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International Journal of American Linguistics.
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NATHANE. WALTZ
SUMMER INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTICS
157
4The y represents the high front semivowel which could also be represented by the IPA
symbol j.
5The
glottal stop is recognized as a vestige of a geminate vowel cluster (Brandrupand
Nagler 1979), separatingthe vowels, in which the second geminate vowel, if it has low pitch,
has been dropped before a stressed syllable. The glottal stop has developed as a result of the
second geminate vowel occurring with a low pitch, which encourages laryngealization,which,
in turn, promotes the occurrenceof the glottal stop, plus a droppingof that second vowel: e.g.,
waatd- [wa7'ta](Wan) 'to sand'.The glottal stop also occurs between geminate vowels in which
the first vowel has low pitch and the second vowel is stressed with high pitch. In such envi-
ronments,the second vowel is not droppedbut is simply separatedfrom the previous geminate
vowel by the glottal stop; e.g., bit [bi'?] 'rat' (Wan). There are a number of minimal pairs in
both languages which appear to involve the glottal stop but which, in fact, simply reflect a
contrast between single vowels and geminate vowels. In Wanano and Piratapuyo,sidl'- [si'ni]
'to ask for' contrasts with siidi- [si?'nT]'to drink'; diubiro [niu'mno] 'woman' contrasts with
diubf-ro [ni?'mino] 'girl';duti- [dui'ti-] 'to command'contrasts with duuti- [du?'ti-]'to escape'.
6 Since voiceless
aspirated stops in Wanano have been analyzed as contrastive and, there-
fore, phonemic, and since initial aspirated stops are predictable before a stressed syllable, it
would be proper to write the latter with archiphonemes;e.g., {K), as in Kaama- [kha?'ma]'to
want'; {P}, as in Pay6 [pha'yo] 'to place (on top of)' and Po'aye [pho'aye] 'rapids'.These
archiphonemeswould representthe [ph], [th], and [kh] which are predictably aspiratedin their
word-initial unstressed position, as in Pay6- [pha'yo]'to place (on top of)', and the [p], [t], [k]
which are predictably unaspiratedword-medially, as in du?tiPayb- [du'?upa,yo] 'to leave and
place (on top of)'. Throughoutthis article, the archiphonemeis not written in orderto facilitate
the comparison between Piratapuyoand Wanano.
The lower stress symbol here (,) marks a secondary stress7 since this mor-
pheme always occurs as a postclitic (in a phonological word) with an ini-
tial primarystress on the first morpheme and itself takes a secondary stress
on [pe,he], e.g., (Pir) [a?'ripe,he] 'this time'. The Wanano cognate is [a?'ri
,pha].Similarly, the word for 'sharp object, knife' in Piratapuyo is [pi,hi],
alternatingwith [,phl] in rapid speech. The Wanano cognate is [,phi]. Even
though this appears to be a somewhat parallel development in Wanano
and Piratapuyo,the two languages continue to maintain distinctive devel-
opments in other cognate pairs which reflect aspiration, especially word-
initially, in Wanano, with no aspirationin Piratapuyo.
2.1.4.3. Development of aspirated stops before *h in stressed sylla-
bles. In a limited number of Proto-WP words, there is vowel deletion in
Wanano, due to stress patterns,which results in aspiratedstops. In particu-
lar, when an unstressed syllable (beginning with a voiceless stop) occurs in
Proto-WP before a stressed syllable which begins with the glottal fricative
h, it is not unusual for Wanano to have dropped the vowel of that un-
stressed syllable. For example, the word for 'large'in Proto-WP and Pirata-
puyo is pahi-ri [pa'hiri]; in Wanano it is ph-ri ['phiri]:
(Proto-WP) CV'hV > (Wanano) 'ChV(C = voiceless stop)
The a of pahi-ri [pa'hiri]has been dropped in Wanano, creating an aspi-
rated stop in ph'-ri [phiri] 'large', which contrasts with piri ['piri] 'teeth'.
Similarly, the verb meaning 'to return' in Proto-WP and Piratapuyo is
tohod- [toho'a] but has become thud- [thu'a]in Wanano, which contrasts
with tua- ['tua] to be strong'.Thus the first unstressed o of tohod- [toho'a]
has been droppedin Wanano,creating an aspiratedstop. Of course, a vowel
change has also taken place in Wanano in this example.
2.1.5. Development of word-initial unaspirated stops in Wanano
(diachronic). Although WORD-INITIAL VOICELESS STOPS are not exten-
7 Secondary stress is marked with a grave accent or phonetically with a subscript stress
mark. It occurs when a phonological word consists of an initial morpheme, which carries the
primarystress, and a second morpheme, which also has stress but, due to the decrescendo and
falling off of the phonological word at its end, is weaker than the initial primarystress. Positing
secondarystress enables one to explain and predictthe preaspirationwhich often occurs on two-
syllable morphemes which are either affixed or compounded with an initial morpheme, which
carries primarystress in the phonological word; e.g., [wa'?a-n6o,ka-re]'(he) really went'. Also,
predictable aspiration morpheme-initially before a stressed syllable is sometimes explained
by recognizing secondary stress; e.g., [phi'?irokha,n6]'basket strap (tumpline)'.The fact that
[,n6] carries secondary stress explains why the initial voiceless stop kh of the morpheme is
aspirated. Positing secondary stress also more accurately describes morphemes which follow
primary stress syllables but also have secondary stress. The intervening vowel between those
two stresses was historically dropped in Wanano;e.g., (Proto-WP) *[a?'lipe,he] > *[a?'li phe]
> (Wanano) [a?'li pha] 'this time'.
(9) {Proto-WP} *siiko ko [si?'ko ko] > *tfiitf6 ko [tfi?'tfo ko] > {Wan}
tfaatf6 ko [tfa?'tfo ko]
A few examples with a high back vowel following the word-initial con-
sonant do not fit this pattern:
(10) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
pod subi-ri-kiro [po'a su'birikiro] > pod tfubi-riro[pho'atfu'biriro]
'curly-hairedperson'
suuiti [su'?iti] > tfuu'ti [tfu'?iti]
'bird,moriche blanco'
In these examples, the high position of the back vowel plus an intensified
articulationof the sibilant may have influenced the change from the word-
initial s in Proto-WP to tf in Wanano.
2.2.2. Proto-WP *k reflected as tfin Wanano. The *k in Proto-WP is
reflected WORD-MEDIALLYas tf in Wanano, e.g.:
(11) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
wek4 [wee'ki] > watfi [wa#'tfi] 'tapir'
wek6 [wee'ko] > watif [wa#'tfo] 'parrot'
yeki [pe-'k+] > ytJf [pi'tI] 'leg'
deko [de 'ko] > datf6 [da#'tfo] 'day'
siiko- [si?'ko] > tfiitfd- [tfi?'tf ] 'to crawl'
In all of these examples, we posit the front position of the vowels preced-
ing the consonant in focus as the influence in Wananotoward affricationin
an alveopalatal position from the velar position of the k in Proto-WP and
Proto-Tucanoan.This is very similar to the Old English k correspondence
with tf _i in Modern English.
The sequence of change for the Proto-WP *k in *weki [weq'ki] 'tapir'
(and similarly for *wek6 [wee'ko] and *dek6 [deq'ko]) becoming tf in
Wanano would be:
(12) (Proto-WP) *wek4 [weq'ki] > *wetft [wee'tji] > (Wan) watf#
[waa'tfi]
It is evident that the fronting influence of the vowel on the velar toward
changing to an alveopalatal affricate took place before a subsequent vowel
change occurredin Wananofrom e to a. This vowel change is discussed in
2.4.2.1 below.
The sequence of change from Proto-WP to Wanano with *yek [pei'ki]
becoming y;t.J [ji'tji] would be:
(13) (Proto-WP) *yeki [pe1'ki] > *yetJf [jpe'tj+] > (Wan) ygtfi [pt'tj+]
(some dialects of Wanano have y7tfi [pi-i'tJS])
Again, there is a fronting influence of the vowel preceding the Proto-WP *k
toward developing an alveopalatal affricate tfin Wanano.
