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MODULE 1 ON PHYSICAL SCIENCE

(2nd Quarter)

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Aristotelian Mechanics

How do objects move? How do moving objects stop from moving? The Greek philosophers sought answers to these questions about motion.
Their ideas on motion were significantly influenced by Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and astronomer. His ideas were accepted because they were
based on observations and made logical sense.

Ancient Greeks believed that the cosmos or the universe was divided into two realms celestial and terrestrial. The motion of the objects in
the celestial realm was perfect and circular. They all revolved around Earth. On the other hand, the motion in the terrestrial realm was unstable
and imperfect, and there should be a cause for motion.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Diurnal Motion, Annual Motion, and Precession of the Equinoxes

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described as diurnal motion, annual motion, and precession of the equinoxes.

Diurnal Motion

Diurnal motion is the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the celestial poles as a direct effect of the Earths rotation on its axis.
In other words, it refers to the apparent movement of stars and other celestial bodies around Earth. The circular path that the celestial bodies take
to complete the diurnal motion is called diurnal circle.

The apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to west. If you observe the night sky, the stars seem to move in a counter-
clockwise direction (from east to west) with respect to Polaris or North Star. Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is the closest
star to Earth, is counter-clockwise. You can observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away from the horizon, or never set or rise. The closer you get to the poles, the larger the
circle of circumpolar stars is. On the other hand, the nearer you get to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars decreases until it vanishes at the
celestial poles.

Annual Motion

Annual motion is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed from Earth as a direct effect of the Earths revolution around the sun.

The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the celestial sphere called the ecliptic. The sun moves eastward with respect to the stars on
the celestial sphere. It can be observed that the suns altitude changes with season. Its altitude is at maximum during summer solstice and at
minimum during winter solstice. Also, sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with season. The sun rises north of east in the summer, and
south of east in the winter.

As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the year. These are known as the
constellations of the Zodiac.

Precession of the Equinoxes

As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial equator twice during a year at two points. These points are called the equinoxes:
vernal and autumnal. During an equinox, the length of daytime is almost equal to the length of nighttime. Vernal or spring equinox happens every
March 20 while autumnal equinox occurs every September 22. The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on Earth causes the cyclic
precession or wobbling of the Earths axis of rotation.

Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth wobbles, and this motion happens about every 26
000 years. At present, Earths North Pole points to Polaris. However, it will eventually point to another star, Vega, because of precession.

Key Points

Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due to the Earths rotation.
Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due to the Earths revolution around
the Sun.
Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as the Earth wobbles.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


How the Greeks Knew That the Earth Is Spherical

Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that the Earth was round, not flat. It was Pythagoras and his pupils who were first to propose a spherical
Earth.

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In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further supported Pythagoras' proposal through his observations of the shadows that the Earth cast on the Moon
during a lunar eclipse. He observed that during a lunar eclipse, the Earth's shadow was reflected on the Moon's surface. The shadow reflected
was circular.

Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical Earth which included the positions of the North star, the shape of the Moon and
the Sun, and the disappearance of the ships when they sail over the horizon.

North Star
The North Star was believed to be at a fixed position in the sky. However, when the Greeks traveled to places nearer the equator, like Egypt, they
noticed that the North Star is closer to the horizon.

The Shape of the Sun and the Moon


Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun were both spherical, then perhaps, the Earth was also spherical.

Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling away from an observer should become smaller and smaller until it disappeared. However, the Greeks
observed that the ship became smaller and then its hull disappeared first before the sail as if it was being enveloped by the water until it
completely disappeared.

The Size of the Spherical Earth


Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its circumference through calculations. It was Eratosthenes who gave the most
accurate size during their time. While he was working at the Library of Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received correspondence from Syene in
Southern Egypt which stated that a vertical object did not cast any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice. But this was not the case in
Alexandria where, at noon time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts a shadow. These observations could only mean that the Sun,
during this time in Alexandria, was not directly overhead.

Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical
direction by measuring the shadow that a vertical stick cast. He found out
that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2 from the vertical while
0 in Syene. To explain the difference, he hypothesized that the light rays
coming from the sun are parallel, and the Earth is curved.

From his measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth to


be approximately 250 000 stadia (a stadium is a unit of measurement
used to describe the size of a typical stadium at the time), about 40 000
kilometers.

