ANSI/AGMA 2004---B89

(Revision of AGMA 240.01)

January 1989
Reaffirmed October 1995

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Gear Materials And Heat Treatment Manual

AGMA 2004---B89
(Revision of AGMA 240.01)

[Tables or other self---supporting sections may be quoted or extracted in their entirety. Credit lines should
read: Extracted from AGMA 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual, with the permission of the
publisher, the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia
22314.]
AGMA Standards are subject to constant improvement, revision or withdrawal as dictated by experience.
Any person who refers to an AGMA Technical Publication should be sure that the publication is the latest avail-
able from the Association on the subject matter.

ABSTRACT

The Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual provides information pertaining to engineering materials
and material treatments used in gear manufacture. Topics included are definitions, selection guidelines, heat
treatment, quality control, life considerations and a bibliography. The material selection includes ferrous, non-
ferrous and nonmetallic materials. Wrought, cast, and fabricated gear blanks are considered. The heat treat-
ment section includes data on through hardened, flame hardened, induction hardened, carburized, carboni-
trided, and nitrided gears. Quenching, distortion, and shot peening are discussed. Quality control is discussed as
related to gear blanks, process control, and metallurgical testing on the final products.

Copyright E, 1989
Reaffirmed October 1995

American Gear Manufacturers Association

1500 King Street, Suite 201
Alexandria, Virginia 22314

February 1989

ISBN: 1---55589---524---7

ANSI/AGMA ii 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

FOREWORD

[The foreword, footnotes, and appendices, if any, are provided for informational purposes only and should
not be construed as part of AGMA Standard 2004---B89 (Formerly 240.01), Gear Materials and Heat Treatment
Manual.]
The Standard provides a broad range of information on gear materials and their heat treatment. It is in-
tended to assist the designer, process engineer, manufacturer and heat treater in the selection and processing of
materials for gearing. Data contained herein represents a consensus from metallurgical representatives of mem-
ber companies of AGMA.
This Standard replaces AGMA 240.01, October 1972. The first draft of AGMA 240.01, Gear Materials
Manual, was prepared in October 1966. It was approved by the AGMA membership in March 1972. Reprinting
of AGMA 240.01 for distribution was discontinued in 1982 because it had been decided in 1979 by the Metallur-
gy and Materials Committee to revise its format. The initial draft of AGMA 2004---B89 (formerly 240.01) was
completed in April, 1983. Work continued on the Standard with numerous additional revised drafts within the
Metallurgy and Materials Committee until it was balloted in 1988. It was completed and approved by the
AGMA Technical Division Executive Committee in September 1988 and on January 23, 1989 it was approved as
an American National Standard.
Suggestions for the improvement of this standard will be welcome. They should be sent to the American
Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314.

ANSI/AGMA iii 2004---B89

 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
PERSONNEL of the AGMA Committee for Metallurgy And Materials
Chairman: L. E. Arnold (Xtek, Inc.)
Vice Chairman: G. J. Wiskow (Falk)
ACTIVE MEMBERS
M. Abney (Fairfield Manufacturing)
R. J. Andreini (Earle M. Jorgensen)
E. S. Berndt (C and M of Indiana)
J. Bonnet (WesTech)
N. K. Burrell (Metal Improvement Co. Inc.)
R. J. Cunningham (Boeing)
P. W. Early, Jr. (Gleason)
A. Giammarise (General Electric)
J. P. Horvath (G. M. Chevrolet --- Muncie)
J. Bruce Kelly (General Motors)
D. R. McVittie (The Gear Works --- Seattle)
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
T. Bergquist (Western Gear)
J. D. Black (General Motors)
E. R. Carrigan (Emerson Electric)
P. E. Cary (Metal Finishing)
H. B. Gayley (IMO Delaval)
J. F. Craig (Cummins Engine)
T. C. Glew (Prager)
D. K. Guttshall (IMO Delaval)
W. H. Heller (Peerless Winsmith)
D. L. Hillman (Westinghouse, Air Brake)
B. A. Hoffmann (Dresser)
L. D. Houck (Mack Trucks)
A. J. Lemanski (Sikorsky)
ANSI/AGMA
N. P. Milano (Regal Beloit Corporation)
A. G. Milburn (The Gear Works --- Seattle)
P. Rivart (CLECIM)
R. H. Shapiro (Arrow Gear)
W. L. Shoulders (Reliance Electric) (Deceased)
M. Starozhitsky (Outboard Marine)
A. A. Swiglo (IPSEN)
S. Tipton (Caterpillar)
D. Vukovich (Eaton)
L. L. Witte (General Motors)
R. L. Leslie (SPECO Corporation)
B. L. Mumford (Alten Foundry)
G. E. Olson (Cleveland)
J. R. Partridge (Lufkin)
E. M. Rickt (Auburn Gear)
H. I. Sanderow (Supermet)
R. L. Schwettman (Xtek, Inc.)
L. J. Smith (Invincible Gear)
Y. Sueyoshi (Tsubakimoto Chain)
M. Tanaka (Nippon Gear)
R. E. Vaglia (Farrel Connecticut)
T. L. Winterrowd (Cummins Engine)
iv 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table of Contents
Section Title Page
1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. References and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Information Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Materials Selection Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Grade and Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Dimensional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5 Cost and Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.6 Hardenability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.7 Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.8 Ferrous Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.9 Selection Criteria for Wrought, Cast, or Fabricated Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.10 Copper Base Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.11 Other Non---Ferrous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.12 Non---Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1 Through Hardening Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Flame and Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.3 Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Carbonitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6 Other Heat Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.7 Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.8 Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.9 Shot Peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.10 Residual Stress Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6. Metallurgical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.1 Incoming Material Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2 Incoming Material Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Incoming Material Mechanical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.4 Heat Treat Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.5 Part Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.6 Metallurgical, Mechanical and Non---Destructive Tests and Inspections . . . . . . . . 56
6.7 Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.8 Mechanical Property Test Bar Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

ANSI/AGMA v 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table of Contents
Section Title Page
Appendices
Appendix A Plastic Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Appendix B Approximate Maximum Controlling Section Size Considerations for
Through Hardened Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Appendix C Case Hardenability of Carburizing Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Appendix D Service Life Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Tables
Table 4---1 Typical Gear Materials --- Wrought Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 4---2 Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Annealed,
Normalized & Tempered Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 4---3 Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Quenched
and Tempered Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 4---4 Machinability of Common Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 4---5 Mechanical Property Requirements --- Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved
Steel Bars (Special Cold Drawn, High Tensile) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 4---6 Typical Chemical Analyses for Though Hardened Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 4---7 Tensile Properties of Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 4---8 Minimum Hardness and Tensile Strength Requirements for Gray Cast Iron . . . 16
Table 4---9 Mechanical Properties of Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 4---10 Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 4---11 Typical Mechanical Properties of Wrought Bronze Alloy Rod and Bar . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 4---12 Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 4---13 Mechanical Properties of Cast Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Table 5---1 Test Bar Size for Core Hardness Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Table 5---2 Typical Effective Case Depth Specifications for Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 5---3 Approximate Minimum Core Hardness of Carburized Gear Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 5---4 Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness --- Nitrided Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 5---5 Commonly Used Quenchants for Ferrous Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 5---6 Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot Peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

ANSI/AGMA vi 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table of Contents
Section Title Page
Figures
Fig 4---1 Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig 4---2 Directionality of Forging Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Fig 5---1 Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on

Gear Teeth by Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig 5---2 Variations in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on
Gear Teeth by Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig 5---3 Recommended Maximum Surface Hardness and Effective Case Depth
Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening . . . . . . . 33
Fig 5---4 General Design Guidelines for Blanks for Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig 5---5 Typical Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig 5---6 Shot Peening Intensity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig 5---7 Residual Stress by Peening 1045 Steel at 62 HRC with 330 Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig 5---8 Depth of Compressive Stress Versus Almen Intensity for Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Fig 6---1 Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Fig 6---2 Coil Shot Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig 6---3 Ultrasonic Inspection Oscilloscope Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig 6---4 Distance---Amplitude Reference Line for Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

ANSI/AGMA vii 2004---B89

 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

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ANSI/AGMA viii 2004---B89

 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
1. Scope
This Manual was developed to provide basic in-
formation and recommend sources of additional in-
formation pertaining to gear materials, their treat-
ments, and other considerations related to the
manufacture and use of gearing.
Metallurgical aspects of gearing as related to rat-
ing (allowable sac and sat values) are not included,
but, are covered in AGMA rating standards.
2. References and Information
2.1 References.
Abbreviations are used in the references to spe-
cific documents in this Standard. The abbreviations
include: AGMA, American Gear Manufacturers
Association; ASNT, American Society of Nonde-
structive Testing; ASTM, American Society for Test-
ing Materials; SAE, Society of Automotive Engi-
neers.
The following documents contain provisions
which, through reference in this Standard, constitute
provisions of this document. At the time of publica-
tion, the editions were valid. All publications are sub-
ject to revision, and the users of this Standard are en-
couraged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent editions of the publications listed.
AGMA 141.01---1984, Plastics Gearing ---
Molded, Machined, And Other Methods, A Report on
the State of the Art
AGMA 2001---B88, Fundamental Rating Factors
and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and Helical
Gear Teeth
AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propul-
sion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials
ANSI/AGMA 6034---A88, Practice for Single and
Double Reduction Cylindrical ---Worm and Helical ---
Worm Speed Reducers
ASNT---TC---1A (June 80), Recommended Prac-
tice by American Society for Nondestructive Testing
ASTM A48---83, Specification for Gray Iron Cast-
ings
ASTM A148---84, Steel Castings, High
Strength, for Structural Purposes
ASTM A220---76, Specification for Pearlitic Mal-
leable Iron Castings
ASTM A255---67, Method for End---Quench Test
for Hardenability of Steel
ANSI/AGMA
ASTM A290---82, Carbon and Alloy Steel Forg-
ings for Rings for Reduction Gears
ASTM A310---77, Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
ASTM A311---79, Specification for Stress Relieved
Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Bars Subject to Mechanical
Property Requirements
ASTM A356---84, Heavy---Walled Carbon, Low
Alloy, and Stainless Steel Castings for Steam Turbines
ASTM A370---77, Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
ASTM 388---80, Recommended Practice for Ul-
trasonic Examination of Heavy Steel Forgings
ASTM A400---69(1982), Recommended Practice
for Selection of Steel Bar Compositions According to
Section
ASTM A534---87, Standard Specification for Car-
burizing Steels for Anti---Friction Bearings
ASTM A535---85, Standard Specification for Spe-
cial ---Quality Ball and Roller Bearing Steel
ASTM A536---80, Specification for Ductile Iron
Castings
ASTM A833---84, Indentation Hardness of Metal-
lic Materials by Comparison Hardness Testers
ASTM A609---83, Specification for Steel Castings,
Carbon and Low Alloy Ultrasonic Examinations
Thereof
ASTM B427---82, Specification for Gear Bronze
Alloy Castings
ASTM B505---84, Specification for Copper---Base
Alloy Continuous Castings
ASTM E8---83, Methods of Tension Testing of Me-
tallic Materials
ASTM E10---78, Test Method for Brinell Hardness
of Metallic Materials
ASTM E18---79, Test Methods for Rockwell Hard-
ness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic
Materials
ASTM E54---80, Method for Chemical Analysis of
Special Brasses and Bronzes
ASTM E112---84, Methods for Determining Aver-
age Grain Size
SAE J434---June 86, Automotive Ductile (Nodu-
lar) Iron Castings
SAE J461---Sept 81, Wrought and Cast Copper
Alloys
SAE J462---Sept 81, Cast Copper Alloys
1 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
SAE J463---Sept 81, Wrought Copper and Copper
Alloys
SAE J808a---SAE HS 84, Manual on Shot Peen-
ing
MIL---S---13165 B (31 Dec 66 Amendment 2---25
June 79), Shot Peening of Metal Parts
MIL---STD---271F, Requirements for Nondestruc-
tive Testing Methods
ASTM E709---80, Magnetic Particle Examination
ASTM E125, Reference Photographs for Magnet-
ic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM E186---8, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Heavy Walled (2 to 4 1/2 inch)(51 to 114
mm) Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Heavy Walled (4 1/2 to 12 inch)(114 to 305
mm) Steel Castings
ASTM E399---83, Test Method for Plain ---Strain
Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials
ASTM E446---81, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in
Thickness
ANSI/SAE AMS 2300 F, Magnetic Particle In-
spection, Premium Aircraft ---Quality Steel Cleanliness
ANSI/SAE AMS 3201 G, Magnetic Particle In-
spection, Aircraft ---Quality Steel Cleanliness
2.2 Information Sources.
Design of gears is concerned with the selection
of materials and metallurgical processing. This
Manual cannot substitute for metallurgical exper-
tise, but is intended to be a basic tool to assist in the
selection and metallurgical processing of gear mate-
rials. The material information and metallurgical
processes contained herein are based on established
data and practices which can be found in the ap-
propriate publications. It is necessary that the de-
signer use a source of metallurgical knowledge of ma-
terials and processing.
Material specifications are issued by agencies,
including the government, large industrial users, and
technical societies, some of whom are:
ASM International
ASM Metals Handbooks
ASM Heat Treaters Guide
ASM Metals Reference Book
ASM Standard
ANSI/AGMA
American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM Standards
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
SAE Handbook
American Iron and Steel Institute
AISI Steel Products Manuals
American National Standards Institute
ANSI Standards
Naval Publications and Forms Center
Military Standards and Specifications
Metal Powder Industries Federation
MPIF Standard 35
Copper Development Association
CDA Data books
Iron Castings Society
Gray and Ductile Iron Castings Handbook
Steel Founders Society
Steel Castings Handbook
3. Definitions
Annealing --- Full. Full annealing consists of
heating steel or other ferrous alloys to 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C) and furnace cooling to a prescribed
temperature, generally below 600_F (316_C). This
treatment forms coarse lamellar pearlite, the best
microstructure for machinability of low and medium
carbon steels. Unless otherwise stated, annealing is
assumed to mean full annealing.
Annealing --- Spheroidizing. Spheroidize
annealing is a process of heating and cooling steel
that produces a globular carbide in a ferritic matrix.
This heat treatment results in the best machinability
for high carbon (0.60 percent carbon or higher) and
alloy steels.
Austempering. Austempering is a heat treat pro-
cess consisting of quenching a ferrous alloy (steel or
ductile iron) from a temperature above the trans-
formation range in a medium having a rate of cooling
sufficiently high to prevent high temperature trans-
formation products, and maintaining the alloy tem-
perature within the bainitic range until desired trans-
formation is obtained. The bainitic transformation
range is below the pearlitic range, but above the mar-
tensitic range. Austempering is applied to steels and,
more recently in the development stage for ductile
iron gearing (refer to 4.8.4.3).
Austenite. Austenite in ferrous alloys is a micro-
structural phase consisting of a solid solution of car-
bon and alloying elements in face---centered cubic
crystal structured iron.
2 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Austenitizing Temperature. The temperature at
which ferrous alloys undergo a complete microstruc-
tural phase transformation to austenite.
Bainite. Bainite is a microstructural phase re-
sulting from the transformation of austenite, and
consists of an aggregate of ferrite and iron carbide.
Its appearance is feathery if formed in the upper por-
tion of the bainite transformation range, and acicular
if formed in the lower portion.
Carbon. Carbon is the principal hardening ele-
ment in steel, and its amount determines the maxi-
mum hardness obtainable. Generally as carbon is in-
creased, tensile strength and wear resistance in-
crease; however, ductility and weldability decrease.
Carbonitriding. A modified form of gas carbu-
rizing, in which steel (typically plain carbon and very
low alloy) is heated between 1450---1650_F
(788---899_C) in an ammonia enriched carburizing
atmosphere. This results in simultaneous absorption
of carbon and nitrogen, which results in the forma-
tion of complex nitrides in a high carbon case.
Carburizing--- Gas. Gas carburizing consists of
heating and holding low carbon or alloy steel (less
than 0.30 percent carbon) at 1650---1800_F
(899---982_C) in a controlled carbonaceous atmo-
sphere, which results in the diffusion of carbon into
the part (0.70---1.00 percent carbon is typically ob-
tained at the surface). Temperatures above 1800_F
(982_C) may be ultilized in specialized equipment
such as vacuum carburizers. After carburizing, parts
are either cooled to 1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and
held at this temperature to stabilize and then direct
quenched; or slow cooled and reheated to
1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and quenched.
Case Depth of Carburized Components. The
case depth for carburized gearing may be defined in
several ways including effective case depth, etched
case depth, total case depth, and depth to 0.40 per-
cent carbon. The carburized case depth referred to in
this Manual will be effective case depth. Carburized
case depth terms are defined as follows:
(1) Effective case depth. The effective case
depth is the hardened depth to HRC 50 at 0.5 tooth
height and mid face width, normal to the tooth sur-
face.
(2) Etched case depth. Etched case depth is de-
termined by etching a sample cross---section with ni-
tric acid, and measuring the depth of the darkened
area. The etched case approximates the effective
ANSI/AGMA
case. Hardness survey is preferred for contral pur-
poses.
(3) Total case depth. The total case depth is the
depth to which the carbon level of the case has de-
creased to the carbon level of the base material. This
is approximately 1.5 times the effective case depth.
(4) Case depth to 0.40 percent carbon. Effective
case depth is less frequently referred to as the depth
to 0.40 percent carbon. This depth may be measured
by analyzing the carbon content or estimating based
on microstructure. Estimating based on microstruc-
ture ignores the hardenability of the base material
and is not as accurate a measurement as directly ana-
lyzing the carbon level. There is poor correlation be-
tween microstructure readings and material strength
gradients using this method.
Case Depth of Flame or Induction Harden Com-
ponents. This is defined as the depth at which the
hardness is 10 HRC points below the minimum speci-
fied surface hardness.
Case Depth of Nitrided Components. Nitrided
case depth is defined as the depth at which the hard-
ness is equivalent to 105 percent of the measured
core hardness. The case depth is determined by a mi-
crohardness tester and measured normal to the tooth
surface at 0.5 tooth height and mid face width.
Case Hardness. Case Hardness is the micro---
hardness measured perpendicular to the tooth sur-
face at a depth of 0.002 to 0.004 inches (0.05 to 0.10
mm) at 0.5 tooth height and mid face width.
Cementite. Cementite is a hard microstructure
phase otherwise known as iron carbide (Fe3C) and
characterized by an orthorhombic crystal structure.
Combined Carbon. The amount of carbon in
steel or cast iron that is present in other than elemen-
tal form.
Core Hardness. Core Hardness for AGMA
tooth design purposes is the hardness at the intersec-
tion of the root diameter and the centerline of the
tooth at mid face width on a finished gear.
D.I. (Ideal Critical Diameter). Ideal critical di-
ameter is the diameter which, when quenched in an
infinite quench severity (such as ice brine), will result
in a microstructure consisting of 50 percent marten-
site of the center of the bar.
Decarburization. Decarburization is the reduc-
tion in surface carbon content of a gear or test piece
during thermal processing.
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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Ferrite (alpha). Ferrite is a microstructural
phase consisting of essentially pure iron, and is char-
acterized with a body centered cubic structure.
Flame Hardening. Flame Hardening of steel
gearing involves oxyfuel burner heating to
1450---1650_F (788---899_C) followed by quenching
and tempering.
Grain Size. Grain size is specified as either
coarse (grain size 1 through 4) or fine (grain size 5
through 8), determined according to ASTM E112.
Graphite. Graphite is carbon in the free state
with a shape described as either flake, nodule, or
spheroid. The graphite shape classifies the type of
cast iron as either gray, ductile, or malleable.
Hardenability. An indication of the depth to
which a steel will harden during heat treatment (see
4.6).
Hardening. The process of increasing hardness,
typically through heating and cooling.
H--- Band Steels. H---Band steels are steels which
are produced and purchased to a specified Jominy
hardenability range.
Induction Hardening. Induction hardening of
gearing is the selective heating of gear teeth profiles
to 1450---1650_F (788---899_C) by electrical induc-
tance through the use of a coil or single tooth induc-
tor to obtain the proper heat pattern and tempera-
ture, followed by quenching and tempering.
Jominy End Quenching Hardenability Test.
The standard method for determining the harden-
ability of steel. The test consists of heating a standard
one inch (25 mm) diameter test bar to a specified
temperature, placing the specimen in a fixture so
that a stream of water impinges on one end, cooling
the specimen to room temperature, grinding flats,
and measuring the hardness at 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) in-
tervals starting at the quenched end.
Martensite. Martensite is the diffussionless
transformation of austenite to a body centered tetra-
gonal structure, characterized by an acicular
needle---like appearance.
Microstructure. Microstructure is the material
structure observed on a sample polished to a mirror
finish, etched, and viewed at 100X or higher magnifi-
cation.
Nitriding (Aerated Salt Bath). This term in-
cludes a number of heat treat processes in which ni-
trogen and carbon in varying concentrations are ab-
ANSI/AGMA
sorbed into the surface of a ferrous material at a tem-
perature below the austenitizing temperature
[1000---1150_F (538---621_C)], while submerged in a
gas stirred and activated molten chemical salt bath.
These processes are used mainly for improved wear
resistance and fatigue strength.
Nitriding (Gas). Surface hardening process in
which alloy steel, after machining following quench
and tempering, is subjected to a cracked ammonia
furnace atmosphere at 950---1060_F (510---571_C)
causing nitrogen to be absorbed into the surface,
forming hard iron nitrides.
Nitrocarburizing. Nitrocarburizing is a gaseous
heat treatment in which both nitrogen and carbon
are absorbed into the surface of a ferrous material at
a temperature below the austenitizing temperature
[1000---1150_F (538---621_C)]. Nitrocarburizing is
done mainly for antiscuffing and to improve surface
fatigue properties.
Normalizing. Normalizing consists of heating
steel or other ferrous alloys to 1600---1800_F
(871---982_C) and cooling in still or circulated air.
Normalizing is used primarily to obtain a uniform mi-
crostructure.
Pearlite. Pearlite is a microstructure consisting
of lamellar layers of ferrite and cementite, with a
body centered cubic crystal structure.
Quench and Temper. The quench and temper
process on ferrous alloys involves heating a part to
the austenite transformation state at 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C), followed by rapid cooling (quench-
ing). The part is then reheated (tempered) to a spe-
cific temperature generally below 1275_F (690_C) to
achieve the desired mechanical properties for the
gear application.
Stress Relief. Stress relief is a thermal cycle used
to relieve residual stresses created by prior heat
treatments, machining, cold working, welding, or
other fabricating techniques. Maximum stress relief
is achieved at 1100_F (593_C) minimum.
Surface Hardness. Surface Hardness is the
hardness measured directly on the surface. To obtain
accurate results on shallow case hardened parts, a su-
perficial test must be used.
Tempering. Tempering is reheating a hardened
part to a specified temperature, generally below
1275_F (690_C) to reduce hardness and increase
toughness.
4 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Test Coupon. A test coupon is an appropriately
sized sample(often a bar) used generally for surface
hardening treatments. It should be of the same speci-
fied material grade, with regard to composition and
hardenability limits, as the gear it represents. The
test coupon should be heat treated along with the
gear(s) it represents.
Through Hardening. Through hardening is a
term used to collectively describe methods of heat
treatment of steel other than surface hardening tech-
niques. These include: annealing, normalizing (or
normalizing and tempering) and quenching and tem-
pering (refer to 5.1). Depth of hardening is depen-
dent upon hardenability, section size and heat treat
considerations.
NOTE: Through hardening does not imply that
the part has equivalent hardness throughout the en-
tire cross section.
Transformation Temperature. The temperature
at which a change in microstructure phase occurs.
4. Material Selection Guidelines
Many factors influence the selection of materials
for gears, and the relative importance of each can
vary. These factors include:
(1) Mechanical Properties
(2) Grade and Heat Treatment
(3) Cleanliness
(4) Dimensional Stablility
(5) Availability and Cost
(6) Hardenability and Size Effects
(7) Machinability and Other Manufacturing
Characteristics
4.1 Mechanical Properties. It is necessary for the
gear designer to know the application and design
loads and to calculate the stresses before the material
selection can begin.
4.1.1 Hardness. The strength properties are
closely related to material hardness, which is used in
AGMA gear rating practice. Surface hardness is an
important consideration for gear wear. Core hard-
ness is an important consideration for bending and
impact strength.
4.1.2 Fatigue Strength. Contact and bending fa-
tigue strengths are used to predict, at a given stress
level, the number of cycles that gearing can be ex-
pected to endure before pitting or fracture occurs.
Contact and bending fatigue strengths are in-
fluenced by a variety of factors such as hardness, mi-
ANSI/AGMA
crostructure, material cleanliness, surface conditions
and residual stresses.
4.1.3 Tensile Strength. Tensile strength predicts
the stress level above which fracture occurs. It is not
recommended for use in gear manufacturing specifi-
cations.
4.1.4 Yield Strength. Yield strength determines
the stress level above which permanent deformation
occurs.
4.1.5 Toughness. Toughness is determined by
impact strength, tensile ductility and/or fracture
toughness testing. Although not directly considered
in gear rating, toughness may be important for high
impact or low temperature applications or both.
Toughness of steel gearing is adversely affected by a
variety of factors such as:
(1) Low temperature
(2) Improper heat treatment or microstruc---
ture
(3) High sulfur
(4) High phosphorus and embrittling type
residual elements
(5) Nonmetallic inclusions
(6) Large grain size
(7) Absence of alloying elements such as
nickel.
NOTE: Gear toughness is adversely af-
fected by design or manufacturing consider-
ations (such as notches, small fillet radii, tool
marks, material defects, etc., which act as
stress concentrators).
4.1.6 Heat Treatment. Most wrought ferrous
materials used in gearing are heat treated to meet
hardness and/or mechanical property requirements.
Round and flat stock can be purchased in numerous
combinations of mechanical and thermal processing,
such as hot rolled, cold rolled, cold drawn, stress re-
lieved, pickled, annealed, and quenched and tem-
pered. Gear blanks are generally given an annealing
or normalizing heat treatment, which homogenizes
the micro--- structure for machinability and mechani-
cal property uniformity. Gear blanks can also be
quenched and tempered.
4.1.7 Stock Removal. All rough ferrous gear
castings, forgings and barstock have a surface layer
containing decarburization, nonmetallic inclusions,
seams, and other surface imperfections. This layer
should be removed from critical gearing surfaces.
The minimum surface stock removal varies with
stock size and type of mechanical working. Minimum
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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

stock removal tables can be found in most machining quired as a function of subsequent heat treatment;
and materials handbooks. such as quench and temper or case hardening. See
4.2 Grade and Heat Treatment. The specific gear Tables 4---1, 4---2, and 4---3 for grades and recom-
design will usually dictate the grade of material re- mended heat treatments.

Table 4---1
Typical Gear Materials --- Wrought Steel
Common Alloy Common Heat 1 General Remarks/Application
Steel Grades Treat Practice

1045 T---H, I---H, F---H Low Hardenability

4130 T---H Marginal Hardenability
4140 T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H Fair Hardenability
4145 T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H Medium Hardenability
8640 T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H Medium Hardenability
4340 T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H Good Hardenability in Heavy Sections

Nitralloy 135 Mod. T---H&N Special Heat Treatment

Nitralloy G T---H&N Special Heat Treatment
4150 I---H, F---H, T---H, TH&N Quench Crack Sensitive
Good Hardenability
4142 I---H, F---H, T---H&N Used when 4140 exhibits
Marginal Hardenability
4350 @ T---H, I---H, F---H Quench Crack Sensitive, Excellent
Hardenability in Heavy Sections

1020 C---H Very Low Hardenability

4118 C---H Fair Core Hardenability

4620 C---H Good Case Hardenability
8620 C---H Fair Core Hardenability

4320 C---H Good Core Hardenability

8822 C---H Good Core Hardenability in Heavy
Sections

3310 @ C---H Excellent Hardenability (in Heavy

4820 C---H Sections) for all three grades
9310 C---H

1 C---H = Carburize Harden F---H = Flame Harden I---H = Induction Harden

T---H = Through Harden T---H&N = Through Harden then nitride
2 Recognized, but not current standard grade.