Otherexamplesof this word-medialcorrespondenceof Proto-WPandProto-
Tucanoan*k with Wananotfin both post-stressedand stressed syllables are:
(15) (Proto-WP/Pir)*iiyd- [i?'ya]'to eat' or iiy4 [i?'yi] 'I/we ate' > *iid3
[i?'d3i]> *dj3- ['d3i] > (Wan) tf#- ['tfi] 'to eat'
Before word-initial syllable deletion in Wanano, the y intensified to the
point of becoming an affricate *d3. After word-initial syllable deletion and
the change to an affricate, the only step left was devoicing of the word-
initial affricate to tf.
Another example of this correspondence is seen in the Proto-WP mor-
pheme *puuid- [pu?i'a-] 'inside' which changed to puuitfd- [pu?i'tfa-] in
Wanano. One may write the Proto-WP morpheme [pu?i'ya-] though the y
is barely audible except as a transitional epenthetic [y]. The sequence of
change for this morpheme might be as follows:
(16) (Proto-WP) *puuid- [pu?i'a-]or [pu?i'ya-]> *puuid3d- [pu?i'd3a-]
> (Wan) puuitfd- [pu?i'tfa-]
In both (15) and (16) we posit the front vowel position of *i and *y,
slightly intensified to produce friction, as the influence toward affrication
and the development of the alveopalatal affricate tf in Wanano. Other
examples of this particularchange are:
(17) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
bida or
['mia] ['miya] > bitfa ['mitja]
'today'
ydbfa [ja'nria] or [pa'miya] > dblitfaka [pia'mitfaka]
'tomorrow'
bdreiro [ma'niiiro]or [m'niiyiro] > baretfiro] [ma'niitfino]
'father-in-law'
2.2.5. Summary of development of voiceless affricate tf in Wanano.
The alveopalatal affricate tf in Wanano, not found in any of the other East-
ern Tcanoan languages, primarilyowes its development to contiguity with
front vowels. It is clear that the change from *s, *k, *g, and *y to tf took
place before there was any vowel change from front to back position or ini-
tial syllable deletion in Wanano (see 2.4.2.1 and 2.1.5.1). In this way, the
influence of the front vowels in Proto-WPtoward developing an alveopala-
tal affricate (tJ) in Wanano is recognized. Another possible influence to-
ward Wanano developing the alveopalatal affricate could have been from
the non-TucanoanTariana(Arawakan) who intermarrywith the Wananos
and who also have an alveopalatal affricate tf (Aikhenvald 1996).
2.3. Other consonant changes in Piratapuyo and Wanano. Apart
from the development of the series of voiceless aspirated stops and the
alveopalatal affricate tf in Wanano (2.1 and 2.2), the following consonant
changes took place in both Piratapuyoand Wanano.
and Desano) reflect the g in their masculine, singular verb suffix -gi, again
supporting the interpretationthat Wanano, with its masculine, singular -ki
verb suffix, has diverged from Proto-WP and Proto-Tucanoan.This proba-
ble interpretationis illustratedin the following cognate pairs:
(19) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
biadogd-ta ['mianoqata] > bitfdpuka-ka ['mitfapu,kaka]
'rightnow'
gf [r71] > km [kh-+]
'also' (postclitic)
kad-gd [ka'?aja] > kad-kd [kha'?aka] 'near'
kadi-g! [ka'nmrj] > kadi-ki [kha'niki] 'sugarcane'
ba-gd ['mIana] > bd-kd ['maka] 'stream'
pdgi ['pagi] > phaki [lphak] 'body'
sioga [si'oga] > sioka [si'oka] 'hoe'
yuki-gi [yuy'kigi] > yuki-ki [yuy'kiki] 'tree'
More examples of Tucanoancognate sets are needed for a more definitive
analysis of the direction of change between g and k in these contexts (see
'near'and 'tree'in Appendix C).
2.3.3. Proto-WP semivowel *y as it developed in Wanano. The al-
veopalatal semivowel *y, both oral and nasal in Proto-WP, is realized in
Wanano as [g] / [r], [y] / [p], or zero, depending on the environment.
2.3.3.1. Proto-WP semivowel *y reflected as a velar g in Wanano. In
a few cases the alveopalatal semivowel *y (oral or nasal) in Proto-WP
changed to a velar stop [g] or nasal [q] in Wanano between identical back
vowels:
(20) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
aya [aia] > aga [a'ra] 'snake'
basd-ya [ba#'saya] > basa-ga [bat'saga] 'sing!'
baya-ro [ba'yaro] > bagd-ro [ba'garo] 'musician'
buuiyue- [mu?'lPu] > biiuigi- [mi?'riu] 'to get old'
uyu [u'ii] > ugu [u'jui] 'avocado'
waha-ya [wa'hajla] > waha-ga [wa'hian] 'kill!'
A probable influence in Wanano toward this change from the alveopalatal
consonant to the velar consonant is the back position of the contiguous
vowels; e.g., (Proto-WP) *y > (Wan) g/ I VI VI (VI = identical back
vowel).
2.3.3.2. Semivowel y develops in Wanano between *e and *o. In at
least 11 cognate pairs, Wananodeveloped a semivowel y [y] and [p] due in
part to a transitionin Proto-WPfrom the front vowel e to the back vowel o.
This palatalization probably developed in Wanano as a result of retaining
the fronting of the vowel e at the same time the vowel shift from e to a
took place (see 2.4.2.1), influenced by the front vowel e, with the alveopal-
atal semivowel y developing as a transitionalconsonant. Two examples, in
which no front to back vowel change (e to a) took place between Proto-WP
and Wanano, supportthis interpretation.In these examples, no semivowel y
developed without the vowel change e to a: (Proto-WP/Pir)deeo- [ne'o]
and (Wan) deeo- [ne'?o] 'to cause to lick'; (Proto-WP/Pir)keoro [ke'oro]
and (Wan) kiiodo [khi'?ono]'correctly'.
(21) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
beeo- [me'?o] > badyo- [ma?P'] 'to lie'
keo- [ke'o] > kayo- [kha'yo] 'to imitate'
peeo- [pe'?o] > pddyo- [pha7'io] 'to complete'
peo- [pe'o] > pay6- [pha'yo] 'to place on top of'
par' teo [pa'ri t6o] > part tdyo [pha'ritajio] 'crosspiece'
seo- [se'o] > sayo- [sa'yo] 'to spreadout'
wee6- [we'?o] > waayo- [wa'?yo] 'to pour liquid into'
weo- [we'o] > way6- [wa'yo] 'to soak'
yeoro [ye'oro] > yayoro [ya'yoro] 'collaredjaybird'
yeeo- [ye'?o] > yddyo- [ya?a'6o] 'to be caught'
yeo- [ye'o] > yayo- [ya'lp] 'to spark'
Most EasternTucanoanlanguages follow the Proto-WPpatternof maintain-
ing the *e when they have cognates with the terms above. For this reason,
the Proto-WP terms above are posited with the subsequent development of
the semivowel y ([y] and [p]) in Wanano following the front vowel *e and
preceding the back vowel *o at the same time that a vowel change took
place changing that initial syllable nucleus to the central vowel a and retain-
ing that semivowel y as a vestige of the front proto-vowel *e.
{Proto-WP} 0 > {Wan} y Iae} _o. The {e} here representsa vestige of
the proto-vowel *e after the major vowel shift from e to a in Wanano.
