كتاب النمر

CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The soil hydraulics may be defned as the subject related to the water existing in the topsoil
layers. It is thus different from the subject of groundwater, which covers also the water conditions
in deeper aquifers.
The water exists in soil in a full saturation or in a partial saturation condition. This means that it
may fll all the voids between particles or may occupy only part of the voids leaving the remaining
volume of the voids for gases.
The subsurface elements of structures are subjected to soil stresses as well water pressure. The
pore water pressure, in many cases, represents the governing factor as far as the building
stability is concerned. Uplift under swimming pools and dams are only too of many such
cases.
The infuence of groundwater on the infrastructure elements such as roads, pipe networks and
even electricity cables is great. The infuence can be mechanical or chemical. The soil heave or
settlement due to fuctuation of groundwater level may lead to road and pipe networks
destruction. The chemical quality of groundwater may be the reason of deterioration of pipes as
well as electric and telephone cables.
The water may exist in the soil in a dynamic condition or in a nearly static condition in which the
motion of water particles is so slow that its infuence on values of water pressure and other
parameters is negligible.
The study of soil water in the static condition is of value in the computation of the forces acting on
structural elements below the groundwater level. These forces are used in the static design of
different structures.
The study of soil water in the dynamic condition is useful in many ways. Among these are the
computation of dynamic forces on underground structural elements, rates of seepage from and
towards water bodies, irrigation and drainage processes, contaminant transport, consolidation
and settlement of soil layers as well as water production from shallow groundwater
layers.
CHAPTER 1.htm/ / /file:///C|/Users/Aref Ali Malkawi/Desktop/New folder (2)/New folder/115-CD[ 02:53:05 21/02/2017]
CHAPTER 1
In this work, the main principles of analysis of soil hydraulics are presented. These principles
include the methods of evaluating the water pressure and rates of fow in different conditions as
well as the hydraulic parameters, which infuence their values in different locations and times.
The frst chapter in the book is devoted for groundwater in the hydrostatic condition. This
includes the water below the free groundwater surface and that in the capillary zone.
The basic concepts of fow through porous media are discussed in chapter 2. This includes the
basic equations of fow and the methods of the determination of the parameters involved in these
equations.
Chapter 4 includes the derivation of the general equations of fow through porous media. The
different forms of these equations and the corresponding are also discussed.
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 contain respectively the analytical, graphical and numerical methods of
handling the boundary value problems of fow through porous media. Numerical examples are
presented to explain the discussed methods of treatment.
A special chapter is devoted for the details of the application works that are related to soil
hydraulics. Moreover, some simple applications appear as part of the examples, which are
introduced to illustrate the method of dealing with different formulas in
practice.
CHAPTER 2
SOIL HYDROSTATICS
2.1 Types of Subsurface Water:
From the pure theoretical point of view, the soil water is treated as a
material in static condition if all particles of the water body do not
move from their location as time changes. As this is practically
impossible, the definition is extended to include the cases in which
the particle movement is small to a degree that the influence on the
pressure and velocity distribution is considered negligible.
The water in the topsoil layers is referred to by subsurface

water. It usually appears below the ground level in layers. The lowest
layer is called the groundwater aquifer. It underlains the full
saturation layer which results mainly due to capillary rise. The
partially saturated layers occur above the capillary zone and closest
to the ground level.
In some cases one or more of these layers do not exist. For example,
the free groundwater may not exist in the topsoil layers of dry
regions. Also the thickness of the capillary rise layer becomes
negligible in sandy and gravely soils. The different layers of soils
occurring in the underground are illustrated in Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.1 Types of Subsurface Water
2.2 Pore Pressure in subsurface Layers:-
In the absence of external loading, the water level represents

the water total energy head Hf in the case of free surface condition.
This total energy head equals the sum of the position energy
measured from any horizontal datum and the actual piezometric
pressure head
The groundwater may be confined by impermeable soil layers,

which prevent the water from reaching its natural free level. In such a
case the total energy head Ha at any point equals the vertical
distance between the datum and the supposed free surface level in a
piezometer located at that point. This level exceeds the level of the
upper surface of the layer and may even exceed the ground level.
The soil water is called in this case artesian water. Usually, artesian
water occurs far below the ground level. However, in many cases,
especially in irrigated regions, it may exist very close to the ground
level and causes severe impacts on subsurface structures. In Fig.
2.2, the free and artesian water conditions are illustrated in one of
their simple forms of occurrence.
If an external force is applied to a soil element, the load is

resisted by both the soil and the water. In case of dry or partially
saturated soil, the load is transmitted from one soil particle to another
through the contact area between them. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
In the figure, the external load P is applied on a soil element with an
area perpendicular to the applied force equals A.
The force is transmitted across this plane through contact areas of

soil particles in that plane. Assuming that there are n contact areas As,
2As,.....,iAs,.....& nAs, then the total area As is given by equation (2.1)
As = iAs , i=1,.....,n (2.1)
In this case, the actual stress st is given by the following relation:
tP/As (2.2)
Fig. 2.3 Load Transmission by Soil Particles
In practice, As is very difficult to determine and hence it is found more

convenient to work with the average stress sa which corresponds to the
total area A, thus,
a = P/A (2.3)
As As<<A , then t >> a which explains the fact that although the
compressive strength of the individual soil particles is very high, the
whole soil structure has a much lower compressive strength.
In case of fully saturated soil, the groundwater participates in resisting

external forces. Thus the total stress is shared between the water
stressw and the soil particles stress s. Thus,
(2.4)
Immediately after the load application, the soil particles take the whole
load. The water being a compressible material starts to participate only if
it cannot find a way to escape. To illustrate this phenomenon, the
situation shown in Fig. 2.4 is introduced.
The system consists of a rigid box containing a fully saturated soil. A

vertical load is applied using a piston covering the box tightly. A vertical
tube with a valve penetrates the piston.
The load is applied with the valve closed, this allows the water to
compress without being drained. In this case, the water pore pressure
equates the total stress meaning that while
In the next step, a small part of the water is allowed to drain by opening
the valve in the vertical pipe for a short time and then close it while the
load remains applied. In this case the soil particles take a small part of the
load.
Draining more water using the same procedure causes a further increase
of the value of s corresponding to an equal decrease in sw according to
equation 2.4. If the valve is left open until water is totally relieved from
compression, this leads to the vanishing of w while s = .
The water, like all fluids, does not sustain tensile forces. However, it has
the property that its surface molecules can carry tensile forces of limited
values. This phenomenon is called surface tension. In soil, the water rises
above the groundwater level due to surface tension in a form called
capillary rise. This phenomenon is explained by the simple example
illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
The lower part of a vertical tube with diameter d is immersed in a

stationary free water body. The water rises in the pipe to a capillary
height Hc. The free surface in the tube assumes a concave shape having
an angle with the vertical at the tube sides.
Considering the equilibrium of stresses at point A, the following relation

results:
dT cos = ( d2/4).Hcw (2.5)
Where,
T = unit surface tension force per unit length (m/t2)
& w= specific weight of water (m/l2 t2)
Hence,
Hc= (4T cos ) /(wd) (2.6)
Taking the atmospheric pressure as datum, the water pressure head just
below the free top water surface in the tube equals (-Hc) and increases
linearly until it reaches zero at point A. The value of T varies with fluid
properties. For water at 20o C, T equals approximately 75.00 dynes/cm.
As the soil voids are far from being similar to the ideal case of uniform
vertical tube, the equation (2.6) does not give realistic values of capillary
rise in soil.
Actually, the Hc value in soil can be any number above a minimum value
Hc min depending on the maximum size of the soil voids and below a
maximum value Hc max that is governed by the minimum size of soil
voids. The soil layer between Hc min and Hcmax max is partially saturated
while it is fully saturated below Hcmin .
An approximation was presented by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) for the

value of Hc max in mm. It has the following form:
Hc max = C/(e D10) ( 2.7)
Where:
C is a grain shape constant, which ranges between 10 and 50 mm2 , D10 is

the effective grain diameter, i.e. the largest diameter
of the smallest 10% of soil particles. & e is the void ratio
Table 2.1 includes approximate values of capillary rise for different soil
types.
It is found important to indicate that the wide range of Hc values is due to

the microscopic heterogeneity of the soil together with the fact that the
capillary rise depends mainly on the microscopic properties of the soil.
The water pore pressure w in the voids is equal in all directions while
the total stress on the soil element takes the direction of the resultant
of applied external forces. Therefor, the effective stress on the soil s =
- w takes also the direction of the resultant of external forces.
Table 2.1 Capillary Rise in Soil
SIZE OF PARTICLES
(mm)
SOIL TYPE Hc ( mm)
COARSE SAND
2.00 - 0.60 15 - 50
MEDIUM SAND 0.60-0.20 50-150