ANSI/AGMA 6 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---2
Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for
Annealed, Normalized and Tempered Steel Gearing

Annealed Heat Treatment @ Normalized & Tempered #

Typical Brinell Tensile Yield Brinell Tensile Yield
Alloy Steels
1 Hardness Strength Strength Hardness Strength Strength
Specified Range min min Range min min
HB ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) HB ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)

1045 159---201 80 50 159---201 80 50

(550) (345) (550) (345)

4130
156---197 80 50 167---212 90 60
8630 (550) (345) (620) (415)

4140
4142 187---229 95 60 262---302 130 85
8640 (655) (415) (895) (585)

4145
197---241 100 60 285---331 140 90
4150 (690) (415) (965) (620)

4340
212---255 110 65 302---341 150 95
4350 Type (760) (450) (1035) (655)

1. Steels shown in order of increased hardenability.

2. Hardening by quench and tempering results in a combination of properties generally superior to that
achieved by anneal or normalize and temper; i.e., impact, ductility, etc.
See Table 4---3 for quench and tempered gearing.
3. Hardness and strengths able to be obtained by normalize and tempering are also a function of
controlling section size and tempering temperature considerations.

4.3 Cleanliness. Alloy steel manufactured with elec-
tric furnace practice for barstock and forged steel
gear applications is commonly vacuum degassed, in-
ert atmosphere (argon) shielded and bottom poured
to improve cleanliness and reduce objectionable gas
content (hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen). Improved
cleanliness (reduced nonmetallic inclusion content)
results in improved transverse ductility and impact
strength, but machinability may be reduced; for ex-
ample, with sulfur content less than 0.015 percent.
Vacuum degassed steel may be further refined by
vacuum arc remelting (VAR) or electroslag remelt-
ing (ESR) of the steel. These refining processes fur-
ther reduce gas and inclusion size and content for im-
proved fatigue strength to produce the highest quali-
ty steel for critical gearing applications. Significant
increase in cost and reduced machinability, however,
must be fully evaluated with respect to the need for
improved properties for other than critical gearing
applications.
NOTE: For more information see ASTM
A534 and A535, and AMS 2301 and 2300.
4.4 Dimensional Stability. The process to achieve
the blueprint design may require material consider-
ations such as: added stock, die steps, restricted
hardenability, etc. to minimize distortion and pos-
sible cracking (see 5.8).
4.5 Cost and Availability. The specific material
selection is often determined by cost and availability
factors such as standard industry alloys and procure-
ment time.

ANSI/AGMA 7 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---3
Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel
Gearing

Alloy Hardness Tensile Yield

Steel * Strength Strength
Heat Treatment Range minimum minimum
Grade HB [ ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
4130 Water 212---248 100 (690) 75 (515)
Quench & up to
8630 Temper 302---341 145 (1000) 125 (860)

4140 Oil 241---285] 120 (830) 95 (655)

8640 Quench & up to
Temper 341---388
4142
4145 341---388 170 (1170) 150 (1035)
4150

4340 Oil 277---321 135 (930) 110 (760)

Quench & up to
4350 Temper 363---415w 180 (1240) 145 (1000)

* Steels shown in order of increased hardenability, 4350 being the highest. These steels can be ordered
to H Band hardenability ranges.
[ Hardness range is dependent upon controlling section size (refer to appendix B) and quench severity.
] It is difficult to cut teeth in 4100 Series steels above 341 HB and 4300 Series steels above 375 HB.
(4340 and 4350 provide advantage due to higher tempering temperatures and microstructure
considerations)
w High specified hardness is used for special gearing, but costs should be evaluated due to reduced
machinability.

The standard wrought carbon and alloy steels
such as 1020, 8620, 4320, 4820, 9310, 4140, 4150 and
4340 are available from service centers and steel
mills. Service centers can usually furnish these mate-
rials in small quantities and with short delivery time
from their inventories. Steel mill purchases require
mill quantities (several thousand pounds) and long
delivery time. However, the mill quantity cost may
be substantially lower, and non---standard steels can
be supplied on special request.
When specifying parts with small quantity re-
quirements, standard alloys should be specified or
engineering drawings should allow optional materi-
als. In the case of steel and iron castings and nonfer-
rous materials, SAE and ASTM designations should
be used wherever possible.
4.6 Hardenability. Hardenability of steel is the prop-
erty that determines the hardness gradient produced
by quenching from the austenitizing temperature.
The as quenched surface hardness is dependent pri-
marily on the carbon content of the steel part and
cooling rate. The depth to which a particular hard-
ness is achieved with a given quenching condition is a
function of the hardenability, which is largely deter-
mined by the alloy content of the steel grade.
4.6.1 Determination. Hardenability is normally
determined by the Jominy End Quench Test (ASTM
A255) or can be predicted by the Ideal Diameter
(DI) concept.
4.6.1.1 Jominy Test Method. A one inch (25
mm) diameter bar, four inches (102 mm) in length is
first normalized then uniformily heated to a standard
austenitizing temperature. The bar is placed in a fix-
ture, then quenched by spraying room temperature
water against one end face.

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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
4.6.1.2 Jominy Analysis. Rockwell C hardness
measurements are made along the length of the bar
on ground flats in one sixteenth of an inch (1.6 mm)
intervals. Jominy hardenability is expressed in HRC
obtained at each interval starting at the water
quenched end face.
Example: J5 = 40 is interpreted as a hardness
of 40 HRC at a distance of 5/16 inch (8 mm)
from the water quenched end.
4.6.1.3 H--- Band Steel. Jominy hardenability has
been applied to standard steels. For a given composi-
tion the Jominy hardenability data falls within a pre-
dicted range. Steels purchased to predicted harden-
ability ranges are called H---Band steels. These
Bands are published by ASTM, AISI, and SAE.
Steels can be purchased to H---Band, or restricted
H---Band, specifications.
4.6.1.4 Ideal Critical Diameter. The Ideal Criti-
cal Diameter Method (DI) is based on chemical anal-
ysis described in AISI, SAE, Modern Steels and Their
Properties by Bethlehem Steel, and other hardenabil-
ity reference publications.
4.6.2 Application. Hardenability is constant for
a given steel composition; however, hardness will
vary with the cooling rate. Therefore, the hardness
obtained at any location on a part will depend on car-
bon content, hardenability, part size, configuration,
quench media, and quenching conditions. Typically a
steel composition is selected with a hardenability
characteristic that will yield an as quenched hardness
above the specified hardness so that toughness and
machinability can be attained through appropriate
tempering. As the section thickness increases, the
steel hardenability must be increased in order to
maintain a given hardness in the part section.
4.7 Machinability. Several factors influence the ma-
chinability of materials and in turn affect the econo-
my and feasibility of manufacturing. These factors
must be considered at the design stage, particularly
when high strength levels are being specified. Fac-
tors influencing machinability are:
(1) Material being cut, including composition,
microstructure, hardness, shape, and size.
(2) Cutting speeds, feeds and cutting tools.
(3) Condition of machine tools, including
rigidity, precision, power, etc.
ANSI/AGMA
(4) Characteristics of the cutting fluid used.
There is abundant material published on ma-
chinability. The mechanics of the cutting operation
will not be considered here. Only metallurgical fac-
tors will be discussed.
Chemical composition and microstructure of
steel have major influences on machinability, since
they affect properties and structures. Metallic oxides
like alumina and silica form hard oxide inclusions
and contribute to poor machinability. Elements such
as sulfur, lead, selenium, and tellurium form soft in-
clusions in the steel matrix and can benefit machin-
ing. Calcium additions (in steel making) form hard,
irregular inclusions and can also benefit machining.
However, sulfur, lead and calcium inclusions which
improve machinability can decrease mechanical
properties, particularly in the transverse direction.
Calcium treated steel, when used in high stress gear
and shaft applications, may significantly reduce fa-
tigue life compared to conventional steelmaking
practices. Carbon content over 0.30 percent de-
creases machinability due to increased hardness. De-
pendent on carbon and sulfur levels, higher manga-
nese also decreases machinability. In general, alloys
which increase hardness and toughness decrease ma-
chinability. The more common gear materials are
listed in Table 4---4 on the basis of good, fair, and
poor machinability. With good machinability as a
base, a fair rating would add 20 to 30 percent to the
machining cost, and poor would add 40 to 50 percent.
4.8 Ferrous Gearing. Ferrous materials for gearing
include carbon and alloy wrought and cast steels, cast
iron and ductile irons. Gearing of alloy and carbon
steel is manufactured from different forms of rough
stock depending upon service, size, design, quantity,
availability, and economic considerations. These
forms include wrought steel, weld fabrications and
castings.
4.8.1 Wrought Steel. Wrought steel is the gener-
ic term applied to carbon and alloy steels which are
mechanically worked into form for specific applica-
tions. The standard wrought steel forms are round
stock, flat stock and forgings. Forgings reduce ma-
chining time, and are available in a wide range of
sizes and grades.
9 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---4
Machinability of Common Gear Materials
Material Grades Low--- Carbon Carburizing Steel Grades --- Remarks
1020 Good machinability, as rolled, as forged, or normalized.

4118 Good machinability, as rolled, or as forged. However, normalized is

4620 preferred. Inadequate cooling during normalizing can result in gummy
8620 material, reduced tool life and poor surface finish. Quench and temper
8822 as a prior treatment can aid machinability. The economics of the
pretreatments must be considered.

3310 Fair to good machinability if normalized and tempered, annealed or

4320 quenched and tempered. Normalizing without tempering results in
4820 reduced machinability.
9310
Material Grades Medium Carbon Through Hardened Steel Grades --- Remarks
1045 Good machinability if normalized.
1141
1541

4130 Good machinability if annealed, or normalized and tempered to

4140 approximately 255 HB or quenched and tempered to approximately
4142 321 HB. Over 321 HB, machinability is fair. Above 363 HB,
machinability is poor. Inadequate (slack) quench with subsequent low
tempering temperature may produce a part which meets the specified
hardness, but produces a mixed microstructure which results in poor
machinability.

4145 Remarks for medium carbon alloy steel (above) apply. However, the
4150 higher carbon results in lower machinability. Sulfur additions aid the
4340 machinability of these grades. 4340 machinability is good up to 363
4345 HB. The higher carbon level in 4145, 4150, 4345, and 4350 makes
4350 them more difficult to machine and should be specified only for
heavy sections. Inadequate (slack) quench can seriously affect
machinability in these steels.
NOTE: Coarse grain steels are more machinable than fine grain. However, gear steels are generally
used in the fine grain condition since mechanical properties are improved, and distortion during heat
treatment is reduced. Increasingly cleaner steels are now also being specified for gearing. However, if
sulfur content is low, less than 0.015 percent, machinability may decrease appreciably.

Material Grades Other Gear Material --- Remarks

Gray Irons Gray cast irons have good machinability. Higher strength gray cast irons
[above 50 ksi (345 MPa) tensile strength] have reduced machinability.

Ductile Irons Annealed or normalized ductile cast iron has good machinability. The
as cast (not heat treated) ductile iron has fair machinability. Quenched
and tempered ductile iron has good machinability up to 285 HB and
fair machinability up to 352 HB. Above 352 HB, machinability is poor.

Gear Bronzes All gear bronzes and brass have good machinability. The very high
and Brasses strength heat treated bronzes [above 110 ksi (760 MPa) tensile strength]
have fair machinability.

Austenitic All austenitic stainless steel grades only have fair machinability. Because
Stainless Steel of work hardening tendencies, feeds and speeds must be selected to
minimize work hardening.

ANSI/AGMA 10 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

4.8.1.1 Round Stock. Round bars can be pur-
chased in various diameters for standard carbon and
alloy grades. They are typically available as hot
rolled, hot rolled---cold drawn, hot rolled---cold fin-
ished and forged rounds. Cold drawing produces a
close tolerance bar with improved mechanical prop-
erties (higher hardness and yield strength). Low to
medium carbon steels are normally available as cold
drawn bar for gearing. Hot rolled---cold finished bars
are machined (turned, ground and/or polished) for
improved size control, but show no improvement in
mechanical properties over hot rolled or annealed
bar. Hot rolled bars are mechanically worked at
approximately 2100---2400_F (1150---1315_C) and
may be subsequently annealed, straightened and
stress relieved. Forged round bars are forged round
under a press or hammer at the same approximate
temperature as hot rolled bars (higher temperature
for lower carbon content carbon or alloy steel) and
are manufactured to a size larger than can be formed
with rolling dies or rolls. Forged round bars can be
purchased in a variety of heat treat conditions de-
pending upon application.
Hot rolled bars are also now manufactured from
continuous cast steel bar manufactured with continu-
ous casters. Continuous cast bar is subsequently hot
rolled with sufficient reduction in cross sectional
area (7 to 1 minimum) during hot deformation to
produce densification and quality bar for many gear-
ing applications.
Approximate maximum diameter of the various
types of round stock, depending upon steel mill ca-
pacity, is as follows:
Hot Rolled: 8.0 inch (205 mm)
Cold Drawn: 4.0 inch (100 mm)
Cold Finished: 5.0 inch (125 mm)
Forged Round: 16.0 inch (405 mm)

Table 4---5
Mechanical Property Requirements --- Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved Steel Bars
(Special Cold Drawn, High Tensile)

Size Mechanical Properties for Rounds, Squares and Hexagons

included Steel Minimum Minimum
Designation Elongation in Nominal
inch (mm) Tensile Strength Yield Strength 2 inches (50 mm) Hardness
ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) percent, min HRCw
1137 SR * 95 (655) 90 (620) 11 24
1045 SR 115 (795) 100 (690) 10 24
0.375 (10) 1141 SR 115 (795) 100 (690) 11 24
to 1144 SR 115 (795) 100 (690) 10 24
3.000 (76) 1144 SS[ 140 (965) 125 (860) 10 w 30
4145 SS] 150 (1035) 130 (895) 10 w 32

3.001 (76.1)
to 4145 SS] 150 (1035) 130 (895) 10 w 32
3.500 (89)

3.001 (76.1) 1045 SR 105 (725) 90 (620) 9 24

to 1141 SR 105 (725) 90 (620) 9 24
4.000 (102) 1144 SR 105 (725) 90 (620) 9 24

* Stress Relieved.
[ Special steel. Additional requirements: Hardness, Rockwell C 30, min. 1144 SS not available above
2.5 in (64 mm).
] Special steel. Additional requirements: Hardness Rockwell C 32, min. 4145 SS not available above
3.5 in (89 mm).
w Typical value, not a requirement.

NOTE: Some cold finish steel companies furnish many of the above steels under various trade names.

ANSI/AGMA 11 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
4.8.1.2 Flat or Plate. Commercial flat or plate
steel of numerous carbon and alloy grades is avail-
able in standard thicknesses in a wide range of widths
and lengths. Flat stock is typically available in hot
rolled or hot rolled and annealed conditions.
4.8.1.3 Forgings. Forgings are made by hot me-
chanical deformation (working of a steel billet into a
specific form) which densifies the structure, and may
provide improved inclusion orientation. Typically,
deformation is done while the billet is at tempera-
tures generally above 1900_F(1038_C).
Cast ingots, from which blooms and billets are
manufactured prior to forming forgings and bar-
stock, are now also bottom poured as well as conven-
tional top poured. Bottom poured ingots are poured
with a bottom ingate and runner which provides mol-
ten steel to the ingot mold, much like steel castings
are produced. Bottom poured ingots show improved
macro---cleanliness and ingot yield (more usable in-
got metal after conventional cropping or removal of
the top pipe cavity and bottom discard of top poured
ingots).
Alloy steel, manufactured by electric furnace
practice using part or all of the cleanliness techniques
discussed in 4.3, can result in improved transverse
ductility and impact strength. Forging stock is always
fully killed steel to minimize the occurrence of fis-
sures due to dissolved gases during the forging pro-
cess.
The standard forging classifications are:
(1) Open Die Forging. This method produces a
rough dimensioned piece by mechanical deforma-
tion between an upper and lower die (hammer and
anvil) in an open frame press or hammer.
Open die forgings may be specified to be upset
forged to increase center densification. An upset
forging is produced when the billet is initially hot
worked in one direction, and then is rotated 90 de-
grees and hot worked again. Upset forgings are often
used for critical high speed gearing, greater than
30,000 feet/minute (152 m/sec) pitch line velocity,
which develop high centrifugal stress at the center.
(2) Closed Die Forging. This method produces a
closer toleranced piece, generally smaller than an
open die forging. The upper and lower dies trap the
steel billet in a closed (confined) cavity and the press
action deforms the metal to fill the die cavity, pro-
ducing a more exact contoured forging.
ANSI/AGMA
(3) Rolled Ring Forging. This method produces
a donut---shaped work piece. Typically the process in-
volves piercing a pancake---shaped billet with a man-
drel and shaping the ring by a hammer action be-
tween the mandrel and the press anvil. Large diame-
ter rings are rolled on a roller press from circular bil-
lets containing a central hole.
For additional information on wrought steel
manufacture and steel making refining practices, ref-
erence should be made to the following sources:
American Society for Metals (ASM Internation-
al), Metal Handbooks
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Steel
Products Manual
Forging Industry Handbook, by the Forging In-
dustry Association
4.8.2 Weld Fabrications. Weld fabricated gears
generally consist of rolled or forged rings, formed
plate or castings for the rim (tooth) section, a forged
or cast hub and mild steel plate for the web or arm
support sections.
The rim or tooth section is heat treated to obtain
specified hardness (mechanical properties) prior to
weld assembly. After weld assembly, using appropri-
ate preheat and postheat temperatures, welded as-
semblies are furnace stress relieved at 950---1250_F
(510---675_C) depending upon the previous temper-
ing temperature used to obtain the specified hard-
ness of the rim section. ASTM A290 should be refer-
enced for ring forgings for fabricated gears.
4.8.3 Cast Steels. Carbon and alloy steel castings
are used for a wide variety of through hardened gear-
ing and, to a lesser degree, for case hardened applica-
tions. The size of cast gearing varies from 10.0 inch
(254 mm) outside diameter with a 2.0 inch (51 mm)
face width for solid rim gears, to split ring gears about
480 inch (12 192 mm) outside diameter with a 40 inch
(1016 mm) face. Smaller gears generally have a solid
web and hub design, with possible cored holes in the
web or flange for weight reduction. Larger gears are
usually solid hub, split hub, or split hub and rim de-
sign, which incorporate cast arms rather than the
heavier solid web design used for smaller gears. Still
larger ring gears are solid or split ring design with bolt
holes at the splits and on the inside diameter flange
for gear assembly and mounting purposes. Split gears
are cast in two or four segments. Typical cast gear de-
signs are shown in Fig 4---1.
4.8.3.1 Manufacture. Cast steel is manufactured
by the open hearth, electric arc, or induction furnace
12 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

melting processes, using both acid or basic lined fur-
nace steel making practices. Secondary refining pro-
cesses can be used for reducing the gas, phosphorus,
and sulfur levels of cast steel.
4.8.3.2 Material Grades of Cast Steel. The ma-
terial grades used for cast gearing are generally mod-
ifications (silicon, etc) of standard AISI or SAE des-
ignations. Through hardened gearing applications
generally use 1045, 4135, 4140, 8630, 8640, and 4340
type steels. Carburizing grades are usually 1020,
8620 and 4320 types. As with wrought steel, care
must be taken to ensure that the specified cast analy-
sis for through hardened gearing has sufficient
hardenability to obtain the specified minimum hard-
ness.
Typical chemical analyses and tensile properties
of through hardened cast steels are shown in Tables
4---6 and 4---7, respectively.

SOLID WEB CORED WEB

SMALLER GEARS

SOLID RING SPLIT RING

SOLID HUB SPLIT HUB SPLIT HUB AND RING

LARGER GEARS INCLUDING OPEN GEARING

(NOTE: Each design above can be made by forging or weld fabrication.)

Fig 4---1 Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears

ANSI/AGMA 13 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---6
Typical Chemical Analyses for Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears

Alloy Percent for Cast Steel Types

Element
1045 Type 4140 Type 8630 Type 8642 Type 4340 Type
Carbon 0.40---0.50 0.37---0.43 0.27---0.37 0.38---0.45 0.38---0.43
Manganese 0.60---1.00 0.70---1.00 0.70---1.00 0.70---1.00 0.70---1.00
Phosphorus, max. 0.050 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
Sulfur, max. 0.060 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040
Silicon, max. 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Nickel --- --- --- --- 0.60---0.90 0.60---0.90 1.65---2.00
Chromium --- --- 0.80---1.10 0.60---0.90 0.60---0.90 0.70---0.90
Molybdenum --- --- 0.15---0.25 0.30---0.40 0.40---0.50 0.20---0.30

GENERAL NOTES:
1. Type designations indicate non---conformance to exact AISI analysis requirements.
2. When basic steel making practice, ladle refining or AOD (argon oxygen decarburization) processing
are used, lower phosphorus and sulfur contents to less than 0.020 percent are commonly achieved.
3. Vanadium content of 0.06---0.10 percent may be specified for grain refinement.
4. Aluminum content of 0.025 percent maximum may be specified for low alloy cast steel (per ASTM
A356) for ladle deoxidation to improve toughness, cleanliness and machinability.
5. Other AISI Type and proprietary chemical analyses are used for carbon and low alloy cast gears
according to ASTM A148 or customer specifications, depending upon specified hardness (mechanical
properties), type of heat treatment and controlling section size (hardenability) considerations.
6. Source: AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials.

Table 4---7
Tensile Properties of Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears!

Minimum Percent Percent

AGMA@ Brinell Minimum Yield Minimum Minimum
Hardness Tensile Strength Elongation Reduction
6033---A87 Strength
Class Range 0.2 percent Offset in 2 in in Area
ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) (50 mm)

A 223---269 100 (690) 75 (480) 15.0 35.0

B 241---285 110 (760) 80 (550) 13.0 31.0
C 262---311 118 (810) 90 (620) 11.0 28.0
D 285---331 130 (900) 100 (690) 10.0 26.0
E 302---352 140 (970) 115 (790) 9.0 24.0
F 321---363 145 (1000) 120 (830) 8.0 20.0
G 331---375 150 (1030) 125 (860) 7.0 18.0

NOTES:
1. Above tensile requirements for seven classes are modifications of three grades of ASTM A148
(Grades 105---85 through 150---135).
2. Source: AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials.

ANSI/AGMA 14 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
4.8.3.3 Repair Welding of Cast Steel. Repair
welding of castings prior to heat treatment is rou-
tinely performed by the casting producer. Repairs in
the rim (tooth) portion and other critical load bear-
ing locations should be performed only prior to heat
treatment. Heat treatable electrodes (4130, 4140 and
4340 Types) should be used for repairing prior to
heat treatment in order to produce hardness equiva-
lent to the base metal after heat treatment. Repair
welding, if allowed after heat treatment, shall be fol-
lowed by reheat treatment, whenever possible. If re-
heat treatment is not possible, localized preheat and
post heat are recommended to avoid or minimize un-
favorable residual tensile stress or high hardness in
the heat affected zone. All welds should be inspected
to the same quality standard used to inspect the cast-
ing.
NOTE: Weld repair in the tooth portion may
require notification of the purchaser.
4.8.3.4 Heat Treatment of Cast Steel. Castings
are heat treated to either a specified hardness or to
specified hardness and minimum mechanical prop-
erties. The minimum number of hardness tests re-
quired on both rim faces of gear castings is generally
based on the outside diameter. The number of tests
increases with OD size. Mechanical property tests
(tensile and impact) are generally required only
when specified. Reference should be made to 6.2 and
6.3 for additional information.
4.8.3.5 Quality of Cast Steel. Castings should be
furnished free of sand, scale, extraneous append-
ages, and hard areas resulting from arc---airing, gas
cutting, and repair welding which could adversely af-
fect machining. Casting should also be free of cracks,
hot tears, chills, and unfused chaplets in the rim sec-
tion. Castings must meet the nondestructive test re-
quirements in the rim section. The quality specified
in other than the rim (tooth) section is often less
stringent. Minor discontinuities in finish machined
teeth, if present, are often contour ground for re-
moval, in preference to cosmetic weld repair. Ap-
proval by the customer may be required.
Dry or wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspec-
tions are routinely performed to meet specified sur-
face quality requirements. Other nondestructive
testing, such as radiograph and ultrasonic inspection,
is performed to evaluate internal integrity of the rim
(tooth) section when specified. Methods of testing,
test locations, and acceptance standards are estab-
lished between the purchaser and manufacturer.
ANSI/AGMA
Recommended ASTM specifications for nonde-
structive inspection test procedures are:
ASTM E709---80, Magnetic Particle Examination
ASTM E125---63 (1980), Reference Photographs
for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM A609---83, Ultrasonic Examination of
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Castings
ASTM E186---80, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Heavy Walled [2 to 41/2 inch) (51 to 114
mm)] Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Heavy Walled [4 1/2 to 12 inch(114 to 305
mm)] Steel Castings
ASTM E446---81, Standard Reference Radio-
graphs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in
Thickness
4.8.3.6 Additional Information for Cast Steel.
Information is available in:
ASM Handbook series, Volume 5, 8th edition,
Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA) Publica-
tion
ASM Handbook, Volume 11, 8th edition, Non-
destructive Inspection and Quality Control
4.8.4 Cast Iron. Cast Iron is the generic term for
the family of high carbon, silicon, iron alloys. The
family of cast irons is classified by the following cate-
gories.
4.8.4.1 Gray Iron. Gray iron contains (typically
over 3.0 percent) carbon, which is present as graphite
flakes. It is characterized by the gray color occurring
on a fracture surface. Refer to Gray and Ductile Iron
Castings Handbook for additional information.
(1) Material considerations. Cast irons for gears
are made by the electric arc furnace, cupola, or in-
duction practice and should be free of shrink, poros-
ity, gas holes, entrapped sand and hard areas in the
tooth portion.
Repair welds in areas to be machined should
have machinability equivalent to the casting. Repair
welds in the tooth portion should only be performed
with the approval of the gear purchaser.
(2) Heat Treating. Cast iron castings are gener-
ally furnished as cast unless otherwise specified.
Stress relieving may be deemed necessary to hold
close dimensional tolerances. It is recommended
that castings be heated to 1000 to 1100_F
(538---593_C), holding at temperature up to one
hour per inch of maximum section and furnace
cooled to below 600_F (315_C).
15 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

(3) Chemical Analysis. Unless otherwise speci- 1

fied, the chemical analysis is left to the discretion of ASTM Brinell Tensile
Class Hardness Strength
the casting supplier as necessary to produce castings Number ksi (MPa)
to the specification.
20 155 20 (140)
(4) Mechanical Properties. Cast iron gears are 30 180 30 (205)
rated according to AGMA practice based on hard- 35 205 35 (240)
ness. Therefore, hardness determines the rating of 40 220 40 (275)
the gear. 50 250 50 (345)
60 285 60 (415)
Minimum hardness requirements for the classes
of cast iron are shown in Table 4---8.
1 See ASTM A48 for additional information.
Hardness tests should be made in accordance
4.8.4.2 Ductile Iron. Ductile iron, sometimes re-
with ASTM E10. Hardness tests should be made on
ferred to as nodular iron, is characterized by the
the mid rim thickness or mid face width of the tooth
spheroidal shape of the graphite in the metal matrix,
portion diameter. At least one hardness test should
produced by innoculation with magnesium and rare
be made on each piece, and sufficient hardness tests
earth elements. A wide range of mechanical proper-
should be made to verify that the part meets the mini-
ties are produced through control of the alloying ele-
mum hardness specified. Specified minimum hard-
ments and subsequent heat treatments. (Refer to
ness must be maintained to the finish machined di-
Gray and Ductile Iron Handbook.)
mensions for acceptance.
(1) Material Considerations. Ductile iron cast-
Tensile tests should only be required when speci- ings are made by the electric arc furnace, cupola or
fied. Tensile test requirements are shown in Table induction practice and should be free of shrink, po-
4---8, and testing should be performed in accordance rosity, gas holes and entrapped sand and hard areas
with ASTM A48, Standard Specifications for Gray in the tooth portion.
Iron Casting. Repair welds in areas to be machined should
Tensile test coupons are cast in separate molds in have equivalent machinability as the casting. Repair
accordance with the provisions of ASTM A48. The welding in the tooth portion should only be per-
size of the cast test coupon is dependent upon the formed with the approval of the gear purchaser.
thickness of the tooth portion of the casting as fol- (2) Heat Treating. Ductile iron castings shall be
lows: heat treated by annealing, normalizing and temper-
ing or quenching and tempering or as---cast as re-
Thickness As Cast Machined quired to meet the specified mechanical properties.
of Tooth Diameter, Diameter, ASTM A48 These heat treatments produce ferritic, pearlitic or
Section, in (mm) in (mm) Test Bar,
in (mm) martensitic structures.