2.3.3.3. Semivowel *y is dropped in Wanano. In at least nine cognate
pairs, the semivowel *y (usually the nasal counterpartpn) in Proto-WP is
dropped in Wanano between two vowels, the second of which is a back
vowel, if the first vowel is not an e (see 2.3.3.2). This semivowel deletion
took place after the major vowel shift in Wananofrom e to a (see 22a, 22f,
and 22i below). The most probable explanation for this change is that
Wanano relaxed its articulationof the *y (oral and nasal), thus losing that
consonant. The assertion that this change has taken place in Wanano (and
not in the opposite direction in Piratapuyo)is supportedby the fact that 11
of the Eastern Tucanoan languages have a nasal semivowel (nine with y
and two with w) in their words for 'miriti palm' in (22a) below (Tuc, Pir,
Wai, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai; Thy, Yur; see Appendix C). However,
Wanano has dropped the semivowel in that context. Consequently, the
Proto-WP and Proto-Tucanoanwould be written with the semivowel y.
This would mean that again Wananois viewed as being the language which
diverged from Proto-WP and Proto-Tucanoanby dropping this intervocalic
semivowel in the following examples.
(22) Proto-WP Wanano
(22a) de-yo [ne?Jlo] > daa-6 [na'?ao] 'miritipalm'
(22b) *wiiyo' waro9 [wi?'yowaro] > wiio waro [wi'?owaro]
'unnecessarily'
(22c) iyo [i6o] > io [i'6] 'mama(vocative)'
(22d) kuyd- [kaila] > koa- [kh6'a] 'to lie down'
(22e) klya- [li'ja] > kf- [kI'?a]
'to be tight (shoes, etc.)'
(22f) ooye- [o?'le] > oa- [o'a] 'to twist (thread)'
(22g) saya- [sa'pa] > saa- ['saa]
'to put on clothing'
(22h) waaya- [wa?7a] > waa- [wa?a] 'to adhere'
(22i) yooye- [yo?'ye] > yood- [yo'?a] 'to fish'
One could also postulate a change in the opposite direction, in which Pirata-
puyo developed a transitional [p] between usually differing vowels. How-
ever, for the reasons given above, this particularinterpretationhas not been
adopted. More data on the other EasternTucanoanlanguages are needed to
provide furthersupportfor this interpretation.
2.3.4. Dropping and retaining glottal fricative *h in Wanano. In a
few cases, a glottal fricative *h is droppedin Wanano:
(23) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
sdha- [sa'ha] > ['saa] 'to enter'
saa-
sahdya si [sa'hayasi] > sdya si
['saya si] 'skirt'
sihoro [si'horo] > ['soro] 'different'
soro
sohdro beeda [so'harome?na] > rso'arome?ne]
sodro beede
'quickly'
The following rules are applicable to sharedcognates between Piratapuyo
and Wananoin which h is the onset of a stressed second syllable in a Proto-
WP/Pir phonological word:
9See 2.3.1 and (18) where Piratapuyo is viewed as having diverged from Proto-WP and
Proto-Tucanoanby dropping the initial semivowel w: (Proto-WP) *wiiyd waro > (Pir) iiy6
waro 'unnecessarily'.However, in (22), (Proto-WP) *wiiy6 waro becoming (Wan) wii6 waro
reflects dropping the intervocalic semivowel y, which is a divergence of Wanano from Proto-
WP in that same term.
(A) All such words which have the voiceless sibilant s at the onset of the
previous syllable lose the h and sometimes the vowel preceding it in
Wanano (see 23 above):
(Proto-WP) *h > (Wan) 0 1sV'
(B) If the consonant of the syllable preceding the h is voiced, then the h
is retained; e.g., baha [ma'ha] 'macaw' and wiho [wi'ho] 'sleepy' are the
same in Piratapuyo and Wanano, also yehe [ye'he] (Pir) and yahd [ya'ha]
(Wan) 'egret'.
(Proto-WP) *CV'hV > (Wan) CV'hV (when C = voiced consonant)
(C) If the consonant of the syllable preceding the h is a voiceless stop,
the vowel before the h is droppedbut the h is retained in the form of aspi-
ration on that voiceless stop in Wanano;e.g., (Proto-WP/Pir)*tuhu > (Wan)
thiu [,thu] 'book' (see 2.1.4.2):
Cognates which begin with voiced consonants retain the h medially in both
Piratapuyoand Wanano.Those which begin with a voiceless stop retain the
h medially in Wanano with vowel loss. That h then becomes aspirationfor
the initial voiceless stop. Piratapuyo also retains the h but maintains that
glottal fricative as a segmental consonant.
2.4. Vowel changes between Proto-WP and Wanano.
2.4.1. Word-initial vowel/syllable deletion in Wanano. As mentioned
in 2.1.5.1, a change which took place in Wanano as it diverged from Proto-
WP and Proto-Tucanoaninvolved the dropping of a fairly large number
(over 60 identified) of word-initial vowels/syllables which immediately
preceded a stressed syllable. The extent of this initial vowel/syllable dele-
tion is unique to Wanano among all the Eastern Tucanoanlanguages. This
deletion is probably a result of the initial syllables being unstressed and
their having a syllable coda of either a voiceless vowel or a glottal stop
(see 2.1.5.1). This deletion occurred with syllables having the following
characteristics:
(A) If the word-initial vowel/syllable is unstressed and it occurs before
a voiceless consonant in a stressed syllable, that initial unstressed vowel/
syllable is deleted. The word-initial vowel/syllable may be:
(a) A single vowel; e.g., ako [a#'ko] (Proto-WP) > k6 ['ko] (Wan)
'water'.Most examples in Wanano, where the word-initial vowel is lost,
reflect the dropping of this particularkind of V syllable (see 7).
(b) Two geminate vowels, the second vowel with low pitch, resulting in
a glottal stop between the geminate vowels and ultimately dropping the
second vowel, phonetically giving the appearanceof a CV? syllable (see
n. 5); e.g., (Proto-WP) *aatd- [a?'ta]> td- ['ta] (Wan) 'to come'. For a few
Wananoexamples thatreflect the droppingof this type of syllable, see (7).
(c) A consonant plus one vowel or geminate vowels with low pitch,
resulting in a glottal stop as described in (b); e.g., (Proto-WP) *tutua-
[tuu'tua]> (Wan) taa- ['tua]'to be strong';(Proto-WP) *kitd wihi- [ki?'ta
wi,hi] > *kiiti wihi- [ki?'tiwi,hi] > (Wan) t4 wihi- ['ti wi,hi] 'to rust'. Very
few examples reflect this type of syllable deletion (see n. 8).
(B) If an initial Proto-WP back (central or back) vowel occurs before a
voiced bilabial consonant [b] or [m], it is deleted in Wanano, as in:
(24) Proto-WP (Pir) Wanano
ibido [i'mfn6] > bido ['m4no] 'man'
ubl [u'mi] > bf ['mi] 'honey'
If the initial vowel is not deleted but is retained as a front vowel e in
Wanano, a similar retention of the initial vowels of such words is found
in most of the other Eastern Tucanoan languages. Thus, in the following
examples, where even Wanano retained the initial vowel, little diachronic
change has taken place in the initial vowels.
(25) Piratapuyo Wanano
ebo [e'mo] correspondswith ebu [e'mi] 'howlermonkey'
aburi [a'buli] correspondswith ewiri [e'wili] 'moss'
ebut [e'mu+] correspondswith eboa [e'moa] 'fire ants'
(28) (Proto-WP) *obaa ['oba?]> *obiaa ['obia?] > (Wan) b'aa ['bia?]
11All the other EasternTucanoanlanguages which share cognates with Wanano and Pirata-
puyo for 'one' have a as the vowel in the second syllable; e.g., (N. Bar) hikd [hi'ka], (Car, Tat)
hika [hi'ka], (Ret) irad['ra], (Tuc) diikd [di?'ka],(Yur) rkd [i'ka].
With only a few exceptions (e.g., Des si'yo- 'to smoke {fish}'), Wanano is
the only Eastern Tucanoan language with high front i in these particular
cognates. The change from *e, *i, and *u to i in Wanano is at least in part
due to the total voicelessness of that initial unstressed vowel. Another pos-
sible influence in Wanano toward the change to the high front vowel could
be the alveolar/alveopalatal position of the following consonants in the
Wananowords. There is no vowel assimilation in these cognates. However,
in the following examples, assimilation affected the initial unstressedvoice-
less vowel in Wanano; Proto-WP *u assimilated to a lower position o in
Wananopreceding a.