Key Points

The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth is sphere:

The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
The North Star has different positions depending on the location of the observer.
The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.
A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first before the sail as if it is being enveloped by the water until it completely
disappears.
The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a summer solstice varies from place to place.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


How Plato's Problem of "Saving the Appearances" Constrained Greek Models of the Universe

Greeks' Notion on the Movement of Planets

In Greek Astronomy, the philosophers favored a broader approach when it comes to theories on the movement of planets. Greeks were able to
formulate a scheme of planetary motion based on the present observations that they account that time. The two most notable principles of Greek
philosophers in describing the motion of the stars, the sun, and the planets include the theory of planetary motion and the apparent motion of the
planets.

The theory of planetary motion assumed that the planets must move perfectly in a circular motion. In the same way, the Greeks believed that
the apparent motion of the planets were based on the uniformity of their behavior as move on their orbits, without considering the irregularities
in their movement. For example, in the celestial sphere, the stars appear to rotate uniformly, from east to west, until they return back to their
starting point. From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that revolved in the two main principles of the Greek
philosophers.

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Platos Saving the Appearances

Before he posed his question, Plato first cited his observations about the stars and the planets. He explained that the stars appear to move around
the earth in a 'perfect' path. However, he described that some of the stars appear to 'wander' across the sky, giving irregular figures throughout
the year. He accounted the 'wandering stars' as planets and that they move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or in combinations of circles.
Finally, he asked his students on how can they explain all these observations about the planetary motion and save the appearances (in today's
term, 'fit the observations with the data').

He posed the question because the observations about the planetary motion and the apparent motions of the planets did not seem to coincide
with each other. Given that the planets move in a perfect path or in a uniform circular motion, there were still apparent irregular motions of the
planets or planets that still 'wander' across the sky.

Platos question was not meant for him to answer but instead, it became the goal of astronomers and philosophers.

The Aristotelian System

Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Each of these elements has a tendency to reach
its natural place. However, these elements are only present in terrestrial objects. In the case of the celestial bodies, a fifth element called aether,
was the reason why the heavens were created. The aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure and absolute. Its motion has no end and no
beginning; thus, its natural place is a circular motion. However, the Earth was an exception. It cannot have the circular motion of the aether due to
its nature, which was primarily composed of the element earth.

Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a system to explain the uniform and ordered movement of the celestial bodies. In his system, the stars
were embedded outside the largest sphere where the prime mover is found. The prime mover keeps the stars moving in a constant motion,
causing a friction to the smaller spheres of the outer planets and the spheres where the sun and the inner planets were located.

Aristotle, however, was not able to explain the apparent motion of celestial
bodies. Using his system, he was not able to explain why the sun, the moon,
Venus, and Jupiter seemed brighter, closer or farther from the Earth at times. A
set of uniform motions of the celestial bodies around the Earth means that these
bodies cannot change their distance from the Earth.

The Heliocentric Theory

It was Aristarchus of Samus who first suggested a system that puts the sun at the
center of the universe, where the moon, the earth, and the five planets, revolved
around the sun in different sizes of orbits at different speeds. However, there
were serious flaws that the ancient people saw in his system.

First, Aristarchus violated their philosophical doctrines: the Earth is immobile and its natural place is at the center of the universe, and the position
of the sun is differentiated from the celestial bodies. Second, he was not able to provide mathematical computations and predictions of the
celestial paths. Finally, the Greek thinkers refuted Aristarchus idea by creative reasoning. They posed a scenario that if the earth moves around the
sun, the large orbit of the earth will carry itself closer or farther to a certain fixed star in the celestial sphere. Thus, the angle at which the star is
viewed will be different with the different points as observed in the earth annually (known today as the annual parallax).

With all these flaws, the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus was disregarded by the Greek thinkers.

The Modified Geocentric Model

Apollonius, Hipparchus, and an influential astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy modified the geocentric theory to answer the
question posed by Plato that had not been answered by the previous geocentric theory. This modified theory states that:

1. The celestial bodies move in an eccentric path if these bodies do not move around in a uniform circular motion
around the stationary earth.
2. The celestial bodies, such as the sun or a certain planet, have two uniform circular motions, as depicted with a small circle (epicycle) and
a larger circle (deferent) which take different speeds and direction. The reversal in the direction of motion is called retrograde motion.
During this motion, the planets appear brighter because it is closer to the earth.