0.25---0.50 0.88 0.50 A (3) Chemical Analysis. Unless otherwise speci-

fied, the chemical analysis is left to the discretion of
(6.4---12.7) (22.4) (12.7)
the casting supplier as necessary to produce castings
0.51---1.00 1.20 0.750 B
to the specification.
(12.8---25.4) (30.5) (19.0)
1.01---2 incl. 2.00 1.25 C (4) Mechanical Properties. Typical mechanical
properties are shown in Table 4---9. Other properties
(25.5---50.8) (50.8) (31.8)
may be as agreed upon by the gear manufacturer and
NOTE: See ASTM A48 for tolerances on as casting producer.
cast and machined diameter and retest con- Tensile test coupons should be poured from the
siderations if bar fails to meet requirements. same ladle or heat and be given the same heat treat-
Table 4---8 ments as the castings they represent. Test coupon
mold design shall be in accordance with ASTM A536.
Minimum Hardness and Tensile Strength Size of the Y---block mold, if used, is at the option of
Requirements the producer unless specified by the gear manufac-
for Gray Cast Iron turer.

ANSI/AGMA 16 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Tensile tests should be performed in accordance
with ASTM Designation E8, Standard Method of Ten-
sion Testing of Metallic Materials. The yield strength
is normally determined by the 0.2 percent offset
method. For required retesting, if tensile bar fails to
meet requirements, refer to ASTM A536.
Hardness tests should be performed in accor-
dance with ASTM Designation E10, Standard Meth-
od of Test for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.
Hardness tests should be made on the mid rim thick-
ness or mid face width of the tooth portion diameter.
Number of hardness tests per piece is based on the
diameter of the casting as follows:
Outside Diameter Number of
of Casting, in(mm) Hardness Tests
To 12 (305 ) 1
Over 12 (305) to 36 (915) 2
Over 36 (915) to 60 (1525) 4 4.8.4.3 Austempered Ductile Iron. Austemp-
Over 60 (1525) 8 ered Ductile Iron (ADI) is a ductile iron with higher
When two hardness tests are required, one
should be made on the cope side over a riser and the
other on the drag side approximately 180 degrees
away between risers. When four hardness tests are
required, two tests should be made on the cope side,
one over a riser and the other approximately 180 de-
grees away between risers, and two tests on the drag
side 90 degrees away from the tests on the cope side.
When eight hardness tests are specified, they shall be
made 90 degrees apart on both cope and drag side.
For solid cylindrical pieces, with length over di-
ameter of one or more, the number of hardness tests
should be as follows:
Diameter of Number of
Tooth Portion, in(mm) Hardness Tests
To 3 (76) incl. 1
Over 3 (76) to 6 (152) incl. 2
Over 6 (152) 4
NOTE: The hardness tests shall be spaced
uniformly around the circumference.
When many small pieces are involved, all poured
from the same ladle or heat, and heat treated in a
single furnace load, a sample testing plan is generally
used with the approval of the
gear manufacturer.
strength and hardness than conventional ductile
irons. The higher properties of ADI are achieved by
closely controlled chemistry and an austempering
heat treatment. This treatment results in a unique
microstructure of bainitic ferrite and larger amounts
of carbon stabilized austenite. With variation in aus-
tempering temperature and transformation time,
several ranges of engineering properties can be
achieved.

Table 4---9
Mechanical Properties of Ductile Iron

1 Elongation
ASTM Former Recommended Brinell Min. Tensile Min. Yield
Grade AGMA Strength Strength in 2 inch
Heat Treatment Hardness Range (50 mm)
Designation Class ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) percent min
60---40---18 A---7---a Annealed Ferritic 170 max. 60 (415) 40 (275) 18.0
65---45---12 A---7---b As---Cast or Annealed 156---217 65 (450) 45 (310) 12.0
Ferritic---Pearlitic
80---55---06 A---7---c Normalized Ferritic---Pearlitic 187---255 80 (550) 55 (380) 6.0
100---70---03 A---7---d Quench & Tempered Pearlitic 241---302 100 (690) 70 (485) 3.0
120---90---02 A---7---e Quench & Tempered Range 120 (830) 90 (620) 2.0
Martensitic Specified

1 See ASTM A536 or SAE J434 for further information.

NOTE: Other tensile properties and hardnesses should be used only by agreement between gear manufacturer
and casting producer.
ADI has been utilized in several significant ap- er machining and heat treat cost and replacement of
plications, such as automotive ring gears and pinions, more costly forgings for certain applications.
but is still an emerging technology. ADI permits low-

ANSI/AGMA 17 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Test programs are currently underway which will
more clearly define operational properties of ADI.
4.8.4.4 Malleable Iron. Malleable iron is a heat
treated white (chilled) iron which can be produced
with a range of mechanical properties depending on
the alloying practice and heat treatment. This has
generally been replaced by ductile iron. (Refer to
ASTM A220.)
4.8.5 Powder Metal (P/M). Powder metal parts
are formed by compressing metal powders in a die
cavity and heating (sintering) the resultant compact
to metallurgically bond the powder particles. Sec-
ondary operations such as repressing or sizing may be
used to obtain precise control of shape and size or to
improve mechanical properties.
The powder metal process is used to reduce cost
by eliminating machining operations, provide accu-
rate dimensional control over large production runs,
and obtain characteristics and shapes difficult to ob-
tain by other methods. However, because of molding
die costs, high production quantities are usually nec-
essary to realize savings.
Although several powder metal materials are
available, alloy steel is usually specified for gear ap-
plications.
As sintered alloy steels have a tensile strength
range of 40---80 ksi (275---550 MPa), with an elonga-
tion of 4.0 percent or less and an apparent hardness
of HRB 60---85. Heat treated powder metal alloys
have tensile strengths of 100 to 170 ksi (690---1170
MPa) with elongations of 1.0 percent or less, depend-
ing on density and alloy selected.
Density is the most significant characteristic of
powder metal materials. For a given composition,
mechanical properties are proportional to density;
i.e., higher strengths are achieved at higher density
levels. In recent years, powder metal processes have
improved to the point where a typical density of 7.0
to 7.4 g/cm# can be achieved using secondary opera-
tions.
The ductility of powder metal parts is substan-
tially lower than for wrought steels. Hardness specifi-
cations can be developed for powder metal parts, but
must be specified as apparent hardness since the
hardness value obtained using a standard tester (ei-
ther HRB or HRC) is a combination of the powder
particle hardness and porosity. The actual hardness
of the powder metal material will be higher than the
apparent hardness reading and can be more accu-
ANSI/AGMA
rately determined using special microhardness mea-
surement techniques.
Parts can be heat treated after sintering, but
must be processed in a controlled atmosphere to pre-
vent changes in surface chemistry. Carburizing and
carbonitriding can be performed, but products with a
density under 6.8 g/cm# will not develop a definite
case due to the ease of diffusion through the more
porous lower density material. Penetration hardness
testing cannot be correlated to material strength, but
parts will achieve a file hard surface. Salt baths and
water quench systems should be avoided.
Further improvements in strength can be
achieved by the use of hot forming powder metal.
Powder metal preforms are heated to forging tem-
perature and finished forged to final shape and den-
sity. Parts processed in this manner have strengths
and mechanical properties approaching the proper-
ties of wrought materials. Although this process is
much more costly than the conventional powder met-
al process, it can still be cost effective for high pro-
duction parts requiring higher mechanical properties
than achievable using the standard process.
The controlled porosity in powder metal parts
permits their impregnation with oil to provide a self
lubricating part, especially for the internal type of
gears.
The powder metal process is well---suited to the
production of gears for several reasons:
(1) Carbide dies provide consistent part accura-
cy over long runs.
(2) Retention of some porosity contributes to
quietly running gears and allows for self---lubrica-
tion.
(3) Powder metal gears can be made with blind
corners, thus eliminating undercut relief that is need-
ed with cut gears, and have extra support strength at
the blind end.
(4) Powder metal gears can be combined with
other parts such as cams, ratchets, other gears, and
assorted components.
Spur gears are the easiest to produce out of pow-
der metal because of the vertical action of the press
and ease of ejection of the preform from the die cav-
ity before sintering. Bevel, miter, helical, and other
special gear forms are, however, possible in powder
metal with sufficient development. True involute
gears are less difficult and may be less costly to pro-
18 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
duce in sufficient quantities than by other methods
because tooth configuration is not a limitation.
4.8.6 Other Ferrous Materials. In addition to
materials used for gears which are described in this
Manual there are other ferrous materials used for
gears. These include hot work tool steel (H series),
high speed steels, austenitic, martensitic and preci-
pitation hardening stainless steels, etc. Special gear
analyses are frequently used in applications with very
high strength requirements.
4.9 Selection Criteria for Wrought, Cast, or Fabri-
cated Steel Gearing.
Selection of the gear blank producing method
for most applications is primarily a matter of eco-
nomics, with quality becoming increasingly impor-
tant as tooth loads, down time costs and safety con-
siderations increase. Critical application gearing,
such as for aerospace and special high speed, is com-
monly manufactured of vacuum degassed alloy steel,
further refined at premium cost by vacuum arc re-
melt (VAR) or electroslag remelt (ESR) processing.
These and other more economical refining processes
(AOD, ladle refined, etc.) improve cleanliness and
produce higher quality steel.
Wrought or forged steel is generally considered
more sound than castings because the steel is hot
worked. Wrought steel is anisotropic, however,
meaning that the mechanical properties (tensile duc-
tility and fatigue and impact strength) vary according
to the direction of hot working or inclusion flow dur-
ing forming (see Fig 4---2). Improved steel cleanli-
ness has the effect of improving the transverse and
tangential properties of forged steel in order to ap-
proach, but not equal, the longitudinal properties.
Inclusions in wrought steel forgings, barstock, rolled
rings and plate are perpendicular to the root radius
or profile of machined gear teeth.
NOTES: Mechanical properties in the trans-
verse direction will vary with inclusion type
and material form.
Mechanical property data is normally
measured in the longitudinal direction.
Castings generally being isotropic (non---direc-
tionality of properties), when sound in the rim tooth
section, can provide comparable mechanical proper-
ties to those of forgings. Casting quality involves con-
trolled steel making, molding, casting, heat treating
ANSI/AGMA
and non---destructive inspection (magnetic particle
and ultrasonic or radiograph) practices.
Fabricated (welded) gears are generally
manufactured when they are more economical than
forged or cast gears. Gear rims are normally forged
or rolled rings, formed alloy plate, or, less frequently,
cast. Hardenability of the gear rim steel must be ade-
quate to enable a 1000_F (540_C) minimum temper-
ing temperature to obtain hardness. The welded as-
sembly should, therefore, be stress relieved at
950_F(510_C) minimum [50_F(28_C) below the
tempering temperature]. Gear rims used in the an-
nealed condition can be stress relieved at 1250_F
(675_C).
Forged or hot rolled die generated gear teeth,
with the direction of inclusion (metal) flow parallel
to the profile of teeth, result in the optimum direc-
tion of inclusions for gearing. Application is limited
because quantities or critical application consider-
ations must justify the increased development and
die costs.
4.10 Copper Base Gearing. Non---ferrous gears are
made from alloys of copper, aluminum, and zinc. Al-
loys of copper are in wide use for power transmission
gearing. Most of these are used in worm gearing
where the reduced coefficient of friction between
dissimilar materials and increased malleability are
desired.
4.10.1 Gear Bronzes. A family of four bronzes
accounts for most of the nonferrous gear materials,
mainly because of their wear resistance character-
istics for withstanding a high sliding velocity with a
steel worm gear.
(1) Phosphor or Tin Bronzes. These bronzes are
tough and have good corrosion resistance. They pos-
sess excellent rubbing characteristics and wear resis-
tance which permits use in gears and worm wheels for
severe wear applications. This alloy is the basic gear
alloy and is commonly designated as SAE C90700
(obsolete SAE 65) and is referred to as tin bronze.
(2) Manganese Bronzes. This is the name given
to a family of high strength yellow brasses. They are
characterized by high strength and hardness and are
the toughest materials in the bronze family. They
achieve mechanical properties through alloying
without heat treatment. These bronzes have the
same strength and ductility as annealed cast steel.
They have good wear resistance but do not possess
the same degree of corrosion resistance, wearability
19 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

or bearing quality as phosphor and aluminum
bronzes.
(3) Aluminum Bronze. Aluminum bronze mate-
rials are similar to the manganese bronzes in tough-
ness, but are lighter in weight and attain higher me-
chanical properties through heat treatment. As the
strength of aluminum bronze is increased, ductility is
reduced. This bronze has good wear resistance and
has low coefficient of friction against steel. Bearing
characteristics are better than for manganese bronze
but are inferior to the phosphor bronzes.
(4) Silicon Bronzes. Silicon bronzes are com-
monly used in lightly loaded gearing for electrical ap-
plications because of their low cost and nonmagnetic
properties.

DIRECTION OF
METAL AND
INCLUSION
ROLLED FLOW
RING FORGING

TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL TENSILE

TENSILE TEST BAR TEST BAR OR PROPERTIES

DIRECTION OF METAL
AND INCLUSION FLOW TRANSVERSE TENSILE
TEST BAR

LONGITUDINAL TANGENTIAL
PINION FORGING TENSILE TEST BAR TENSILE TEST BAR

NOTE: ASTM E399 may be used if impact testing is required.

Fig 4---2 Directionality of Forging Properties

4.10.2 Gear Brasses and Other Copper Alloys.
Gear brasses are selected for their corrosion resis-
tant properties. The most common gear brass is yel-
low brass, used because of its good machinability.
Other brass materials are used because of their high-
er strength, but they are more difficult to machine.
Wear resistance of these brasses is somewhat lower
than for the higher strength manganese bronzes.

ANSI/AGMA 20 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
4.10.3 Wrought Copper Base. Wrought copper
base materials is a general term used to describe a
group of mechanically shaped gear materials in
which copper is the major chemical component. This
group of gear materials includes bronzes, brasses,
and other copper alloys. Table 4---10 presents chemi-
cal analyses of common wrought bronze alloys, while
Table 4---11 presents typical mechanical properties of
these wrought bronze alloys in rod and bar form.
4.10.4 Cast Copper Base. Copper base castings
are specified by melting method, heat treatment,
analysis or type, hardness and tensile properties.
4.10.4.1 Cast Worm Bronzes. Specifications de-
scribe type of bronzes according to chemical analysis.
Refer to Table 4---12 for chemical analyses of com-
mon cast copper bronze alloys, including phosphor
or tin bronze, leaded tin bronze (improved machin-
ability) and higher strength manganese bronze and
aluminum bronze. Mechanical properties of sepa-
rate cast test specimens are shown in Table 4---13.
4.10.4.2 General Information for Copper Cast-
ings. Additional information regarding manufactur-
ing, chemical analysis, heat treating, tensile proper-
ties, hardness and hardness control, cast structure
and supplementary data for cast copper alloys is as
follows:
(1) Casting Manufacture. Cast copper base gear
materials may be melted by any commercially recog-
nized melting method for the composition involved.
Castings should be free of shrink, porosity, gas holes
and entrapped sand in the tooth portion. Castings
should also be furnished free of sand and extraneous
appendages.
Repair welding in other than the tooth portion
may be performed by the casting supplier. Repair
welds in the tooth area should be performed only
with the approval of the gear manufacturer.
(2) Casting Heat Treating. Copper Base castings
are heat treated as required to obtain the specified
mechanical properties.
(3) Casting Chemical Analysis. Chemical analy-
sis shall be in conformance with the type specified or
ANSI/AGMA
as agreed to by the gear manufacturer and casting
producer.
The chemical analysis shall be determined from
a sample obtained during pouring of the heat.
The gear manufacturer may perform a product
analysis for chemistry. In the event of disagreement
in chemical analysis, ASTM Designation E54, Stan-
dard Methods of Chemical Analysis of Special Brasses
and Bronzes, may be used as the referee method.
(4) Casting Hardness. Hardness tests are nor-
mally made in accordance with ASTM E10, Method
of Test for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials. The
load in kilograms force listed in Table 4---13 should be
used.
Hardness tests are to be made on the tooth por-
tion of the part after final heat treatment, if required.
The number of hardness tests made should be speci-
fied by the gear manufacturer.
(5) Casting Tensile Properties. Tensile tests are
only required when specified. Tensile tests when spe-
cified are made in accordance with ASTM E8, Ten-
sion Testing of Metallic Materials. Tensile test bars for
sand castings may be attached to casting or cast sepa-
rately. Tensile test bars for static chill castings may be
cast separately with a chill in the bottom of the test
bar mold. Tensile test bars for centrifugal castings
may be cast in a separate centrifugal mold for test
bars or cast in a chill test bar mold.
NOTE: An integral or separately cast test bar
does not necessarily represent the properties
obtained in the casting. The properties in the
casting are dependent upon the size and de-
sign of the casting and foundry practice.
Three test coupons shall be poured from each
melt of metal or per 1000 lbs (454 kg) of melt except
where the individual casting weighs more than 1000
lbs (454 kg).
Heat treated castings should have the test cou-
pons heat treated in the same furnace loads as the
casting they represent.
21 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---10
Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloys
Composition, Percent Maximum (unless shown as a range or minimum)
Bronze Former
Alloy
1
AGMA Cu Ni
(incl Ag) Pb Fe Sn Zn Al As Mn Si (incl Co)
UNS NO. Type

C62300 --- --- Rem. --- --- 2.0 0.60 --- --- 8.5 --- --- 0.50 0.25 1.0
to to
4.0 11.0

C62400 --- --- Rem. --- --- 2.0 0.20 --- --- 10.0 --- --- 0.30 0.25 --- ---
to to
4.5 11.5

C63000 ALBR 6 Rem. --- --- 2.0 0.20 0.30 9.0 --- --- 1.50 0.25 4.0
to to to
4.0 11.0 5.5

C64200 ALBR 5 Rem. 0.05 0.30 0.20 0.50 6.3 0.15 0.10 1.5 0.25
to to
7.6 2.2

C67300 --- --- 58.0 0.40 0.50 0.30 Rem. 0.25 --- --- 2.0 0.50 0.25
to to to to
63.0 3.0 3.5 1.5

1 Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
Report SAE J461. For added copper alloy information, also see SAE J463.

Table 4---11
Typical Mechanical Properties! of Wrought Bronze Alloy Rod and Bar
Former Elongation in
Bronze2 Alloy Tensile Strength Yield Strength Hardness
AGMA 2 in (50 mm)
UNS NO. Type ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) percent, min. HB and HRB

C62300 --- --- 90 (620) 45 (310) 25 180HB (1000kgf)

C62400 --- --- 95 (655) 50 (345) 12 200HB (3000kgf)

C63000 ALBR 6 90 (620) 45 (310) 17 100 HRB

C64200 ALBR 5 93 (640) 60 (415) 26 90 HRB
C67300 --- --- 70 (485) 40 (275) 25 70 HRB

1 Typical mechanical properties vary with form, temper, and section size considerations.
2 Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
Report SAE J461. For added wrought copper alloy information, also see SAE J463.

ANSI/AGMA 22 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---12
Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys

Bronze Former Composition, Percent Maximum (unless shown as a range or minimum)

Alloy * AGMA Ni
UNS NO. Type Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb (incl Co) S P Al Si Mn

C86200 MNBR 3 60.0 0.20 0.20 22.0 2.0 --- --- 1.0 --- --- --- --- 3.0 --- --- 2.5
to to to to to
66.0 28.0 4.0 4.9 5.0

C86300 MNBR 4 60.0 0.20 0.20 22.0 2.0 --- --- 1.0 --- --- --- --- 5.0 --- --- 2.5
to to to to to
66.0 28.0 4.0 7.5 5.0
C86500 MNBR 2 55.0 1.0 0.40 36.0 0.4 --- --- 1.0 --- --- --- --- 0.5 --- --- 0.10
to to to to to
60.0 42.0 2.0 1.5 1.5

C90700 MNBR 2 88.0 10.0 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.20 0.5 0.05 0.30{ 0.005 0.005 --- ---
to to
90.0 12.0

C92500 MNBR 5 85.0 10.0 1.0 0.50 0.30 0.25 0.8 0.05 0.30{ 0.005 0.005 --- ---
to to to to
88.0 12.0 1.5 1.5
C92700 MNBR 3 86.0 9.0 1.0 0.70 0.20 0.25 1.0 0.05 0.25{ 0.005 0.005 --- ---
to to to
89.0 11.0 2.5
C92900 --- --- 82.0 9.0 2.0 0.25 0.20 0.25 2.8 0.05 0.25{ 0.005 0.005 --- ---
to to to to
86.0 11.0 3.2 4.0

C95200 ALBR 1 86.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 2.5 --- --- --- --- --- --- 0.50{ 8.5 --- --- --- ---
min to to
4.0 9.5
C95300 ALBR 2 86.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 0.8 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 9.0 --- --- --- ---
min to to
1.5 11.0

C95400 ALBR 3 83.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 3.0 --- --- 2.5 --- --- --- --- 10.0 --- --- 0.5
min to to
5.0 11.5

C95500 ALBR 4 78.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 3.0 --- --- 3.0 --- --- --- --- 10.0 --- --- 3.5
min to to to
5.0 5.5 11.5

* Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
Report SAE J461. For added copper alloy information, also see SAE J462.
{ For continuous castings, phosphorus shall be 1.5 percent maximum.

ANSI/AGMA 23 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 4---13
Mechanical Properties of Cast Bronze Alloys!

Copper Minimum Typical Hardness %

Former Minimum Minimum Percent
Alloy Casting Method 4 4
AGMA Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation HB HB
UNS.2 & Condition #
Type ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) in 2 inch 500 3000
NO. (50 mm) kgf kgf
C86200 MNBR 3 Sand, Centrifugal 90 (620) 45 (310) 18 --- --- 180
Continuous
C86300 MNBR 4 Sand, Centrifugal 110 (760) 60 (415) 12 --- --- 225
Continuous 110 (760) 62 (425) 14 --- --- 225
C86500 MNBR 2 Sand, Centrifugal 65 (450) 25 (170) 20 112 --- ---
C86500 MNBR 2 Continuous 70 (485) 25 (170) 25 112 --- ---
C90700 BRONZE 2 Sand 35 (240) 18 (125) 10 70 --- ---
C90700 BRONZE 2 Continuous 40 (275) 25 (170) 10 80 --- ---
C90700 BRONZE 2 Centrifugal 50 (345) 28 (195) 12 100 --- ---

C92500 BRONZE 5 Sand 35 (240) 18 (125) 10 70 --- ---

C92500 BRONZE 5 Continuous 40 (275) 24 (165) 10 80 --- ---
C92700 BRONZE 3 Sand 35 (240) 18 (125) 10 70 --- ---
C92700 BRONZE 3 Continuous 38 (260) 20 (140) 8 80 --- ---
C92900 --- --- Sand, Continuous 45 (310) 25 (170) 8 90 --- ---
C95200 ALBR 1 Sand, Centrifugal 65 (450) 25 (170) 20 --- --- 125
C95200 ALBR 1 Continuous 68 (470) 26 (180) 20 --- --- 125

C95300 ALBR 2 Sand, Centrifugal 65 (450) 25 (170) 20 --- --- 140

C95300 ALBR 2 Continuous 70 (485) 26 (180) 25 --- --- 140
C95300 ALBR 2 Sand, Centrifugal 80 (550) 40 (275) 12 --- --- 160
C95300 ALBR 2 Continuous (HT) 80 (550) 40 (275) 12 --- --- 160

C95400 ALBR 3 Sand, Centrifugal (HT) 75 (515) 30 (205) 12 --- --- 160
C95400 ALBR 3 Continuous 85 (585) 32 (220) 12 --- --- 160
C95400 ALBR 3 Sand, Centrifugal (HT) 90 (620) 45 (310) 6 --- --- 190
C95400 ALBR 3 Continuous (HT) 95 (655) 45 (310) 10 --- --- 190

C95500 ALBR 4 Sand, Centrifugal 90 (620) 40 (275) 6 --- --- 190

C95500 ALBR 4 Continuous 95 (655) 45 (290) 10 --- --- 190
C95500 ALBR 4 Sand, Centrifugal (HT) 110 (760) 60 (415) 5 --- --- 200
C95500 ALBR 4 Continuous (HT) 110 (760) 62 (425) 8 --- --- 200

1 For rating of worm gears in accordance with AGMA 6034---A87, the Materials Factor, k s , will depend
upon the particular casting method employed.
2 Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
Report SAE J461. For added copper alloy information, also see SAE J462.
3 Refer to ASTM B427 for sand and centrifugal cast C90700 alloy and sand cast C92900.
4 Minimum tensile strength and yield strength shall be reduced 10% for continuous cast bars having a
cross section of 4 inch (102 mm) or more (see ASTM B505, Table 3 footnote).
5 BHN at other load levels (1000 kgf or 1500 kgf) may be used if approved by purchaser.