(35) Proto-
WP/Pir Wanano
kirepe- [ki'repe] > kiripe- [ki'ripe] 'to tickle in the ribs'
(the second vowel e assimilated to the height
of the first vowel i in Wanano)
bue'-ye[bu'eye] > bui-a [bu'ia] 'incense'
(initial e assimilated to the height of the first
vowel u becoming an i in Wanano)
When the Wanano verb nominalizer suffix -iro follows the participial
suffix -ri, the result is the masculine singular nominalizer suffix -riro, after
droppingof the extra vowel; e.g., -ri + -iro > -riro. Since this particularcom-
bination of two suffixes in Wanano never takes nasalization and therefore
does not have morphophonemicalternation,these two suffixes fuse because,
in all other environments,the participialsuffix -ri can take nasalization, e.g.,
{kar--Ri-koro}[kha'iilnkoro]'one (fem.) who sleeps' and {kart-Riwaawac}
[kha'niiniwa?,wa]'cradle'.The masculine nominalizer suffix, however, can-
not take nasalization in Wanano karl-riro [kha'iiriro].
3.2.2.4. Morphophonemic alternation in other verb suffixes. In con-
trast to the examples above, where morphophonemic alternation occurs
only in Piratapuyo,some verb suffixes have morphophonemicalternationin
both Piratapuyoand Wanano. [d] and [n] are allophones of the phoneme d
in both languages. The phoneme r alternatesmorphophonemicallywith the
nasal allophone of d in the suffix for third person, singular {-Ro}:
TABLE 1
Piratapuyo Wanano
Personaland Possessive Pronouns PersonalPronouns Possessive Pronouns
yi' [yi?i] 'I, y ] my' i [yi] '
biS [mn'i 'you, your' bi [ri'I] 'you' bi [n] 'your'
ti-kiro ['tikoro] 'he, his' tfro ['tiro] 'he' to [to] 'his'
ti-kiro ['tikoro] 'she, her' tt-koro ['tikoro]'she' to [to] 'her'
bar' [ml'nii] 'we, our (incl.)' barm'[ma'ii] 'we (incl.)' bari [manfi] 'our (incl.)'
isa [i'sa] 'we, our (excl.)' sd ['sa] 'we (excl.)' sa [sa] 'our(excl.)'
bisd [mn'sa] 'you, your (pl.)' bisa [m"'sa] 'you (pl.)' bisa [mn'sa] 'your (pl.)'
ti-kida ['tikina] 'they,their' tida ['tina] 'they' ti [ti] 'their'
TABLE2
Piratapuyo Wanano
Paucal (Few) Plural Paucal (Few) Plural
iikd-riayuk4sa ki-ria bis6ka
'one canoe' 'one canoe'
the number four is reached. Six out of nine of the Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages have the same pattern of number pluralization as Wanano, so it is
likely that Proto-WP and Proto-Tucanoanalso pluralized at four.
4.4. Pluralization of certain animate nouns in Proto-WP and Wanano.
Many animatenouns in Piratapuyoand Wananoare pluralizedby adding the
suffix -a to the singularstem, e.g., (Pir)aya-a [a'iaa] and (Wan)agd-a [a'jiaa]
'snakes'.However, a small numberof animate nouns that end in e in Proto-
WP/Pir and Proto-Tucanoanunderwentthe major vowel shift from e to a in
Wanano (2.4.2.1), e.g., (Proto-WP, Proto-Tucanoan)*yehe > (Wan) yahd
'egret'.This small group of Wananonouns retainedthe previous pluralizing
patternof theirProto-WPcognates; e.g., (Proto-WP,Proto-Thcanoan)*yehe-
a (ratherthan *yaha-a) > (Wan)yahe-a 'egrets'.In otherwords, a stem change
(underlinedin the examples in 50) occurs in the plural Wananonouns:
(50) Proto-WP/Pir Wanano
Sg. P1. Sg. P1.
bee bee-a bad baae'-a
'bass'
dase dase-a dasa dase'-a
'toucan'
sebe sebe-a saba sabe-a
'paca'
yehe yehe-a yahd yahe-a
'egret'
is
There one example of an animate noun stem ending in a, bha 'macaw',
in
which pluralizes Piratapuyo and Proto-WP as described above with long
a: bdha-a. However, the same noun in Wanano,bhad, pluralizes as if it cor-
responds to a Proto-WP and Proto-Tucanoan stem that ends in e. In this
case, Wanano pluralization of bdha reflects a plural form developed by
analogy with the Wanano plurals such as yahea 'egrets'.
5.1. Piratapuyo terms are more specific than Wanano terms. Pirata-
puyo is often more lexically specific than Wanano.The examples in (52) il-
lustrate how Wananohas a single root for 'afterwards','after',and 'back (of
person)',whereas Piratapuyohas three different roots for those three mean-
ings. Similarly, the Wanano word for 'many',which does not combine with
classifiers, correspondsto a term which does take specific classifiers in Pira-
tapuyo. Five out of nine Eastern Tucanoan languages on which informa-
tion was obtained follow the Wanano patternin that they usually have one
root for 'afterwards','after',and 'back (or person)'.However, eight out of the
same nine languages follow a patternsimilar to Piratapuyowith reference to
the term for 'many' in that they have a term which takes specific classifiers.
So, one might conclude that the lexical choices in Proto-WP and Proto-
Tucanoanfor 'afterwards','after',and 'back (of person)'could be specific (as
in Piratapuyo)or not (as in Wanano). However, it is much more likely that
the Proto-Tucanoanterm for 'many' does take specific classifiers, as does
APPENDIX A
PHONOLOGICAL STATEMENTS
TABLE3
Consonants Vowels
Bilabial Alveolar Velar Front Central Back
Voicelessstops p t k High i i u
Voicedstops b d g Low e a o
Continuants w y h
Sibilant s
Flap r
Pitch/stress = phonemic suprasegmental/7, /'/.
Nasalization = phonemic suprasegmental /-/.
Glottal [?] (see n. 5 in text).
TABLE4
Consonants Vowels
Velar
Bilabial AlveolarAlveopalatal FrontCentralBack
Voicelessstops p t k High i i u
Voicedstops b d g Low e a o
Continuants w y h
Sibilants/Affricates s tf
Flap r
Pitch/stress = phonemic suprasegmental /7, /'/.
Nasalization = phonemic suprasegmental/-/.
Glottal [7] (see n. 5 in text).
APPENDIX B
CONTRASTSBETWEENUNASPIRATED
AND ASPIRATEDSTOPSIN WANANO
The following are examples of minimal and near-minimalpairs for voiceless un-
aspiratedand aspiratedstops in Wanano:
Unaspirated Aspirated
Bilabial (1) pa 'other' phda- 'to thunder'
(2) pd-ro 'other thing, toy' phd-ro 'stomach'
(3) piri 'teeth' phiri 'big'
(4) pu-ra '(he) jumps' phuru'quail'
(5) pu-ca 'blowgun' phuru'quail'
(6) putu 'coca' phUru'quail'
(7) pi-ro 'boss' phi b*iseri 'two sides'
APPENDIX C
PROTO-WANANO/PIRATAPUYO
Abbreviations for Eastern uTcanoan: Tuc = Tucano; Wan = Wanano; Pir = Pirata-
puyo; Proto-WP = Proto-Wanano/Piratapuyo; Wai = Waimaja;Tuy = Tuyuca; Yur =
Yuruti; Des = Desano; Sir = Siriano; Tat = Tatuyo; Car = Carapana; Mac = Macuna;
Tai = Taibano; Central Tucanoan:Ret = Retuara;Cub = Cubeo; Western Thcanoan:
Kor = Koreguaje; Sio = Siona; Sec = Secoya; Ore = Orej6n.