FINE SAND 0.20-0.06 150-500
SILT 0.06-0.002 500-1.5X104
CLAY 0.002-----<0.0002 >1.5X104
In case of submerged soil conditions, the water pore pressure as explained

in section 2.2 is equal to w Hf or wHa according to whether the ground
water is in a free or artesian condition.
In the capillary zone, the relation gives the pore water pressure at a point,
which lies at a distance z above the groundwater level:
w = - w z (2.8)
In the partial saturation zone Bishop (1955) suggested this relation:
w= w Ha (2.9)
where is a factor depends on degree of saturation, For full saturation
=1 while for dry soil =0, while Ha is the head if the soil is fully
saturated.
2.3 Problems on Chapter 2:
1) A trench with 4.00 m depth and 10.00 m width is excavated in a two

layered soil. Each layer is 10.00 m thick.
The top soil layer is coarse sand whose water content is 24% and its
solid particles G.L. (0.00 m)specific gravity is 2.65. The lower layer is
G.W (-2.00 m ) medium clay with water content 20% and solid
particles specific gravity is 2.75. The (-7 m) A
groundwater level is 2.00 m below the ground level. Calculate the

pore pressure as ( -13 m ) B well as the total and effective stress
at points 3.00m and 9.00 m below the trench bottom. ( - 20.00 m)
Answer [wA=5 m, sA = 3.03 m, A=8.03 m]
[ wB= 11 m, sB= 9.45 m. B= 20.45 m]
2) For problem (1), draw the pore water pressure distribution on a vertical
plane 3.00 m away from the trench (assume that varies linearly from
0.00 on the ground level to 1.00 directly above the capillary region.
Answer [Hc 0, Let z be the distance below the ground level, the values ]
[ of w(z) are: w(0)= 0.00 m, w (-2+ )=2.00 m, w (-2-)=00.0 m]
, w(-20) =18 m]
3) Solve problem (2) if the sand and clay layers exchange locations.
Answer [Hc >15.00 m, top 2.00 m lie in the capillary zone,]
[ w (0)= -2.00 m, w (-2) =0.00, w (-20) =18.00 m]
4) A well has a total depth equals 8.00 m. The water level in the
well is 5.00 m below the ground level. The soil profile in the site
consists of 10.00 m of sand overlaying a thick clay layer. Calculate
the total stress, neutral stress and the pore water pressure at
points 1.00 m and 3.00m below the well bottom. Also calculate the
change in stresses at the points if the well is emptied of water. The
specific gravity of sand and clay particles is 2.6 and 2.8
respectively. The void ratio for both soils is 0.3.
5) The soil in a site consists of clayey silt. The free groundwater

level is 10.00 m below the ground level. The capillary rise is
expected to be 5.00 m. The top 2.00m of the soil is completely dry.
Draw the pore water pressure distribution for the top 20 m. Draw
the water pressure curve if the free groundwater level rises to 1.00
m below the ground level. (Assume that T= 7500 dunes/m, c
varies linearly with depth)
6) Find the water capillary rise in the Following cases
Answer :T=75 dynes/cm,
7)Draw the water pressure head at both sides of the sheet pile
shown in figure for
a ) fine sand soil

b) silt soil
c) clay
(use min. possible capillarity

CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
SOIL HYDROSTATICS

2.1 Types of Subsurface Water:
From the pure theoretical point of view, the soil water is treated as a material in static condition if all
particles of the water body do not move from their location as time changes. As this is practically
impossible, the defnition is extended to include the cases in which the particle movement is small to
a degree that the infuence on the pressure and velocity distribution is considered negligible.
The water in the topsoil layers is referred to by subsurface water. It usually appears below the
ground level in layers. The lowest layer is called the groundwater aquifer. It underlains the full
saturation layer which results mainly due to capillary rise. The partially saturated layers occur above
the capillary zone and closest to the ground level.
In some cases one or more of these layers do not exist. For example, the free groundwater may not
exist in the topsoil layers of dry regions. Also the thickness of the capillary rise layer becomes
negligible in sandy and gravely soils. The different layers of soils occurring in the underground are
illustrated in Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.1 Types of Subsurface Water

2.2 Pore Pressure in subsurface Layers:-
In the absence of external loading, the water level represents the water total energy head Hf
in the case of free surface condition. This total energy head equals the sum of the position energy
measured from any horizontal datum and the actual piezometric pressure head
The groundwater may be confned by impermeable soil layers, which prevent the water from
reaching its natural free level. In such a case the total energy head Ha at any point equals the
vertical distance between the datum and the supposed free surface level in a piezometer located at
that point. This level exceeds the level of the upper surface of the layer and may even exceed the
ground level.
CHAPTER 2
The soil water is called in this case artesian water. Usually, artesian water occurs far below the
ground level. However, in many cases, especially in irrigated regions, it may exist very close to the
ground level and causes severe impacts on subsurface structures. In Fig. 2.2, the free and artesian
water conditions are illustrated in one of their simple forms of occurrence.
If an external force is applied to a soil element, the load is resisted by both the soil and the
water. In case of dry or partially saturated soil, the load is transmitted from one soil particle to
another through the contact area between them. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.3. In the fgure, the
external load P is applied on a soil element with an area perpendicular to the applied force equals A.
The force is transmitted across this plane through contact areas of soil particles in that plane. Assuming
that there are n contact areas D1As, D2As,.....,DiAs,.....& DnAs, then the total area A s is given by equation (2.1)
As = S DiAs , i=1,.....,n (2.1)

In this case, the actual stress st is given by the following relation:
st =P/As (2.2)
CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.3 Load Transmission by Soil Particles

In practice, As is very diffcult to determine and hence it is found more convenient to work with the average
stress sa which corresponds to the total area A, thus,
sa = P/A (2.3)
As A s<<A , then st >> sa which explains the fact that although the compressive strength of the individual soil
particles is very high, the whole soil structure has a much lower compressive strength.
In case of fully saturated soil, the groundwater participates in resisting external forces. Thus the total stress s
is shared between the water stress sw and the soil particles stress ss. Thus,
s = s w+ss (2.4)
Immediately after the load application, the soil particles take the whole load. The water being a compressible
material starts to participate only if it cannot fnd a way to escape. To illustrate this phenomenon, the situation
shown in Fig. 2.4 is introduced.
The system consists of a rigid box containing a fully saturated soil. A vertical load is applied using a piston
covering the box tightly. A vertical tube with a valve penetrates the piston.
The load is applied with the valve closed, this allows the water to compress without being drained. In this
case, the water pore pressure equates the total stress meaning that s= sw while ss= 0.
In the next step, a small part of the water is allowed to drain by opening the valve in the vertical pipe for a
short time and then close it while the load remains applied. In this case the soil particles take a small part of the
load.
Draining more water using the same procedure causes a further increase of the value of ss corresponding to an
equal decrease in sw according to equation 2.4. If the valve is left open until water is totally relieved from
compression, this leads to the vanishing of sw while ss = s.
The water, like all fuids, does not sustain tensile forces. However, it has the property that its surface
molecules can carry tensile forces of limited values. This phenomenon is called surface tension. In soil, the
water rises above the groundwater level due to surface tension in a form called capillary rise. This
phenomenon is explained by the simple example illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
CHAPTER 2
The lower part of a vertical tube with diameter d is immersed in a stationary free water body. The water rises
in the pipe to a capillary height Hc. The free surface in the tube assumes a concave shape having an angle a
with the vertical at the tube sides.
Considering the equilibrium of stresses at point A, the following relation results:
pdT cos a = (p d2/4).Hcgw (2.5)

Where,
T = unit surface tension force per unit length (m/t 2)
& gw= specifc weight of water (m/l 2 t2)
Hence,
Hc= (4T cos a) /(gwd) (2.6)

Taking the atmospheric pressure as datum, the water pressure head just below the free top water surface in the
tube equals (-Hc) and increases linearly until it reaches zero at point A. The value of T varies with fuid
properties. For water at 20o C, T equals approximately 75.00 dynes/cm.
As the soil voids are far from being similar to the ideal case of uniform vertical tube, the equation (2.6) does
not give realistic values of capillary rise in soil.
Actually, the H c value in soil can be any number above a minimum value H c min depending on the maximum
size of the soil voids and below a maximum value Hc max that is governed by the minimum size of soil voids.
The soil layer between Hc min and Hcmax max is partially saturated while it is fully saturated below H cmin .
An approximation was presented by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) for the value of H c max in mm. It has the
following form:
Hc max = C/(e D10) ( 2.7)

Where:
C is a grain shape constant, which ranges between 10 and 50 mm 2 , D10 is the effective grain diameter, i.e. the
largest diameter
of the smallest 10% of soil particles. & e is the void ratio
CHAPTER 2
Table 2.1 includes approximate values of capillary rise for different soil types.
It is found important to indicate that the wide range of H c values is due to the microscopic heterogeneity of the
soil together with the fact that the capillary rise depends mainly on the microscopic properties of the soil.
The water pore pressure sw in the voids is equal in all directions while the total stress on the soil element s
takes the direction of the resultant of applied external forces. Therefor, the effective stress on the soil ss = s -
sw takes also the direction of the resultant of external forces.

Table 2.1 Capillary Rise in Soil

SIZE OF PARTICLES (mm)

SOIL TYPE Hc ( mm)

COARSE SAND
2.00 - 0.60 15 - 50

MEDIUM SAND 0.60-0.20 50-150
FINE SAND 0.20-0.06 150-500
SILT 0.06-0.002 500-1.5X104
CLAY 0.002-----<0.0002 >1.5X104
In case of submerged soil conditions, the water pore pressure as explained in section 2.2 is equal to gw Hf or
gwHa according to whether the ground water is in a free or artesian condition.
In the capillary zone, the relation gives the pore water pressure at a point, which lies at a distance z above the
groundwater level:
sw = - gw z (2.8)
In the partial saturation zone Bishop (1955) suggested this relation:

sw= cgw Ha (2.9)

where c is a factor depends on degree of saturation, For full saturation c=1 while for dry soil c=0, while H a
is the head if the soil is fully saturated.