ANSI/AGMA 24 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
One test specimen should be tested from each
group of three test coupons cast. If this bar meets the
tensile requirements, the lot should be accepted. If
the first bar fails to meet the specified requirements,
the two remaining specimens shall be tested. The av-
erage properties of these two bars must meet speci-
fied requirements for acceptance of the lot.
(6) Casting Hardness Control. The gear
manufacturer can select at random any number of
castings from a given lot to determine the hardness at
or within 1 inch (25mm) of the cast OD or as indi-
cated on gear manufacturers drawing. The lot
should consist of all gears produced from one melt of
metal. Determination of hardness at or near the root
diameter is optional and should be agreed upon by
the purchaser and gear manufacturer.
The minimum hardness, using a 500 kg load,
shall be 80 HB for static chill and centrifugal chill
castings, and 70 HB for sand castings. The minimum
hardness at or near the root diameter shall be agreed
upon by the purchaser and the casting producer. Fail-
ure of any gear to meet hardness requirements speci-
fied is subject to rejection.
(7) Cast Structure. When required, the producer
should furnish specified microspecimens or photo-
micrographs for each melt with the certificate of
hardness, chemistry, and mechanical properties.
(8) Supplemental Data. The following supple-
mentary requirement should apply only when speci-
fied by contractual agreement. Details of this sup-
plementary requirement should be agreed upon by
the casting producer and gear manufacturer.
(a) With proper foundry technique, the proper-
ties of static chilled and centrifugal cast separate test
bars should be the same.
(b) An integral or a separate test bar simply sig-
nifies the melt quality poured into the mold to make
the casting. It does not express the specific proper-
ties and characteristics of the casting which are great-
ly dependent on design, size, and foundry technique.
(c) The grain size of cast copper base alloys va-
ries as a function of cooling rate and section thick-
ness. Recommended maximum grain size for centrif-
ugal castings is 0.035 mm in the rim, 0.070 mm in the
web and 0.120 mm in the hub. The grain size for cop-
per base alloys is determined per ASTM E112 at 75X
magnification.
(d) The grain size of static cast copper base alloys
should be mutually agreed upon by the consumer and
producer with reference to the various sections of the
ANSI/AGMA
castings and, in particular, the tooth section. It may
be advisable to specify by use of photomicrographic
standards both acceptable and non---acceptable
phase distributions in the gear rim section.
4.11 Other Non--- Ferrous Materials. In addition to
the more common non---ferrous materials used for
gears, several wrought aluminum and beryllium cop-
per alloys are occasionally used. Specifications are
specialized and should be resolved between the user
and supplier.
4.12 Non--- Metallic Materials. Many gears, particu-
larly those used to transmit motion rather than pow-
er, are produced from non---metallic materials. Be-
cause of the wide range of non---metallic materials,
engineering data on the various types of non---metals
is usually most easily available from the producers.
Plastics are being used at a rapidly increasing
rate as gear materials in the fine pitch range. Im-
proved materials, advances in gear mold design and
molding technology, development of engineering
data, and the successful use of plastic gears in many
applications have all contributed to the establish-
ment of certain plastics as engineering material suit-
able for fine pitch gears.
Non---metallic gears are usually selected for
properties such as low friction, ability to operate with
no lubricant, resistance to water absorbtion, and
quietness of operation. (See Appendix A and
AGMA 141.)
5. Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process
used to achieve desired properties in gear materials.
Ferrous gearing may be through hardened or surface
hardened when gear rating or service requirements
warrant higher hardness and strength for improved
fatigue strength or wear resistance. Common heat
treatments for ferrous materials include:
(1) Preheat treatments---
Anneal
Normalize and temper
Quench and temper
Stress relief
(2) Heat treatments---
Through harden (anneal, normalize, or
normalize and temper, and quench and
temper).
Surface harden profile heated (flame and
induction harden) and profile chemistry
25 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
modified (carburize, carbonitride, and ni-
tride)
(3) Post heat treatment---
Stress relieve
Specialized heat treatment for nonferrous mate-
rials should be recommended by the producer.
5.1 Through Hardening Processes. Through hard-
ened gears are heated to a required temperature and
cooled in the furnace or quenched in air, gas or liq-
uid. Through hardening may be used before or after
the gear teeth are formed.
There are generally three methods of heat treat-
ing through hardened gearing. In ascending order of
hardness for a particular type of steel they are;
annealing, normalizing (or normalizing and temper-
ing), and quenching and tempering. Modifications
of quench hardening, such as austempering and mar-
tempering, occur infrequently for steel gearing and
are, therefore, not discussed. Austempering is used,
however, for through hardened (approximately 300
to 480 HB) ductile cast iron gears.
NOTE: Through hardening does not imply
equal hardness through all sections of the
part. See 4.6 for discussion of hardenability.
5.1.1 Annealing. Annealing consists of heating
steel or other ferrous alloys to 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C), and furnace cooling to a prescribed
temperature [generally below 600_F (316_C)].
Annealing may be the final treatment (when low
hardness requirements permit) or is typically a pre-
treatment applied to the cast or wrought gear blank
in the rough. It results in low hardness and pro-
vides improved machinability and dimensional sta-
bility (minimum residual stress). Typical hardness for
annealed gearing is shown in Table 4---2.
5.1.2 Normalizing. Normalizing consists of
heating steel or other ferrous alloys to 1600---1800_F
(871---982 _C) and cooling in still or circulated air.
Normalizing results in higher hardness than anneal-
ing, with hardness being a function of grade of steel
and the part section thickness. However, with plain
carbon steels containing up to about 0.4 percent car-
bon, normalizing does not increase hardness signifi-
cantly more than annealing, regardless of section
size.
Alloy steels are normally tempered at
1000---1250_F (538---677_C) after normalizing for
uniform hardness, dimensional stability and im-
proved machinability.
ANSI/AGMA
Typical specified hardness ranges for normalized
and tempered steels are shown in Table 4---2.
5.1.3 Normalizing and Annealing for Metallurgical
Uniformity. The normalizing and annealing pro-
cesses are frequently used, either singularly or in
combination, as a homogenizing heat treatment for
alloy steels. These processes are used in wrought
steel to reduce metallurgical non---uniformity such as
segregated alloy microstructures (banding) and dis-
torted crystaline microstructures from mechanical
working.
Cycle annealing is a term applied to a special
normalize/temper process in which the parts are rap-
idly cooled to 800---1000_F (427---538_C) after
normalizing at 1600---1750_F (871---954_C), fol-
lowed by a 1200_F (649_C) temper with controlled
cooling to 600_F (316_C).
5.1.4 Quench and Temper. The quench and tem-
per process on ferrous alloys involves heating to form
austenite at 1475---1600_F (802---871_C), followed
by rapid quenching. The rapid cooling causes the
gear to become harder and stronger by formation of
martensite. The gear is then tempered to a specific
temperature, generally below 1275_F(691_C), to
achieve the desired mechanical properties. Temper-
ing reduces the material hardness and mechanical
strength but improves the material ductility and
toughness (impact resistance). Selection of the tem-
pering temperature must be based upon the speci-
fied hardness range, material composition, and the
as quenched hardness. The tempered hardness va-
ries inversely with tempering temperature. Parts are
normally air cooled from tempering temperatures.
Table 4---3 gives hardness guidelines for some steel
grades.
The hardness and mechanical properties
achieved from the quench and temper process are
higher than those achieved from the normalize or an-
neal process.
5.1.4.1 Applications. The quench and temper
process should be specified for the following condi-
tions:
(1) When the gear application stress analysis in-
dicates that the hardness and mechanical properties
for the specified material grade can best be achieved
by the quench and temper process.
(2) When the hardness and mechanical proper-
ties required for a given gear application can be
achieved more economically by quench and temper
26 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
of a lower alloy steel, than by normalizing or anneal-
ing.
(3) When it is necessary to develop mechanical
properties (core properties) in sections of the part
which will not be altered by subsequent heat treat-
ments (for example nitriding, flame hardening, in-
duction hardening, electron beam hardening, and la-
ser hardening).
5.1.4.2 Processing Considerations. The major
factors of the quench and temper process that influ-
ence hardness and material strength are:
(1) Material chemistry and hardenability
(2) Quench severity
(3) Section size
(4) Time at temperature
The steel carbon content determines the maxi-
mum surface hardness which can be achieved, while
the alloy composition determines the hardness gra-
dient which can be achieved through the part. Refer
to 4.6 for more information on hardenability.
5.1.4.3 Tempering. Tempering lowers hardness
and strength, which improves ductility and toughness
or impact resistance. The tempering temperature
must be carefully selected based upon the specified
hardness range, the quenched hardness of the part,
and the material. The optimum tempering tempera-
ture is the highest temperature possible while main-
taining the specified hardness range. Hardness after
tempering varies inversely with the tempering tem-
perature used. Parts are normally air cooled from the
tempering temperature.
Tables in the appropriate reference are available
as guidelines for the effect of tempering temperature
on hardness.
CAUTION: Some steels can become brittle
and unsuitable for service if tempered in the
temperature range of 800---1200_F
(425---650_C). This phenomenon is called
temper brittleness and is generally consid-
ered to be caused by segregation of alloying
elements or precipitation of compounds at
ferrite and prior austenite grain boundaries.
If the part under consideration must be tem-
pered in this range, investigate the specific
materials susceptibility to temper brittleness
and proceed accordingly. Molybdenum con-
tent of 0.25---0.50 percent has been shown to
eliminate temper brittleness in most steels.
Temper brittleness should not be confused
ANSI/AGMA
with the tempering embrittlement phenome-
non from tempering in a lower range
(500---600_F) often referred to as 500_F or
A---Embrittlement.
5.1.4.4 Designer Specification. The designer
should specify the following on the drawing.
(1) Grade of steel
(2) Quench and temper to a hardness range.
The hardness range should be a 4 HRC or 40 HB
point range. The designer should not specify a tem-
pering temperature range on the drawing. It is best
to specify a hardness range and allow the heat treater
to select the tempering temperature to obtain the
specified hardness. Specifying both tempering tem-
peratures and hardness ranges on a drawing causes
an impractical situation for the heat treater. Temper-
ing below 900_F(482_C) should be approved by the
purchaser.
(3) Any testing required. For example, hardness
tests, or any non---destructive tests such as magnetic
particle inspection or dye penetrant inspection, in-
cluding the frequency of testing.
5.1.4.5 Specified Hardness. The specified hard-
ness of through hardened gearing is generally mea-
sured on the gear tooth end face and rim section. His-
torically, this has been interpreted to mean that the
specified hardness must be met at this location. De-
signers often interpret this to mean that minimum
hardness is to be obtained at the roots of teeth for
gear rating purposes. Since depth of hardening de-
pends upon grade of steel (hardenability), control-
ling section size (refer to Appendix B) and heat treat
practice, achieving specified hardness on these sur-
faces may not necessarily insure hardness at the roots
of teeth. If gear root hardness is critical to a specific
design criteria, the gear tooth root hardness should
be specified. However, care should be taken to avoid
needlessly increasing material costs by changing to a
higher hardenability steel where service life has been
successful.
5.1.4.6 Maximum Controlling Section Size. The
maximum controlling section size is based upon the
hardenability of alloy steel for through hardened
gear blanks. Appendix B illustrates the controlling
section for various gear configurations whose teeth
are machined after heat treatment.
5.1.4.7 Additional Information. For more in-
formation, consult the following:
The ASM Handbook, Volume 4, Heat Treating,
8th or 9th edition.
27 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Military specification MIL---H---6875 and Mil---
STD---1684.
5.1.5 Stress Relief. Stress relief is a thermal cycle
used to relieve residual stresses created by prior heat
treatments, machining, cold working, welding, or
other fabricating techniques. The ideal temperature
range for full stress relieving is 1100---1275_F
(593---691_C). Lower temperatures are sometimes
used when 1100_F (593_C) temperatures would re-
duce hardness below the specified minimum. Lower
temperatures with longer holding times are some-
times used.
NOTE: Stress relief below 1100_F(593_C) re-
duces the effectiveness. Stress relief below
900_F(482_C) is not recommended.
5.1.6 Heavy Draft, Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved
Steel Bars. Heavy draft, cold drawn, stress relieved
bars may be used as an alternative to quench and
tempered steel. However, fatigue properties of this
steel may not be equivalent to quench and tempered
steel with the same tensile properties. Size limita-
tions and mechanical properties are listed in Table
4---5. For further details see ASTM A---311.
5.2 Flame and Induction Hardening. Flame or in-
duction hardening of gearing involves heating of gear
teeth to 1450---1600_F(788---871_C) followed by
quench and tempering. An oxyfuel burner is used for
flame hardening. An encircling coil or tooth by tooth
inductor is used for induction hardening. These pro-
cesses develop a hard wear resistant case on the gear
teeth. When only the surface is heated to the re-
quired depth, only the surface is hardened during
quenching (see Figs 5---1 and 5---2). Material selec-
tion and heat treat condition prior to flame or induc-
tion hardening significantly affects the hardness and
uniformity of properties which can be obtained.
5.2.1 Methods of Flame and Induction Harden-
ing. Both of these methods of surface hardening can
be done by spin hardening, or by tooth to tooth hard-
ening.
Spin hardening of gearing involves heating all of
the teeth across the face simultaneously by spinning
ANSI/AGMA
the gear element within the heat source (flame or in-
duction coil) which envelopes the entire face width.
Gearing is removed from the heat source and im-
mediately hardened by the quenchant. Shafting and
gearing can also be progressively spin hardened by
spinning the shaft or tooth section within the heat
source and following quench head. The heat source
and quench head traverse axially along the length to
be hardened.
Gearing can also be tooth to tooth, progressively
hardened by passing the flame or inductor and fol-
lowing quench head between the roots of teeth. In-
ductor or flame heads or burner may be designed ei-
ther to pass in the root diameter between flanks of
adjacent teeth, to heat the root diameter and oppo-
site flanks of adjacent teeth, or may fit or encompass
the top land to heat the top land and opposite flanks
of each tooth.
Heat sources designed to pass between adjacent
teeth followed by quenching are desirable from both
endurance or bending strength and wear consider-
ations, because both the flanks of teeth and root di-
ameter are hardened. Only the non---critical top
lands of teeth are not hardened. An inductor or
flame head which encompasses only top lands of
teeth and adjacent flanks followed by quenching pro-
vide wear resistance to the flanks, but endurance or
bending strength in the roots is not enhanced. Resid-
ual tensile stress in the roots of teeth may also prove
detrimental. It is, therefore, recommended that both
the designer and heat treater know what type of
hardening pattern is desired.
Gearing may also be tooth to tooth, progressive-
ly hardened by passing the inductor between the
roots of adjacent teeth, while the gear element is sub-
merged in a synthetic quench (termed Delapena
Process). This process, like other tooth to tooth
hardening techniques, is time consuming and is not
economical for small, finer pitch gearing (finer than
10 DP). Spin hardening is more economical for
smaller gears.
28 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

SPIN FLANK FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD

FROM THIS TO THIS

FLANK FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD

FROM THIS TO THIS

FLANK AND ROOT FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD

FROM THIS TO THIS

FLAME HEAD FLAME HEAD

FROM THIS TO THIS

THE HARDENING PATTERNS SHOWN ARE NOT POSSIBLE FOR ALL SIZES AND DIAMETRAL
PITCHES OF GEARING, AND ARE DEPENDENT UPON THE CAPACITY OF THE EQUIPMENT.

Fig 5---1 Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on Gear Teeth by

Flame Hardening

ANSI/AGMA 29 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

SPIN HARDENING
INDUCTION COIL INDUCTION COIL
OR FLAME HEAD OR FLAME HEAD

FLANK HARDENING
INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD

FLANK AND ROOT HARDENING

INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD

Fig 5---2 Variations in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on Gear Teeth by

Induction Hardening

ANSI/AGMA 30 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Three basic gases are used for flame heating,
which include MAPP, acetylene and propane. These
gases are each mixed with air in particular ratios and
are burned under pressure to generate the flame
which the burner directs on the work piece.
Simple torch type flame heads are also used to
manually harden teeth. Since there is no automatic
control of this process, high operator skill is required.
Induction hardening employs a wide variety of
inductors ranging from coiled copper tubing to forms
machined from solid copper combined with lami-
nated materials to achieve the required induced elec-
trical currents.
Coarser pitch teeth generally require inductors
powered by medium frequency motor generator sets
or solid state units. Finer pitch gearing generally uti-
lizes encircling coils with power provided by high fre-
quency vacuum tube units.
Wide faced gearing is heated by scanning type
equipment while more limited areas can be heated by
stationary inductors. Parts are rotated when encir-
cling coils are used.
Induction heating depth and pattern are con-
trolled by frequency, power density, shape of the in-
ductor, workpiece geometry and workpiece area be-
ing heated.
Contour or profile hardened tooth patterns for
4---12 D.P. gearing can be obtained by dual frequency
spin coil induction heating using both low (audio)
frequency (AF) of 1---15 kHz and higher (radio) fre-
quency (RF) of approximately 350---500 kHz. Initial-
ly low audio frequency is used to preheat the root
area, followed by high radio frequency to develop the
profile heated pattern, followed by quenching.
Quenching after flame or induction heating can
be integral with the heat source by use of a separate
following spray, or separate by using an immersion
quench tank. Oil, water or polymer solutions can be
used, in addition to air, depending upon hardenabil-
ity of the steel and hardening requirements.
5.2.2 Application. Flame and induction harden-
ing have been used successfully on most gear types;
e.g., spur, helical, bevel, herringbone, etc. These
processes are used when gear teeth require high sur-
face hardness, but size or configuration does not lend
itself to carburizing and quenching the entire part.
These processes may also be used when the maxi-
mum contact and bending strength achieved by car-
burizing is not required. These processes are also
ANSI/AGMA
used in place of more costly nitriding which cannot
economically generate some of the deeper cases re-
quired.
Contour induction is preferred over flame when
root hardness and closer control of case depth is re-
quired. Contour flame hardening of the flanks and
roots is not generally available. The general applica-
tion of flame hardening is to the flanks only, except
when spin flame hardening is applied. The spin flame
process generally hardens below the roots, but hard-
ens teeth through the entire cross section, reducing
core ductility of teeth and increasing distortion (see
Fig 5---2).
If high root hardness is not required, flame hard-
ening is more available and more economical than in-
duction hardening for herringbone and spiral bevel
gearing.
NOTE: AGMA quality level will be reduced
approximately one level (from the green
condition) after flame or induction hardening
unless subsequent finishing is performed.
5.2.3 Material. A wide variety of materials can
be flame or induction hardened, including (cast and
wrought) carbon and alloy steels, martensitic stain-
less steels, ductile, malleable and gray cast irons.
Generally, steels with carbon content of approxi-
mately 0.35---0.55 percent are suitable for flame or
induction hardening. Alloy steels of 0.5 percent car-
bon or higher are susceptible to cracking. The higher
the alloy content with high carbon, the greater the
tendency for cracking. Cast irons also have a high
tendency for cracking.
Selection of the material condition of the gear-
ing can affect the magnitude and repeatability of
flame and induction hardening. Hot rolled material
exhibits more dimensional change and variation than
hot rolled, cold drawn material because of densifica-
tion from cold working. A quench and tempered ma-
terial condition or preheat treatment, however, pro-
vides the best hardening response and most repeat-
able distortion.
5.2.4 Prior Heat Treatment. For more consistent
results, it is recommended that coarser pitched gears
of leaner alloy steels receive a quench and temper
pretreatment; for example, 4140 steel with teeth
coarser than 3 DP.
In both carbon and alloy steels, normalized or
annealed structures can be hardened. These struc-
tures do, however, require longer heating cycles and
a more severe quench which increase the chance of
31 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
cracking. The annealed structure is the least recep-
tive to flame or induction hardening.
Successful induction hardening of either gray or
ductile cast iron is dependent on the amount of car-
bon in the matrix. The combined carbon in pearlite
will readily dissolve at the austenitizing temperature.
Pearlite microstructures are desirable. Pearlite pro-
moting alloy additions such as copper, tin, nickel or
molybdenum may be necessary to form this micro-
structure.
5.2.5 Hardening Patterns. There are two basic
methods of flame or induction hardening gears, spin
hardening and tooth to tooth hardening. See Figs
5---1 and 5---2 for variations of these processes and
the resultant hardening patterns.
The hardening patterns shown are not possible
for all sizes and diametral pitches. For coarser
pitches, requirements should be worked out with the
supplier. For induction hardening, the kW or power
capacity of the equipment limits the pattern which
can be attained. Root flame hardening by the tooth
by tooth process is difficult and should be specified
with care.
The induction coil method is generally limited to
gears of approximately 5 DP and finer. The maxi-
mum diameter and face width of gears capable of be-
ing single shot induction coil hardened is determined
by the area of the outside diameter and the kW ca-
pacity of the equipment. Long slender parts can be
induction hardened with lower kW capacity equip-
ment by having the coils scan the length of the part
while the part is rotating in the coil.
Flank or root and flank induction scan harden-
ing (contour) can be applied to almost any tooth size
with appropriate supporting equipment and kW ca-
pacity. However, for pitches of approximately 16 DP
and finer, these methods are not recommended. Spin
hardening in an induction coil is recommended. Spin
hardening of finer pitches is also required when using
flame burners.
The allowable durability and root strength rating
for the different hardening patterns should be ob-
tained from appropriate AGMA rating practices.
These bending strength ratings are lower at the roots
of teeth when only the tooth flanks are hardened.
ANSI/AGMA
5.2.6 Process Considerations. Several areas
must be considered when processing. Some of the
more critical requirements are outlined below.
5.2.6.1 Repeatability. Repeatable process con-
trol is essential for acceptable results. With induc-
tion, this is usually not a problem with properly main-
tained equipment since electrical power characteris-
tics, inductor movement and integral quench intensi-
ty can be readily controlled.
Repeatabiltiy becomes more difficult with flame
hardening. Equipment varies from hand held
torches to tailor made machine tools with well con-
trolled movement of burner heads. Equipment must
be such that heating rates across the burner face are
consistent from cycle to cycle. Gas pressure and mix-
ing of heating gases must be uniform. Burner head
location must be precise from cycle to cycle.
5.2.6.2 Heating with Flame or Induction. Accu-
rate heating to the proper surface temperature is a
critical step. Burner or inductor design, heat input
and cycle time must be closely controlled. Under-
heating results in less than specified hardness and
case depth. Overheating can result in cracking.
Flame hardening may also cause burning or melting
of tooth surfaces.
5.2.6.3 Quenching. Heat must be removed
quickly and uniformly to obtain desired hardness.
The quenchant should produce acceptable as
quenched hardness, yet minimize cracking. Quen-
chants used are: water, soluble oil, polymer, oil and
air.
Parts heated in an induction coil are usually
quenched in an integral quench ring or in an agitated
quench media. When the part is scanned while rotat-
ing in a coil, a spray quench usually follows behind
the coil.
Flank hardened teeth usually have an integral
quench following the inductor, or the gear is sub-
merged in liquid during heating.
Quench time and temperature are critical and
in---spray quenching, pressure velocity and direction
of the quench media must be considered. When
localized or air quenching is used, a coolant is used
on a portion of the metal away from the heating zone
to maintain the base metal near ambient tempera-
ture so the part mass can absorb heat from the heated
zone.
32 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

5.2.6.4 Tempering. Tempering is mandatory only
when specified. However, for particular processes,
judgment should be exercised before omitting tem-
pering. It is good practice to temper after quenching
to increase toughness and reduce residual stress and
crack susceptibility. Tempering should be for a suffi-
cient time to insure that hardened teeth reach the
specified tempering temperature. Flame hardened
parts which are air quenched are self tempered, and
separate tempering is unnecessary.
5.2.6.5 Surface Hardness. Surface hardness is
the hardness measured on the immediate surface
and is primarily a function of the carbon content (see
Fig 5---3). Hardness may be lower as a result of prior
heat treatment, alloy content, depth of hardening,
heating time, mass and quenching considerations.
5.2.6.6 Effective Case Depth. Effective case
depth for flame and induction hardened gears is nor-
mally defined as the distance below the surface at the
0.5 tooth height where hardness drops 10 HRC
points below the surface hardness (see Fig 5---3).
When a tooth is through hardened, effective case
depth does not apply. When root is also to be hard-
ened, depth of case at the root may be specified.
5.2.7 Rating Considerations. Designers should be
aware that AGMA decreases load ratings for gears
which do not have hardened roots. AGMA gear rat-
ing standards should be consulted for appropriate
stress numbers.
5.2.7.1 Heat Affected Zone. In flame hardening, the
heat affected zone (HAZ) is a region that is heated to
1300---1400_F, (704_C---760_C) but does not get
hardened and thus has lower strength. This zone
should be located either a minimum of 1/8 inch up the
flank from the critical root fillet or well below the
root diameter.
Contour induction hardening results in case
depth at the root to be approximately 60 percent of
the depth at the pitchline due to mass quench and
hardenabiltiy effect. Profile hardening of fine
pitched gearing using a submerged quench decreases
the difference between pitchline and root case
depth.

60
MAXIMUM SURFACE HARDNESS

50

H= 10

40 EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH HARDNESS

30
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
CARBON CONTENT --- PERCENT
Fig 5---3 Recommended Maximum Surface Hardness and Effective Case Depth
Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening

ANSI/AGMA 33 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
5.2.7.2 Case Depth Evaluation (Hardness Pat-
tern). Although it is not always practical, particularly
on larger gearing, the only positive way to check case
depth is by sectioning an actual part. For tooth by
tooth hardening, a segment of a gear can be hard-
ened and sectioned. Case depth should be deter-
mined on a normal tooth section, using an appropri-
ate superficial or micro---hardness tester. When a
gear cannot be sectioned, hardness pattern and
depth can be checked by polishing end faces of teeth
and nitric acid etching. Grit blasting is also occasion-
ally used. Hardness can also be checked on end faces
at flank and root areas.
NOTE: During tooth by tooth induction
hardening, power is lowered and travel is
sometimes increased as the inductor ap-
proaches the end faces. This is to prevent
edge burning and cracking. In these
instances, hardness may be lower at the ends,
particularly at the root area. In this case, exis-
tence of a hardness pattern can be demon-
strated by acid etching, but actual depth can-
not be accurately measured.
5.2.8 Specifications. The drawing, order, or writ-
ten specification should include the following in-
formation:
(1) Chemical analysis range of the material or
designation.
(2) Prior heat treatment.
(3) Hardening pattern required.
(4) Minimum surface hardness required.
(Maximums may be specified for induction hard-
ened parts).
(5) Those areas where the surface hardness is to
be measured and the frequency of inspection.
(6) Depth of hardening required and the loca-
tion(s) at which the depth is to be obtained.
(7) Whether destructive tests are to be used for
determining the depth of hardening and the frequen-
cy of such inspection.
(8) Tempering temperature, if required.
(9) Magnetic particle inspection, if required.
5.2.9 Documentation. The heat treater should
submit the following information:
(1) Surface hardness range obtained and the
number of pieces inspected.
(2) Depth of hardening obtained at each loca-
tion specified when destructive tests are required,
and the number of pieces inspected.
ANSI/AGMA
(3) Results of magnetic particle inspection, if
required.
5.3 Carburizing. Gas carburizing consists of heating
and holding low carbon alloy steel (0.07---0.28 per-
cent Carbon) at normally 1650---1800_F
(899---982_C) in a controlled atmosphere which
causes additional carbon to diffuse into the steel
(typically 0.70---1.10 percent carbon at the surface).
Gear blanks to be carburized and hardened are
generally preheated after the initial anneal by a sub-
critical anneal at 1100_F---1250_F (590---675_C),
normalize, normalize and temper or quench and
temper to specified hardness before carburize hard-
ening. This is done for machinability, dimensional
stability and possible grain refinement consider-
ations. An intermediate stress relief before final ma-
chining before carburizing may be used to remove re-
sidual stress from rough machining.
After carburizing for the appropriate time, gear-
ing will usually be cooled to 1475---1550_F
(802---843_C), held at temperature to stabilize while
maintaining the carbon potential, and direct
quenched. Gearing may be atmosphere cooled after
carburizing to below approximately 600_F (315_C)
and then reheated in controlled atmosphere to
1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and quenched. After
quenching, gearing is usually tempered at
300---375_F (149---191_C). Gearing may be subse-
quently given a refrigeration treatment to transform
retained austenite and retempered.
5.3.1 Applications. Carburized and hardened
gearing is used when optimum properties are re-
quired. High surface hardness, high case strength, fa-
vorable compressive residual stress in the hardened
case, and suitable core properties based on selection
of the appropriate carburizing grade of steel, result
in the highest AGMA gear tooth ratings for contact
stress, pitting resistance and root strength (bending).
Carburized gear ratings are higher than the ratings
for through hardened and other types of surface
hardened gearing because of higher fatigue strength.
Improved load distribution can be obtained by subse-
quent hard gear finishing. Conventional hard gear
finishing (skiving and grinding) results in some sacri-
fice of beneficial compressive stress at the surface
and substantially increases costs.
Carburized gearing is used in enclosed gear units
for general industrial use, high speed and aerospace
precision gear units and also large open gearing for
mill applications. Carburized gearing is also used for
34 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

improved wear resistance. Specified finish opera- carburized helical and spur gearing to 4 1/2 DP. The
tions after hardening depend upon accuracy and con- test bar should have minimum dimensions of 5/8 inch
tact requirements for all applications. (16 mm) diameter by 2 inch (50 mm) long. One inch
Carburizing technology is well established and (25 mm) diameter 2.0 inch (50 mm) long bar may
the available equipment and controls make it a reli- be used for coarser pitch carburized gearing to 1.5
able process. Surface hardness, case depth, and core DP. The size of the bar for coarser than 1.5 DP gear-
hardness can be specified to reasonably close toler- ing should be mutually agreed upon, and should
ances, and the quality can be audited. approximate the inscribed diameter at mid height of
the tooth cross section. The bar length should be
Some gearing does not lend itself to carburize 2---3 times the diameter.
hardening because of distortion. Gearing which dis-
When specified, core hardness and core micro-
torts and cannot be straightened without cracking,
structure can be determined at the center of the
rack gears, thin sections, complex shapes, parts not
round bar size shown in Table 5---1 according to di-
designed for finishing or where finishing is cost pro-
ametral pitch.
hibitive, present manufacturing problems. Press
quenching after carburizing can be used to minimize Table 5---1
distortion. Selected areas of gearing can be pro- Test Bar Size for Core Hardness
tected from carburizing (masked) to permit machin- Determination
ing after hardening, or can be machined after carbu- DP BAR SIZE
rizing and slow cooling before hardening. 4 1/2 DP 1.25 inch (32.0 mm)
Gearing beyond 80 inch (2032 mm) diameter is and finer D. 3.0 inch
(76 mm) long
difficult to carburize due to the limited number of
available furnaces for processing. Maximum size of 2 1/2 DP 2.25 inch (57 mm)
carburize gearing is currently in the 120 inch (3048 to less than D. 5.0 inch
4 1/2 DP (130 mm) long
mm) diameter range. Most of this large gearing re-
quires tooth finishing (skiving and/or grinding) after 1 1/2 DP 3.0 inch (76 mm)
carburizing and hardening. to less than D. 7.0 inch
2 1/2 DP (180 mm) long
5.3.2 Materials. Material selection is an integral
part of the design process. Selection should be made 1 1/2 DP 3.5 inch (89 mm)
on the basis of material hardness and hardenability, and coarser D. 8.0 inch
(205 mm) long
chemistry, cleanliness, performance, and economical
considerations. Performance criteria include, but are Test discs or plates may also be used whose mini-
not limited to, the following: toughness, notch sensi- mum thickness is 70 percent of the appropriate test
tivity, fatigue strength, bending strength, pitting bar diameter. The minimum inscribed diameter on a
wear resistance, and operational characteristics. test disc (or plate dimensions) should be a minimum
Reference should be made to Table 4---1 for a list of of three times its thickness.
typical carburizing materials and Appendix C for The recommended test bar diameter for bevel
case hardenability considerations. gearing is to be approximately equal to the inscribed
5.3.3 Control With Test Bars. Test bars are used diameter of the normal tooth thickness at mid face
to show that the case properties and, when required, width.
core properties meet specifications. Test bars should When disagreement exists as to the properties
be of the same steel type as the gear(s), but not neces- obtained on the test bar and the parts, an actual part
sarily the same heat. Bars should accompany gearing may be sectioned for analysis.
through all heat treatments, including all post hard- 5.3.3.1 Case Hardness. Case hardness should be
ening treatments. Consideration should be given to measured with microhardness testers which produce
evaluation of that portion of the case that is not re- small shallow impressions, in order that the hardness
moved during tooth finishing. values obtained are representative of the surfaces or
A section, with a ground and polished surface area being tested. Those testers which produce Dia-
(normal, at mid length of a test bar), is considered mond Pyramid or Knoop hardness numbers (500
satisfactory for determining effective case depth of gram load) are recommended. When measuring di-