However, with all these modifications in the previous geocentric theory, this modified theory still failed to answer the question posed by Plato.

The Ptolemaic System

Of all the theories, systems, and ideas that had been laid down to answer Plato's question, Claudius Ptolemy was the only one who was able to
answer Plato's question. He still made a few modifications of the modified geocentric theory and was able to explain about the planetary motion

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and the apparent motion of the planets. This theory gave an accurate description of what could be observed given the instruments they use and
was based on the Greeks' philosophical and physical doctrine regarding nature and the celestial bodies.

However, the success of this theory in answering Plato's "saving the appearances" had been displaced with the heliocentric theory, which is up to
now, has been the accepted model of the universe.

Key Points

The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion of the stars, sun, and planets include the theory of
planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets.
From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that revolved in the two main principles of the Greek philosophers.
He explained that the stars, given that they are unchanging bodies, appear to move around the earth in a perfect path.
He described that some of the stars appear to wander across the sky, giving irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted them as
planets and defined that these planets move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or combination of circles.
He asked his students on how can they explain all these observations in the planetary motion and save the appearances (in today's
term, 'fit the data').

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


The Models of the Universe: Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus

Eudoxus Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to propose a model of the universe based on
geometry. His model composed of 27 concentric spheres with Earth as the center. The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the fixed stars have
spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger sphere through a pole. The rotation of the spheres on their poles once every 24 hours accounts for the
daily rotation of the heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded these spheres as physical entities or just mathematical constructions.

Aristotles Model
Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer, considered the model proposed by Eudoxus, but he considered these spheres as
physical entities. He thought that these spheres were filled with the divine and eternal ether that caused the spheres to move. He introduced
the Prime Mover, as the cause of the movement of the spheres. His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of the Sun, the Moon,
and five known planets. As the spheres move, they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they moved at constant speeds.

Aristarchus' Model
Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to hypothesize that the Sun is the center of the
universe. He visualized that the Moon orbits around a spherical Earth which then revolves around the Sun. He believed that the stars are very far
away from the Earth as evidenced by the absence of stellar parallax that is, the stars do not change positions relative to each other as the Earth
revolves around the Sun.

Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon is to the
Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the Moon; and the Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also reasoned out that smaller
spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the Moon orbits around the Earth, and the Earth orbits around the Sun.

Ptolemys Model
The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform circular motion the perfect motion assigned to celestial bodies by the
ancient Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise. The paths of the celestial bodies are not circular, and they vary in distances. Babylonians
even showed that some planets exhibit a retrograde motion a motion opposite to that of other planets.

To explain imperfect motions of heavenly bodies, Claudius Ptolemy (born c. 90 A.D.), a Greco-Egyptian astronomer and mathematician, proposed
his own geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the universe. He accounted for the apparent motions of the planets around the Earth by assuming
that each planet moved around a sphere called an epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved on a larger sphere called a deferent.

The Ptolemaic System

1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.


2. The epicycles center also moves counter-clockwise around the center of the deferent
(indicated by the + sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center).
This explains why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest when it is
farthest from the Earth and moves fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4,
the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion. The planet is brightest at this point
because it is closest to the Earth.

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Copernicus' Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer born in Poland, ended the
geocentric astronomy era by publishing his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres wherein he
explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe.

In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of spherical heavenly bodies is
uniform, eternal, and circular. He then reasoned that because Earth is spherical, then its motion is
circular. He added that the Earth has three different motions: daily rotation on its axis, yearly motion
around the Sun, and the precession, or change in orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.

He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent movement is a consequence of the
Earths rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from the Earth, so there is no observable
parallax.

By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of Mercury and Venus in between the Sun and the Earth, Copernicus model was
able to account for the changes in the appearances of these planets and their retrograde motions. The need for epicycles in explaining motions was
eliminated.

Key Points

Eudoxus, Aristotles, and Ptolemys models have the Earth as the center of the universe while Aristarchus and Copernicus models have
the Sun as the center.
Eudoxus model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon, planets, and the stars whose common center is the Earth.
Aristotles model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres guiding the motion of Sun, Moon and the five known planets.
Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the larger ones and since the Sun is much larger than the Earth, then the Earth
must orbit around the Sun.
Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent, and equant to explain the observed imperfect motions of the planets.
Copernicus model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the Sun, and undergoes precession.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Astronomical Phenomena Known to Astronomers before the Advent of Telescopes
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes. These planets can be easily confused with stars
and are only seen at specific times of the day. The best time to look for these planets would be before sunrise and after sunset.

Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different astronomical phenomena. The most observable objects
in the sky are the sun and moon.

Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in systematically observing the motion of the sun. By
looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able to observe that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its highest point
in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.

Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year and these variations happen periodically. They
observed that these variations are related to weather and so concluded that seasonal changes in climate happen during a course of one year.

Phases of the Moon

Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance within a period of 29.5 days. They observed that the moon
changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of ancient calendars.

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Lunar Eclipse

Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also
noticed that there are times when the moon or part of it seemed to be
covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the
Earth casts its shadow on the moon when the Earth is between the Sun and
the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon
changes into a dark or blood red color.

Solar Eclipse

Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed.
Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth and the
moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.

The Motion of the Stars

It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere
that rotates around an axis in one day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at
a point in the northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris.
Also, the constellations positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of
the year.

Visibility of Planets

Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed
position with respect to each other (like how constellations are always grouped). But there are very bright stars that change positions periodically.
These stars do not belong to any group of constellations in the sky. Thus, they are called "wanderers or planetes in Greek terms.

Key Points

Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the:

rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
phases of the moon,
lunar eclipse,
solar eclipse,
daily and annual motion of the stars, and
planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Models of Astronomical Phenomena: Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic

Today, the Solar System consists of eight planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All these planets
revolve around a massive ball of helium and hydrogen known as the Sun. There are other bodies within the Solar System such as moons that
revolve around the planets, asteroids, and planetoids.

Before this knowledge of our present-day Solar System, classical astronomers have developed various models to explain how bodies in the universe
are positioned with respect to each other. Three of the most popular models are the Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic models.

Ptolemaic Model

The Ptolemaic model known as the Geocentric model, was developed by an Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It came from the Greek
words geo meaning Earth and centric meaning center. This model explains that the Earth is the center of the universe and everything else revolves
around it. Each planet moves in a circular path called epicycle which moves around a larger circular path called deferent. The moon revolves
around the Earth followed by the other planets.

Copernican Model

This is also known as the Heliocentric model developed by a Polish mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus. It came from the Greek
words helios meaning sun and centric meaning center. This model explains that the center of the universe is the Sun and that the majority of the

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planets revolve around it. Also, the epicycle moves in an elliptical motion not circular. The moon revolves around both the Earth and the Sun while
Earth revolves around the Sun.

Tychonic Model

This model was developed by a Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. It was the combination of Ptolemaic and Copernican models. This explains that the
planets of the Solar System revolve around the Sun but the Earth is the center of the universe.
The Sun, due to its massive size, attracts the remaining planets and drags them along its revolution around the Earth - like metals attracted to a
magnet! Simply put, the Sun revolves around the Earth and the planets revolve around the Sun.

Key Points

Ptolemaic model The Earth is at the center of the universe and everything in the universe revolves around the Earth.
Copernican model The Sun is at the center of the universe and majority of the bodies in the universe revolves around the Sun.
Tychonic model The Earth is at the center of the universe. The sun revolves around the Earth and all the other planets revolve around
the Sun.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries

Galileo Galilei, a Renaissance Italian astronomer, used the telescope to observe the cosmos and his discoveries provided evidence to prove or
disprove existing Greek beliefs and models of the universe

Galileos Astronomical Discoveries and Observations

The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe proposed by a Greco-Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy posed that the Earth is stationary and is the
center of the universe and that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.

Phases of Venus

The Ptolemaic model believed that the Earth was stationary and all the others including the stars, planets, and the Sun are revolving around it.

Galileo observed that the brightest planet, Venus, as seen from Earth, behaved similarly like the Moon. He noticed that Venus has a systematic
change in shadows and lighting, just like the lunar phases.

Galileo observed that Venus is in its new phase when it is in between the Earth and the Sun and waxes as it moves in its orbit. During this phase,
we cannot see Venus because no light from the Sun is reflected towards us. Venus is in its full phase when the Sun is in between Venus and Earth.
It is still not visible from Earth because the Sun is blocking it. Through these observations, Galileo disproved that the other planets revolve around
the Earth.