The following Proto-WP examples and correspondences are written with glottal
stop instead of double vowels (which representthe phonemic analysis) in order to
allow the reader to more readily see the correspondences.Also, the allophones are
not usually written since such information is not needed to support Proto-WP
choices.
abdomen WP = *pd-(ga/Ro) (Pir) pd-ga (Wan)phd-RO.Nine Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Des, Sir, Car) have cognates. Only
Wananocontrastively aspirates the p.
agouti WP = *bu(u) (Pir) buu (Wan) bu. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan languages
have cognates. Cubeo, Retuara, and three Western Tucanoan languages also have
cognates. No information is available on Orej6n.
alive WP = *kati- (Pir) kati- (Wan) katf-. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan languages
have cognates.
anaconda, water boa WP = *pido-Ro (Pir) pido-Ro (Wan) pido-Ro. All 12
Eastern Tucanoanlanguages have cognates.
ant WP = *bekadsi-(V/iro) (Pir) bekdsi-i (Wan) bdtf-iro. Fifteen Tucanoanlan-
guages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai, Ret, Cub, Kor, Sio, Ore)
which have cognates have e as the first vowel. Only Wanano has a as the first
vowel. Ten Eastern Tucanoan languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Tat, Car,
Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave a velar stop k/g as the second consonant. Only Wanano
has tf.
armadillo WP = *pabo (Pir) pabo (Wan)pabo. Seventeen Tucanoanlanguages
have close cognates, with only Orej6n not cognate.
ash WP = *dahd (Pir) duhuad(Wan) duha. In Piratapuyo,the second u is tran-
sitional; eight Eastern Thcanoanlanguages (Tuc, Wan, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai)
have a uCa patternwithout a transitionalu, as in uCua.
at WP = *-pi (Pir) -pi (Wan) -pi. Ten Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Wan,
Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have cognates with this postclitic.
axe WP = *kobe (Pir) kobe (Wan) k6ba. Eleven Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara have cognates
with e as a second vowel; only Wananohas a as a second vowel.
banisterium WP = *kdpi (Pir) kdpi (Wan) khdpi. All Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages and Retuara have either kdpi, gdpi, or kdhi; Western Tucanoan languages
have cognates to yahe instead. Of the Eastern Tucanoanlanguages, Wanano is the
only language to have an initial aspiratedvelar stop k^.
bat WP = *oso (Pir) oso (Wan) so. All 18 Thcanoanlanguages have cognates.
Wanano is the only one of these languages that droppedthe initial vowel.
bed WP = *kUya-(Ro/Ri kasdrio) (Pir) kuya-Ro (Wan) koa-Ri ka'sario. Cf. lie
down.
bee (honeybee/bumblebee, sg.) WP = *ubfklda (Pir) ubifktda(Wan) bikida.
Five Eastern Tucanoan languages (Tuc, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des) and Retuara have an
initial CV or V syllable before bf- ['mi]; four others (Sir, Tat, Car, Tai) have two- or
three-syllable morphemes before bf- and are questionable as cognates. Only
Wanano droppedthe initial syllable before bf ['ml].
big WP = *pah(-(Rikiro/riro) (Pir) pahi-Rikiro (Wan) phf-riro. Nine Eastern
Tucanoan languages (Thc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have apparent
cognates and their first vowel is a. Only Wananodroppedthat first-syllable nucleus
a, resulting in the aspiratedstop ph (see 2.1.4.3).
bite WP = *ba?kd- (Pir) ba?ke- (Wan) ba?kd-. Only Piratapuyo and Tatuyo
have the e, as in bake-. Waimaja, Tuyuca, Yuruti, and Carapanahave final a, as in
baka-, similar to Wanano. The remaining Eastern Tucanoanlanguages do not have
cognates.
black WP = *yT-di (Pir) yl-di (Wan) y(-d/. Twelve Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Cubeo
clearly have cognates. Retuara, Secoya, and Orej6n may also be cognate but not
as close.
blood WP = *di (Pir) dii (Wan) di. Eight Eastern Tucanoan languages (Tuc,
Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Tai) have cognates with double vowels. Four (Wan,
Des, Sir, Mac) and Retuarahave single vowels.
blow (into a flute/on a fire/blowing of the wind) WP = *put'- (Pir) puti- (Wan)
putt-. Twelve Eastern Tucanoanlanguages plus Retuarahave cognates.
blowgun WP = *upu- (-ga/-ka) (Pir) upu-ga (Wan) pu-ka. Eleven Eastern Tu-
canoan languages and Retuarahave an initial syllable (V or CV) before the usually
stressed syllable pu. Wananodroppedthat initial syllable. If Orej6n (hu) is cognate,
it too dropped that initial syllable.
burn (transitive/intransitive) WP = *ih4- (Pir) ihd- (Wan) h/-. Six Eastern Tu-
canoan languages (Tuc, Pir, Des, Sir, Mac, Tai) have an initial unstressed vowel in
clear cognates. Only Tuyuca and Wanano dropped that initial unstressed vowel;
four languages (Wai, Yur, Tat, Car) have more distant potential cognates with only
two geminate high central nasal vowels; e.g., 4i.
cat WP = *pisdda (Pir) pisdda (Wan) pisdda. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages plus Retuara and Cubeo borrowed this term from Spanish in a very similar
form. Western TucanoanKoreguaje, Siona, and Orej6n borrowed it in a form much
closer to the Spanish term for calling a cat bLtfi.
cebus monkey WP = *ake (Pir) ake (Wan) kd. Sixteen Tucanoan languages
have cognates with an initial syllable a or ta before ke or ki. Only Wanano dropped
that initial syllable and changed the ke to kd.
charcoal WP = *dift (Pir) ditf (Wan) ditt All 12 Eastern Tucanoan languages
have very close cognates. Cubeo also appearsto have a cognate.
chicha WP = *peyuru (Pir) peru' (Wan) payuru. Tucano and Piratapuyo both
have peru', Desano and Siriano peydru. Tuyucapeyu'ru(assimilation) probably de-
veloped later. So peru probablycame from peydru, which went to peyuru in Tuyuca
and to payuiru in Wanano. Proto-Tucanoanwould be *peydru; so the sequence
would be: peydru (Des, Sir) > peyu'ru(Tuy) peru'(Tuc, Pir); then (Proto-Tucanoan)
*peydru (Proto-WP) > *peyuru > payuru (Wanano after vowel shift).
chili pepper WP = *bid (Pir) bid (Wan) bid. Seventeen Tucanoan languages
have this same term for 'chili pepper';Koreguajehas pia.
chonta palm WP = *ire-yo (Pir) 1re-yo (Wan) ire-6. All EasternTucanoanlan-
guages which have classifier cognates (y6/w6 'palm tree' classifier) with this have a
semivowel (y/w) at the onset of that classifier, between the two final vowels. Only
Wanano does not. Siona, Secoya, and Orej6n do not express this term with a
classifier (see 2.3.3.3).
clouds at rest WP = *bue'-ri(Pir) bue-ri (Wan) but-ri. Five Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Pir, Wai, Car, Mac, Tai) have e as the second vowel in this cognate.
Wanano has i as the second vowel. Other Tucanoanlanguages appearto have non-
cognates here; informationon some is not available for this term. See fog.
coca WP = *pdtu (Pir) pdtu (Wan) putu. Seven Eastern Thcanoan languages
(Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car) and Cubeo have cognates with a as the first
vowel. Only Wananohas u as the first vowel, probably due to assimilation. The re-
maining four EasternTucanoanlanguages (Des, Sir, Mac, Tai) do not have cognates
for 'coca'.
come WP = *a?td- (Pir) a?td- (Wan) td-. Nine Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Wan, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car) and Retuara have cognates and all
except Wanano and Carapanahave an initial syllable before the nuclear CV sylla-
ble, usually the vowel a or a?. Wanano dropped that initial syllable; only Retuara
has initial i?. If Cubeo (dd-), Koreguaje(rdi-), Siona and Orej6n (ddi-) are cognate,
then those languages also dropped an initial syllable. However, it is questionable
whether they are cognate.
cooking pot (metal pot/common clay pot) WP = *sutu (Pir) sutu (Wan) situ.