ANSI/AGMA 35 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
rectly on the surface of a case hardened part or test
bar, superficial or standard Rockwell A or C scale
may be used. Other instruments such as Scleroscope
or Equotip are also used when penetration hardness
testers can not be used. Consideration must be given
to the case depth relative to the depth of the impres-
sion made by the tester.
Low readings can be obtained when the indentor
penetrates entirely or partially through the case.
Microhardness tests for surface hardness should
be made on a mounted and polished cross---section at
a depth of 0.002 to 0.004 inch (.05 to .10 mm) below
the surface. Care must be taken during grinding and
polishing not to round the edge being inspected and
not to temper or burn the ground surface.
NOTE: Direct surface hardness readings
(ASTM E18---79) or file checks at the tooth
tip or flank will generally confirm the case
hardness. However, if secondary transforma-
tion products are present below the first sev-
eral thousandths of the case, direct surface
checks will not necessarily indicate their pres-
ence. Microhardness inspection 0.002 to 0.004
inch (.05 to .10 mm) from the edge on a pol-
ished cross section of the tooth is more accu-
rate. This type of inspection may be necessary
for accurate micro---hardness readings near
the surface.
5.3.3.2 Core Hardness. When required, core
hardness may be determined by any hardness tester,
giving consideration to the size of the specimen as
discussed in 5.3.3.
NOTES: See definition of core hardness,
Section 3.
Occasionally banding, which results from
the steel melting practice, can cause varia-
tions in core hardness during testing with a mi-
crohardness tester. These variations should
not fall below the minimum, when core hard-
ness is specified.
5.3.3.3 Case Depth --- Effective. The procedures
used to prepare the cross sectioned specimen for
case hardness (refer to 5.3.3) should be used to pre-
pare the specimen for case depth evaluation. The mi-
crohardness traverse should be started 0.002 to 0.004
inch (.05 to .10 mm) below the surface and extend to
at least 0.01 inch (.25 mm) beyond the depth at which
50 HRC is obtained. Usually an interval of 0.005 inch
ANSI/AGMA
(0.13 mm) is used. Care should also be exercised in
establishing the perpendicular to the mid tooth point
when starting the traverse. Effective case depth at
roots are typically 50---70 percent of mid tooth height
case depths, and tips may be 150 percent of mid tooth
height case depths.
NOTE: See definition of case depth of carbu-
rized components, Section 3.
When steels of high hardenability such as 4320,
4327, 8627, 4820, 9310, and 3310 are used for fine
pitches, the high through hardening characteristics
of the steel may prevent obtaining a hardness less
than 50 HRC across the tooth section. The case
depth should then be determined in the following
manner: Measure the base material hardness at mid
tooth height at the mid face. For each one HRC point
above 45 HRC, one HRC point should be added to
the 50 HRC effective case depth criterion (example,
core hardness equals 47 HRC, effective case depth
should be measured at 52 HRC). Case depth in these
instances may also be measured on a test bar, if bar
size has been previously correlated to the gear tooth
section (refer to 5.3.3).
NOTE: Through carburized fine pitch teeth
have several disadvantages. Favorable com-
pressive surface stresses are lowered. Exces-
sive tooth distortion and a loss of core ductil-
ity can also occur. Parts of this type should be
carefully reviewed for case depth specifica-
tions and for use of lower hardenability steels
such as 4620 and 8620.
5.3.3.4 Case Carbon Content. Surface carbon
content may be determined from a round test bar by
taking turnings to a depth of 0.005 inch (0.13 mm).
Spectrographic techniques have also been developed
for this purpose. Carbon gradient can also be deter-
mined on the bar by machining chips at 0.002 to
0.010 inch (0.05 to 0.25 mm) increments through the
case, depending on accuracy desired and depth of
case. Grinding in steps through the case would be
used with spectrographic techniques.
Test specimens should be carburized with the
parts. Care should be exercised to maintain surface
integrity during cooling or in tempering for subse-
quent machining. Bar should be straightened to with-
in 0.0015 inch (0.038 mm) (TIR) before machining.
Test specimens must be clean and machined dry.
Care must be taken to ensure that the turnings are
36 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
free of any extraneous carbonaceous materials prior
to analysis.
5.3.3.5 Microstructure. The microstructure may
be determined on a central normal section of the test
bar or tooth, preferably mounted, after being prop-
erly polished and etched.
Microstructure will vary with the core hardness
as related to steel hardenability, section size and
quench severity.
5.3.4 Specifications. To aid in obtaining the
above characteristics, the heat treater should be giv-
en the following as a minimum:
(1) Material.
(2) Case depth range (refer to Table 5---2).
(3) Surface hardness range.
When additional characteristics are required,
the following additional items may be specified in
whole or part:
(1) Core hardness. Approximate minimum
tooth core hardness, which can be obtained from
some typical carburizing grades of steel and good agi-
tated oil quenching, are shown in Table 5---3.
(2) Core microstructure.
(3) Case microstructure.
(4) Surface carbon content.
(5) Subzero treatment.
(6) Areas to be free of carburizing by appropri-
ate masking by copper plating or use of commercial
stop---off compounds.
5.3.5 Carburizing Process Control. Precision
carburizing requires close control of many factors in-
cluding:
(1) Temperature Control. Furnace equipment
with temperature uniformity, close temperature con-
trol, and accuracy of temperature recording and con-
trol instruments. Controls should be checked and
calibrated at regular intervals.
(2) Atmosphere Control. Furnaces should be ca-
pable of maintaining a carburizing atmosphere with
controllable carbon potential. Instrumentation for
ANSI/AGMA
continuous atmosphere control is preferred, but oth-
er approved methods may be used.
(3) Subzero Treatment (Retained Austenite
Conversion Treatment). When the surface hardness
is low due to excessive retained austenite in the case
microstructure, it may be necessary to refrigerate the
parts to transform the retained austenite to marten-
site. The refrigeration treatment may vary from 20_F
(---7_C) to ---120_F (---84_C). To minimize micro-
cracking, parts should be tempered before and after
refrigeration.
NOTE: Caution should be exercised in the
use of refrigeration treatment on critical
gearing. Microcracks can result which can
reduce fatigue strength to a moderate de-
gree. Use of refrigeration may require
agreement between the customer and sup-
plier.
(4) Carbide Control. When high surface carbon
results in a heavy continuous carbide network in the
outer portion of the case, parts should be reheated to
typically 1650_F(900_C)in a lower carbon potential
atmosphere, typically 0.60 percent carbon, to diffuse
and break up the excess carbide. Carbide networks
should be avoided whenever possible as they tend to
reduce fatigue strength of the material.
(5) Decarburization. Surface decarburization as
defined for carburized gearing is a reduction in the
surface carbon in the outer 0.005 inch (.13 mm) be-
low the specified minimum. This is characterized by
an increase in carbon content with increasing depth;
for example, when the peak carbon content is subsur-
face.
Gross decarburization can be readily detected
microscopically as a lighter shade of martensite and
clearly defined ferrite grains. Hardness in this area
will be substantially lower.
Partial decarburization will result in a lighter
shade of martensite, but may not show discernible
ferrite. It will result in reduced hardness if the car-
bon content falls below approximately 0.60 percent.
37 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 5---2
Typical Effective Case Depth Specifications for Carburized Gearing
Effective Case Depth (inches) to RC 50 3, ,4 5
Normal Normal Range of Range of
Diametral Tooth 2 Normal Normal Spur, Helical Worms with
Pitch
1
Thickness Diametral Circular Bevel & Mitre 6 Ground 7
Pitch Pitch Threads
16 0.098 17.5 --- 13.7 0.180 --- 0.230 0.010 --- 0.020 0.020 --- 0.030
14 0.112 17.5 --- 13.7 0.180 --- 2.300 0.010 --- 0.020 0.020 --- 0.030
12 0.131 13.7 --- 10.5 0.230 --- 0.300 0.015 --- 0.025 0.025 --- 0.040
10 0.157 10.5 --- 8.5 0.300 --- 0.370 0.020 --- 0.030 0.035 --- 0.050
8 0.198 8.5 --- 7.5 0.370 --- 0.480 0.025 --- 0.040 0.040 --- 0.055
7 0.224 7.5 --- 6.5 0.370 --- 0.480 0.025 --- 0.040 0.040 --- 0.055
6 0.251 6.5 --- 5.2 0.480 --- 0.600 0.030 --- 0.050 0.045 --- 0.060
5 0.314 5.2 --- 4.3 0.600 --- 0.728 0.040 --- 0.060 0.045 --- 0.060
4 0.393 4.3 --- 3.7 0.728 --- 0.860 0.050 --- 0.070 0.045 --- 0.060
3.5 0.449 3.7 --- 3.1 0.860 --- 1.028 0.060 --- 0.080 0.060 --- 0.075
3.0 0.523 3.1 --- 2.8 1.026 --- 1.200 0.070 --- 0.090 0.075 --- 0.090
2.75 0.571 2.8 --- 2.6 1.026 --- 1.200 0.070 --- 0.090 0.075 --- 0.090
2.5 0.628 2.6 --- 2.3 1.200 --- 1.400 0.080 --- 0.105 0.075 --- 0.090
2.25 0.698 2.3 --- 2.2 1.200 --- 1.400 0.080 --- 0.105 0.075 --- 0.090
2.0 0.785 2.2 --- 1.9 1.428 --- 1.676 0.090 --- 0.125 0.075 --- 0.090
1.75 0.897 1.9 --- 1.6 1.676 --- 1.976 0.105 --- 0.140 0.075 --- 0.090
1.5 1.047 1.6 --- 1.3 1.976 --- 2.400 0.120 --- 0.155 0.075 --- 0.090
1.25 1.256 1.3 --- 1.1 2.400 --- 2.828 0.145 --- 0.180 0.075 --- 0.090
1.0 1.570 1.1 & less 2.828 & more 0.170 --- 0.205 0.075 --- 0.090
0.75 2.094 1.1 & less 2.325 & more 0.170 --- 0.205 0.075 --- 0.090

1 All case depths are based on normal diametral pitch. All other pitch measurements should be
converted before specifying a case depth.
2 Gears with thin top lands may be subject to excessive case depth at the tips. Land width should be
calculated before a case is specified.
3 Case at root is typically 50---70 percent of case at mid tooth.
4 The case depth for bevel and mitre gears is calculated from the thickness of the tooths small end.
5 For gearing requiring maximum performance, detailed studies must be made of the application,
loading and manufacturing procedures to determine the required effective case depth. For further
details refer to AGMA 2001---B88.
6 To convert above data to metric, multiply values given by 25.4 to determine mm equivalent.
7 Worm and ground---thread case depths allow for grinding. Un---ground worm gear cases may be
decreased accordingly. For very heavily loaded coarse pitch ground thread worms, heavier case depth
than shown in table may be required.

5.4 Carbonitriding. The purpose of this Section is to
establish methods for specifying carbonitrided gear-
ing. Information in 5.3 on carburizing will generally
apply to carbonitriding, with noted exceptions.
Typically carbonitriding is carried out at lower
temperatures, 1550---1650_F (843---899_C), and for
shorter times than gas carburizing. Shallower case
depths are generally specified for carbonitriding
than is usual for production carburizing. Its effect on
steel is similar to liquid cyaniding and has replaced
cyaniding because of cyanide disposal problems.
Normally 2.5 to 5 percent anhydrous ammonia is
added to the carburizing atmosphere when carboni-
triding. Specified case depths are usually from 0.003
to 0.030 inch (0.076 to 0.76 mm) maximum.
5.4.1 Applications (Advantages and Limita-
tions). Use of carbonitriding is more restricted than
carburizing. It is limited to shallower cases for finer
pitch gearing since the process must be conducted at
lower temperatures than carburizing. Deep case
depths require prohibitive time cycles. One of the

ANSI/AGMA 38 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

advantages of carbonitriding is better case harden- spection of nitrided gearing. This section covers the
ability in lower alloy or plain carbon steels. The car- selection and processing of materials, hardnesses ob-
bonitrided case has better wear and temper resis- tainable, and definitions and inspection of depth of
tance than a straight carburized case. Carbonitriding hardening.
can be used to minimize distortion in finer pitch Conventional gas nitride hardening of gearing,
gearing because lower austenitizing and quenching which has had a quench and temper pretreatment
temperatures can be used along with less severe and is usually finish machined, involves heating and
quench techniques and still achieve hardness. These holding at a temperature between 950---1060_F
facts, along with lower alloy steels, result in the lower (510---571_C) in a controlled cracked ammonia at-
core hardness mentioned previously, thus reducing mosphere (10 to 30 percent dissociation). Nitride
tooth growth and distortion. However, if higher core hardening can also be achieved with the ion nitriding
hardness and deeper case depths are required for process. During nitriding, nitrogen atoms are ab-
bending resistance, carbonitriding may not be appli- sorbed into the surface to form hard iron and alloy ni-
cable. trides. The practical limit on case depth is about
Table 5---3 0.040 inch (1.0 mm) maximum, which requires a thor-
Approximate Minimum Core Hardness of ough stress analysis (for other than wear applica-
Carburized Gear Teeth tions) of the effectiveness of the case for coarse pitch
1 gearing.
Hardness HRC Minimum
Grade NOTE: The above processes (5.4 and 5.5)
Pitch 2---3 4 5---6 7 & UP should not be confused with aerated salt
3316 34 36 37 38 bath nitriding or nitrocarburizing in which
9315 32 34 36 37 nitrogen is absorbed into the steel surface at
3310 31 33 35 36 approximately 1060_F(570_C) for short
9310 28 31 33 34 cycles of 2.5 to 4.0 hours in an aerated salt
4820 27 33 35 36
bath or atmosphere. These processes result
8822 25 30 32 34
4320 23 27 30 33 in a wear resistant surface layer of 0.001 inch
8620 18 24 26 28 (0.025 mm) or less, with a nitrogen com-
4620 --- 18 22 25 pound layer to a depth of 0.015---0.020 inch
1020 --- 14 16 18 (0.38---0.50 mm) which enhances fatigue
strength.
1 Depending upon the Jominy curve of the 5.5.1 Applications. Nitrided gears are used
particular material, maximum hardness will when gear geometry and tolerances do not lend
typically be 8---10 points higher than the themselves to other case hardening methods because
minimums listed. Use of H band steel is the
of distortion, and when through hardened gears do
normal method of hardenability control.
not provide sufficient wear and pitting resistance.
5.4.2 Materials. Typically carbon and low alloy Nitrided gears are used on applications where thin,
steels such as 1018, 1022, 1117, 4022, 4118 and 8620 high hardness cases can withstand applied loads. Ni-
steels are used for carbonitriding. trided gears should not be specified if shock loading
5.4.3 Specification and Inspection. Case depth, is present, due to inherent brittleness of the case.
microstructure, hardness, etc. for carbonitrided 5.5.2 Materials. Steels containing chromium,
parts can all be specified and evaluated as prescribed vanadium, aluminum, and molybdenum, either sin-
in the section for carburized gearing. Case depth is gularly or in combination, are required in order to
specified and measured as effective or total, depend- form stable nitrides at the nitriding temperature.
ing upon application. Cases shallower than 0.010 Typical steels suitable for nitriding are 4140,
inch (0.25 mm) are generally specified as total case 4150, 4340, the Nitralloy grades, and steels with chro-
depth. The advantages and limitations as described mium contents of 1.00 to 3.00 percent. Aluminum
herein should be fully understood before specifying containing grades such as Nitralloy 135 and Nitralloy
carbonitriding for industrial gearing. N will develop higher case hardness.
5.5 Nitriding. The purpose of this section is to 5.5.3 Pre--- treatments. Parts to be nitrided must
provide information, means of specifying, and in- be quenched and tempered to produce the essential-

ANSI/AGMA 39 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
ly tempered martensitic microstructure required for
case diffusion. Microstructure must be free of pri-
mary ferrite, such as is produced by annealing and
normalizing, which produces a brittle case prone to
spalling. The nitriding process will cause a slight uni-
form increase in size. However, residual stresses
from quench and tempering may be relieved at the
nitriding temperature, causing distortion. This
should be avoided by tempering at approximately
50_F (28_C) minimum above the intended nitrided
temperature after quenching. In order to minimize
distortion of certain gearing designs, intermediate
stress relieving after rough machining at 25---50_F
(14---28_C) below the tempering temperature may
also be required prior to finish machining to relieve
machining stresses before nitriding.
In alloys such as series 4140 and 4340 steels, ni-
trided hardness is lessened appreciably by decreased
core hardness prior to nitriding. This must be consid-
ered when selecting tempering or stress relieving
temperatures.
If distortion control is very critical, the newer ion
nitriding process should be considered. Nitriding
can be accomplished at lower temperatures with ion
nitriding than those used for conventional gas nitrid-
ing.
Nitriding over decarburized steel causes a brittle
case which may spall under load. Therefore, nitrided
surfaces subject to stress should be free of decarbu-
rization.
Sharp corners or edges become brittle when ni-
trided and should be removed to prevent possible
chipping during handling and service.
Where it is desired to selectively nitride a part,
the surfaces to be protected from nitriding can be
plated with dense copper 0.0007 inch (0.018 mm)
minimum thickness, tin plate 0.0003 to 0.005 inch
(0.008 to 0.13 mm) thick, or by coating with propri-
etary paints specifically designed for this purpose.
Nitrided parts will distort in a consistent manner
when all manufacturing phases and the nitriding pro-
cess are held constant. The amount and direction of
growth or movement should be determined for each
ANSI/AGMA
part by dimensional analyses both prior to and after
nitriding.
5.5.4 Nitriding Process Procedures. Variables in
the nitriding process are the combined effects of sur-
face condition, degree of ammonia dissociation,
temperature, and time of nitriding. Nitrogen adsorp-
tion in the steel surface is affected by oxide and sur-
face contamination. In order to guarantee nitrogen
adsorption it may be necessary to remove surface ox-
idation by chemical or mechanical means.
The nitriding process affects the rate of nitrogen
adsorption and the thickness of the resultant brittle
white layer on the surface.
A two stage nitriding process (two temperatures
with increased percent of ammonia dissociation at
the second higher temperature) generally reduces
the thickness of the white layer to 0.0005---0.001 inch
(0.013---0.026 mm) maximum. The white layer thick-
ness is also dependent upon the analysis of steel.
The ion nitride process uses ionized nitrogen gas
to effect nitrogen penetration of the surface by ion
bombardment. The process can provide flexibility in
determining the type of compound produced. The
process can also be tailored to better control nitrid-
ing of geometric problems, such as blind holes and
small orifices.
5.5.5 Specific Characteristics of Nitrided Gear-
ing. Nitriding does not lend itself to every gear ap-
plication. The nitride process is restricted by and spe-
cified by case depth, surface hardness, core hardness
and material selection constraints.
5.5.5.1 Material Selection. Selection of the
grade of steel is limited to those alloys that contain
metal elements that form hard nitrides as discussed
in 5.5.2.
5.5.5.2 Core Hardness. Core hardness obtained
in the quench and temper pretreatment must pro-
vide sufficient strength to support the case under
load and tooth bending and rim stresses. Core hard-
ness requirements limit material selection to those
steels that can be tempered to the core hardness
range with a tempering temperature that is at least
50_F (28_C) above the nitriding temperature.
Approximate core hardness
40 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

obtained on typical nitrided steels are as follows: most specifications only specify a minimum case
Minimum Surface depth requirement.
Steel Type Hardness, HRC Case depth should be determined using a micro-
4140 28 hardness tester. At least three hardness tests should
4150 30 be made beyond the depth at which core hardness is
4340 32 obtained to assure that the case depth has been
Nitralloy 135 34 reached.
A test bar, for example 1/2 to 1 inch (13 to 25
5.5.5.3 Surface Hardness. Surface hardness is
mm) diameter with a length 3 the diameter, disc or
limited by the concentration of hard nitride forming
plate section, can be used for determining case depth
elements in the alloy and the core hardness of the
of nitrided parts. The test section must be of the same
gear. Lower core hardness does not support the hard,
specified chemical analysis range and must be pro-
thin case as well as higher core hardness. Lower core
cessed in the same manner as the parts it represents.
hardness will result from less alloy, larger section
size, reduced quench severity and a greater degree of Sectioning of an actual part to determine case
martensite tempering. Lower core hardness results depth need only be performed when the results of the
in a microstructure which causes a lower surface test bar are cause for rejection, or the surface hard-
hardness nitrided case, since it limits the ability to ness of the part(s) is not within 3 HRC points of the
form high concentration of hard metallic nitrides. surface hardness of the test bar.
Surface hardness will also increase with increasing
5.5.6 Specifications. Parts which are to be nitrided
nitride case depth.
should have the following specified:
Approximate minimum surface hardness which (1) Material grade
can be obtained on nitrided steel is shown in Table (2) Preheat treatment (see 5.5.5.2)
5---4. (3) Minimum surface hardness
Table 5---4 (4) Minimum total case depth
Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness (5) Maximum thickness of white layer, if
--- Nitrided Steels required
(6) Areas to be protected from nitriding by
Minimum Surface masking, if required
Steel Type Hardness (7) Nitriding temperature
R15N HRC! (8) Metallurgical test coupons
4140 85 48
4150 85 48 5.6 Other Heat Treatments. Gearing may also be
4340 84 46 heat treated by other means, including laser heat
treating and electron beam heat treating.
Nitralloy (contains Al) 90 60 Both laser and electron beam surface hardening
of gears are selective in nature and are generally ap-
2 1/2 percent Chrome 89 58
(EN 40B & 40C and plied to gears smaller than those routinely hardened
31CrMoV9)@ by other methods. The production quantity of any
gear must be sufficient to justify the cost of capital
1 Converted to HRC equipment and set---up to surface hardened by either
2 British and German analyses, respectively process, such as quantity production for the automo-
NOTE: Data infers a 269HB minimum core hard- tive industry. These processes are not available from
ness.
commercial heat treaters. Thermal energy for heat-
5.5.5.4 Case Depth. The specified case depth for ing the surface to the austenitizing temperature is
nitrided gearing is determined by the surface and supplied by either the laser (light amplification by
sub---surface stress gradient of the design applica- stimulated emission of radiation) or electron (kinet-
tion. Surface hardness and core hardness will influ- ic energy of electrons) beam, while the underlying
ence the designs minimum required case depth. mass provides the heat sink to quench harden the
Since the diffusion of nitrogen is extremely slow, surface. Use of electron beam heat treating for gear

ANSI/AGMA 41 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
teeth is restricted, however, to full gear tooth con-
tours, and is better suited for flat than curved sur-
faces. This is true because the stream of electrons
must have line of sight access to the surface to be
hardened with a beam impingement angle of at least
25 degree (25---90 degrees impingement angle
range). Dual laser beam optics have been developed,
however, for flank and root contour surface harden-
ing of gear teeth.
Reference should be made to the ASM Metals
Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 4 on Heat Treating
for additional information on laser and electron
beam heat treating, as well as other modifications of
heat treatments applied to gearing.
5.7 Quenching. Quenching is the rapid cooling of
steel from a suitable elevated temperature. The
quenching process is one of the major operations
that influences the microstructure, hardness, me-
chanical properties and residual stress distribution,
assuming the gear has been properly heated before
the quench. The preferred microstructure after
quenching is primarily martensite.
The designers or heat treaters responsibility is
to select the quench variables to obtain the required
properties in the gear. The quench needs to be fast
enough to avoid secondary transformation products,
but slow enough to reduce distortion and avoid
cracking. The material hardenability will determine
how severe the quench has to be for a particular part
geometry.
Quench cracks usually originate at sharp corners
or substantial section size changes. However, even
with perfectly uniform sections, parts can easily crack
if made of high---carbon, high---hardenability steels
and the quench is too severe. Delayed quench cracks
can occur hours or days after quenching, especially if
improperly tempered or stress relieved. It is good
practice to immediately temper after quenching if
quench crack problems are a concern.
The main factors which control the quench rate
are: part geometry, type of quenchant, degree of
agitation and quench temperature. The geometry
will affect how quickly and uniformly the quenchant
will circulate around the part. Pockets which trap va-
ANSI/AGMA
por bubbles and restrict the flow of quenchant should
be avoided.
There are a variety of quenchants to choose from
such as: oil, polymer, molten salt, water, brine and
gases. Each variety is available with a wide range of
quench characteristics. Table 5---5 associates some
material grades and their normally used quenchants.
Agitation is externally produced movement of
the quenchant past the part. The degree and unifor-
mity of agitation greatly influences its rate of heat re-
moval. Agitation can be provided by propellers or
pumps in the quench tank or by moving the parts
through the quenchant.
The temperature of the quenchant may affect its
ability to extract heat. Each quenchant should be
used within its appropriate range of temperature.
The temperature of a water quenchant is more criti-
cal than that of an oil.
5.8 Distortion. Distortion of gearing during heat
treatment is inevitable and varies with the hardening
process. The part design and manufacturing process
must consider movement during heat treatment. Tol-
erancing must consider these changes. Section size
modification may be required along with added stock
for grinding or machining after heat treatment.
5.8.1 Causes. Dimensional changes of gearing
resulting from heat treatment occur principally when
steel is quenched. These changes occur in both
quenched and tempered and surface hardened gears.
Distortion is due to mechanical and thermal stresses
and phase transformation. Process variables and de-
sign considerations have a significant effect upon the
amount of distortion. High induced stress can result
in quench cracking. Thermal processes such as
annealing, normalizing, and diffusion controlled sur-
face hardening processes such as nitriding, which do
not require liquid quenching, result in less distor-
tions than processes that require liquid quenching.
5.8.2 Quenching and Tempering. Quenched and
tempered gearing changes size and distorts due to
mechanical and thermal stresses and microstructural
transformations. Quenching the structure to marten-
site prior to tempering results in steel growing in size.
Tempering of the hardened structure reduces the
volume, but the combined effects of quenching and
tempering still result in a volume and size increase.
42 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Table 5---5
Commonly Used Quenchants for Ferrous Gear Materials
Material Grade Quenchant Remarks

1020 Water or Brine Carburized and quenched with good quench agitation.

4118 Oil Carburized and quenched in well agitated conventional

4620 oil at 80---160_F(27---71_C) is normally required. For
8620 finer pitched gearing, hot oil at 275---375_F(135---190_C)
8822 may be used to minimize distortion. Some loss in core
4320 hardness will also result from hot oil quench.