Moons of Jupiter

Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were unknown. When Galileo observed Jupiter, he noticed that there were planet-
like bodies close to it. He first noted that there were four bodies moving around Jupiter. After some time, one of them disappeared and hid
behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies or satellites as Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.

The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by showing that not everything revolves around the Earth.

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Supernovas

Before Galileo concretized the concept of supernovas, scientists have already observed new stars appearing in the sky. These stars are called stellar
nova or new stars. In 1604, Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, observed a nova in Prague. This nova was called a supernova because the
nova exuded enormous amount of light in just a short period indicating that it was exploding. It was also labelled as Keplers nova.

At the time, Kepler was working as a mathematician at Imperial court and as Galileo was also a mathematician, they were able to compare their
data of their observations of the said nova all over Europe. They measured the parallax of the nova from different locations. A parallax is the angle
that can be measured when an observer looks at the same object from different locations. The greater the distance between the two locations, the
greater the parallax and the closer the object is to the observer, the greater the parallax. Galileo and Keplers sets of data showed that there were
no measurable parallax for the nova and the fixed stars which means that they were at immeasurable distances from the Earth even farther than
the moon. These observations were able to show that the sky is changing.

Sizes of the Stars

Ancient Greek philosophers, led by Aristotle, believed that the sky was perfect and unchanging. Also, the Ptolemaic model states that since
everything revolves around the Earth, the stars distance from the Earth would not change and they should be located at specific positions as
seen from the Earth.

Given that the Earth is moving, the stars should appear to vary in sizes. However, Galileo noticed that fixed stars did not change in size when
observed with the naked eye and observed through a telescope. He then postulated that if the stars have significant and immeasurable distances
from the Earth, then their size as observed from the Earth should remain constant. He was able to prove this through his observations of the
supernova in 1604.

Lunar Craters

Ancient Greeks assumed that the moon had a smooth surface.

Galileo discovered that the surface of the moon was uneven and rough. He also observed that it had high points (mountains and hills) and low
points (trenches and ditches).

Sunspots

Greek philosophers have expressed the Sun as a source of light, but no other information about it is available at the time.

Observers back then just thought that the spots found on the Sun are planets. Galileo clarified this idea. He observed the movement of the
sunspots and noticed that one spot took approximately 14 days to travel from one side to the other while maintaining its constant speed. From
these observations, he was able to deduce that the Sun also rotates on an axis.

Key Points

The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe posed that the Earth is stationary, the center of the universe, and that the stars, planets, and the
Sun revolve around it.
Galileos astronomical observations helped weaken the Ptolemaic model by showing that the stars, planets, and the Sun do not revolve
around the Earth through his observations of the phases of Venus, and the moons of Jupiter.
He showed that the Earth is not stationary through his observations of the sizes of the stars showing that they appear to have identical
size because of the movement of the Earth and their immeasurable distance from the Earth.
Galileo disproved the belief that the sky, the Moon and the Sun are perfect and unchanging by showing his observations of
the supernova, lunar craters, and sunspots.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Johannes Kepler's Discoveries from Tycho Brahe's Collection of Astronomical Data

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made accurate observations of the movement of celestial bodies in an observatory built
for him by King Frederick II of Denmark in 1576. He was able to invent different astronomical instruments, with the help of his assistants, and made
an extensive study of the solar system. He was able to determine the position of 777 fixed stars accurately.

Johannes Kepler

When King Frederick II died, and the successor did not fully support Brahes work, he moved to Prague in 1599 where he was supported by
Emperor Rudolf II and worked as an imperial mathematician. Emperor Rudolf II recommended Johannes Kepler to work for him as an assistant.
Kepler was born to a poor German family and studied as a scholar at the University of Tbingen in 1589.

Brahe and Kepler's Work

Brahe and Kepler had an unsteady working relationship. Kepler was Brahe's assistant. However, Brahe mistrusted Kepler with his astronomical data
in fear of being shadowed by his assistant.

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Brahe assigned to Kepler the interpretation of his observations of Mars, whose movement did not match Brahes calculations. Kepler was tasked to
figure out what path Mars followed as it revolved around the Sun. It was believed by many scientists that Brahe gave this task to Kepler to keep
him occupied and left Brahe to develop his laws of planetary motion.