1) A trench with 4.00 m depth and 10.00 m width is excavated in a two layered soil. Each layer is 10.00 m
thick.
The top soil layer is coarse sand whose water content is 24% and its solid particles G.L. (0.00 m)specifc
gravity is 2.65. The lower layer is G.W (-2.00 m ) medium clay with water content 20% and solid
CHAPTER 2
particles specifc gravity is 2.75. The (-7 m) A

groundwater level is 2.00 m below the ground level. Calculate the pore pressure as ( -13 m ) B
well as the total and effective stress at points 3.00m and 9.00 m below the trench bottom. ( - 20.00 m)
Answer [swA=5 m, ssA = 3.03 m, sA=8.03 m]
[ s wB= 11 m, ssB= 9.45 m. sB= 20.45 m]
2) For problem (1), draw the pore water pressure distribution on a vertical plane 3.00 m away from the trench
(assume that c varies linearly from 0.00 on the ground level to 1.00 directly above the capillary region.
Answer [Hc 0, Let z be the distance below the ground level, the values ]
[ of sw(z) are: sw(0)= 0.00 m, sw (-2+ )=2.00 m, sw (-2-)=00.0 m]
, sw(-20) =18 m]
3) Solve problem (2) if the sand and clay layers exchange locations.
Answer [Hc >15.00 m, top 2.00 m lie in the capillary zone,]
[ s w (0)= -2.00 m, sw (-2) =0.00, sw (-20) =18.00 m]
4) A well has a total depth equals 8.00 m. The water level in the well is 5.00 m below the ground
level. The soil profle in the site consists of 10.00 m of sand overlaying a thick clay layer. Calculate
the total stress, neutral stress and the pore water pressure at points 1.00 m and 3.00m below the
well bottom. Also calculate the change in stresses at the points if the well is emptied of water. The
specifc gravity of sand and clay particles is 2.6 and 2.8 respectively. The void ratio for both soils is
0.3.
5) The soil in a site consists of clayey silt. The free groundwater level is 10.00 m below the ground
level. The capillary rise is expected to be 5.00 m. The top 2.00m of the soil is completely dry. Draw
the pore water pressure distribution for the top 20 m. Draw the water pressure curve if the free
groundwater level rises to 1.00 m below the ground level. (Assume that T= 7500 dunes/m, c varies
linearly with depth)
6) Find the water capillary rise in the Following cases

Answer :T=75 dynes/cm, a =0.0
7)Draw the water pressure head at both sides of the sheet pile shown in fgure for
CHAPTER 2
a ) fne sand soil

b) silt soil
c) clay
(use min. possible capillarity
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3
BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA
3. 1 Types of Flow through Porous Media:
The fow of fuids through porous media is usually very slow and hence can be considered as
laminar fow. However, in many cases such as around small size covered drains or wells and
around corners of embedded impervious objects, the velocity of fow may exceed the lower limits
of turbulent fow.
3.1.1 Laminar Flow
The fuid fows from a point to another in a porous media if the total energy of the frst point is
higher than that of the second. The total energy E of a fuid at a point lies higher than an arbitrary
chosen datum by a distance z and having a water pressure p while the water moves at it by an
absolute velocity v as given by equation 3.1
E = z + p/gf + v2/ (2g )(3.1)
where gf is the specifc weight of the fuid and g is the gravity acceleration. In the fow through
porous media, v is very small and hence v2/2g<<(p/gf+z). Thus, for all practical purposes, this
term can be neglected and equation (3.1) reduces to the following form, E @ p / gf + z, or simply,
E= p / gf +z (3.2)
In 1856, Darcy showed experimentally that the velocity of fuid fow through porous media is
linearly related to the hydraulic gradient i. By hydraulic gradient, it is meant the ratio between the
difference in the total energy between any two points and the length of the fuid path. In his
CHAPTER 3
experiments, Darcy used an apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. 3.1
The equation suggested by Darcy, which is known as Darcys Law has the following form:
v = - ki (3.3)
where k is a constant depends on soil and fuid properties, which was previously used to be
called the permeability and now is more frequently referred to as the hydraulic conductivity. In
Fig. 3.1, the water pressure at point B is less than that at point A. In spite of that, the fuid fows
from point B to point A, since point B has the higher total energy as (ZA +HA) < (ZB+HB ).
The hydraulic gradient i = - Dh/L, where L is the length of the soil sample in the pipe. Thus, the
fuid velocity is given by equation (3.4)
v = - k{-( ZB + HB)+ (ZA+HA)}/L ( 3.4)
The velocity given by equation (3.4) is the average velocity assuming that the area of fow
equals the whole cross sectional area of the tube a. Thus, the rate of fow Q can hence be
calculated from the following formula:
CHAPTER 3
Q= ka{(ZB+HB) -(ZA+HA)}/L (3.5)

The actual area of fow equals (a.n) where n is the two dimensional void ratio perpendicular to
the direction of fow. Thus the actual velocity v s can be obtained in terms of v and n from the
relation :
vs = v/n (3.6)
Also, the fuid through porous media fows through tortuous channels as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Hence the actual hydraulic gradient i s equals Dh/Lt , where L t equals the actual length of the
tortuous channel.
In Equation (3.7), is is written in terms of the average hydraulic gradient i.
is=i/T (3.7)
where T= Lt/L and is called the tortuousity coeffcient. Using the given defnition of is, the actual
velocity of fow through porous media can be written as follows:
vs= v/(n.T) (3.8)
Due to the diffculty in calculating T, it is more practical in design purposes to work with both the
average velocity v and the average hydraulic gradient i.
3.1.2 Turbulent Flow
It is proven experimentally in numerous works that Darcys Law is valid only for laminar fow
through porous media. The laminar fow is suggested to be that which corresponds to Reynolds
number values 1. In soil hydraulics, the Reynolds number Rn has the following defnition :
Rn = vd/n (3.9)
CHAPTER 3
where,
v = average velocity of fow (l/t)
d= average diameter of soil particles (l)
n= kinematic viscosity of the fuid (l2/t)
Several works are available concerning the fow through porous media with Rn>1. These cases
of turbulent fow through porous media can occur in gravel or coarse sand soil layers. The
relation between the hydraulic gradient and the velocity that governs this type of fow
can be put in a general power series of order N.
i=S Am vm , m=0,1,2,.....,N (3.10)
where Am are constants to be determined experimentally
Actually, numerous simpler relations are available for turbulent fow in porous media. Among
these, is equation (3.11) by Leps ( 1973).
v=C R0.5 i0.54 (3.11)
where
C= grain shape and roughness factor
R= mean hydraulic radius of soil particles which is defned as the ratio between the void cross
sectional area perpendicular to the fow and integrated perimeter length of the void boundaries
It is clear that the application of the above equation requires a tedious laboratory work in order to
obtain a good estimate for the values of C& R. Otherwise, imperical and less accurate values are
available.
3.1.3 Quick sand Condition
To understand the phenomenon of quick sand condition, consider the arrangement shown in Fig.
3.3
CHAPTER 3
A soil sample of cross sectional area A and a length L is put in a vertical tube with the fuid total
head at the sample bottom higher than that of its top by the value h. The water fows through
the sample from bottom to top. In case of granular soil particles, this may cause the vertical
movement of the soil grains if the upward force is high enough.
To avoid this, the downward force which consists of the sample weight should exceed the
upward force on the sample bottom. This force occurs as a result of the difference in total head
between the bottom and top sides of the sample. In other words, if the side friction with the tube
is neglected, the process of quick sand can be avoided if the following condition is satisfed:
AL gsub > hAgw (3.12)
where gsub and gw are respectively the submerged specifc weight of the soil and the specifc
weight of water.
The critical hydraulic gradient i c is defned as that which corresponds to the case in which both
sides of relation (3.12) are equal, or
ic = gsub/gw (3.13)
This means that if the hydraulic gradient in granular soil exceeds the ratio between the
submerged specifc weight of soil and that of water, quick sand condition is expected to occur.
The gsub is defned in terms of the specifc gravity of the solid particles G and the void ratio e
by the relation:
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gsub = gw(G-1)/(1+e) (3.14)
The substitution from (3.14) into (3.13) leads to equation (3.15)
ic = (G-1)/(1+e) (3.15)
The later is the more common relation used for ic.
3.2 Computation of Hydraulic Conductivity in Terms of Fluid and Soil Properties
The hydraulic conductivity k is dependent on both the fuid and soil properties. The density and
viscosity of the fuid play the major role from the fuid side. The list of soil factors which infuence
the value of k include among less important factors the following:
void ratio
shape and size of soil particles
orientation of soil particles as well as macroscopic and microscopic composition of soil
structure.
The velocity v of fuid through a capillary tube with constant cross sectional area a can be
determined according to Hagen-Poiseuilles equation.

v = (gfiR2)/(8m) (3.16)
where,
i = hydraulic gradient
gf= specifc weight of fuid [m/(l2 t2)]
R= hydraulic radius (l)
m= coeffcient of dynamic viscosity (m/lt)
This equation is extended to include the fow through soil by introducing the term of soil
CHAPTER 3
hydraulic radius Rh which is defned by the relation:
Rh= (volume of soil voids)/( surface area of soil voids) (3.17) The velocity of fow is hence given
by the relation
v = -(gfiRh2)/(Csm) (3.18)
where,
Cs is a shape factor
The substitution of Rh in terms of void ratio e, Tortuousity T and the surface area per unit volume
S into equation ( 3.18) leads to :
v= -[{1/(Cs S2 T2)}.{gf /m}.{e3/(1+e)}].i (3.19)
From the analogy of equations (3.3) and (3.19), the relation for the hydraulic conductivity can be
obtained
k= {1/(CsS2T2)}.{gf / m}.{e3/(1+e)} (3.20)
For granular soil the shape factor C s is approximately 2.5 while the tortuosity factor T is close to
2 . On the other hand, care must be taken in the application of equation (3.20) as it usually
leads to an underestimation of k values for clay and hence it may be used only to obtain a
lower bound for its value.
3.3 Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity in the Laboratory
There are numerous direct and indirect methods to determine the hydraulic conductive in the
laboratory. What is mentioned here are the most widely used. They are not necessarily the most
accurate.
3.3.1 Constant Head Permeameter
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The undisturbed soil sample is put in a tube and is bounded from the two sides by two thin
porous plates . Both water levels at the tube ends are kept constant. The water fowing through
the sample during a certain period of time is collected in a container and hence the fow rate can
be calculated. There are several setups of constant head permeameter. In Fig. 3.4 one of these
setups is presented. According to Darcys Law
v=Q/a=-k(-H/L) (3.21)
where a is the internal cross sectional area of the tube
The hydraulic conductivity k is hence obtained from the relation:
K=(Q.L)/(H.a) (3.22)
The use of constant head permeameter suits the case of soils with high permeability values such
as sand. In the case of soil with low permeability values, the experiment needs a very long time
to be completed or otherwise needs the choice of very high H values and very small a and L
values.
3.3.2 Falling Head Permeameter:
The falling head permeameter is an arrangement specially designed to suit soils with low
hydraulic conductivity values. It consists of a thick rigid vertical tube with internal cross sectional
area A. The tube contains the undisturbed soil sample of length L which is bounded from bottom
CHAPTER 3
by a thin porous plate and from the top by an impervious plate.
The lower part of the tube is immersed in a container containing water, which is kept at constant
level. A vertical thin tube with internal cross sectional area a contains water whose level lies
initially above the level of the water in the lower tube by a distance h 1. As time elapses the level
of water in the thin tube starts to drop
At time t, the water level has the value h and it falls down by a distance Dh during a time
interval Dt. Thus at time t the rate of fow q is given by the relation :
q=-a.dh/dt (3.23)
Also, from Darcys Law
q=A.v=Ak.(h/L) (3.24)
Equating equations (3.23) and (3.24) leads to:

dh/dt = - (hAk)/(La) (3.25)
Integrating the equation between t=0 and t, the integral relation (3.26) results.
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0t dt =- h1h (aL)/(A.k)/(h)dh (3.26)
or,

t = {(aL)/(Ak)}. ln (h1/h) (3.27)
If the measured head at time t 2 is h 2, equation (3.27) takes after rearrangement the following
form:

k= (aL)/(At2) . ln(h1/h2) (3.28)
Relation (3.28) is used to calculate the hydraulic conductivity.
3.3.3 Capillary Test:-
In this type of tests, the phenomenon of capillary action is used to obtain the value of k
experimentally. The used apparatus can be as that illustrated in Fig. 3.6.
The apparatus consists of a horizontal relatively thick rigid tube connected to elevated containers
located higher than the tube centerline by distances h 1& h2. The connection contains two vertical
thin pipes, one for each container and a combined thin horizontal pipe. Each of the vertical pipes
includes a valve.
The soil sample is inserted in the horizontal thick tube and is bounded from both sides by thin
porous plates. The side of the pipe that is not connected to the elevated containers is provided
by a short horizontal thin pipe in order to allow for the drainage of fowing water to the open air.
Before the experiment is started both valves are kept closed. At t= 0, the valve A is opened
allowing the water to fow through the soil creating a front surface which reaches at time t a
distance x from the inlet side.
The water pressure at a point just before the water front equals the capillary pressure -h c. The
actual velocity va equals dx/dt while the average velocity can be obtained from Darcys Law.
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v= k(h1+hc)/x (3.29)
Since v=n.va , where n is the porosity, then
n.dx/dt=k(h1+hc)/x (3.30)
Integrating equation 3.30 leads to:
n/{k(h1+hc)}. 0x x dx = 0t dt (3.31)
or,

t = [n/{2k(h1+hc)}]. x2 (3.32)
This means that t is linearly proportional to x 2. In other words, if the values of x are measured
for different time values, the relation between t and x 2 should be a straight line passing through
CHAPTER 3
the origin similar to the frst part of the curve shown in Fig. 3.7.
When x reaches about half of the sample length L, valve A is closed while simultaneously valve
B is opened. Assuming that the time then is t 1 and x= x 1, the experiment is continued until the
value of x approaches L.
A similar procedure can be adopted to obtain a relation similar to (3.32). In this case, the initial
condition is t= t1 for x= x1, the new relation has the following form :
(t- t1) = [n/{2k(h2+hc)}].(x2-x12) (3.33)
The measurement of x for different t values and hence, plotting t against x 2 for x x1 produces a
straight line similar to the second part of the curve in Fig. 3.7.
For known values of x and t, equation (3.32 ) contain 2 unknowns, namely , h c and k. Assuming
that the slope of the frst straight line is a and that of the second is b, then it is easy to prove that:

a=(2k/n).(h1+hc) (3.34)
&b=(2k/n).(h2+hc) (3.35)
The simultaneous solution of equations (3.34) and (3.35) requires only the knowledge of the
porosity n and the determination of a&b from the constructed curve between t and x2.
3.3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity and Consolidation Tests:-
The consolidation tests are conducted mainly to study the stress - strain relations of compressive
soils. However, the results can be used to determine the value of the hydraulic conductivity of the
tested soil. This is achieved using the defnitions and equations that are used in the theory of
consolidation.
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The volume coeffcient m v can be obtained in terms of the initial void ratio e and De which is the
change of void ratio due to the application of the incremental pressure Ds.
mv = De /{Ds( 1+e)} (3.36)
The time factor T v for a certain degree of consolidation can be obtained from table 3.1. The
actual time t corresponding to Tv is obtained from the test results. Equation (3.37) can be used to
calculate the coeffcient of consolidation Cv.
Cv = (TvH2)/t (3.37)
where H is the length of the drainage path.

Table 3.1 Values of Tv for different Percentages of Consolidation

U% Tv U% Tv U% Tv
0 0 45 0.159 75 0.478
0.567
10 0.008 50 0.197 80

0.684
20 0.031 55 0.238 85

0.848
30 0.071 60 0.287 90

35 0.096 65 0.342 95 1.127
40 0.126 70 0.403 100
The hydraulic conductivity can fnally be obtained from the following formula:
k = gw mv Cv (3.38)
where gw is the specifc weight of water.
The previous equations (3.36) to (3.38) are concerned with one dimensional linear consolidation
tests for a homogeneous isotropic soil. In other cases, the corresponding relations can be
applied.
CHAPTER 3
3.4 Field Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity:-
The value of the hydraulic conductivity that is obtained in the laboratory for a certain sample
represents only that sample . What is actually needed is a value that represents a region where a
project is to be constructed or some engineering works have to be executed.
Therefore, despite the ease and relative accuracy of laboratory results, feld tests are often
needed in order to have values that represent the region of interest or at least part of it Several
methods of feld testing are being used to estimate the values of the regional hydraulic
conductivity.
3.4.1 Well Pumping Tests:-
The interest in this section is restricted to the determination of the regional hydraulic conductivity
of the soil. Conducting steady state pumping tests can satisfy this purpose. The procedure of
executing the test and the analyses of the test results depend on the condition of the water
bearing formation and the depth of the test well.
3.4.1.1 Pumping Test of a confned Aquifer:-
Consider a horizontal aquifer of uniform thickness D that extends indefnitely in all horizontal
directions and is bounded from top and bottom by impermeable layers. The head of water H as
measured from the bottom surface of the aquifer may exceed the value of D In this case, the
water in the aquifer is defned to be in artesian condition.
To execute the pumping test, an arrangement similar to that shown in Fig. 3.8 is used. The used
arrangement should include:
i- A vertical pumped well with a screen that extends through the whole thickness of the
aquifer D
ii- Two vertical piezometers located at distances r 1 and r2 from the well center. The piezometer
bottom should penetrate the aquifer to a point where the water is allowed to fow freely between
the aquifer and the piezometer. The distances of the piezometers from the well should be
different, i.e. r 1 r2. Also it is preferable not to have the well and the two piezometers located on
a straight line. This is done to take care of the infuence of regional soil anisotropy.
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The well is pumped with a constant discharge Q until a steady state condition is reached which is
noticed when the water heads h1 and h2 in the piezometers stop changing with time.
Consider a cylinder of radius r in the aquifer. Assume that the head at the surface of the cylinder
is h, hence the hydraulic gradient equals dh/dr. The discharge Q can be calculated by Darcys
Law.
Q=2prD.(-kdh/dr) (3.39)
Integrating equation (3.39) between r1 and r2,
{Q/( 2pDk)} r1 r2dr/r = k h1h2 dh (3.40)
or,
k= {Q/(2pD)}. ln(r2/r1)/(h2-h1) (3.41)
In the cases in which only one piezometer is available the well radius r w and the head in the well
hw can respectively replace r 1 and h 1 of equation (3.41). However, this is not recommended as
the well losses infuence the calculation accuracy in this case.
Moreover, the radius of infuence R and the original head H can be used in place of r 2 and h 2
respectively. In this case, equation (3.41) reduces to the form:
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k = {Q/(2pD)}. ln(R/rw)/(H-hw) (3.42)
The application of equation (3.42) requires the knowledge of the value of the radius of infuence
at the time in which the steady state condition is practically reached. Although the application of
this formula has the advantage of canceling the need for observation wells, it is not
recommended to use it in projects that need reasonable degree of computation accuracy.
This is due to the reason mentioned before about well losses as well as the fact that most
available relations for R determination lead often to very approximate or even misleading
results. Actually, most of these relations are developed empirically and their application is
recommended to be done with precaution.
3.4.1.2 Pumping Test in an Unconfned Aquifer:-
Consider the water bearing formation shown in Fig. 3.9 which is bounded from the bottom by an
infnite horizontal impermeable surface. The original water table in the aquifer lies a distance H
above the impermeable layer. Similar to the case of the confned aquifer, a well with radius r w
and 2 piezometers are needed to conduct the test. The piezometers are located at distances r 1
and r 2 from the well. The conditions mentioned in section 3.4.1.1 regarding the location and
depth of the well and piezometers apply here .
Here also, the well is pumped until a steady state condition is reached. The fnal water levels in
the piezometers are measured and hence h1 and h2 can be measured.
Assuming that the head at a cylinder of radius r is h, the hydraulic gradient of fow is dh/dr.
CHAPTER 3
Applying Darcys Law as in the case of section 3.4.1.1
Q = (2prh).(-kdh/dr) (3.43)
Integrating between r1 and r2,
Q/(2pk) r1r2 dr/r = h1h2 hdh (3.44)
Thus,

k = {Q ln(r2/r1)}/ {p( h22 - h12)} (3.45)
Using the heads at the radius of infuence R and at well radius r w instead of those at r 1 and r 2,
the equation (3.46) results.
k = {Q ln(R/rw)}/{ p( H2- hw2)} (3.46)
In some cases, the well does not penetrate the whole unconfned aquifer as illustrated in Fig.
3.10 In this case, the value of k can be obtained for partially penetrated wells from equation
(3.47). Other relations are also available.
k={Q ln(r2/r1)}/[ p{(h2 -s)2- (h1-s)2 }.{1+ (0.3+10r 1/h2).sin