3310 Oil Carburized and quenched in hot oil at 275---375_F

(135---190_C). This is the preferred quench.
9310 In larger sections, conventional oil can be used.

1045 Water, Oil or Type of quenchant depends upon chemistry and section
4130 Polymer size. Large sections normally require water or low
8630 concentration polymer. Smaller sections can be
processed in well agitated oil.

1141 Oil or Polymer Good response in well agitated conventional oil or

1541 polymer. Induction or flame hardened parts normally
quenched in polymer.

4140 Oil or Polymer Same as above; however, thin sections or sharp corners
4142 can represent a crack hazard. Hot oil should be
4145 considered in these cases. With proper equipment, air
quench can be used for flame hardened parts.

These are high hardenability steels which can be crack

sensitive in moderate to thin sections. Hot oil is often
used. High concentration polymer should be used with
caution.

4150 Oil or Polymer If conventional oil is used, parts are often removed warm
4340 and tempered promptly after quench.
4345
4350 Crack sensitivity applies also to flame or induction
hardened parts with high concentration polymer being
the usual quenchant. Oil is sometimes used and air
quench can be applied for flame hardening with proper
equipment.

Gray or Oil, Polymer Quench media depends upon alloy content. High alloy
Ductile or Air irons can be air quenched to moderate hardness levels.
Iron
Unalloyed or low alloy irons require oil or polymer.

In this section parts and flame or induction hardened

surfaces can be crack sensitive.

ANSI/AGMA 43 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Distortion of quenched and tempered gearing
occurs generally as follows:
(1) Gears
(a) Outside and bore diameters grow larger
and go out of round.
(b) Side faces become warped, and exhibit
runout.
(2) Pinions. Pinions become bowed, with the
amount of bowing increasing with higher length/di-
ameter ratios and smaller journal diameters; amount
of bowing or radial runout is often confined to jour-
nal diameters and shaft extensions for integral shaft
pinions.
Normally, rough gear blanks (forging, barstock,
or casting) have sufficient stock provided so distor-
tion can be accommodated by machining. High L/D
ratio pinions may require straightening and a ther-
mal stress relief prior to finish machining. In some
exceptional instances, straightening, thermal stress
relief, rough machining, and a second stress relief
prior to finish machining may all be necessary to keep
the pinion dimensionally stable during finish ma-
chining. Sequence of manufacture is dependent
upon design considerations and the temperature
used for stress relief. Stress relief temperature is de-
pendent upon specified hardness and temper resis-
tance of the steel.
Modified methods of quench hardening, such as
austempering of ductile iron, reduces distortion and
forms a modified hardened structure at higher quen-
chant temperatures than those conventionally used
(refer to 4.8.4.3).
5.8.3 Surface Hardened Gearing. Distortion
must be minimized, controlled and made predictable
to minimize costly stock removal (lapping, skiving, or
grinding), when tooth accuracy requirements dic-
tate.
Selective surface hardening of gear teeth by
flame and induction hardening results essentially in
only distortion of the teeth because only the teeth are
heated and quenched. Amount of distortion in-
creases with case pattern depth and increases as
more of the tooth cross section is hardened,
compared to profile hardened tooth patterns. Dis-
tortion is not limited to gear teeth, however, when
the entire gear is heated and quenched as with carbu-
rizing.
ANSI/AGMA
5.8.3.1 Carburized Gearing. Distortion of car-
burized gearing makes it one of the least repeatable
of surface hardened processes. Lack of repeatability
is due to the greater number of variables which affect
distortion. Close control is, therefore, required. Dis-
tortion results from microstructural transformation,
and residual stress (from thermal shock, uneven
cooling, etc.) considerations. Transformation in the
case results in growth which sets up residual surface
compressive stress. This stress is balanced by corre-
sponding residual tensile stress beneath the case.
Principal variables affecting the amount of
growth, distortion, and residual stress include:
(1) Geometry.
(2) Hardenability (carbon and alloy content) of
the base material. Higher hardenability increases
growth and distortion.
(3) Fixturing techniques in the furnace and dur-
ing quenching.
(4) Carbon potential of the carburizing atmo-
sphere.
(5) Carburizing temperature and temperature
prior to quenching.
(6) Time between quench and temper for richer
alloys.
(7) Quenchant type, temperature and amount
of agitation.
(8) Resultant metallurgical characteristics of the
case, such as carbon content, case depth, amount of
retained austenite, carbides, etc.
NOTE: Direct quenching generally results in
less distortion than slow cooled, reheated and
quenched gears, providing gears are properly
cooled from the carburizing temperature to
the quench temperature before hardening.
Once a component is designed to minimize dis-
tortion, processing techniques should be optimized
to make distortion consistent. At times, redesign of
components may be required to reduce distortion.
Stock removal by grinding after carburize hard-
ening should be limited to approximately 0.007 inch
(0.18 mm) per tooth surface or 20 percent of the case
depth, whichever is less. Exception may be made for
coarser pitch gearing with cases 0.080 inches (2 mm)
or greater. Surfaces other than the tooth flanks and
roots may tolerate greater stock removal.
44 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
General design considerations of carburized
gearing related to distortion include the following
(refer to Fig 5---4):
(1) Larger teeth (lower DP) distort more.
(2) Rim thickness should be the same at both end
faces.
(3) Radial web support section under the rim
should be centrally located. Web support section
thickness under the rim is recommended to be not
less than 40---50 percent of the face width for preci-
sion gears. Near solid pancake gear blanks, de-
signed with moderate recess on both sides of the web
section, distort less. The recess is provided to enable
clean---up grinding of the rim and hub end faces after
hardening.
(4) Holes in the web section close to the rim, to
reduce the weight or provide holes for lifting, may
cause collapsing of the rim section over the holes.
(5) High length/diameter ratio pinions distort
more. Journals may be required to be masked in or-
der to prevent carburizing and then be finish ma-
chined after hardening with sufficient stock for
clean---up. Masking can also be used for ease of
straightening.
(6) Cantilever pinions, with teeth on the end of
the shaft, and blind ended teeth on pinions, where
the adjacent diameter is larger than the root diame-
ter, present problems from both distortion and fin-
ishing standpoints.
CANTILEVER PINION
CONCENTRIC BLANKS
Fig 5---4 General Design Guidelines for Blanks for Carburized Gearing
ANSI/AGMA
Distortion of carburized gearing also exhibits the fol-
lowing typical characteristics (refer to Fig 5---5):
(1) Reduction in tooth helix angle (helix un-
wind), which often requires an increased helix angle
to be machined into the element prior to carburizing
(more prevalent in pinions). Teeth on larger diame-
ter, smaller face width gears may exhibit helix
wind---up after hardening.
(2) End growth on gear teeth at both ends of the
face due to increased case depth (carburizing from
two directions, 90 degrees apart, followed by im-
proved quench action for the same reason) may ap-
pear as reverse tooth crowning on narrow face gear-
ing. Teeth are often crown cut prior to hardening to
compensate for reverse crown or are chamfered at
the ends of teeth. Teeth may also be both crown cut
and chamfered.
(3) Eccentricity (radial run---out) of gears and
their bores is dependent upon how they are fixtured
in the furnace.
(4) Taper across the face (tapered teeth), bore
taper and hour---glassing of the gear bore can oc-
cur due to non---uniform growth of teeth across the
face and non---uniform shrinking of the bores.
(5) Bowing of the integral shaft pinions. Inte-
gral shaft pinions should, whenever possible, be hung
or fixtured in the vertical position (axes vertical) to
minimize bowing.
BLIND ENDED TEETH
HIGH L/D RATIO
45 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
STRAIGHT
TAPER HOURGLASSING
END GROWTH
(REVERSE CROWN)
ECCENTRICITY
Fig 5---5 Typical Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing
Gears may be fixtured vertically through the
bores or web holes on a support rod (axes horizon-
tal), or fixtured horizontally (individually or stacked)
to minimize distortion, depending on size and face
width. Larger ring gears are positioned horizontally
with sufficient stock for clean---up of the teeth. Bores
and web sections can be masked to prevent carburiz-
ing, and enable subsequent machining.
Thin section gears, such as bevel ring gears, may
be press quenched to minimize distortion.
5.8.3.2 Flame and Induction Hardened Gearing.
Flame and induction hardened gearing generally dis-
tort less than carburized gearing because only the
teeth are heated and subsequently quenched. Con-
tour induction hardening of tooth profiles produce
less distortion and growth than spin hardening meth-
ods.
During both spin flame and spin induction hard-
ening, the entire tooth cross section is often hard-
ened to the specified depth below the roots of teeth.
For high bending strength applications, it is not
desirable to have the hardening pattern terminate in
the roots of the teeth because of residual tensile
stress considerations. Distortion increases as a
greater cross---section of a tooth is hardened. Spin
flame and spin induction hardening generally pro-
duce the following distortion characteristics:
(1) Helical unwinding of the gear teeth, as with
carburized pinions.
ANSI/AGMA
HELICAL
UNWIND
BOWING
(2) Increased growth of the teeth (greater than
for carburized gearing) because the entire tooth
cross section may be hardened in finer pitch gearing.
(3) Crowning or reverse crowning of the teeth
across the face dependent upon the heat pattern.
Crowning is more desirable from a tooth loading
standpoint.
(4) Taper of teeth due to varied heat pattern and
case depth across the face.
Distortion of the teeth from spin induction hard-
ening is often considered more repeatable than with
spin flame hardening, because of fewer human error
factors involved during machine and inductor set---
ups with induction hardening. Spin flame hardening
involves more manual set---up factors, which include
positioning of the flame, gas flows, etc. However,
spin flame hardening can be engineered with special
flame heads and fixtures for required control.
CAUTION: Deep spin hardening of gear
teeth may cause excessive tooth growth and
may affect bore size.
5.8.3.3 Nitrided Gearing. Nitriding of gearing
results in less distortion, compared to carburize,
flame, and induction hardening. Prior quench and
temper heat treatment, which results in distortion, is
done before machining and nitriding. Parts are also
not heated above the transformation temperature or
previous tempering temperature of the steel during
nitriding, and are not quenched, as occurs during car-
burizing, flame or induction hardening. Therefore,
nitrided gear teeth are not generally required to be
46 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
ground or lapped after hardening to meet dimen-
sional tolerance requirements. Bearing diameters of
shaft extensions are often ground after nitriding with
only minimum stock provided. Surfaces can also be
masked for subsequent machining.
When close tolerances are required, gearing can
be rough machined and stress relieved at
50_F(28_C) below the prior tempering temperature
to relieve rough machining residual stress prior to
finish machining and nitriding.
During nitriding, outer surfaces grow approxi-
mately 0.0005---0.001 inch (0.013---0.025 mm). Bores
size may shrink up to 0.0015 inch (0.04 mm) depend-
ing upon size.
5.9 Shot Peening. Shot peening is a cold working
process performed by bombarding the surface of a
part with small spherical media which results in a thin
layer of high magnitude residual compressive stress
at the surface. This stress may improve the bending
fatigue strength of a gear tooth as much as 25 per-
cent. It is becoming an accepted practice to specify
shot peening on carburized and other heat treated
gears. Because the process increases bending fatigue
strength, it may be used either to salvage or upgrade
a gear design. Contact fatigue strength may also be
improved in some instances by shot peening, but
quantitative data to substantiate this condition is
limited. Shot peening should not be confused with
grit and shot blasting, which are cleaning operations.
5.9.1 Equipment. Machinery used for shot
peening should be automatic and provide means for
propelling shot by air pressure or centrifugal force
against the work. Mechanical means for moving the
work through the shot stream by either translation or
rotation, or both, should be provided. Machinery
must be capable of consistently reproducing the shot
peening intensity and coverage required.
Regardless of the type of equipment used, the
gear must be rotated on its axis while exposed to the
shot stream.
For optimization of shot peening of gears, nozzle
type equipment is generally preferred because of the
ability to vary the angle of shot impingement and,
therefore, achieve more uniform intensity along the
toothform. This type of equipment is generally used
for high performance gearing, although centrifugal
wheel equipment is often used for very high volume
production.
ANSI/AGMA
5.9.2 Process Control. Because it is difficult to
directly measure the effects of shot peening on a
part, a high degree of process control is essential to
assure repeatability.
5.9.2.1 Intensity Control. Intensity refers to the
kinetic energy with which the peening media strikes
the part. This energy controls the depth of the peen-
ing effect. It is measured by shot peening a flat, hard-
ened steel strip called an Almen Strip, in the same
manner as the part will be peened. The strip is held
flat on an Almen block placed in the representative
location during the peening operation. When re-
leased from the block, the strip will bow convexly on
the peened surface. The amount of bow is measured
in inches with a gauge and is called the arc height (see
Fig 5---6). There are three classifications of Almen
Strips, N, A, and C, which have thicknesses of 0.031
inch (0.8 mm), 0.051 inch (1.3 mm) and 0.0938
inch(2.4 mm) respectively. Strips are SAE 1070 cold
rolled spring steel, hardened and tempered to 40---50
HRC. Flatness tolerance is + --- 0.0015 inch
+
( --- 0.04mm). Figure 5---6 also shows the dimensions
for the Almen strips and holding fixture. An intensity
determination must be made at the beginning, at in-
tervals of no more than four hours and at the end of
each production run.
Whenever a processing procedure is developed
for a new part, an intensity curve must be developed
which establishes the time required to reach peening
saturation of the Almen strip. This is accomplished
by shot peening several strips at various times of ex-
posure to the shot stream and plotting the resulting
arc heights. Saturation is defined as that point at
which doubling the time of exposure will result in no
more than a 10 percent increase in arc height.
5.9.2.2 Shot Control. Shot size and shape must
be carefully controlled during the shot peening pro-
cess, to minimize the number of fragmented particles
caused by fracturing of the shot. These fragmented
particles can cause surface damage. Also, as a result
of lower mass, fragmented shot particles will length-
en the time to reach a specified peening intensity. Pe-
riodic inspection of the shot is required to control
shot size and shape within specification limits. When
these limits are reached, the shot should be classified
and separated to restore size and shape integrity as
shown in MIL---S---13165B.
5.9.2.3 Coverage Control. Coverage refers to
the percentage of indentation that occurs on the sur-
face of the part. One hundred percent coverage is de-
47 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

fined as uniform dimpling of the original part surface
as determined by either visual examination using a
10X magnifying glass or by using a fluorescent tracer
dye in a scanning process. In the latter process, full
coverage has been achieved when no traces of the dye
remain when viewed under ultraviolet light. A mini-
mum of 100 percent coverage is required on any shot
peened part.
Coverage must be related to the part, not the Al-
men strip. The actual part must be examined for
complete coverage in all areas specified to be shot
peened. The peening time required to obtain 100
percent coverage should be recorded. The time re-
quired to obtain multiples of 100 percent coverage is
that multiple times the time to reach 100 percent cov-
erage (200 percent, 300 percent, etc.).
5.9.3 Design Consideration. The following sec-
tions describe items that the designer should include
in a shot peening specification.
5.9.3.1 Governing Process Specification. A com-
monly referenced shot peening specification is
MIL---S---13165B which identifies materials, equip-
ment requirements, procedures, and quality control
requirements for effective shot peening. The SAE
Manual on Shot Peening, SAE---J808a---SAE HS84,
may also be used.

3.0 +
---0.015 in
(76+--- 0.4mm)
0.031 + +
---0.001 in (0.79 0.02mm)
---

0.051 + +
---0.001 in (1.30 0.02mm)
---
N STRIP
0.0938 + +
---0.001 in (2.38 0.02mm)
---
A STRIP
PEENING NOZZLE
C STRIP
ALMEN STRIPS 0.745 to
0.750 in
(18.9 to
19.0 mm)
SHOT STREAM
MEASURING DIAL
4 to 6 in 10--- 32
(102 to 152 mm) SCREWS
ALMEN TEST STRIP HARDENED
BALL
SUPPORTS

0.75 in
(19.0 mm)

3.0 in 3.0 in ARC HEIGHT

(76 mm) (76 mm)
1.5 in
(38.1mm) 0.75 in
(19.0 mm)
HOLDING
FIXTURE
STRIP REMOVED, RESIDUAL STRIP MOUNTED FOR
PEENING TEST STRESSES INDUCE ARCHING HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 5---6 Shot Peening Intensity Control

5.9.3.2 Shot Size and Type. Shot type and size
selection depends upon the material, hardness, and
geometry of the part to be peened. Shot types avail-
able are cast steel (S), conditioned cut wire (CW),
glass bead, and ceramic. Most shot peening of fer-
rous materials is accomplished with cast steel shot.
Cast steel shot is available in two hardness ranges:
45---55 HRC, and 55---62 HRC. When peening gears
higher in hardness than 50 HRC, the harder shot

ANSI/AGMA 48 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

should be specified to achieve higher magnitudes of
compressive stress (refer to Fig 5---7).
5.9.3.3 Intensity. The intensity governs the
depth of the compressive layer and must be specified
as the arc height on the A, C, or N strip (see 5.9.2.1).
The range of arc height is generally 0.004 inch (0.10
mm) wide, but it can be specified to a closer tolerance
for more repeatable results. Figure 5---8 illustrates
the depth of the compressive layer on steel at 31 and
52 HRC hardness according to intensity.
5.9.3.4 Coverage. In most cases, 100 percent
coverage is adequate. In some instances, it may be
desirable to specify multiples of 100 percent in an at-
tempt to achieve more blending of a poorly machined
surface. A typical statement in a blueprint specifica-
tion is 100 percent minimum coverage.
5.9.3.5 Masking. At times, it is desirable to mask
finished machined areas of the part from shot im-
pingement. Typical masked areas would be finished
bores or bearing surfaces. If masking is required, this
should be stated in the shot peening requirements
and defined on the drawing, with masked area toler-
ances given.
5.9.3.6 Drawing Example. A typical example of
drawing or blueprint specification for shot peening
would be as follows:
Shot peen area(s) indicated with S170 cast steel
shot to an intensity of 0.010---0.014A per
MIL---S---13165B;
Mask area(s) indicated (if necessary). Other
areas optional.
Use 55---62 HRC shot, 100 percent minimum
coverage.

0 0

HRC 46 SHOT
--- 50
--- 500

---100

---1000
---150
HRC 61 SHOT
---200
---1500

---250

0 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016

DEPTH IN INCHES

Fig 5---7 Residual Stress by Peening 1045 Steel at 62 HRC with 330 Shot

ANSI/AGMA 49 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

.040 1.0

HRC 31
.035

.030 .75

.025

.020 .50
HRC 52

.015

.010 .25

.005

0 0
0 .002 .004 .006 .008 .010C
INTENSITY
0 .005 .010 .015 .020 .025 A

Fig 5---8 Depth of Compressive Stress Versus Almen Intensity for Steel

Table 5---6 gives shot size and intensity for vari- The plastic flow of the surface as a result of peening
ous diametral pitches. will tend to obscure minute cracks.
Table 5---6 (2) All heat treating operations must be per-
formed prior to shot peening as high temperatures
Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot
[over 450_F(232_C)] will thermally stress relieve the
Peening peening effects.
Diametral Shot Size Intensity (3) Generally all machining of areas to be
Pitch peened are complete prior to shot peening. It is pos-
sible to restore surface finish in peened areas (and
8 --- 16 S110 0.006 --- 0.010A
4 --- 7 S170 0.010 --- 0.014A retain beneficial effects) by lapping, honing, or pol-
2 1/2 --- 3 1/2 S230 0.014 --- 0.018A ishing, if material removal is limited to 10 percent of
1 3/4 --- 2 S330 0.016 --- 0.020A the depth of compressive layer.
3/4 --- 1 S550 0.006 --- 0.008C (4) Compressive residual stress levels produced
by shot peening can be quantitatively measured by
NOTE: The values for shot size and intensity X---ray diffraction. Currently this must be measured
should be considered typical and not manda- on a cut sample in a laboratory X---ray diffraction
tory. Variables such as gear geometry, hard- unit. Portable units are under development.
ness, and surface condition in the root may
make other specifications more desirable. (5) When there are significant machining marks
in the tooth roots, it is desirable to achieve an intensi-
5.9.3.7 General Comments. Additional com- ty sufficient to produce a depth of compressive stress
ments for shot peening include the following: to negate the stress riser effect of the machining
(1) All magnetic particle or dye penetrant in- mark. However, shot diameter should not exceed 50
spections should be performed before shot peening. percent of the fillet radius.

