
occurring for internal pressure. This decides the maximum
internal pressure that can be applied.
Such a shell if it is sufficiently thin is in a state of biaxial
tension (plane stress).
In cylindrical shells, hoop stress is double that of axial stress, and
hence well-defined principal directions (axial & hoop) exist.
In spherical shells, any direction in a plane tangential to the shell is
a principal direction, and hence is equivalent to uniaxial loading.

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 Plastic Instability in Thin-walled Shells
contd.
pr pr
In a cylindrical shell: 1 = , 2 = = 0.5 1 , 3 0
t 2t
pr
For a spherical shell: 1 = = 2 , 3 0
2t

In general, 2 = x 1 , 3 = 0
d 1 d 2 d 3
Levy-Mises equations become: = =
2 x 2x 1 1+ x
Effective stress and strain:
2
= 1 1 x + x & d = d 1
2
1 x + x2
(2 x)
Combining all equations, we have in the integrated form:
1 2 3
= = =
2 1 x + x2 2 x 2x 1 1 + x
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 Plastic Instability in Thin-walled Shells
contd.
d 1 d 2 dr dt
At the instability, dp = 0 = = = d 1 d 3
1 2 r t

dr/r is the incremental hoop strain d1 and dt/t is the strain in

thickness direction d3.
Knowing the relation between and , we can evaluate d/d.
Hence, we can get the stresses (and pressure) corresponding to
the instability.
For example, assume a specific material model, = A ( B + )
n

( )
The generalized (effective) strain at instability is = n 3 B
It may be noted that unlike uniaxial tension the strain (or
deformation) does not become localized at maximum pressure.
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 References
Chakrabarty, J., Theory of plasticity, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hill, R., The mathematical theory of plasticity, Oxford University
Press.
Johnson ,W. and Mellor, P.B., Plasticity for Mechanical
Engineers, van Nostrand Company Ltd.

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