Ten Eastern Tucanoanlanguages plus Retuara, Koreguaje, Siona, Secoya, and Ore-
j6n have cognates. Eight EasternTucanoanlanguages (Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car,
Mac, Tai), Retuara, and the Western Tucanoan languages have a back vowel o/u
as the first vowel. One (Tuc) has high a central vowel i as the first vowel. Only
Wananohas a high front vowel i in that position.
crocodile WP = *isO (Pir) iso (Wan) so. Nine Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tic, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave cognates with an ini-
tial syllable before the nuclear CV syllable (so/ho/hu). Only Wanano droppedthat
initial syllable.
cultivated clearing WP = *wese (Pir) wese (Wan) wese. Ten EasternTucanoan
languages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have cognates as well
as four Western Tucanoanlanguages (Kor, Sio, Sec, Ore). Only Central Thcanoan
terms do not have cognates.
dark WP = *dafttia- (Pir) da~tda- (Wan) da?ftid-. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan
languages have cognates as well as Retuara.
day WP = *deko (Pir) deko (Wan) datfd. Six EasternTucanoanlanguages (Tuc,
Pir, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car) have k at onset of the second syllable. Only Wanano has
tf there. Those same six languages have front vowels e/i as the vowel in the first
syllable of dek6/rek6. Only Wananohas a in that position.
deer WP = *yaba (Pir) yaba (Wan) yaba. Seventeen Tucanoanlanguages have
the same term for deer, with only the Orej6n term not being cognate.
dig WP = *se?e- (Pir) se?e- (Wan) sa?d-. Only four Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tic, Wan, Pir, Des) have cognates and Tucano, Piratapuyo, and Desano
have e as the first vowel. Only Wanano has a for both vowels. Desano has a as its
second vowel: se?d-.
doorway WP = *sope-(ka?a/ka) (Pir) sope-ka?a (Wan) sopd-ka. Nine Eastern
Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave
cognates sope/hope ratherthan sopd, as in Wanano.
drink WP = *si?d- (Pir) si?df- (Wan) si?df-. Eight EasternTucanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir) have close cognates; four (Tat, Car, Mac,
Tai) are possible cognates; e.g., (Tat, Car) eti, (Mac, Tai) id.
fog WP = *bue-ri (Pir) bue-ri (Wan) bui-ri. Five Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Pir, Wai, Car, Mac, Tai) have cognates with e as a second vowel. Only Wananohas
i as a second vowel. Tucano has a verb which involves 'firing a clay pot'. In one
Brazilian dialect of Tucano, a form of bue means 'fog'. Siriano is the other Eastern
Tucanoanlanguage which has i as a second vowel but for a verb bui-ri '(smoke/fog)
rises'. The Taibano term for 'smoke' is bue-ri, as is the second part of the Macuna
term for 'smoke' hea bue-ri.
foot WP = *da?p6-(ro/kd) (Pir) da?p6-ka (Wan) da?po-ro. Eight Eastern Tu-
canoan languages (Tuc, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have i as a first vowel;
two languages (Des, Sir) have u. Only Wanano and Piratapuyohave a.
front teeth, incisors WP = *upiri (Pir) upiri (Wan) pfri. Seven Eastern Tu-
canoan languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Tat, Car) and Retuara which have cog-
nates have an initial back vowel u/o. Only Wananodroppedthat initial vowel.
fruit WP = *dikd (Pir) dikd (Wan) ditfd. Seven Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Wan, Wai, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara have cognates with i as the first
vowel. Only Piratapuyoand Tucano have i. All Eastern Thcanoanlanguages which
have cognates for 'fruit' have the velar k as the second consonant, except for
Wanano, which has tf.
give WP = *o?6- (Pir) o?6- (Wan) wd-. Three Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Pir, Des) have cognates with an initial o; four languages (Wan, Des, Tat, Car)
droppedthat initial vowel. Desano has both the single 6- and the double o?6- forms.
The choice of a proto-formis somewhat inconclusive, though the choice of o rather
than a is clear since only the Wananoterm has an a for its nucleus.
go! WP = *wa?d-ya (Pir) wa?d-ya (Wan) wa?d-ga. Ten Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Mac, Tai) have cognates with wa?d-/
wd(a)-. Four of these (Tuc, Pir, Tuy, Yur) have the command form -ya. Only
Wananohas -ga.
good (adj.) WP = *ke?doa- (Pir) ke?doa- (Wan) doa-. Six Eastern Thcanoan
languages (Wan, Pir, Des, Sir, Mac, Tai) have probable cognates; two of those
(Mac, Tai) have a similar initial syllable as that in Piratapuyoke?-. Desano and Sir-
iano droppedthat initial syllable and the following d [n] (which Wan, Pir, Mac, and
Tai all have), resulting in oa- and 6?a- for Desano and Siriano respectively. Six
Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car) appearto have noncog-
nates with Wanano and Piratapuyo, since the Proto-Thcanoanform for those lan-
guages is *dyu-. Retuara, Cubeo, and the WesternTucanoanlanguages do not have
cognates to either of the Eastern Tucanoanterms for 'good'.
gourd (drinking gourd) WP = *wahd-ga (Pir) wahd-ga (Wan) wahd-ka. Three
Eastern Thcanoanlanguages (Pir, Wai, Tuy) have the classifier -ga. Only Wanano
has -ka. Four languages (Tuc, Tat, Car, Tai) have -ro. Others do not have cognates.
grass WP = *td (Pir) td (Wan) thd. Eleven Eastern Tucanoanlanguages, Retu-
ara, Siona, and Orej6n have an initial unaspiratedalveolar stop t. Only Wananoand
Koreguajehave a phonemic initial aspiratedalveolar stop th. Six Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Des, Sir, Mac) have a single vowel and six (Wai, Thy,
Yur, Tat, Car, Tai) have double vowels aa. Retuara, Koreguaje, Siona, and Orej6n
have two syllables with two consonants; e.g., tayd.
grease WP = *i?se (Pir) i?se (Wan) se. Eleven EasternTucanoanlanguages and
Retuarahave cognates with initial vowel(s)/syllable, which only Wanano dropped.
Retuara have cognates with an initial syllable (before -ta, -da-, or -ra in the first
morpheme). Wananodroppedthat initial syllable.
island WP = *d&ki6(Pir) dakio (Wan) diko. The loss of the i in Wananois pos-
tulated as a result of stress on the second syllable 6. Six EasternTucanoanlanguages
(Tuc,Pir, Tuy,Yur, Des, Sir) with cognates have t ratherthan6 in the second syllable.
jaguar WP = *ydi-Ro (Pir) ydi-Ro (Wan) ydi-Ro. All 18 Tucanoan languages
have cognates here; 16 have very close cognates; two (Des, Sir) have slightly differ-
ent cognates: ye.
kill WP = *wehe- (Pir) wehe- (Wan) waha-. Only five Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Des, Sir) have cognates here and Wanano is the only one
with geminate a vowels rather than geminate e vowels. Seven other Eastern Tu-
canoan languages (Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara could possibly
have distant cognates but, if so, have gone through more radical changes; e.g.,
(Wai) hid-, (Tuy, Yur, Mac, Tai) sia-, (Tat) h'a, (Car)pd-had, (Ret) had-ri-ka.
knife (classifier for sharp object) WP = (di?i/yi?sori) *pih) (Pir) ... pihl
(Wan)... phi. All 12 EasternTucanoanlanguages have possible cognates as well as
Retuara;only Tucano and Wananohave a phonemic aspiratedbilabial ph.
know WP = *basf- (Pir) bast- (Wan) basl-. Twelve Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have almost
exactly the same cognates and three Western Tucanoan languages (Kor, Sio, Sec)
also have very close cognates.