ANSI/AGMA 50 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
5.10 Residual Stress Effects. Residual stresses play
an important role in the manufacture and perfor-
mance of gears. Residual stresses created by machin-
ing and heat treating operations are responsible for
much of the distortion that occurs during manufac-
ture. The residual stress distribution in finished
gears can determine whether or not the gears will
survive in service. Residual stresses (either favorable
or unfavorable) are induced mechanically, thermally,
by phase transformation, or by modification of sur-
face chemistry (such as by nitriding). Each of these,
singularly and in combination (such as by carburiz-
ing), can affect the degree of in---process distortion
and the residual stress state present in the finished
parts. The following sections briefly discuss the
causes of each type of induced residual stress.
5.10.1 Mechanically Induced Residual Stresses.
There are two types of mechanically induced residual
stresses, machining stresses and finishing operation
stresses. Machining stresses are created by the cut-
ting of the gear shape and can be either beneficial or
detrimental. Parts given a final heat treatment after
finish machining may have the gross residual stresses
from milling, turning, and hobbing minimized by in-
termediate stress relief heat treatments in order to
prevent significant distortion during the final heat
treatment. Machining cuts taken just prior to final
heat treatment must be light enough so as not to
create significant residual stresses. Grinding after fi-
nal heat treatment must be performed very carefully
since it can create residual tensile stresses in the sur-
face of the gear which can adversely affect perfor-
mance. Lapping, honing or careful grinding of gears
after final heat treatment maintains beneficial com-
pressive residual stresses. Finishing operations such
as shot peening (refer to 5.9) and roller burnishing
also impart beneficial compressive residual stresses
when properly controlled. These operations are typi-
cally performed on finished gears to improve the pit-
ting and surface bending fatigue resistance.
Use of cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding may
have a favorable effect on the residual stresses in the
finished gear. Under extreme grinding conditions,
however, CBN grinding may also induce surface tem-
pering residual tensile stresses. Other hard gear fin-
ishing methods (e.g. skiving) will need to be individu-
ally evaluated as to effect on residual stress levels.
5.10.2 Metallurgically Induced Residual Stress.
The other types of residual stress, although quite dif-
ferent, can all be categorized as being metallurgically
ANSI/AGMA
induced. Thermal, phase transformation and modifi-
cation of surface chemistry stresses result from heat
treatment of steel.
5.10.2.1 Thermal and Phase Transformation
Stresses. Thermal stresses result from the heating
and cooling of materials. Quenching, one type of
thermal stress, can also be considered a phase trans-
formation stress. Quenching, particularly fast
quenching to form martensite, generates both ther-
mal and phase transformation stresses. For example,
two types of residual stress patterns can form on
quenching of a round bar. The most common type of
residual stress pattern in small diameter bars is a ten-
sile stress at the surface and a compressive stress at
the center. This stress pattern results from the sur-
face of a bar cooling faster than the center. The phase
transformation to martensite creates volume expan-
sion producing tensile stress at the surface. This in
turn creates a compressive stress at the center.
The second and opposite type of residual stress
pattern occurs during quenching of large diameter
bars. In this situation, the surface hardens but the
center remains at an elevated temperature for some
extended period of time. The thermal contraction
exceeds the expansion of the transformation to mar-
tensite, setting up residual tensile stress at the center
and residual compressive stress at the surface.
These two types of stress patterns are deter-
mined by two variables, size of the bar and speed of
the quench. When the sum of these two variables is
large, for example large diameter bar with a fast
quench, the stress pattern will be of the second type
with residual tensile stress at the center and residual
compressive stress at the surface. When the cooling
rates of the surface and center are similar, the ther-
mal contraction can not overcome the expansion
from the martensitic formation and residual tensile
stress will form at the surface, while the center will
consist of residual compressive stress.
5.10.2.2 Residual Stresses by Modification of
Surface Chemistry. This type of residual stress must
also be considered in conjunction with thermal resid-
ual stress because modification of surface chemistry
requires heating, and heating can introduce thermal
stresses, which must be taken into account. Carbu-
rizing, the most common type of surface chemistry
modification, will serve as a good example of these
types of residual stresses. In quenched carburized
steels, the transformation temperature of austenite
to martensite in the core occurs at a much higher
51 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
temperature than the case, and as discussed in the
previous section, the austenite to martensite trans-
formation creates a volume expansion. Therefore,
as the part is cooling, transformation begins in the
core and moves outward toward the case setting up
tensile stresses in the core. The expansion of the case
is opposed by the previously transformed core im-
parting beneficial compressive stresses in the case.
Compressive stresses in the case help reduce surface
pitting caused by tooth contact stress above and be-
low the pitchline. They help counteract tensile
stresses caused by bending in the root.
6. Metallurgical Quality Control
Metallurgical information should be available
regarding:
(1) incoming material grade information
(2) incoming material hardness and
mechanical tests
(3) heat treat process control
(4) part characteristics
(5) metallurgical testing (final product)
(6) microstructure
(7) test coupon considerations
Refer to Appendix D on Service Life Consider-
ations.
6.1 Incoming Material Quality Control. Material
grade is certified by chemical test. Generally this is a
destructive process. The following types of tests are
commonly used and are listed in ascending order of
cost for ferrous materials:
(1) Spectrographic Analysis
(2) X---Ray Analysis
(3) Atomic Absorption
(4) Wet Chemistry
Iron casting grades are identified by their me-
chanical properties such as tensile strength, yield
strength, and elongation. Hardness may be specified
but cannot be used to identify grade.
Bronze material grades are normally qualified
using chemical analysis and hardness tests.
Brass material grades are identified by chemical
analysis.
NOTE: Source certification is commonly ac-
cepted for analysis certification.
6.2 Incoming Material Hardness Tests. Material
hardness tests, often specified in accordance with
ANSI/AGMA
ASTM A370, are normally surface hardness tests
made using:
(1) Rockwell
(2) Brinell
(3) Rebound Tests (Equotip & Shore)
Hardness testing, using any method or instru-
ment, must be made with calibrated instruments with
data substantiated and documented to insure reli-
ability. Statistical process control (SPC) is an ac-
cepted method of control.
Minimum number of hardness tests on both rim
or edge faces of through hardened cast and forged
gear blanks is generally based on the outside diame-
ter and increases with size. Hardness tests are made
on the rim edge at mid rim thickness after final heat
treatment.
6.2.1 Cast Gears. Recommended number of
hardness tests are as follows:
Outside Number of Tests
Diameter, Recommended
inches (mm) (Rim Face)
0 --- 40 (1020) 2
Over 40 _ 80 (1020 to 2030) 4
Over 80 _ 120 (2030 to 3050) 8
Over 120 (3050) 16
When two hardness tests are specified, one shall
be on the cope side, preferably over a riser; the other
on the drag side, approximately 180_ away.
When four hardness tests are specified, two tests
shall be on the cope side, (one over a riser and the
other approximately 180 degree away between ris-
ers) and the other two tests shall be on the drag side
90 degrees away from the tests on the cope side.
When eight hardness tests are specified, four
tests shall be on the cope side, (two over risers
approximately 180 degrees apart, two between risers
also approximately 180 degrees apart, 90 degrees
away from tests over the risers) and the other four
tests shall also be on the drag side, 90 degrees
apart.
When sixteen hardness tests are specified, eight
tests shall be on the cope side (four over risers and
four between risers around the gear), and the other
eight tests shall be on the drag side equally spaced
around the gear. Large segmented gears shall be
hardness inspected on the cope and drag rim edge of
each segment per agreement between the customer
and supplier.
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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
6.2.2 Forged Pinions and Gears. Forged pinions
and gears include cylindrical shapes, disc shapes and
rings.
6.2.2.1 Cylindrical Shaped Forgings.
(1) A minimum of four hardness tests shall be
taken on the major (tooth) diameter of forgings up to
fifteen inches. Two readings, 180 degrees apart,
shall be taken at the center of the length of the major
diameter (center of tooth section at mid face). One
reading shall be taken approximately 1 inch (25 mm)
from each end of the major diameter, 180 degrees
apart.
(2) A minimum of five hardness tests shall be
taken on the major diameter of forgings over 15 in-
ches (380 mm) in diameter. Three readings, 120 de-
grees apart, shall be taken at the center of the length
of the major diameter (center of the tooth section at
mid face). One reading shall be taken approximately
2 inches (50 mm) from each end of the major diame-
ter, 180 degrees apart.
6.2.2.2 Disc Shape Forging.
(1) A minimum of two hardness tests, 180 de-
grees apart with one on each side, shall be taken at
the mid radius on forgings of up to 18.0 inches (457
mm) in diameter, inclusive.
(2)A minimum of four hardness tests, two on
each side 180 degrees apart, shall be taken at the
mid radius on forgings over 18.0 inches (457 mm) in
diameter.
6.2.3 Forged Rings (Reference ASTM A290).
Recommended number of hardness tests is as fol-
lows:
Diameter of Ring, Number of Tests
in (mm) Recommended
Up to 40 2 (180_ apart)
(1016)
Over 40 to 80 4 (180_ apart)
(1016 to 2032)
Over 80 to 120 6 (120_ apart)
(2032 to 3048)
Over 120 8 (90_ apart)
(3048)
(1) When a total of two hardness tests are speci-
fied, they shall be made 180 degrees apart, one on
the ring edge and the other on the opposite ring edge.
(2) When a total of four hardness tests are speci-
fied, they all shall be made 180 degrees apart on
ANSI/AGMA
each ring edge, 90 degrees apart from one edge to
the other.
(3) When a total of six hardness tests are speci-
fied, they shall be 120 degrees apart on each rim
edge.
(4) When a total of eight hardness tests are speci-
fied, they shall be made 90 degrees apart on each
rim edge.
6.3 Incoming Material Mechanical Tests. Mechani-
cal property test bars, for tensile testing and less fre-
quently impact testing, are only required when speci-
fied. Refer to 6.8 for merits and limitations of me-
chanical test bars.
Test bar stock for gearing manufactured from
forgings and bar stock are normally obtained from a
prolongation or extension of the rough stock, in the
axial or longitudinal direction with respect to the
component and the direction of metal flow during
forging. Refer to ASTM A291 for mechanical test
certification of forged gearing.
Test bar stock, approximately 1.5 5 6.0 inch
(38 127 152 mm) long, are normally attached to
the drag (bottom) rim edge of the casting or are cast
as separate test blocks from the same heat of steel.
Refer to ASTM A148 for mechanical test certifica-
tion of cast gearing.
Test bar stock should remain attached to or ac-
company the rough stock until all thermal treatment
is completed.
Minimum tensile properties for steel gearing are
shown in Tables 4---2, 4---3 and 4---7, and also in
ASTM A290, A291 and A148.
6.4 Heat Treat Process Control. The many variables
involved in the heat treatment of gear materials
makes process control complex. Process variables in-
clude: time, temperature, rate of heating and cool-
ing, heating media, cooling media, types of controls,
base material composition, condition of process
equipment, evaluation techniques, and part geome-
try.
Heat treat processes change the microstructure
and mechanical properties of the gear material. Any
dimensional change, such as distortion or part
growth, and any cosmetic change, such as coloration
or surface texture, are characteristics of a specific
heat treat process, but are not primary factors for
process control. Process parameters used to control
the heat treatment of gear materials are as follows:
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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
6.4.1 Temperature. Temperature selection and
control is an important parameter in the heat treat-
ment of gear materials. In carburizing and nitriding,
the rate of diffusion into steel is dependent on tem-
perature. The carbon concentration in the furnace
atmosphere is also temperature dependent. Specific
temperature ranges are required to harden the vari-
ous grades of steel. Hardness and mechanical prop-
erties of a material grade are dependent on the tem-
pering temperature after hardening.
6.4.1.1 Temperature Uniformity. Since the
properties obtained in gear materials are dependent
on the temperatures at which they are treated, the
uniformity of the temperature within the working di-
mensions of the furnace equipment should be mea-
sured. The amount of variation allowed is depen-
dent on the type of heat treatment and the material
properties desired.
6.4.1.2 Thermal History. It is advisable to make
a time temperature plot of the heat treat processes as
a monitoring device and as process documentation.
This is usually accomplished with strip chart record-
ers.
6.4.2 Time. The duration of each segment of the
heat treat process is critical to achieving the desired
material properties. For example, the depth of car-
bon penetration during carburizing is dependent on
how long the part was held at the carburizing temper-
ature.
When the furnace temperature instrument indi-
cates that the furnace chamber has recovered its
heat, the part in the chamber may not be up to tem-
perature. It is important that the part be held at tem-
perature long enough for the entire part to be at tem-
perature. Time at temperature for through harden-
ing is generally 0.75 hour per inch (25.4 mm) of sec-
tion.
6.4.3 Rate. The rates of heating and cooling are
important considerations. For example, if an induc-
tion hardened part is heated too slowly, the core ma-
terial will get too hot and lose its mechanical proper-
ties. If a steel gear is cooled too quickly, it will have
high internal stresses and possibly crack.
6.4.4 Atmosphere Control. The composition of
the furnace atmosphere is an important part of pro-
cess control. Control of carbon potential in the fur-
nace atmosphere is critical to carburizing and the
protection of surfaces from carbon pickup or deple-
tion during the hardening process. There are three
ANSI/AGMA
commonly used methods for measuring and control-
ling carbon potential in a furnace atmosphere:
(1) Water Vapor Concentration. For a given
temperature, the carbon concentration on the sur-
face of the part is related to the water vapor con-
centration (dew point) in a furnace atmosphere. The
water vapor concentration is measured using a dew
cell or dew pointer. The water vapor concentration is
expressed as the atmosphere dew point measured in
degrees fahrenheit.
(2) Carbon Dioxide Concentration. The con-
centrations of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
in a furnace atmosphere at a given temperature are
related to the carbon concentration on the surface of
the part.
The carbon dioxide concentration is measured
with an external infrared gas analyzer and expressed
as a percentage.
(3) Oxygen Concentration. The concentration of
carbon on the part surface is related to the oxygen
concentration in the furnace atmosphere at a given
temperature and carbon monoxide level. The oxy-
gen concentration is measured with an oxygen probe
positioned in the furnace heat chamber.
6.4.5 Quench Control. Control of the quenching
operation involves monitoring the variables which
affect the rate and uniformity of part cooling. This in-
cludes inspecting the condition, cleanliness and con-
centration (if applicable) of the quenchant; the prop-
er operation of any device used for agitation; and en-
suring that the quenchant stays at the proper temper-
ature (refer to 5.7).
There are several methods available to monitor
and quantify the cooling rate of the quenching pro-
cess. These include the standard nickel ball test,
magnetic test, hot wire test and interval test. Sample
parts or test coupons can also be used as long as the
test piece hardenability is accounted for (refer to 5.7
on quenching).
6.4.6 Tempering Temperatures. It is important
that the tempering temperature be controlled to
achieve the desired hardness. It is prudent to select
an initial tempering temperature which is on the low
side of the tempering range. It is easier and more
cost effective to retemper a part that is too hard, than
reharden and retemper a soft part.
6.5 Part Characteristics.
54 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Part characteristics such as hardness, micro---
structure and test coupon results can provide valu-
able information.
6.5.1 Hardness. Hardness is the most common
characteristic used to measure results of the heat
treat process. There are numerous types of hardness
testing devices which can be used, but each type has
its own application limits and must be used correctly.
Statistical process control (SPC) is an accepted
method to insure reliability using hardness testing.
6.5.1.1 As Quenched Hardness. As quenched
hardness of a part is a good indicator of the heat treat
process. Many factors determine the as quenched
hardness such as decarburization and retained auste-
nite. High as quenched hardness is the result of good
heat treatment. Low as quenched hardness usually
results from one or more of many factors such as de-
teriorating quenchant, malfunctioning quench agita-
tors, or too low an austenitizing temperature.
6.5.1.2 Decarburization. If a surface has been
decarburized, hardness will be low. If the surface
hardness is low, it is advisable that two hardness
checks be made on a qualifying test part to insure
that the hardness below the decarburized zone meets
blue print requirements. The two hardness checks
should be made using the following sequence: grind
surface for hardness measurement, regrind surface
until the hardness indentation is removed, and then
make another hardness measurement near the origi-
nal location. If both measurements are the same,
there is no decarburization. If the hardness in-
creases, there is possible decarburization. To deter-
mine the depth of decarburization, a test coupon or
part that was run with the load should be sectioned,
mounted, polished and etched. It should be noted,
however, that in most cases decarburization is not
permissible.
6.5.1.3 Post Temper Hardness Examination.
Tempering parts reduces hardness. As tempering
temperature increases, hardness decreases. Temper-
ing temperature is determined by many factors,
mainly type of steel and as quenched hardness. A
hardness measurement technique can be used to
monitor furnace soak time and uniformity. If the part
hardness is greater in a heavy section compared to a
light section, or if the hardness increases as surface
metal is removed, these are good indicators of insuf-
ficient soak time. If the part hardness varies from the
specified range between pieces in a furnace load, this
is a good indication of a processing problem.
ANSI/AGMA
6.5.1.4 Carburize and Harden Examination.
Surface hardness and core hardness measurements
are used to monitor the carburizing process. If the
core hardness of a part is within the expected range
regardless of the other hardness measurements, the
part was satisfactorily quenched. If the part hardness
is low, this is an indication of decarburization, inade-
quate quenching, excessive retained austenite, un-
dissolved carbides, too high tempering temperature,
inadequate case depth, or low surface carbon.
6.5.1.5 Case Depth Examination. Carburized
case depth is typically measured by making a micro-
hardness traverse across a sectioned part or test cou-
pon to find the depth from the surface where the
hardness is equivalent to Rockwell C 50.
6.5.1.6 Retained Austenite Examination. If the
surface hardness of a carburized part is low, it may be
due to the presence of retained austenite in the car-
burized case. Retained austenite can be transformed
to martensite by freezing the carburized part. If the
surface hardness improves after freezing, there was
retained austenite in the carburized case which is an
indicator of high surface carbon concentration or too
high of a quench temperature.
6.5.2 Microstructure. The composition of the
various phases in the microstructure of a gear will tell
a lot about the heat treat process. It is recommended
that a trained metallographer or metallurgist per-
form the microstructure analysis.
6.5.2.1 Tempered Martensite. If a hardened gear
has been correctly hardened and tempered, the mi-
crostructure will be composed primarily of tempered
martensite provided that the hardenability of the
steel was adequate.
6.5.2.2 Bainite. If a gear has been improperly
quenched, the microstructure might be interspersed
with bainite, which is characterized by a feathery ap-
pearance if severely under quenched, or a darker
acicular pattern for marginal quenching.
6.5.2.3 Retained Austenite. All carburized case
microstructures will contain some retained auste-
nite, usually less than 5 to 30 percent by volume.
However, if the carbon content of the carburized
case is high, a larger percentage of retained austenite
will be present and will reduce the case hardness. Re-
tained austenite is characterized by a white back-
ground in a matrix of other structures (see 6.5.1.6).
6.5.2.4 Undissolved Carbides. If a carburized
part has an excessively high carbon concentration,
55 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
the microstructure will contain undissolved carbides
usually populating the case. Undissolved carbides
are characterized by blocky white regions in a matrix
of martensite and retained austenite. A normal
structure will consist of light, scattered pinpoint car-
bides, while a structure of excessively high carbon
concentration will have carbides contained in a net-
work at the grain boundary. Continuous intergranu-
lar carbide network is not desirable for gearing.
6.5.3 Test Coupons. Test coupons of representa-
tive geometry are frequently used for destructive
testing in lieu of destroying gearing. Microstructure
and hardness testing of test coupons can be corre-
lated to gearing characteristics.
6.6 Metallurgical, Mechanical and Non--- Destruc-
tive Tests and Inspections. Tests and inspections
which may be made on the final or near final product
are fatigue testing, hardness testing, surface temper
inspection, magnetic particle inspection, and ultra-
sonic inspection.
6.6.1 Fatigue Testing. Fatigue (life) testing of
the final product is the proof of the suitability of the
design for the intended purpose.
It is desirable to expedite this testing while main-
taining validity of the test data. This can be done by
running the test at some overload ratio and evaluat-
ing the damage with time for the test conditions.
Damage can be compared with that for the product
design conditions. This comparison must be made
for both the beam strength and the surface durability
of the teeth. Miners Rule is a widely accepted meth-
od of making these comparisons.
When damage value accumulated on the test
equals the damage value of the design, the test speci-
men survived the minimum specified product life.
Due to the statistical nature of fatigue failure
there is a wide distribution of data. In low cycle fa-
tigue where most high overload and damage frac-
tures occur, this scatter band from the lower thresh-
old to the upper threshold is approximately 100 to 1
wide. Since the distribution may be considered a log
function, it is necessary for about half the test units to
run at ten times the threshold life to validate the
product design. This would constitute a Miners
Rule damage of ten.
6.6.2 Hardness Testing on the Gear Product.
Through hardened finish machine gearing can be
conventionally hardness tested by standard and por-
ANSI/AGMA
table Brinell and Rockwell test machines provided
that the following are met:
(1) Surface to be inspected provides access and
has the required surface finish, generally 64 microin-
ches (5 microns), or:
(2) If the size of the hardness impression on the
test surface is permitted, or:
(3) Mass of the test surface will support the test
load.
Through hardened gearing is commonly in-
spected on the faces of gear rims, top lands of teeth
where size permits, gap of herringbone (double heli-
cal) gearing and on adjacent diameters of pinions
other than bearing journals. Through hardened
gearing is rarely inspected for hardness on the flanks
of teeth or in root radii because hardenability of the
steel selected should insure obtaining the specified
hardness at these locations. When hardness testers
are not available for accurate measurement at roots
of teeth, destructive sectioning and testing may be re-
quired.
Other portable hardness testing instruments are
available (ASTM A833). One tester uses a hammer
to simultaneously impact a known hardness test bar
and the unknown workpiece with a hardened ball be-
tween the two test surfaces. Comparison is made of
the ball diameter on each to determine hardness of
the unknown. Other portable instruments measure
the recoil or rebound height or velocity of a dropped
hardened ball, or use a high ultrasonic frequency ac-
tivated indenter to measure hardness.
It is desired that surface hardened gearing be
hardness inspected, non---destructively, so as not to
leave an objectionable impression. Portable testers
which measure the rebound height or velocity of a
dropped hardened ball or use a high ultrasonic fre-
quency activated hardness indenter, may be used.
Conventional Rockwell test machines can be
used to hardness inspect surface hardened gearing
when size of the gearing permits and where a visible
impression is permitted. Hardened files, including
those tempered to lower hardness than 60---64 HRC,
can also be used to approximate hardness by the
scratch test (Reference SAE J---864). Inspection of
the hardness on the flanks of surface hardened
coarse gearing with non---destructive portable hard-
ness testers can be improved when the instrument
can be fixed for perpendicularity to the test surface.
Hardness measurement in the roots of teeth may not
56 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
be reliable due to accessibility in the radius of curva-
ture and surface roughness.
For improved accuracy and where permitted,
through hardened steel and cast iron gearing should
be hardness inspected directly in Brinell (not con-
verted). Hardness of surface hardened gearing
should be directly measured in Rockwell (C or A
scale) or converted to Rockwell with suitable porta-
ble instruments.
Portable instruments vary in accuracy and reli-
ability. Users, therefore, should take precautions to
insure accurate calibration and test results.
Hardness testing equipment manufacturers
should be contacted and literature searched for addi-
tional information on principles of hardness inspec-
tion, available test equipment and their capabilities.
Statistical process control is a useful tool to be used
with hardness testing.
6.6.3 Surface Temper Inspection. Surface tem-
per inspection is used to detect and classify localized
overheating on ground surfaces by use of a chemical
etch method. Details of the process are covered in
AGMA 230.01, Surface Temper Inspection Process.
Inspection criteria includes a class designation
for critical and non---critical areas. To evaluate the
severity of surface temper, grinding burns are classi-
fied by intensity of color from light gray to brown to
black. Severe burning or re---hardening is indicated
by patches of white in the darkened areas. Cracking
may also be present. Re---hardening or cracking are
cause for rejection.
Tables I and II in AGMA 230.01 cover temper
classes ranging from Class A (Light temper) to Class
D (Heavy temper). Class C (Moderate temper) for a
limited area and hardness reduction may be per-
mitted.
Rework for excessive temper is generally per-
mitted by mutual agreement between customer and
supplier.
Case depth shall be determined on a normal
tooth section. Hardness testers which produce small
shallow impressions should be used in order that the
hardness values obtained will be representative of
the surface area being tested. Microhardness testers
which produce Diamond Pyramid or Knoop Hard-
ness number are recommended, although other tes-
ters such as Rockwell superficial A or 15 N scales can
ANSI/AGMA
be used in some instances. Caution should be exer-
cised if the heavier load C scale is used.
6.6.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection. Magnetic
particle inspection is a non---destructive testing
method for locating surface and near surface discon-
tinuities in ferromagnetic material. When a magnet-
ic field is introduced into the part, discontinuities
laying approximately transverse to the magnetic field
will cause a leakage field. Finely divided ferromag-
netic particles, dry or in an oil base or water base sus-
pension, are applied over the surface of the material
under test. These particles will gather and hold at the
leakage field making the discontinuities visible to the
naked eye.
Use of electric current is, by far, the best means
for magnetizing parts for magnetic particle inspec-
tion. Either longitudinal or circular fields may be
introduced into parts. There are basically two types
of electric current in common use, and both are suit-
able for magnetizing purposes in magnetic particle
testing. The two types of current are direct current
and alternating current. The magnetic fields pro-
duced by direct and by alternating currents differ in
many characteristics. The main difference, which is
of prime importance in magnetic particle testing, is
that fields produced by direct current generally pene-
trate the entire cross section of the part, whereas the
fields produced by alternating current are confined
to the metal at or near the surface of the part under
test. From this, it is evident that when deep penetra-
tion of field into the part is required, direct current
must be used as the source of magnetizing force. By
far, the most satisfactory source of D.C. is the rectifi-
cation of alternating current. Both single phase and
three phase A.C. are furnished commercially. By the
use of rectifiers, reversing A.C. is rectified and the
delivered direct current is entirely the equivalent of
straight D.C. for magnetic particle testing purposes.
Sources of alternating current are single phase
stepped down to 115, 230, or 460 volts. This is accom-
plished by means of transformers to the low voltages
required. At these low voltages, magnetizing cur-
rents up to several thousand amperes are often used.
The trend in Europe is to use A.C. current for mag-
netic particle testing because the intent of their test-
ing is location of surface discontinuities only. Subsur-
face discontinuities are best detected by radiography
or ultrasonic non---destructive test methods. A.C.
currents tends to give better particle mobility, and
57 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
demagnetization is more complete than with a D.C.
field.
There are two essential components of magnetic
particle testing, each of equal importance for reliable
results. The first is the proper magnetization of the
part to be tested, with proper field strength in the ap-
propriate direction for the detection of defects. The
second is the use of the proper magnetic particles
type to secure the best possible defect indications un-
der prevailing conditions.
6.6.4.1 General Principles. Some general prin-
ciples and rules on magnetizing means, field
strength, current distribution and strength require-
ments are listed below (refer to Figs 6---1 and 6---2).
(1) Fields should be at 90 degrees to the direc-
tion of defects. This may require magnetizing in two
directions.
(2) Fields generated by electric currents are at 90
degrees to the direction of current flow.
(3) When magnetizing with electric currents,
pass the current in a direction parallel to the direc-
tion of expected discontinuities.
(4) Circular magnetization has the advantage
over longitudinal magnetization in that there are
few, if any, local poles to cause confusion in particle
patterns, and it is preferred when a choice of meth-
ods is permissible.
(5) Circular magnetization specifications gener-
ally require from 100 to 1000 amps per inch of part
diameter. Amperage requirements should be incor-
porated into the magnetic particle procedure.
(6) For coil magnetization, a widely used formu-
la for amperage calculations is:
NI = 45 000 (Eq 6.1)
L/ D
where
NI = ampere turns required,
L/D = length to diameter ratio.
NOTE: The 45 000 constant may vary with
specifications.
ANSI/AGMA
(7) For prod magnetization with direct current, a
minimum of 60 amperes per inch of prod spacing will
produce a minimum magnetizing force of 20 oersteds
at the midpoint of the prod line for plate 3/4 inch
thick or less. A safer figure to use, however, is 200
amps per inch, unless this current strength produces
an interfering surface power pattern. Prod spacing
for practical inspection purposes is limited to about
eight (8) inches maximum, except in special cases.
(8) All parts should be demagnetized after mag-
netic particle inspection.
FIELD
HEAD
BATH
CURRENT
DISCONTINUITY
HEAD SHOT
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION LOCATES
DISCONTINUITIES OCCURRING 45 --- 90
DEGREES TO THE DIRECTION OF THE
FIELD.
INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS
SHOWING LONGITUDINAL DISCONTINUITIES
--- MARK DISCONTINUTIES.
Fig 6---1 Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic
Particle Inspection
6.6.4.2 Magnetic Particles. The particles used
are finely divided ferromagnetic material. Properties
vary over a wide range for different applications in-
cluding magnetic properties, size, shape, density,
mobility and visibility or contrast. Varying require-
ments for varying conditions of test and varying
properties of suitable materials have led to the devel-
opment of a large number of different types of avail-
able materials. The choice of which one to use is an
important one, since the appearance of the particle
58 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
patterns at discontinuities will be affected, even to
the point of whether or not a pattern is formed.
FIELD CURRENT
THROUGH
COIL
BATH
DISCONTINUITY
COIL SHOT
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION LOCATES
TRAVERSE DISCONTINUITIES.
INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS
SHOWING TRANSVERSE DISCONTINUITIES.
NOTE:
EFFECTIVE LENGTH MAGNETIZED BY
COIL SHOT IS A FEW INCHES ON EITHER
SIDE OF COIL. MAXIMUM LENGTH OF
ARTICLE COVERED BY ONE SHOT IS
18 INCHES (46 CM). ON LONG ARTICLES,
REPEAT SHOTS AND BATHS DOWN THE
LENGTH OF ARTICLE. PLACE ARTICLES
CLOSE TO THE COIL BODY.
Fig 6---2 Coil Shot Magnetic Particle
Inspection
(1) Dry Powders. It is evident that size plays an
important part in the behavior of magnetic particles.
A large, heavy particle is not likely to be arrested and
held by a weak field when such particles are moving
over the surface of the part. On the other hand, very
fine powders will be held by very weak fields, since
their mass is very small. Extremely fine particles may
also adhere to the surface where there are no discon-
tinuities, especially if it is rough, and form confusing
backgrounds. Most dry ferromagnetic powders used
for detecting discontinuities are careful mixtures of
particles of all sizes. The smaller ones add sensitivity
and mobility, while the larger ones not only aid in lo-
cating large defects, but by a sweeping action, coun-
teract the tendency of fine powders to leave a dusty
background. Thus, by including the entire size range,
a balanced powder with sensitivity over most of the
range of sizes of discontinuities is produced.
(2) Wet Method Materials. When the ferromag-
netic particles are applied as a suspension in some
liquid medium, much finer particles can be used. The
upper limit of particle size in most commercial wet
ANSI/AGMA
methods is in the range of 60 to 40 microns. Particles
larger than this tend to settle out of suspension rapid-
ly. In general, wet method materials exhibit a greater
sensitivity than dry powders. Fluorescent particles
have the greatest contrast of the wet method materi-
als. Although fluorescent wet particles have the
greatest sensitivity and contrast, they can provide a
confusing background on surfaces with a finish great-
er than 250 RMS.
6.6.4.3 Documented Procedures. Written proce-
dures for magnetic particle testing should as a mini-
mum include:
(1) Which ASTM, ASNT or agency specifica-
tions the procedure meets.
(2) Qualifications---
(a) Indicate that the operators are qualified
and tested to ASNT---TC---1A Level II, MIL---
STD---271F, etc.
(b) Indicate type of equipment used for in-
spection, A.C. and D.C. full wave rectified, etc.
(c) Indicate type of particles used for inspec-
tion, fluorescent or black visible, wet or dry particle.
For the wet method, particle concentration should
also be indicated.
(3) General---
(a) State when inspection is to be done; after
heat treat, finish machining, etc.
(b) State what the surface will be; for exam-
ple, 250 RMS, black forge, etc.
(c) State amps per inch of diameter for cir-
cular magnetization and the formula used for cal-
culation of longitudinal magnetization.
(d) State what method will be used for deter-
mining field magitude; such as pie gage, etc.
(e) State demagnetization, if required, and
level of demagnetization required.
(4) Standard of Acceptance
(a) Indicate maximum size and density of
indications permitted.
(b)Indicate reporting procedures if
needed.
For further information on magnetic particle
testing, refer to:
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing, C.E. Betz
Metals Handbook Volume II Eighth Edition
Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Edited by
Robert C. McMasters for the Society for Nonde-
structive Testing
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 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
6.6.5 Ultrasonic Inspection. Ultrasonic inspec-
tion is a nondestructive test method to determine the
internal soundness and cleanliness of gearing by
passing sound (ultrasound) through the material.
Very short sound waves of a frequency greater than
20,000 cycles per second (audible limit) are voltage
generated and transmitted into the part by a trans-
ducer. In the method most often used, returning
sound waves are transformed into voltage and moni-
tored on an oscilloscope screen.
There are two test methods used, depending
upon the media, for coupling the ultrasonic transduc-
er to the heat treated work piece. Untreated coarse
grained structures do not lend themselves to ultra-
sonic testing. Surfaces to be scanned, such as the out-
side diameter and ends or end faces of cylindrical or
disc shaped rough stock are generally machined to
125---250 micro---inch maximum surface roughness.
This provides improved contact for the transducer
with the work piece. One method uses a couplant:
oil, glycerin or a commercial paste spread evenly on
the surfaces to be inspected. The second method uses
water as the couplant, with the transducer and work
piece submerged in a tank.
With the most common technique of ultrasonic
inspection, namely, the pulse echo technique, the
transducer both emits sound waves and receives the
returning signals from the back surface and possible
defects. The returning signals are subsequently mon-
itored on an oscilloscope screen as shown in Fig 6---3.
The indication to the left of the oscilloscope screen in
Fig 6---3 is caused by the sound wave entering the
steel and is called initial pulse or contact interfer-
ence. The indication to the right is caused by sound
reflecting off of the back surface and in the middle is
the signal reflecting from any defects shown. The
horizontal line, called the sweep line, provides a
measure of distance or depth in the work piece, as re-
lated to the rate of travel of sound in the material.
The sweep line can be calibrated by use of a test block
or section of known thickness in the work piece in or-
der that each marker shown on the sweep line repre-
sents a standard distance or depth. Depth of the de-
fect from the transducer contact point on the scan-
ning surface can, therefore, be determined.
Before testing, the instrument must be cali-
brated according to the test specification. Scanning
sensitivity is often established as either the sensitivity
to just obtain a specified back reflection height, or at
the sensitivity to obtain an indication of specified
height from a flat bottom hole drilled into test blocks.
ANSI/AGMA
Scanning sensitivity and indication limitations
are often determined using test blocks by establish-
ing a distance---amplitude reference line on the oscil-
loscope screen as illustrated in Fig 6---4. As an exam-
ple, sensitivity may be adjusted to establish the speci-
fied indication height [2 1/2 inch (63 mm)] from the
flat bottom hole (FBH) in the 4 inch (102 mm) block,
and at the same sensitivity, the indication from the
same size FBH in the 12 inch (305 mm) block is noted
on the oscilloscope screen. A straight line is drawn
between the two points. Any indication noted must
not exceed the determined distance---amplitude ref-
erence line.
Also, indications are often specified not to ex-
ceed a certain magnitude and length on the scanning
surface or result in loss in back reflection height ex-
ceeding specified limits, both expressed in a percent
of the back reflection height established during cal-
ibration for scanning sensitivity.
Reference can be made to the equipment
manufacturers literature, or to the American Soci-
ety for Metals (ASM) Metals Handbook, Volume 11
on Non---Destructive Testing (SNDT), for addi-
tional information. Important considerations in-
clude appropriate transducer frequency, operator
requirements and qualification, application limita-
tions, work piece requirements (grain size), instru-
ment calibration, test block requirements, test speci-
fications and interpretation of test results.
The American Society for Testing Materials and
AGMA specifications which follow may be used for
ultrasonic inspection of wrought and cast gearing.
Forgings and bar stock:
(1) AGMA 6033---A88, Section 10.
(2) ASTM A388, Ultrasonic Examination of
Heavy Steel Forgings.
Castings:
(1) AGMA 6033---A88, Section 11.
(2) ASTM A609, Steel Castings, Carbon and
Low Alloy, Ultrasonic Examination Thereof.
6.7 Microstructure. The major function of the mate-
rial selection and heat treating process is to achieve
the desired microstructure at the critical locations so
that the part will have the desired contact and bend-
ing strength capacity. Hardened steel gearing micro-
structure should be tempered martensite at the en-
tire tooth surface.
The microstructure will vary around the gear
tooth flank and throughout the tooth cross section.
The tooth mass will have a significant effect on the
resulting microstructure and hardness throughout
the tooth section. The heat treatment variables will
60 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

significantly effect the microstructure achieved. ture considerations as well as hardness control.
Gear tooth quality control must include microstruc-