Kepler's Discoveries from Brahe's Data

Kepler postulated that there must be a force from the Sun that moves the planets. He was able to conclude that this force would explain the orbit
of Mars and the Earth, including all the other planets, moved fastest when it is nearest from the Sun and moved slowest when it is farthest from
the Sun.

Eventually, Brahe decided to give all his data to Kepler hoping that he would be able to prove his Tychonic system and put together new tables of
astronomical data. This table was known as Rudolphine Tables, named after the Roman emperor and was useful in determining the positions of the
planets for the past 1000 years and the future 1000 years. This table was the most accurate table that is known to the astronomical world.

After Brahe died in 1601, Emperor Rudolf II assigned Kepler as the new imperial mathematician, and all of Brahes writings, instruments, and the
Rudolphine tables were passed on to him. From Brahes data, Kepler was able to formulate his laws of planetary motion: the law of ellipses, the law
of equal areas, and the law of harmonies.

Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion

The Law of Ellipses

When Kepler tried to figure out Mars orbit, it did not fit the then-famous theory that a planet follows a circular path. He then postulated that
instead of a circular path, planets follow an oval or an ellipse orbit.

This orbit matched his calculations and explained the irregularities in the movement of Mars.
He was able to formulate his first law of planetary motion, the law of ellipses which describes
that the actual path followed by the planets was elliptical, not circular, with the Sun at one focus
of the ellipse.

The Law of Equal Areas

The second law, which is the law of equal areas states that when an
imaginary line is drawn from the center of the Sun to the center of a
planet, the line will sweep out an equal area of space in equal time
intervals.

The law describes how fast a planet moves in its orbit. A planet moves
fastest when it is nearest the Sun and slowest when it is farthest from
the Sun, and still, the same area is swept out by the line in equal
amounts of time.

The Law of Harmonies

The law of harmonies, which is the third law, describes that the square of a planets orbital period (T2) is proportional to the cube of a planets
average distance from the Sun (R3). It states that that the ratio of the squares of the periods of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the
average distances of these two planets from the Sun or:

where the subscript 1 indicates planet 1 and subscript 2 indicates planet 2.

Key Points

Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made accurate observations of the movement of celestial bodies.
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician who worked as an assistant to Brahe and formulated the three laws of
planetary motion based on Brahes extensive astronomical data.
The Law of Ellipses which states that planets follow an elliptical orbit.

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The Law of Equal Areas states that when an imaginary line is drawn from the center of a planet to the center of the Sun, an equal
amount of space is swept in equal amount of time.
The Law of Harmonies states that the ratio of the squares of the period of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the planets
average distance from the Sun.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science


Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion

How many Earth years does it take for Jupiter to revolve around the Sun if it is approx. km away from the Sun?

In previous lesson, you have learned how Johannes Kepler used Tycho Brahes extensive astronomical data to come up with the three laws of
planetary motion.

While Keplers laws have successfully described the distance and period of planets orbits, Isaac Newton deepened the laws by integrating his law
of universal gravitation. This is highly evident in his derivation of Keplers third law, which, not only describes the planets discovered during Keplers
time but predicts the motion of most planets and local bodies orbiting the Sun that were discovered thereafter.

Kepler's Third Law of Motion

The proportionality in Keplers third law requires the introduction of a constant k to make it into a functional equation, or

From this equation, it can be deduced that the farther the


body is from the Sun, the longer it will take complete its
orbit.

Key Points

According to Newton, Keplers third law of


planetary motion not only describes the planets
discovered during Keplers time but predicts the motion
of most planets and local bodies orbiting the Sun that
were discovered thereafter.
The farther the body is from the Sun, the longer
it will take complete its orbit.

Universal Laws in Physics, Physical Science


Aristotelian Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

Aristotles view on motion was based on his observations, which made his ideas acceptable and stood for many years.

Motion is an objects change in position with respect to time. According to Aristotle, motion can either be a natural motion or a violent motion.

Natural Motion

An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on the composition that the object is made of. An object made of
material similar to earth will return to earth or an object that is similar to air will return to the air. For example, a ball mostly resembles the earth so
when it is thrown upward its natural tendency is to go back to Earth, its natural state or the smoke mostly resembles the air so its natural tendency
is to go up the atmosphere.

Violent motion

An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to it. No motion will take place unless there is a 'mover' in contact with
an object.

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