lie down WP = *kuya- (Pir) kayd- (Wan) kdo-. Seven Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir) have cognates here. Four of them (Tuc,
Pir, Des, Sir) have transitionaly; Wanano, Tuyuca, and Yuruti do not. The Yuruti
term is not nasalized at all.
long WP = *yod- (Pir) yod- (Wan) yod-. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan languages
and Retuarahave almost identical cognates.
lower leg WP = *ylkd (Pir) yekd (Wan) yttfj/yitt. Nine Eastern Tucanoanlan-
guages (Pir, Wai, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara, which have cog-
nates, have a velar stop k/g as the second consonant. Only Wanano has tf in that
position. Nine Eastern Tucanoan languages (Wan, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Car,
Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave i as the first syllable vowel. This includes one dialect of
Wanano which also has i, as in yitf. Depending on the speaker, the first vowel can
also be i, e, or i in Tuyuca.
macaw WP = *baha (Pir) baha (Wan) bdha. Twelve Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai), Cubeo, and
three Western Tucanoan languages (Kor, Sio, Ore) have close cognates. No infor-
mation is available on Secoya.
male WP = *ibY-(Ro)(Pir) WbZ-Ro (Wan) bt-Ro. Eleven Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages, Retuara,Cubeo, Koreguaje,Siona, and Orej6nhave cognates with an initial
vowel before the nuclear syllable with b [m]. Only Wanano dropped that initial
vowel.
manioc flour WP = *po?kd wetd (Pir) po?kd wetd (Wan) po?kd wete. Eleven
Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Thc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Tai, Ret)
have wetd or a form close to that; but Wananohas wate.
manioc WP = *ki (Pir) ki (Wan) khi. All 12 Eastern Thcanoan languages and
Retuarahave cognates here, but only Wanano and Piratapuyohave the vowel i; the
rest have the high front i. Among the Eastern Tucanoan languages, only Wanano
has an aspirated velar stop kh;the rest reflect an unaspiratedvelar stop k. Western
TucanoanKoreguaje also has an aspiratedvelar stop k^.
milk WP = *opek6 (Pir) opko6 (Wan) petfo. Eleven Eastern Ticanoan lan-
guages and Retuarahave cognates with an initial unstressed vowel o, u, or a. Only
Wanano droppedthe initial vowel. Ten Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Wai,
Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Tai) and Retuarakept k as the second consonant (Ma-
cuna has a g). Only Wanano changed that consonant to tf. Four Western Tucanoan
languages (Kor, Sio, Sec, Ore) have an initial unstressed o but no nasalization, as is
found in all of the EasternTucanoanlanguages, and no second morphemereferring
to 'water,juice'; e.g., ko/k6. Cubeo is also cognate without nasalization but with the
ko morpheme:ope-ko.
miriti palm WP = *de?~-y6 (Pir) de?e-yo (Wan) dd?d-6. All Tucanoan lan-
guages except Wanano have cognates with e as a first, and usually a second, vowel
in this morpheme. Only Wanano has a. Cf. chonta palm regarding the final
classifier morpheme -y6/-6.
mosquito WP = *bitt-(iro) (Pir) b~te (Wan) bi~t-iro. All 18 Tucanoan lan-
guages have cognates.
mother (referent/vocative) WP = *pak6 (Pir) pako (Wan) poko. Seventeen Tu-
canoan languages have cognates with a as the first vowel. Only Wanano has o due
to assimilation.
mouth WP = *dise-ro (Pir) dise-Ro (Wan) dise-Ro. Eight Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Wan, Pir, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara have initial d or r.
Four Eastern Tucanoan languages (Tuc, Wai, Tuy, Yur) dropped the initial conso-
nant (d/r).
name WP = *wabe (Pir) wabe (Wan) wabd. Nine Eastern Tucanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara have cognates with e as
the second vowel; two (Des, Sir) have i. Only Wananohas a as its second vowel in
this term.
navel WP = *s!bL-(a/ka) (Pir) sib-ad (Wan) sibi-ka. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan
languages, Retuara, and Cubeo have cognates.
near WP = *ka?d-(gd/kd) (Pir) ka?d-gd (Wan) ka?d-ka. Only Wanano and
Piratapuyohave cognates, and possibly Carapana.With regard to final diminutive
-ga vs. -ka, four (Tuc, Wan, Wai, Car) have -ka/-ka and five (Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des,
Sir) have -ga/gd.
new WP = *wd?ba- (Pir) wd?ba- (Wan) wd?ba-. All 12 Eastern Tucanoanlan-
guages have cognates, as do Retuara, Cubeo, and all four Western Tucanoan lan-
guages (Kor, Sio, Sec, Ore). Only five (Wan, Pir, Wai, Tat, Car) begin the cognate
portion of 'new' with w. The rest begin with a bilabial nasal [m], allophone to b.
night WP = *ydbl (Pir) ydb~ (Wan) ydbi. All 18 Tucanoanlanguages have the
same term for 'night'.
nose WP = *e?ke(d/Ro) (Pir) e?ke-a (Wan) ki-Ro. Eleven Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have cognates
with an initial (usually unstressed) vowel/syllable. Only Wanano dropped that
syllable.
old woman WP = *biki6-ro (Pir) bikio-Ro (Wan) biko-Ro. Eight Eastern Tu-
canoan languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Tai) which have close cognates
reflect the high central vowel i as the first vowel in the second syllable; e.g., bikid-.
Only Wanano and Macuna droppedthat vowel, as in bik6-.
one WP = *di?kd (Pir) di?ka (Wan) k?. Seven Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car) and Retuara have cognates which end with a.
Only the Wanano term ends with i. Also, all except Wanano have two syllables
(see 4.3).
other WP = *ape- (Pir) ape- (Wan)pa-. Six Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc,
Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Car), Retuara,and Cubeo have an initial unstressedvowel. Only
Wanano drops that vowel. The other Eastern Tucanoanlanguages do not have cog-
nates with this term.
otter WP = *didyo?o (Pir) didyo?o (Wan) dieyo?o. Nine Eastern Tucanoanlan-
guages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuara have did or rid
'river'as the first part of this term. Only Wanano changed a to e, as in die'-.
owl WP = *wipi pakb (Pir) ipi pakb (Wan) wipi pokb. Ten Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have cognates with ini-
tial b; Wanano has an initial w. Only Piratapuyo dropped the initial consonant.
Three EasternTucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Tuy) have a as the third vowel as part
of a morpheme meaning 'mother'.Six EasternTucanoanlanguages (Wan, Pir, Wai,
Tat, Car, Tai) have o as the third vowel as part of the same morpheme 'mother'.
Cf. mother, which is the reason for the Proto-WP choice of pako.
paca WP = *sebe (Pir) sebe (Wan) saba. All 18 Tucanoan languages have
cognates here and 17 of them have e as their two vowels. Only Wanano has a for
both vowels.
paddle WP = *wehe-ro (Pir) wehe-Ro(Wan) wehe-Ro.All 12 EasternTucanoan
languages have cognates. Retuaraalso appearsto have a cognate.
palm leaf for thatching a roof WP = *bahl (Pir) buhlt (Wan) bahl. All 18
Tucanoanlanguages have cognates.
parrot WP = *wek6 (Pir) weko (Wan) watfo. Sixteen Thcanoanlanguages (Thc,
Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai, Cub, Kor, Sio, Sec, Ore) have e as
the first vowel. Only Wanano has a. The same (16) Thcanoanlanguages have k as
the second consonant. Only Wananohas tf there. The Retuaraterm does not appear
to be cognate.
path, trail WP = *ba?d (Pir) ba?d (Wan) ba?a. All 18 Tucanoan languages
have cognates.
people WP = *basa (Pir) basa (Wan) basa. All 12 EasternThcanoanlanguages
have cognates here. Four WesternThcanoanlanguages have possible cognates.
pierce WP = *yose- (Pi) yose- (Wan) yosa-. Three EasternTucanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Pir, Des) which have cognates have e as a second vowel. Only Wananohas a.