(1.8s/h2)}] (3.47)
where s is the distance between the bottom of the well and the impermeable layer.
CHAPTER 3
3.4.2 Open Borehole Tests:-
These kinds of tests are much simpler to execute and less expensive than pumping tests.
However, the obtained results represent only a small region around the borehole location while
the pumping tests results represent the whole area of infuence of the pumped well.
3.4.2.1 Constant Head Test :-
A borehole of diameter d is excavated to about the center of the layer whose hydraulic
conductivity is to be estimated. A pipe casing of the same diameter d is used to line the borehole
sides leaving the bottom unlined to allow the fow of water as shown in Fig. 3.11.
Water is added through the pipe with a constant rate Q which keeps a constant level of water in
the pipe . If the difference between the water level in the pipe and the groundwater table is h,
then k can be obtained from relation (3.48)
k = Q/(2.75d.h) (3.48)
This test gives good results if the tested aquifer has a thickness > 10 d and the bottom of the
hole is kept clean through out the experiment. If the hydraulic conductivity is very low or the
groundwater table is close to the ground surface, the water can be pumped through the tube
under pressure p and hence h of equation (3.48) should be taken equal to the pumping pressure
head.
CHAPTER 3
3.4.2.2 Variable Head Tests :-
For very thick layers, the variable head tests are more suitable than the constant head tests. As
in the case of constant head tests, the borehole is required to be deep enough in order to
approach the stratum center. Two possible arrangements of variable head tests are illustrated in
Fig. 3.12.
In Fig. 3.12 a, a borehole is dug to a few meters below the groundwater level. The sides of the
hole are lined with a pipe with the same diameter d leaving only the bottom of the hole unlined.
In Fig. 3.12b, the other arrangement is introduced. In that arrangement, the pipe lines only the
top part of the hole leaving a length L > 4d of the hole unlined.
In both arrangements, a quantity of water is taken from the hole. The water in the hole starts to
rise. The time t required for the water in the hole to rise from h1 to h2 is measured.
In case of arrangement (a), the hydraulic conductivity can be obtained from equation (3.49).
k = {(pd)/(11t)}.ln(h 1/h2) (3.49)
On the other hand, equation (3.50) applies for arrangement (b)
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k = {d2/(8Lt)}. ln(2L/d).ln(h1/h2) (3.50)
3.4.3. Packer Tests:-
This type of tests can be used to determine the hydraulic conductivity for a certain strip of soil of
thickness L at any level above or below the groundwater level. A borehole is excavated to the
bottom surface level of the tested strip. No pipe lining of the hole is required.
A packer is inserted in the hole at the level of the top surface of the strip. A packer is a sealing
device, which forms a watertight contact against the sides of the borehole, which prevents the
water from moving from one side of the packer to the other.
In Fig. 3.13, the described arrangement is illustrated. In case a, which is shown in the L.H.S.(left
hand side), the groundwater level is assumed to be above the level of the tested strip while in
the R.H.S., the ground water level is below the level of the strip.
If a strip lies higher than the borehole bottom is required to be tested, two packers are needed,
one at the bottom surface and one at the top surface of the strip. The cases of groundwater level
above and below the strip are shown in Fig. 3.14 a,b.
CHAPTER 3
The water is pumped with a rate Q in the confned region of the borehole and due to the
existence of packers, water fows out only to the tested strip of the soil. The hydraulic
conductivity is given by relations (3.51) and (3.52):
k={Q/(2 pLh)}.log(2L/d) for L 5d (3.51)
and,
k = {Q/(2pLh)}.sinh-1 (L/d) for 5d >L d/2 (3.52)
Where ,

k= hydraulic conductivity of the soil strip (l/t)
L= length of tested soil strip (l)
Q= discharge (l3/t)
h= difference in head (l)
d= diameter of borehole(l)
The above equations are applicable whether the groundwater level is higher or lower than the
strip level. However, care must be taken that in case of lower groundwater level pressure is
CHAPTER 3
assumed to be atmospheric at the center of the tested strip.
Problems on Chapter 3:-
1) A falling head permeameter test is conducted on a soil sample of length 200 mm and
diameter 100 mm. The water level in the thin tube, which was originally 500 mm above that in
the downstream basin, dropped by 200 mm in 20 min. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity if
the diameter of the thin tube is 15 mm. How much time is needed for the water to drop more
150 mm.
Answer : k=1.92x10-6 m/s, t= 14 min.
2) A sample of the soil, whose hydraulic conductivity equals 1.8x 10 -7 mm/s, is tested in a
consolidation apparatus. At an incremental pressure of 1.5Kg/cm 2, the void ratio reduced from
0.90 to 0.89, calculate the coeffcient of consolidation of the soil. If the sample in the test is 100
mm thick and is allowed to drain from the top only, Calculate the time required for the sample to
reach 70% and 95% consolidation.
Answer cv = 0.04 m2/d, t1 =2.42 hr, t 2 = 7.6 hr
3)Excavation is conducted to a depth of 5.00 m below the ground level in a sandy soil with
thickness is 7.00 m, saturated specifc gravity = 1.70 and a groundwater level 5.00m below the
ground level. The sand is overlaying a thin clay layer that confnes an artesian aquifer with
pressure head that exceeds the ground level by 3.00 m. Test the excavation against quick sand
condition. Calculate the thickness of plain concrete layer to be placed above the excavation
bottom to overcome the quick sand condition.
4) A soil sample is tested under 10.00 m head in a vertical tube with diameter 20 cm. The sample
length is 15.00 cm. The rate of fow is found to be 20m 3/s. The average soil particle diameter is
3 mm, the shape and roughness factor is 1.7 and the fuid viscosity is 1.1x10-5gm.s/cm2.
a) Does the soil obey Darcy's Law
b) Calculate the hydraulic radius of the soil specimen
5)The following table gives the results of a capillary test:

T(min.) X(mn) Remarks

* CONTAINER A (200 mm ABOVE SAMPLE) OPENED, CONTAINER B
0 0.00
KEPT CLOSED
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10 48
20 72
30 85
* CONTAINER A CLOSED, CONTAINER B (300 MM ABOVE SAMPLE)
40 103
OPENED
50 122
60 142
70 158
80 174
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the capillary head assuming that the porosity
is 0.35.
Answer : k= 0.57 m/d
6) A pumping test is conducted on an unconfned aquifer using a discharge rate of 1.5 m 3/s from
a full penetrating well. The original thickness of the groundwater body is 10 m. After reaching a
steady state condition, the water level dropped by 1.50 m in the well. At 2 observation wells
located 5.00 m and 20.00 m, the water level dropped by 0.55 m, and 0.04 m respectively.
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity, the radius of the well and the radius of infuence.
Answer: k=0.0669 m/s, rw = 0.46 m, Re = 22.38 m
7) A partially penetrating well having the same diameter of the well in problem(6) and extends
5.00 m below the groundwater level of the same aquifer. When the well is discharged with the
same rate, a drawdown in the well of 3.00 m took place. Calculate the radius of infuence.
Answer: Re =51 m
8) A borehole with diameter 150 mm is excavated to a depth of 10 m in a thick aquifer. The

groundwater level is 1.00 m below ground level. A pipe is lowered to the end of the hole. A
quantity of water is removed from the hole . It is recorded that the water in the whole needed 20
min. to rise from 200 mm to 100 mm below groundwater level. After reaching the steady state
condition the pipe in the hole is raised 3 m and another amount of water is removed from the
pipe . Calculate the time needed for the water surface in the pipe to travel the same distance.
Answer: k=1.48x10-3 m/min, t=1.62 min
9) A trench is to be dug in a location with the soil profle shown in fgure

clay
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calculate the maximum possible depth of the trenchwithout the danger of
sandquick sand condition
for clay: e=0.4, gs =2.82,
water content = 16% , thickness=11.00 m

for sand: water pressure below clay layer = 7.00 m
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4
EQUATIONS OF FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA
4.1 Equation of Continuity
In chapter 3, relations between the velocity and the total head of fow are presented. Generally, in these
relations, the pressure head appears in terms of its hydraulic gradient, which may change with time and position.
For both laminar and turbulent fow conditions, the relations are the obtained from the results of experimental
works. In a porous media space, it is normally required to determine either the velocity distribution or the total
head distribution. If one of these distributions is known, these experimental relations can be used to determine
the other distribution.
However, in most cases of practical interest, both the pressure and velocity and pressure values are not known
in the whole region of interest. This means that another relation or set of relations are required which can be
combined with the presented equations in order to obtain both the velocity and head distributions in the whole
medium. The equations of continuity, which are forms of the law of conservation of matter, are veloped to
accomplish this goal.
In Fig. 4.1, a general form of fuid fow porous media space is /illustrated. For the purpose of simplicity, the
Cartesian coordinate system is adopted. At point P(x,y,z) a rectangular parallelepiped element with the side
dimensions Dx, Dy and Dz parallel to the three coordinate axes x,y and z respectively is considered.
Assuming that the average fow velocity on the side (x p, y, z) of the parallelepiped is u, then that on the side (x p+
Dx, y, z) equals u+( u/x).Dx. Similarly, if the average velocity on the side (x, y p, z) is v, then that on the side
(x,y+Dy,z) is v+( v/y).Dy. Also the velocities on the sides (x,y,z p) and (x,y,z+ Dz) are respectively w and
w+(w/z).Dz.
Consider the water balance of the element at time t for a period length Dt. If the fuid density in the element at
time t is r, then at t= t+Dt, the fuid density will be r+(r/t).Dt. The application of the law of conservation of mass
on the element implies that:
Fluid Infow - fuid outfow = change of fuid mass in the element (4.1)
CHAPTER 4
In Equation (4.2), the previous equation is written in terms of the fuid density and
velocities.
r{u.(Dy. Dz)+ v.(Dx.Dz)+w(Dx+Dy)}.Dt -r{(u+u/x.Dx)(Dy.Dz) +(v+v/y.Dy)(Dx.Dz)

