5

Launch vehicle dynamics

The launch of a spacecraft is fundamental to all space activity, and it is through our
development of ecient launch vehicles that the present impact of space on many
aspects of science, commerce, and daily life is possible. The launch lasts only a few
minutes, and yet during this short period of time, many years of development and
investment in the commercial use of the spacecraft can be brought to nothing if just
one of the many thousands of components of the launcher fails to perform to
specication.
In this chapter we consider the dynamics of launch vehicles, the forces to which
they are exposed, and the general nature of the launch process. The multi-stage
launch vehicle enables relatively straightforward access to space, and we shall
examine some typical launch trajectories and sequences.
Launches take place in the Earth's atmosphere and gravitational eld, and much
of what we deal with in this chapter is concerned with the eect of gravitational and
aerodynamic forces on the launcher. The simple treatment in Chapter 1 avoided
these eects by considering only motion in a vacuum perpendicular to the
gravitational eld. As we shall see, however, the rocket equation included in
Chapter 1 is very useful in considering more complicated situations.

5.1 MORE ON THE ROCKET EQUATION

The rocket equationmore properly called Tsiolkovsky's equationhas a relatively

simple derivation. It is based on calculating the acceleration of a rocket vehicle with
a mass decreasing continuously due to the expenditure of propellant.
The case we have to consider is that of a rocket vehicle of mass M, expelling
combustion products at a rate m, with a constant exhaust velocity ve . The mass of the
vehicle is decreasing at the rate m, and, due to the thrust F, developed by the exhaust,
the rocket is accelerating. The rocket equation produces the achieved velocity at any
time in terms of the initial and current mass of the rocket.
116 Launch vehicle dynamics [Ch. 5

The thrust developed by the exhaust is represented by

F ve m
where
dM
m
dt
This is a simple application of Newton's third law to the exhaust gases.
The acceleration of the rocket, under the thrust F, is represented by a second
application of Newton's law:
dv F

dt M
Substituting for F, from the rst equation,
dv dM 1
ve
dt dt M
Cancelling dt, and rearranging, produces
dM
dv ve
M
Integrating the velocity between limits of zero and V, for a mass change from M0 to
M, produces
V M
dM
dv ve
0 M0 M
The solution is  
M0
V ve loge
M
This is the rocket equation as met with in Chapter 1, where the ratio of initial to
current mass denes the current velocity. It is applicable to any velocity increment
when the initial and nal masses are correctly dened. The assumption of constant
exhaust velocity is valid in the vast majority of real cases. Note that the velocity of
the rocket vehicle, at any given instant during the burn, is dependent only on the
exhaust velocity and the instantaneous mass ratio; the thrust history does not need to
be known. In Chapter 1 the equation was used to represent the velocity at burn-out,
but here we see it can be used to represent the velocity at any time, while the rocket is
still thrusting. We use the term burn to indicate a period of operation of a rocket
engine, and burn-out to indicate the termination of such a period of operation.
It is worth emphasising here that the mass ratio will often be used in this chapter
and in Chapter 8 to measure time into the burn of a rocket. This eases the
calculations, and because it is independent of the thrust and mass ow rate of the
engine, renders the calculations more universally applicable. In all cases where this is
applied the mass ow rate is constant, and so there is a direct proportionality to
time.
An example of vehicle velocity as a function of mass ratio, for two dierent
exhaust velocities, is shown in Figure 5.1. Note the very strong dependence of