Other Tucanoanlanguages have terms which are noncognate.
piranha WP = *bi? (Pir) bi?f (Wan) bi?i. Eight Eastern Thcanoan languages
(Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Tat, Car) have close cognates. The rest of the Tu-
canoan languages do not have cognates.
pull (pull canoe by hand) WP = *wehe- (Pir) wehe- (Wan) wahd-. Six Eastern
Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Mac) have apparentcognates and five
of those have e as the first vowel. Four (Tuc, Pir, Thy, Yur) have e as the second
vowel and Macuna has a as one of its vowels. Only Wananohas a for both vowels.
Wai, Tat, Car) begin ko?d 'bone' with a vowel but no velar consonant; e.g., o67
(Tuc).
sing WP = *basd- (Pir) basa- (Wan) basd-. Twelve Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages have cognates. The Retuaraterm for 'song' is baya, also a possible cognate.
If Western Tucanoanlanguages are cognate, they are very distant.
sit WP = *duhi- (Pir) duhi- (Wan) duhi-. Nine Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac) have cognates.
skin WP = *ka?se-ro (Pir) ka?se-Ro(Wan) ka?sd-Ro.Eleven Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Tai, Ret) have e as a second
vowel. Only Wananohas a as a second vowel.
sky WP = *?bd'a-ro (Pir) ?bd'a-Ro(Wan) b'a-Ro. Ten Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Tai) have cognates which have
an initial vowel/syllable i or i?. Only Wananodroppedthat vowel/syllable.
sleep WP = *karl- (Pir) kari- (Wan) karl-. All 12 Eastern Tucanoanlanguages
have very close cognates. Even Retuara, Cubeo, and the four Western Tucanoan
languages also have more distant cognates but three have dropped the second con-
sonant; e.g., (Sio, Sec, Ore) kai-(hi/yi).
sleep! WP = *karf-ya (Pir) kart-ya (Wan) karf-ga [ka'nl-ra]. Twelve Eastern
Tucanoan languages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai)
have cognates with karf-. Nine (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have
-yd as their command form. Only Wananohas -ga [rja].
small (person) WP = *be?-(dikiro/riro)-ga (Pir) be?-dikiro-gd (Wan) ba?d-
riro-kd. Six Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Wai, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir) which have
cognates here have e (or i) as the first vowel(s). Wananohas a. See near regarding
the diminutive -gd/-kd.
smell (transitive; smell something) WP = *whif- (Pir) wlhd- (Wan) wlhf-. All
12 Eastern Tucanoanlanguages, Retuara,and Cubeo have cognates.
smoke WP = *6obe (Pir) 6?be (Wan) be. Five Eastern Tucanoan languages
(Tuc, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Des) and Retuara appear to have cognates and have initial
vowel(s) before b [m]. Wananoand Siriano have droppedthat vowel. Other Eastern
Tucanoanlanguages do not have cognates with this term. See fog.
smooth WP = *ya?pf- (Pir) ya?pf- (Wan) ya?p'-. Ten Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car) appearto have cognates.
snake WP = *dya (Pir) dyca(Wan) aga [a'ia]. Seventeen Tucanoan languages
have aya for 'snake';only Wananohas dga [ana].
spider monkey WP = *wa?u (Pir) wa?u (Wan) wa?u. Seventeen Thcanoanlan-
guages have close cognates. Only Orejon may not have a cognate.
spider WP = *wipi (Pir) ip4 (Wan) wip. Ten EasternTucanoanlanguages (Tuc,
Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have an initial b. Retuara and Cubeo
have an initial p. Koreguaje, Siona, and Orej6n have an initial h. Only Piratapuyo
drops the initial consonant.
star WP= *ya?pfk6?a-(gd/ka) (Pir) yd?pfko?d-ga (Wan) ya?pftfo?a-kd. Ten
Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have
k as the second or third consonant; only Wananohas tf in that position. See near re-
garding the diminutive -gd/-kd.
stomach WP = *pd-(ga/Ro) (Pir) pda-ga (Wan)phd-Ro.Nine EasternTucanoan
languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car) have cognates with an initial
thunder WP = *wip6 (Pir) ipo (Wan) wipo. Eleven Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Wan, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave an
initial consonant b or w. Only Piratapuyodroppedthat consonant.
tobacco WP = *bi?d6 (Pir) bi?d6 (Wan) bi?d6. All 12 Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages and Retuara have cognates here. Three of the four Western Tucanoan lan-
guages (Kor, Sio, Ore) also have cognates, but there is no informationon Secoya.
tongue WP = *ye?be-ro (Pir) ye?be-Ro (Wan) ye?be-Ro. All 12 Eastern Tu-
canoan languages and Retuara have cognates. All except Wanano have e as their
stem vowels. Desano and Siriano have e as the first and 1 as a second vowel but are
questionable as to whether they are, in fact, cognates.
tooth WP = *upiria-(ka) (Pir) upiria (Wan) piria-ka. Eight Eastern Tucanoan
languages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Ret) have an initial unstressed vowel.
Only Wanano dropped that vowel. Four Eastern Tucanoan languages (Des, Sir,
Mac, Tai) do not appearto have cognates for 'tooth'.
toucan WP = *dase (Pir) dase (Wan) dasd. Nine Eastern Tucanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) and Retuarahave e as a second vowel;
two (Des, Sir) have i. All four Western Tucanoan languages also have cognates
(yase')with e as the second vowel; only Wananohas a for its second vowel.
tree leaf WP = *yuki-gi pu (Pir) yuki-gi pu (Wan) yukt-ki pu. All 12 Eastern
Tucanoan languages and Retuara have cognates here, some with a single ui (Tuc,
Wan, Pir, Des, Sir, Tat, Mac, Tai, Ret) and fewer with double uu (Wai, Tuy, Yur)
for 'leaf'; e.g., pa/puu~.Seven EasternTucanoanlanguages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur,
Des, Sir) have -gi as the classifier. Only Wananohas -ki. Cf. tree.
tree WP = yukt-gi (Pir) yuk4-gi (Wan) yuki-ki. Seven Eastern Tucanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir) have -gi as the classifier (see 2.3.2). Only
Wanano has -ki. Four Eastern Tucanoanlanguages (Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) do not have
classifiers on this term:just yuki, not yukt-ki/-gi.
two WP = *pid (Pir) pid (Wan) pid [phi'a].All 12 Eastern Tucanoanlanguages
plus Retuaraand Cubeo have cognates.
vomit WP = *etod- (Pir) etod- (Wan) tod-. Three Eastern Thcanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Pir, Des) which have cognates have an initial unstressed open syllable. Only
Wanano droppedthat syllable. Other Tucanoanlanguages have no cognates.
walk WP = *tVdl-(Pir) tdi'- (Wan) tidl-. None of the other Eastern Tucanoan
languages appearsto have cognates with Piratapuyoand Wananofor 'walk'.
wash WP = *kose- (Pir) kose- (Wan) kosd-. Eleven Eastern Thcanoan lan-
guages (Tuc, Pir, Wai, Thy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Mac, Tai) have e as the second
vowel. Only Wananohas a.
water WP = *ak6 (Pir) ako (Wan) k6. Ten Eastern Tucanoan languages (Tuc,
Pir, Wai, Tuy, Yur, Des, Sir, Tat, Car, Tai), Retuara,Cubeo, and Western Tucanoan
languages (Kor, Sio, Sec, Ore) have an initial pre-CV syllable vowel a/o or the CV
syllable de. Only Wanano droppedthe initial vowel/syllable.
we (exclusive) WP = *isa (Pir) isd (Wan) sa. Five EasternTucanoanlanguages
(Tuc, Pir, Tuy, Yur, Tai) and Retuara, which have cognates, have an initial pre-
nuclear syllable. Four (Wan, Wai, Tat, Car) droppedthat initial syllable.
we (inclusive) WP = *barf (Pir) barn(Wan) badr.Twelve EasternTucanoanlan-
guages have exact cognates, including Wanano. Retuara and Cubeo have slightly
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