+(w+w/z.Dz)(Dx.Dy)}.Dt= {n.(r/t.Dt).(Dx.Dy.Dz)} (4.2)
where n is the porosity of the soil inside the element. Conducting the necessary simplifcations , the
following form of the continuity equation results
u/x+v/y+w/z+(n/r).r/t=0 (4.3)
In the development of equation (4.3), the fuid compressibility is taken into consideration. In the case of steady
state fow and also in the cases of unsteady fow in which the fuid is considered to be incompressible, the term
r/t vanishes, thus:
u/x+v/y+wz=0 (4.4)
Using a similar procedure, the equation of continuity can be developed in other coordinate systems. A frequently
used coordinate system is the cylindrical coordinates. It is often more convenient to deal with than the Cylindrical
coordinates in problems related to vertical wells and open circular pits.
In Fig. 4.2, an element with the dimensions Dz, Dr& rDq is chosen in a porous media space that is measured by a
cylindrical coordinate system with the coordinates, r, q &z
CHAPTER 4
In this case, the use of law of conservation of mass leads to the following equation :
(1/r).{(rvr)/r+vq/q}+vz/z+(n/r).r/t = 0 (4. 5)
in which, vr,vq &vz are the velocity components in r, q & z directions respectively.
For a steady state fow or that of an incompressible fuid, equation (4.5) reduces to:
(1/r).{(rvr)/r+vq/q}+vz/z =0 (4.6)
4.2 General Form of Darcys Law
The Experiments that were conducted by Darcy and which are the bases of Darcys Law are restricted to one
dimensional fuid fow through soil samples in tubes with circular cross sectional area.
However, the deduced formula was extended to include any laminar fow through any multidimensional porous
media. Thus, for a three dimensional fow in a homogenous soil with hydraulic conductivity k, and a total head h,
the components of fuid fow parallel to the Cartesian x,y and z axes are:
u = -k.h/x (4.7-a)
, v = -k.h/y (4-7b)
& w = -k.hz (4.7-c)
CHAPTER 4
The previous equations are assumed to be valid whether the hydraulic conductivity k is constant or is a function
of position, i.e. k(x,y,z) may have a different value as one or more of the independent variables x,y,z changes.In
Cylindrical Coordinates the velocity components are:
vr = -k h/r (4.8-a)
vq= -(k/r). h/q (4.8-b)
vz= -k h/z (4.8-c)
Some soil layers possess anisotropy properties. This means that the properties may change with direction at the
same location. In an anisotropic soil, the hydraulic conductivity k x in the x direction may be different from that in
the y direction k y and both may differ from that in the z direction k z. In this case, equations (4.7) take the
following more general form:
u = -kx h/y (4.9-a)
,v = -ky h/y (4.9-b)
&w= -kzh/z (4.9-c)
4.3 Two Dimensional Potential Flow through Porous Media
The steady state two dimensional fow of an incompressible fuid in a homogeneous isotopic porous media
implies the validity of equations (4.4) and (4.7). The substitution for the velocity components u& v from
equations (4.7) into equation (4.4) leads to the following linear second order partial differential equation for the
fow in the x-y plane.:
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2h/x2+2h/y2 =0 (4.10)
Defne the velocity potential j in terms of the total head h and the hydraulic conductivity k by the following
relation
j = -kh (4.11)
For a homogeneous isotropic soil, k= constant, hence the substitution of equation (4.10) in (4.11) results
equation (4.12)
2j/x2+2j/y2 =0 (4.12)
Also, the velocity components can be written in terms of the velocity potential by applying the defnition of j in
equations (4.7)
u = j/x (4.13-a)
& v = j/y (4.13-b)
Consider the plane fow shown in Fig. 4.3. The rate of fow that crosses the curve op is assumed to be y. If any
other curve is drawn between the points o and p such that it lies totally in the domain of fow, then the rate of fow
across the new line remains unchanged and equals y.
Assume that the point p is moved in such a way that the fow which crosses any curve between o and p remains
equal to y, then the locus of point p(x,y) is a curve with the property y = c. If p receives an infnitesimal
displacement dy to the location p(x,y+ dy) above the curve y= c. Then the fow between o and the new point
increases by an infnitesimal value to reach y+dy which means that the fow between p(x,y) and p(x,y+ dy) is dy.
Equating this value with the horizontal velocity of fow u times the area dy, the following equation results
u =y/y (4.14-a)
Similarly, a displacement in the x direction dx to the point p(x+ dx,y) below the y= c curve produces a reduction
in the fow by an amount which can be referred to as dy. In other words, the fow between p(x,y) and p(x+ dx) is
(- dy). Hence,
v= -yx (4.14-b)
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A comparison between equations 4.13 and 4.14 leads to equations (4.15). These relations between the
stream function y and the velocity potential function j are identical to the Cauchy- Riemann conditions of
orthognality.
j/x= y/y (4.15-a)
& j/y= -y/x (4.15-b)
The validity of the Cauchy- Riemann equations implies that the curves y=c and j=d always meat at right angles
for any constant values c & d. In Fig. 4.4, this property is illustrated.
The partial differentiation of equations (4.14-a) w.r.t. y and equation (4.14-b) w.r.t. x followed by the
subtraction of the second equations from the frst leads to the following
relation:
2y/y2+2y/x2 =u/y- v/x (4.16)
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The substitution for u and v from equations (4.13) implies that
2y/x2+2y/y2 = 2 j/(xy) (2(/x2+(2(/(y2 = (2(/((x(y) (4.17)
This means that the equation y satisfes the same partial differential equation that is satisfed by j.
4.4 General Form of Differential Equation:
In isotopic soil with variable hydraulic conductivity, the value of k in equations (4.7) may vary with position. Thus,
the substitution for the velocity components from these equations into the general equation of continuity (4.3)
leads to the following partial differential equation:
(k.h/x)/x+(k.h/y)/y+(k.h/z)/z=(n/r)r/t (4.18)
In the case of two dimensional fow in the xy- plane, equation (4.18) reduces to the following form:
(k.h/x)/x+(k.h/y)/y =(n/r)r/t (4.19)
A special case of the previous equation is the case k= constant, i.e.
2h/x2+2h/y2 =n/(kr)r/t (4.20)
This equation represent many cases of practical interest. Among these, is the case of fow through artesian
horizontal aquifers.
The equation (2.20) contain two dependent variables, namely h and r. To reduce them to one variable only. Two
new parameters are introduced.
The aquifer storativity S is defned as the volume of water to be released from a column of water with unit cross
sectional area of the aquifer due to a unit change of water pressure head. A graphical illustration of this
defnition is shown in Fig. 4.5. The aquifer transmissivity T is defned as the hydraulic conductivity times the
thickness of the aquifer.
Consider a column of an elastic aquifer of unit area. Assuming that the aquifer thickness is b, then the volume v
of the column equals b . If the pressure head is reduced by a unit value, then the pressure is changed by the
value p = -g, where g is the unit weight of water. Thus, the storativity S by defnition can be written in terms of
the change of volume of the column v and the porosity n by the relation:
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S= n v (4.21)
The compressibility of the aquifer b is defned by the following equation:
b = (-v/v)/( p) (4.22)
The substitution for v from equation (4.21) and for v and p from their defnition leads to equation (4.23)
b=S/(nbg) (4.23)
For compressible fuids, the following law applies
(v/v)=-(r/r) (4.24)
The substitution for (v/v) from 4.24) in (4.22) results :
r=rb p (4.25)
or,
r=rbgh (4.26)
The combination of equations (4.23) and 4.26) leads to :
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r= (rS)/(nb) h (4.27)
The use of the previous relation in the partial differential equation (4.20) and the use of the defnition of the
transmissivity T=kb implies:
(h/x)/x + (h/y)/y = (S/T)h/t

(4.28)
In case of steady state fow as well as in unsteady state fow of incompressible fuids, equation (4.28) reduces
to:

(k.h/x)/x+(k.h/y)/y+(k.h/z)/z=0 (4.29)
for constant k, a Laplace equation of the form (4.30) applies:
2h/x2 +2h/y2+2h/z2=0 (4.30)
Equation (4.13) is the two dimensional version of equation (3.30)
Laminar fow through Anisotropic soil follows the form of Darcys given by equations (4.9). The substitution for
u, v& w in equation (4.3) leads to :
(kx.h/x)/x+(ky.h/y)/y+(kz.h/z)/z=(n/r)r/t (4.31)
For incompressible or steady state fuid fow:
(kx.h/x)/x+(ky.h/y)/y+(kz.h/z)/z=0 (4.32)
If the soil is anisotropic and in the mean time the hydraulic conductivity values do not vary with the location,
i.e.,. kx=c1, ky=c2& kz=c3,, equation (4.32) takes the simpler form :
kx.2h/x2+ ky.2h/y2+ kz.2h/z2 =0 (4.33)
Equation (4.30) is the special case of equation (4.33) in which kx=ky=kz.
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4.5 Flow through partially saturated Porous Media:
In partially saturated soil, The value of the hydraulic conductivity k becomes a dependent of the water content w.
It reaches its maximum at the value at full saturation. The water content varies with the water pressure and
consequently with the time in case of unsteady fow. The continuity equation in this case takes the following
form:

u/x+u/y+w/z+(n/r).(rw)/t=0 (4.34)
In the mean time, Darcys equations (4.7) to (4.9) remain valid. Only in this case, it must be noticed that k is
dependent on w. The substitution from equations (4.9) into equation (4.34) leads to the partial differential
equation of fow through a partially saturated porous media in the following very general form:
{kx(w)h/x}/x+{ky(w)h/y}/y+{kz(w)h/z}/z=(n/r)(wr)/t (4.35)
Deduction of special cases from this formula is possible using the same procedure as in the case of fow through
fully saturated soil. For example, in one dimensional incompressible fow through partially saturated porous
media, the equation (3.35) reduces to:

{k(w )h/x}/x= w/t (4.36)
The previous equation is often used in soil hydraulics in the region close to the ground surface.
4.6 Boundary and Initial Conditions :
The partial differential equations which are presented in sections 4.3 to 4.5 can be used in the description of the
fuid fow through the soil under different conditions. However, the solution of these conditions involves a number
constants. This number depends on the type of fow and the properties of both the soil and the fuid.
In order to determine these constants, further information about the fow are required in certain locations of the
fow domain and at certain time values. Usually, this information concerns the condition on the domain
boundary and at the initial time of the problem consideration.
In Fig. 4.6, several widely used boundary condition types are presented. For example a surface that is in direct
contact with a water body with a known total head that may be constant or varies according to a known function
has the following condition :
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h (xb, yb, zb; t) = H (4.37)
where:
(xb, yb, zb) is any point on the considered boundary
H is a constant or a function defned on the considered boundary.
The velocity component perpendicular to an impermeable boundary vanishes. Hence, if n is the direction
perpendicular to the boundary at any point, then
h/n =0 (4.38)
On a free surface, the pressure is atmospheric which means that the total head h at any point (x f, yf, zf) on that
boundary equals the vertical distance d between the datum and that point.
h(xf, yf, zf; t) = d (4.39)
As the free surface location is also to be determined , one more condition is needed. If there is no infltration or
evaporation, the surface is a streamline, or
h(xf, yf, zf;t)/n =0 (4.40)
where n is the direction perpendicular to the free surface.
On the other hand if there is a rate of infltration or evaporation e from the free surface, then the velocity
component in the vertical direction equals e, i.e.
kzh(xf, yf, zf; t)z = -e (4.41)
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A seepage surface occurs usually on the down stream face of earth dams or on well sides. It occupies the
distance between the water level in the soil and the water level down stream the dam or inside the well. On that
surface, the pressure is atmospheric and hence the boundary condition takes the following form:
h(xs, ys, zs;t) = m (4.42)
where:
xs, ys& zs are the coordinates of any point on the seepage surface
m = the vertical distance between the datum and the point (xs, ys, zs)
The initial condition is of use in unsteady fow problems. It gives the fow conditions at a certain time. As an
example if the total head at all points equals a known function f0 (x,y,z) at a certain time t 1, then the condition is)
h(x,y,z;t 1) = f0(x,y,z) (4.43)
In most problems of mathematical physics, the time t 1 is chosen to be zero and is taken at the start time of
analysis.
1) Derive from frst principles, the differential equation of nonsteady plane fow through porous media
a) using Cartesian Coordinates
b) using Polar Coordinates
2) For The dam with vertical sides shown in fgure Write the differential equation of fow and the boundary
conditions for the steady state case
Assume that the water level in the downstream side of problem 2 was !0.00m at t < 0 and reduces suddenly to
3.00 m at t=0, construct the initial value problem
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CHAPTER 5
ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
OF SOIL HYDRAULICS PROBLEMS
5.1 One Dimensional Flow through Porous Media:-
The general form of fow through porous media in one dimension is a special case of equation
(4.19). It takes the following form :
{k.(h/x)}x=(n/r)r/t (5.1)
The parameters appearing in the equation are defned previously in chapter 4. In the steady state
condition, the previous partial differential equation reduces to an ordinary differential equation of the
second order, or
d{k.(d h/dx)}dx =0
(5.2)
The analytical solution of equations (5.1) and (5.2) for certain boundary and initial conditions of
practical interest are available . In sections 5.1.1 to 5.1.4, some of these cases are presented.
5.1.1 One Dimensional Steady State Flow in Porous Media with variable Hydraulic
Conductivity:-
Consider that the soil has a hydraulic conductivity that varies with x according to a known function
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k(x). Hence, equation (5.2) can be written in the form:
(dk/dx). (dh/dx) + k(x). d2h/dx2 =0 (5.3)
The solution of this differential equation is generally possible up to 2 constants for a wide class of
functions k(x). The value of the constants can be obtained using the available boundary conditions.
For example if k(x)= e(x+b) while h = 0 and H for x=0 and L respectively, the equation and boundary
conditions take the following form:
dh/dx + d2h/dx2 =0, (5.4)
with h(0)=0 and h(L)= H
The general solution of the differential equation (5.4) is:
h(x)= C1 + C2 e-x (5.5)
C1 and C2 are obtained using the boundary conditions at x=0 and x=L, Thus, the fnal solution is :
h(x)= H(1-e-x )/(1-e-L ) (5.6)
The velocity at any point x is obtained from Darcys Law.

v= - H eb /(1-e-L)
(5.7)
It is clear from equation (5.7)that for positive values of H, v is negative and it is always
independent of x. This is a logical result as the head at x= L is higher than that at x=0 for H >0
which means that the water fows backwards from x=L in the direction of x=0. Also, the continuity
equation implies that the steady state velocity along a one dimensional streamline must be
constant.
5.1.2 Flow parallel to Bedding through Soil Layers:-
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Assume that there are n parallel layers with thickness B1, B 2,......, B i,.....,Bn and hydraulic
conductivity k1, k2,.......,ki,.......kn as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
Assume further that a length L of the layers is considered. Take the top surface of the horizontal
layer as datum and the left hand end of the considered layers segments as the origin of the x axis
.The coordinates of the left hand side of the considered strips is x=0 while that of the right hand side
is x=L.
To have a parallel fow, the total head at any value x must be equal for all soil layers. Assume that
the head at x=0 is h 1 and that at x=L is h2. and that h1 > h 2 .This implies that the water fows
uniformly through all layers with velocities: v1= -k1 dh/dx, ......., vi = -ki dh/dx, ..........., vn = -kn dh/dx
As dh/dx is constant and equals (h1 -h2)/L, the total discharge Q through all aquifers can be given
by the following relation
Q = {(h1-h2 )/L}. (Bi ki) , i=1,2,.......,n (5.8)
Defne B and ka by the following relations
CHAPTER 5
B= Bi , i=1,2.....,n (5.9)
& ka = { (ki Bi)}/B , i=1,2,.....,n (5.10)
The substitution from equations (5.9) and (5.10) into equation (5.8) leads to:
Q= B. ka ( h1 - h2)/L (5.11)
ka is called the weighted average of the hydraulic conductivity.
5.1.3 Flow perpendicular to Bedding through Soil
Layers
Consider the same layers of section 5.1.2. However, assume that the top surface of the frst layer
has a constant total head h1 measured from the datum which is taken to be the bottom of the last
layer n Assume that the total head at the bottom of the last layer is also constant and equals hn+1 >
h1 .
This case is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. Here the water fows vertically upwards starting from the bottom
of the bottom layer to the top of the highest layer.
Assume that the head at top of layer i is hi , where i=2,3,.....,n .as the difference in head occurs in
the vertical direction, the fow will be vertical. Also, from the equation of continuity, the velocity must
be constant .The velocity of fow from the lower surface to the top surface of layer I is given by the
relation:
vi= -ki (hi+1 - hi)/Bi ,i=1,2,........n (5.12)
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As stated before, the velocities of fow across all soil layers are equal. this means that :.
v=k1. (h2 - h1)/B1= k2 .( h3-h2)/B2 = .....= ki .(hi+1-hi)/Bi =....
= kn. (hn+1-hn)/Bn (5.13)
The frst (n-1) equalities of equations (5.13) can be used to write h2 in terms of v and h1, h3 in
terms of h2 and hence in terms of h1& v, ........, hi+1 in terms of hi and hence in terms of h1 & v and
so on until obtaining a relation for hn in terms of h1& v. This relation can be put in the following
form.
v= kh. (hn+1 - h1)/B (5.14)
where B has the same defnition given by equation (5.9) and kh is called the harmonic average of
the hydraulic conductivity and is defned as follows:
kh = B/{ (Bi /ki)} i=1,2,.......,n (5.15)