TRANSDUCER
SUITABLE COUPLANT ON SURFACE

Y
DEFECT

BACK REFLECTING SURFACE

INITIAL PULSE BACK REFLECTION

X 3 in (76 mm)

DEFECT

MARKERS

Fig 6---3 Ultrasonic Inspection with Oscilloscope Screen

ANSI/AGMA 61 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

INDICATION FROM FBH

IN 4 in (102 mm) BLOCK

INDICATION
D ---A REFERENCE LINE FROM
FBH IN 12 in (306
2 1/2 mm) BLOCK
(63 mm)

3 in 11 in
(76 mm) (279 mm)

TEST BLOCKS: 12 AND 4 in (306 AND 102 mm) TEST BLOCKS

CONTAINING SAME SIZE FLAT BOTTOM HOLE DRILLED TO A DEPTH OF 1
in
Fig 6---4 Distance --- Amplitude Reference Line for Ultrasonic Inspection

Control of the microstructures in flame and in-
duction hardened steel gears must also consider the
width and location of heat effected zones which will
always exist at the ends of the hardened pattern.
Microstructure evaluation must include the exis-
tence of structures other than tempered martensite
at the gear tooth surface and at core positions. In
carburized and hardened steel gears, retained auste-
nite will exist in the case after the heat treating op-
erations. Data and opinions vary as to the allowable
limits for retained austenite. Subzero treatment is
specified for some applications to reduce retained
austenite. Some research has shown that micro-
cracks are produced by subzero treating.
In carburized and hardened steel gears, carbide
forms and distribution are an area of microstructure
concern. Continuous network carbide is generally
considered to be unacceptable microstructure. Dis-
continuous carbide network is generally allowed
within limits.
Bainite, pearlite, and ferrite are undesirable at
the gear tooth surface of surface hardened gearing.
These structures will exist in core microstructures of
coarse tooth gearing.

ANSI/AGMA 62 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
6.8 Mechanical Property Test Bar Considerations.
Test coupons are specified by company and industry
standards for evaluating mechanical properties of
wrought and cast steel and non---ferrous materials
used for gearing.
NOTE: It should be realized, however, that
mechanical properties obtained from test
coupons for wrought and cast steel, cast iron
and non---ferrous alloys are not equivalent to
the actual properties of gearing from which
the test coupons were obtained or associated.
Smaller section test coupons are typically spe-
cified for economic considerations and instru-
ment testing limitations.
6.8.1 Reasons for Mechanical Property Vari-
ance. The reasons for mechanical properties ob-
tained from test coupons not being equivalent to
those of gearing include the following consider-
ations:
(1) Wrought Forgings and Bar stock---
(a) Test coupon orientation and location.
Mechanical properties of forgings and bar stock are
anisotropic (refer to 4.9) which means that proper-
ties vary in the longitudinal and transverse (or tan-
gential) directions. These directions are defined with
respect to direction of metal flow and inclusion
orientation induced by mechanical working. Unless
otherwise specified, test results from shaft exten-
sions in the longitudinal direction are those typically
reported by forging manufacturers for solid on shaft
gearing. The longitudinal direction, however, pro-
vides optimum properties compared to properties
from the transverse (or tangential) direction. The
transverse (or tangential) direction is more repre-
sentative of gear teeth depending upon helix angle.
Location or depth of the test coupon from the
forged section (e.g. from the outside diameter, mid---
section or from the center) and its effect with respect
to the degree of mechanical working and segrega-
tion, causes variance in mechanical properties. Seg-
regation is increased and degree of mechanical work-
ing is reduced towards the center of hot worked or
wrought sections.
(b) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar
being tested, and the smaller section of the gearing
from which the test coupon may have been obtained
ANSI/AGMA
(e.g. shaft extension), has an effect on mechanical
properties. This variance is due mainly to the in-
creased degree of mechanical working and increased
response to heat treating, as compared to larger
forged sections. Generally, smaller section test bars
and sections show improved mechanical properties.
(2) Castings---
(a) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar
being tested, such as standard impact test bars, re-
sults in improved properties compared to larger cast
sections. Also, the smaller section of the standard in-
tegral or separate cast test coupons, and its effect re-
lated to improved solidification mechanism (re-
duced micro---segregation and micro---unsoundness)
and increased response to heat treating, causes me-
chanical property variance compared to larger cast
sections.
(b) Location of the test coupon. Test coupon
may be better located during heat treatment, causing
increased response to heat treating and improved
mechanical properties.
6.8.2 Mechanical Properties Affected. Mechani-
cal properties obtained from test coupons, especially
tensile ductility (percent elongation and reduction of
area measured after tensile testing), impact strength
and fatigue strength, are generally higher for test
coupons than for actual forged or cast gearing. Ten-
sile and yield strengths of test coupons, however, bet-
ter represent actual corresponding properties of
gearing, provided hardness of the test coupons is
within the specified range.
6.8.3 Interpretation. Mechanical properties ob-
tained from test coupons should be considered as an
indication of the quality of gear materials, but should
not be interpreted as representing the precise me-
chanical properties of gearing for the reasons cited in
6.8.1 and 6.8.2. Specified mechanical properties for
test coupons should be minimum properties, not typ-
ical properties. Designers should incorporate ap-
propriate factors of safety based on experience for
design of gearing to accommodate variance between
measured and actual properties of gearing. In addi-
tion to test coupons providing indications as to the
metallurgical quality of gear materials, test coupons
provide a comparison of steel quality between differ-
ent orders and can often help identify problems in
steel making and heat treating.
63 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Bibliography

ASTM A148---83, Specifications for Steel Castings for High Strength Structural Purposes
ASTM A291---82, Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for Pinions and Gears for Reduction
Gears
ASTM A356---83, Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon and Low Alloy, Heavy---Walled, for Steam
Turbines
ASTM E125---63 (1980), Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM E186---80, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (2 to 4 1/2 inch)(51 to 114 mm)
Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (4 1/2 to 12 inch)(114 to 305 mm)
Steel Castings
ASTM E446---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in Thickness
ASTM E609---83, Ultrasonic Examination of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Castings
ASTM E709---80, Magnetic Particle Examination
MIL---H---6875G (Feb 86), Process for Heat Treatment of Steel

Reference Addresses

American Society for Metals American Iron and Steel Institute

Metals Park, OH 44073 1000 16th Street, NW
(216) 338---5151 Washington, D.C. 20036
Metals Handbooks (202) 452---7100
Heat Treaters Guide AISI Steel Products Manuals
Metals Reference Book
Naval Publications and Forms Center
American Society for Testing and Materials 5801 Tabor Avenue
1916 Race Street Philadelphia, PA 19120
Philadelphia, PA 19103 (215) 697---3321
(215) 299---5400 Military Standards
ASTM Standards
Metal Powder Industries Federation
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 105 College Road East\Princeton, NJ 080540
400 Commonwealth Drive (609) 542---7700
Warrendale, PA 15096 MPIF Standard 35
(412) 776---4841 Other:
SAE Handbook Gray and Ductile Iron Castings Handbook
AMS Standards Cast Steel Handbook
Modern Plastics Encyclopedia

ANSI/AGMA 64 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Appendix A
Plastic Gear Materials
[This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of AGMA
Standard 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual.]
A1. Purpose. The purpose of this Appendix is to pro-
vide information on plastic materials which have
been used for gearing. For physical properties, refer
to appropriate product standards.
A2. Tolerances. Under certain operating conditions,
the tolerances for plastic gears may be less critical
than for metal gears for smooth and quiet perfor-
mance. Ordinarily, however, the same care in
manufacturing, testing, measuring, and quality level
specifications should be utilized in plastic gearing as
in metal gearing. The inherent resiliency of some of
the plastic used may result in better conjugate action.
The resiliency of many plastic gears gives them the
ability to better dampen moderate shock or impact
type loads within the capabilities of the particular
plastics materials.
A3. Operating Characteristics. Generally, plastic
gearing materials are noted for low coefficient of
friction, high efficiency performance, and quiet op-
eration.
Many plastic gearing materials have inherent lu-
bricity so that gears require little or no external lu-
brication. They can perform satisfactorily when ex-
posed to many chemicals which have a corrosive ef-
fect on metal gears.
Plastic gearing, when operating at low stress lev-
els in certain environments, have been known to out-
wear equivalent metal gears.
A4. Load Carrying Capacity. The maximum load
carrying capacity of most plastic gears decreases as
the temperature increases more than with metal
gears. The upper temperature limit of most thermo-
plastic gears is 250_F(121_C) at which point they
lose approximately 50 percent of their rated
strength. The upper operating temperature limit of
thermosetting gears now exceeds 400_F(250_C).
Very little degradation of mechanical properties in
certain thermosetting materials occurs at tempera-
tures up to 450_F(232_C).
A5. Plastic Materials. Many different plastics are
now used for gearing. Both thermosetting and ther-
ANSI/AGMA
moplastic material are used, with the latter being by
far the most prevalent.
A5.1 Phenolic(T/S --- indicates thermosetting).
Phenolics are invariably compounded with various
fillers such as woodflour, mineral, glass, sisal,
chopped cloth, and such lubricants as PTFE (polyte-
trafluorethylene) and graphite. Phenolics are gener-
ally used in applications requiring stability, and when
higher temperatures are encountered.
A5.2 Polyimide (T/S). Polyimide is usually
40---65 percent fiber glass reinforced and has good
strength retention when used at high operating tem-
peratures.
A5.3 Nylon(T/P --- indicates thermoplastic). Ny-
lon is a family of thermoplastic polymers. The most
widely used of any molded gearing material is nylon
6/6, but nylon 6 and nylon 12 are also used. Some ny-
lons absorb moisture which may cause dimensional
instability. Nylon may be compounded with various
types and amounts of glass reinforcing materials,
mineral fillers, and such lubricants as PTFE and
MoS2 (molybdenum disulfide).
A5.4 Acetal (T/P). Acetal has a lower water ab-
sorption rate than nylon and, therefore, is more
stable after molding or machining. Acetal polymers
are used unfilled or filled, with glass and minerals
with and without lubricants, such as PTFE and
MoS2, as well as one version with fibrous PTFE.
A5.5 Polycarbonate (T/P). Polycarbonate is gen-
erally used with the addition of glass fiber and/or
PTFE lubricant and is a fine, low shrinkage material
for producing consistently accurate molded gears.
A5.6 Polyester (T/P). Polyesters are both un-
filled and with glass fiber, and are finding their way
into more markets as a molded gearing material in
competition with nylon and acetal.
A5.7 Polyurethane (T/P). Polyurethane is gener-
ally noted for its flexibility and, therefore, has the
ability to absorb shock and deaden sound.
A5.8 SAN (Styreneacrylonitrile) (T/P). SAN is a
stable, low shrinkage material and is used in some
lightly loaded gear applications.
65 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
A5.9 Polyphenylene Sulfid (T/P). When com-
pounded with 40 percent glass fiber with or without
internal lubricants, it has been found in certain gear
applications to have much greater strength, even at
elevated temperatures, than most materials pre-
viously available.
A5.10 Polymer Elastomer (T/P). Polymer elas-
tomer is a newcomer to the gearing field, and has ex-
cellent sound deadening qualities and resistance to
flex fatigue, impact, and creep, among other advan-
tageous characteristics.
A6. Part Combinations. Several plastic gears can be
molded together as a gear cluster. Combinations of
gears, pulleys, sprockets, and cams can also be pro-
duced as a single part.
A7. Gear Blanks. Many of these plastic materials, no-
tably unfilled nylon and acetal, are available in stan-
dard extruded shapes, such as rounds, squares, and
rectangles of various sizes from which gears can be
machined. Gears can be molded at less cost if large
quantity warrants the cost of the mold.
A8. Machined Plastics Gears. The quality of ma-
chined gears may be generally better than their
molded counterparts, but the molded tooth surface is
superior to the machined surface in smoothness and
toughness. Final tooth strength is generally better in
a molded gear, than an equivalent machined gear,
because of the flow of the material into the tooth cav-
ity of the mold. Gear cutting is done on standard ma-
chines and with standard tools. The following consid-
erations will assist in obtaining higher quality ma-
chined parts.
A8.1 Inspection. The modulus of elasticity is so
low in plastics that errors in measurements are very
difficult to control. The use of controlled load check-
ing equipment is almost mandatory to avoid errors in
measurements.
A8.2 Tools. Sharp cutting tools are necessary to
avoid tooth profile and size variation due to deflec-
tion.
ANSI/AGMA
A8.3 Burrs. Feather edge burrs, if not elimi-
nated by back up discs or subsequent removal by oth-
er means, will impair inspection of gearing and possi-
bly contribute to noise during operation.
A9. Laminated Phenolics Plastics.
A9.1 Industrial Laminated Thermosetting
Products. These products, whether in sheet or rod
form, contain laminations or plies of fibrous sheet
materials such as cellulose, paper, asbestos, cotton
fabric, glass fabric, or mat. These materials are im-
pregnated or coated with a phenolic resin and con-
solidated under high pressures and temperatures
into various grades which have properties useful for
gearing.
Fabric base grades are chosen to withstand se-
vere shock loads and repeated bending stresses, and
to resist wear. Fabric base grades are tougher and
less brittle than paper base grades. The linen grades
made with finer textured lightweight fabrics will ma-
chine with less trouble. Gears of linen base phenolic
are abrasive, and thus may require a hardened steel
mate and adequate lubrication.
Asbestos---phenolic grades have excellent ther-
mal and dimensional stability.
The glass fabric base grades have good heat re-
sistance and very high tensile and impact strength.
A9.2 Performance Characteristics.
Phenolics are used for fine pitch gears due to econo-
my, high resiliency, and high wear resistance. Lower
density than metals often provides higher strength to
weight ratios. It should be noted that all grades have
some dimensional change due to humidity.
A9.3 Chopped Fabric Molding Compound.
Chopped fabric impregnated with phenolic resin is
capable of being molded as a gear but may require
finish machining to meet most commercial quality
requirements.
A10. Plastic Gearing References.
AGMA 141.01, Plastics Gearing --- Molded, Machined
and Other Methods.
66 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Appendix B
Approximate Maximum Controlling Section Size Considerations
for Through Hardened Gearing
[This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of AGMA
Standard 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual.]

B1. Purpose. This Appendix presents approxi- pally on hardenability, specified hardness, depth of
mate maximum controlling section size consider- desired hardness, quenching and tempering temper-
ations for through hardened (quench and tempered) ature considerations. Reference should be made to
gearing. Also presented are factors which affect 4.6 of the Standard for hardenability considerations.
maximum controlling size, illustrations as to how
B3. Illustrations. Figure B---1 illustrates controlling
maximum controlling section size is determined for
sections for quenched gear configurations whose
gearing, and recommended maximum controlling
teeth are machined after heat treatment.
section sizes for several low alloy steels from AGMA
6033---A88, Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1, Ma- NOTE: Evaluation of the controlling section
terials. size for the selection of an appropriate type
B2. Definition. The controlling section of a part of steel and/or specified hardness need not
is defined as that section which has the greatest effect include consideration of standard rough
in determining the rate of cooling during quenching stock machining allowances. Other special
at the location (section) where the specified mechan- stock allowances such as those used to mini-
ical properties (hardness) are required. The maxi- mize distortion during heat treatment must
mum controlling section size for steel is based princi- be considered.
Table B---1
Approximate Maximum Recommended Controlling Section Size*
Alloy Controlling Section Size, in (mm)
Specified
Brinell Hardness AISI 4140 AISI 4340 4350 Type [
223---262 To 8.0(203) included No restriction ] No restriction ]
248---293 To 5.5(140) included No restriction No restriction
262---311 To 4.5(115) included No restriction No restriction
285---311 To 4.0(102) included To 25.0 (640) included No restriction
302---352 To 3.0 (76) included To 15.0 (380) included No restriction
321---363 Not recommended To 12.0 (305) included No restriction
341---388 w Not recommended To 8.0 (203) included No restriction
363---415 w ** Not recommended To 3.75 (95) included To 23.0 (585) incl.

NOTES:
* Maximum controlling section sizes higher than those above can be recommended when substantiated
by test data (heat treat practice).
Maximum recommended controlling section sizes for nitrided gearing are less than those above for the
same hardness range because of higher tempering temperature required for nitriding gearing (refer to
5.5). Maximum recommended sizes for flame or induction hardening gearing would be same as
above, dependent upon specified core hardness.
[ 4350 Type Steel is generally considered equivalent to AISI 4340 for chemical analysis, except that
carbon is 0.48---0.55 percent.
] No restriction indicates maximum controlling section size is not anticipated to provide any
restrictions for conventional size gearing
w 900_F(482_C) minimum temper may be required to meet these hardness specifications.
** Higher specified hardnesses (e.g. 375---415 HB, 388---321 HB and 401---444 HB) are used for special
gearing, but costs should be evaluated due to reduced machinability.

ANSI/AGMA 67 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

B4. Recommendations. Table B---1 provides approx-
imate recommended maximum controlling section
sizes for oil quenched and tempered gearing (H =
0.5) of several low alloy steels based on specified
hardness range, normal stock allowance before hard-
ening, minimum tempering temperature of
900_F(482_C) and obtaining minimum hardness at
the roots of teeth.
B5. General Comments. Maximum controlling sec-
tion sizes versus specified hardness for section sizes
to 8.0 inch (203 mm) diameter rounds can also be
approximated by use of the Chart Predicting
Approximate Cross Section Hardness of Quenched
Round Bars from Jominy Test Results published in
Practical Data for Metallurgists by Timkin Steel Co.,
TEETH
and published tempering response/hardenability
data.
Maximum controlling section sizes for rounds
greater than 8.0 inch (205 mm) O.D. generally re-
quire in---house heat treat experiments of larger sec-
tions followed by sectioning and transverse hardness
testing.
Normalized and tempered heavy section gearing
may also require maximum controlling section size
considerations if the design does not permit liquid
quenching. Specified hardnesses able to be obtained
with the same type steel (hardenability) is consider-
ably lower, however, and higher hardenability steel
may be required. In---house normalized and tem-
pered/hardness testing experiments are required.
TEETH

2 inch
(50)
--- --- --- --- --- ---
8 1.5 inch
inch (38)
10
(203) inch
--- --- --- --- --- --- (254)

6 inch
(152)

Controlling Section: 8 in (203 mm) Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm)

Diameter Face width
TEETH
TEETH

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

4
inch
(102) 8
inch 32
36 inch
(203) inch
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- (914)
(813) 36
inch
(914)
12 inch
(304)

Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm) Wall

Thickness (If the bore diameter is less Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm)
than 20% of the length of the bore, then the Rim Thickness
outside diameter)

Fig B---1 Illustrations of Controlling Section Size

ANSI/AGMA 68 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Appendix C
Case Hardenability of Carburizing Steels

[This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of AGMA
Standard 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual.]
C1. Purpose. This Appendix assists in the selection
of a grade of carburizing steel to insure that the car-
burized case has sufficient hardenability to be capa-
ble of hardening roots of teeth to meet specified sur-
face hardness requirements. The method used is
based on steel hardenability considerations and stan-
dard hardening procedures used for carburized gear-
ing. It may be used in conjunction with design and
other considerations to select the appropriate grade
of steel.
C2. Method. The controlling section size of carbu-
rized gearing can be determined using the same gen-
eral principles described in Appendix B for through
hardened gearing. Figure B---1 in Appendix B de-
scribes examples of how the controlling section size is
determined for through hardened gearing when the
teeth are cut after heat treating. The same examples
can be used for carburized gearing considerations
without regard to the fact that gear teeth are ma-
chined prior to carburize hardening. The controlling
section size in both instances is the section related to
the location of gear teeth which governs the rate of
heat removed during quench hardening.
C3. Selection of Steel. To ensure that the steel under
consideration has sufficient case hardenability to be
capable of satisfactorily hardening the case in the
roots of teeth, Fig C---1 should be used. Figure C---1
is based on hardenability and controlling section size
considerations. Steels are presented in order of
hardenability on the ordinate of Fig C---1. Steels not
shown on Fig C---1, therefore, can be evaluated by
comparing hardenability to those steels presented to
determine the approximate maximum recom-
mended controlling section size (as indicated by the
solid line in Fig C---1).

Approximate Controlling Section Size, mm

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

AISI 9310
AISI 4820 ADEQUATE
CASE HARDENABILITY

AISI 4320

AISI 8822 CASE MAY OR

MAY NOT
AISI 8620 HARDEN

NO CASE
HARDENABILITY

Source:
The Influence of Microstructure on the
of Case ---Carburized Components
by Geoffrey Parrish, ASM Text (1980)
AISI 4118

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Approximate Controlling Section Size, inch

Fig C---1 Effect of Controlling Section on the Case Hardenability of Carburizing Grades
of Steel

ANSI/AGMA 69 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Appendix D
Service Life Considerations
[This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of AGMA
Standard 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual.]
D1. Purpose. Gears are generally removed from ser-
vice due to wear, pitting, plastic flow, or breakage. If
the service life is less than expected, an in---depth in-
vestigation should be initiated. This Appendix deals
briefly with the causes of gear failures and the types
of failures encountered.
D2. Causes of Lower than Expected Life. When
shorter than expected life is obtained, a number of
factors should be reviewed. These factors are gear
design, manufacture, heat treatment, assembly and
installation, maintenance, service conditions and
material causes.
D2.1 Gear Design. Failures related to gear de-
sign may be due to improper geometry or tolerances;
i.e., pressure angle, tooth thickness, gear class or
type, etc.
D2.2 Manufacture. Manufacturing practices
which could shorten service life include grinding
burns, insufficient or excessive stock removal after
heat treatment, straightening, cracks, stress risers
(tool marks and surface finish), poor radii, etc.
D2.3 Heat Treatment. Heat treat factors which
could affect service life include under or over heat-
ing, secondary transformation products, surface de-
carburization, inadequate quench, improper hard-
ness, microstructure, case depth, decarburization,
and quench cracks.
D2.4 Assembly and Installation. Improper as-
sembly and installation are major contributors to
premature failures and manifest themselves in exces-
sive loading, wear, and misalignment.
D2.5 Maintenance. Failures related to inade-
quate maintenance include: contamination of the
system; improper lubrication; vibration due to inade-
quate rigidity, faulty gaskets, seals, and bearings; and
corrosion.
D2.6 Service Conditions. Service conditions
which could adversely effect gear life are excessive
temperatures, overload, shock or impact loading,
contaminants, loss of lubrication, corrosion, vibra-
ANSI/AGMA
tion criticals in the system causing vibration, inade-
quate grounding, etc.
D2.7 Material Causes. Although materials rare-
ly are the principal cause of failure, they can contrib-
ute to failure if material selection results in less than
the required combination of properties compatible
with the design and application. Improper selection
of material can result in inadequate hardness (sur-
face or subsurface) and toughness, or improper mi-
crostructure after heat treatment. Wrought materi-
als such as hot rolled bars can have serious banding,
which is alloy and carbon segregation in banded
form. Banding can affect properties, particularly in a
carburized case and core.
D2.7.1 Forging Defects. Forging defects
which can contribute to premature failure include ex-
cessive forging temperature, inadequate reduction,
improper grain flow, flakes, and bursts from insuffi-
cient forging temperature.
D2.7.2 Casting Defects. Casting defects
which can contribute to premature failure include
shrinkage, porosity, slag, chemical deviation, cracks,
sand, improper weld repair, core shift, cold shuts, etc.
D2.7.3 Inclusions. An infrequent cause of
fracture initiation is internal non---metallic inclu-
sions which relate to melting practices. Steels can be
specified to varying cleanliness levels. Inadequate
stock removal can leave undesirable surface defects.
D3. Types of Gear Failures. Types of gear failure are
pictured in AGMA 110, Nomenclature of Gear Tooth
Failure Modes.
D3.1 Wear. The most common wear failure
modes are adhesion, abrasive scoring, corrosion, and
flaking. These usually occur at or above the pitch
line. Wear is influenced by surface hardness and mi-
crostructure.
D3.2 Pitting. Pitting modes are initial pitting,
destructive pitting, and spalling, and result from ex-
cessive sliding and rolling contact stresses. Pitting re-
sistance is influenced by surface finish, surface hard-
ness, surface residual stress, microstructure, case
depth, and core hardness.
70 2004---B89
 Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

D3.3 Plastic Flow. Plastic flow modes are rolling,
peening, rippling, and ridging. Bending plastic flow
occurs when the load exceeds the yield strength of
the material.
D3.4 Breakage. The majority of breakage fail-
ures (90 percent) are due to low and high cycle fa-
tigue. Brittle failures may occur in low temperature
service, in heat affected zones of welds or in notch
sensitive materials. Overload failures result from
misapplication, misalignment, and impact loading.

ANSI/AGMA 71 2004---B89