CHAPTER 5
The head at layers boundaries can be obtained point can be obtained using equations (5.13) while
that at intermediate points can be obtained by linear interpretation as the head varies linearly
through the soil layers.
5.1.4 Flow across the Boundary between two
Layers
Consider the two parallel streamlines a1 a2 a3 a4 and b1 b2 b3 b4 meet the interface between the
two layers at points a3 and b2 respectively as shown in Fig. 5.3. The point a2 is chosen such that
the straight line b2 a3 meets the stream line a1 a3 at point a2 at a right angle. Similarly, choose b3
such that a3 b3 meets b2 b4 at a right angle at point b3.
Assume that the hydraulic conductivity of the top layer is k1 while that of the lower layer is k2.. The
streamlines in the top layer meet the interface at angles q1 with the perpendicular to the boundary.
If k1 k2 , these lines defect as they cross the boundary between the layers making a new angle q2
with the perpendicular to the boundary inside the lower layer. From the geometry of Fig.5.3, it is
easy to prove the following equalities
a2 b2 = a3 b2 cos q1 (5.16-a)
a2 a3 = a3 b2 sin q1 (5.16-b)
a3 b3 = a3 b2 cos q2 (5.16-c)
b2 b3 = a3 b2 sin q2 (5.16-d)
CHAPTER 5
The quantity of fow between the two streamlines is constant. It is calculated using Darcys Law,
once across the equipotential line a2 b2 which lies in the top layer and once across the
equipotential line a3 b3 which lies in the lower layer, hence:
(a2 b2 ). k 1 . (Dh)/(a2 a3) = (a3 b3) . k2 (Dh)/(b2 b3) (5.17)
where Dh is the difference in total head between the equipotential lines a2 b2 and a3 b3. The
substitution from equations (5.16) into equation (5.17) leads to the following equation:
k1 / k2 = tan q1 / tan q2 ( 5.18)
A special case of this relation is that when q1 = 90 o, here the streamlines suffer no defection at the
interface between the two layers irrespective of the values of k1 and k2. Another special case is that
when k 2 , then all streamlines in the top layer meet the interface between the layers at right
angle. On the other hand, if K2 0, all the streamlines meet the interface asymptotically
5.1.5 Unsteady Flow through a Confned Aquifer
Consider the confned aquifer of Fig. 5.4. It has a uniform thickness D and a constant hydraulic
conductivity k. The aquifer is bounded from the left at x=0 by a water body w hile it extends
indefnitely till x on the right hand side.
For one dimensional unsteady fow in the x direction in this aquifer, equation (4.28) reduces to the
CHAPTER 5
following form:
2h/ x2 = (S/T) h/ t (5.19)
where the notations here are the same of that of equation (4.28) and the parameters have the same
defnition.
Assume that the water level in the water body was originally at h=0 for t<0. At t=0, the water level is raised to h 0
and is kept constant thereafter at t >0. The initial and boundary conditions can be established according to these
assumptions. They have the following form :
h(x,0) = 0 , Initial condition, t=0, 0<x < (5.20-a)
h(0,t) = h0 , Boundary Condition, t >0, x=0 (5.20-b)
h( ,t) = 0 , Boundary Condition, t >0, x (5.20-c)
Equations (5.19) under the restriction of conditions given by equations (5.20) has a solution in an
integral form:
h(x,t)= b h0 exp (-y2) dy (5.21)
CHAPTER 5
where :
b = 2/ p & a = [( x/2). {S/ (Tt) ]

Equation (5.21) can be written in terms of the tabulated erfc function, or
h (x,t) = h0 erfc [ (x/2). S/(Tt) ] (5.22)
with,
erfc(a)= (2/ p ) a exp (-y2) dy (5.23)
In Fig. 5.5, the values of h in terms of x for different time factors are presented in graphical form.
The chosen time factor is A= {S/(Tt)}0.5 . It is clear from the fgure that at A , i.e. (at t = 0 ), the
head equals zero through the whole aquifer. On the other hand, for A=0 ( t ), the total head
reaches h0 in all locations.
5.2 Two Dimensional Potential Flow:
The two dimensional potential Flow through porous media is governed by Laplace Equation which
are presented in Cartesian Coordinates for j and y by equations (4.12) and (4.17) respectively.
This type of fow is analogous to steady state heat fow as well as electric conductivity problems.
There are several analytical methods to solve this type of equations for a large classes of problems
of practical interest.
5.2.1 Solution Using Analytical Functions of Complex
Variables:
The independent variable z is defned in terms of its real and imaginary parts x and y by the
relation:
z=x+iy ( 5.24)
with i = (-1)
If a complex variable w is a single valued function of z in a certain domain and its frst derivative
exists and is also single valued in the same domain, then w is defned as an analytic function of
z.
The derivative of w w.r.t. z is defned as follows:
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dw/dz = lim (D w/D z) (5.25)
Dz0
Let w= j +iy and take D z parallel to the x- axis, i.e. D z = D x, then
dw/dz= w/ x = j / x+i y / x (5.26)
Similarly, if D z is taken parallel to the y axis then D w= D y, or
dw/dz=(1/i). w/ y = -i j / y+ y / y (5.27)
As the derivative of the function w is single valued, then dw/dz calculated from equation (5.26)
equals to that calculated from equation (5.27). Equating the real parts of the two equations leads to :
j / x= y / y (5.28-a)
In the mean time, equating the imaginary parts of the same equations implies that:
j / y = - y / x (5.28-b)
It is clear that the equations (5.28) are identical to equations (4.14). This means that the real and
imaginary parts of any analytic complex function may represent respectively a potential and stream
functions in the (x,y) feld.
As an example consider the following function:
w= c1+c2 z (5.29
where c1 and c2 are complex constants defned by equation (5.30)
cjr= cjr +icji, j=1,2 (5.30)
Equating the real and imaginary parts of equations (5.29) by j and y respectively, the following
equations result:
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j = c1r+ c2r x -c2i y (5.31-a)
& y = c1i +c2i x +c2r y (5.31-b)
Equations ( 5.31-a) and (5.31-b) represent two sets of parallel straight lines. The lines of each set
meet orthognally with all the lines of the second set. A special case of this example is, c1 =0 and
c2 =C, where C is any real constant . In this case , the two equations reduce to:
j = Cx (5.32-a)
& y = Cy (5.32-b)
This represents a uniform fow parallel to the x axis with the equipotential fow lines parallel to the y
axis as illustrated in Fig. 5.6
Another example is that given by the following Logarithmic
function:
w= {q/(2p )}.ln (z-z0) (5.33)
CHAPTER 5
where q is a real positive constant.
The real and imaginary parts of equation (5.33) are:
j = {q/(2p )}ln(r) (5.34-a)
& y ={q/(2p )} q , 0 < q < 2 p (5.34- b)
where, r= z-z0 = (x-x0)2+(y-y0)2& q = tan-1 [(y-y0)/(x-x0)]
The relations (5.34) represent a source of strength q at point z0. This potential fow is
represented in Fig. 5.7
If q in equation (5.33) is replaced by -q, then w in this case represents the fow to a point sink ,or
j = -{q/(2p )}ln(r) (5.35-a)
and
y =-{q/(2p )} q , 0 < q < 2 p (5.35-b)
It is possible to use a combination of the uniform fow function together with those of sources and
sinks to solve problems of practical interests. Among those type of problems is the laminar fow
CHAPTER 5
around impermeable objects.
An example to the case of fow around closed objects is shown in Fig. 5.8. In this example, a source
at point (0,-a) with strength q and a sink at point (0,a) with the same strength are combined with a
uniform fow parallel to the y axis. The stream function y is given by the following relation:
y = {q/(2p )}[tan-1{(y+a)/x}-tan-1{y-a)/x}] +Cx (5.36)
The combination given by equation (5.36) and Fig. 5.8, leads to fow around an almost elliptical
cylinder similar to that illustrated in Fig. 5.9. Actually, the body shape has the following equation:
{q/(2p )}[tan-1{(y+a)/x}-tan-1{y-a)/x}] +Cx =0 (5.37)
The values of C and a are the parameters, which determine the exact shape of the closed body.
In the extreme case in which a=0, the source and the sink approach the origin from the two direction
of the y-axis. They form an element called duplex which simultaneously recharges and discharges
water with the rate q. The closed body in this case reduces to a circular cylinder as shown in Fig.
5.10
In case of fow around circular cylinder the streamline and velocity potential functions are given by
the equations (5.38).
y = y[1-a2/(x2+y2)] (5.38-a)
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and
j = x[1+a 2/(x2+y2)] y (5.38-b)
5.2.2 Method of Images:
The existence of water bodies and impermeable boundaries in the neighborhood of sources and
sinks infuences the fow pattern and pressure distribution. The method of images is found useful in
the treatment of this kind of problems.
For example, if a sink exists at a perpendicular distance a from a water body, the water body can
be replaced in the analysis by a hypothetical source which lies at a perpendicular distance a on
the other side of the boundary as illustrated in Fig 5.11
Assuming that the y-axis coincides with the water body and the x-axis passes through the point
source, the stream function is hence given by the relation :
y ={q/(2p )}[tan-1{y/(x+a)}-tan-1{y/(x-a)}] (5.39)
In Fig. 5.12, the fow lines of the considered case are illustrated.
CHAPTER 5
On the other hand, if a source or a sink lies at a perpendicular distance a from an impermeable
boundary, then the fow pattern is the same as that corresponding to two sources or two sinks-
similar to that of the original problem -. The hypothetical source or sink has the same strength as
the real one and is located at a distance 2a away from it.
It is also possible to treat problems containing more than one boundary using the method of images.
An example of that is a point source with strength q which is bounded from the bottom and left
hand side by impermeable boundaries as illustrated in Fig. 5.13.
The two impermeable boundaries are chosen to be the Cartesian x and y axis. The point source
is assumed to located a distance a to the right of the y-axis and at a distance b above the x-axis
According to these assumptions, there are three point source images to the real one. Two of them
each has a strength q and are located at (-a, b) and (a,-b) while the third one has a strength 2q
and is located at (-a,-b)
Using the same defnition for the sources given by equation (5.34-b), the following relation of the
stream function results:
y ={q/(2 p )}[tan -1{(y-b)/(x-a)} + tan -1{(y-b) / (x+a)} + tan -1{(y+b)/(x-a)} +2tan-

1{(y+b)/(x+a)}] (5.40)
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The fow pattern of this example is illustrated in Fig. 5.14
If the two impermeable boundaries are parallel instead of being perpendicular, the number of
images will be infnite as illustrated in Fig. 5.15
Taking the line parallel to the impermeable boundaries and passing through the real source as the
y-axis and the perpendicular to it at the source location as the x-axis implies that the stream function
is represented by the following infnite series:
y ={q/(2p)}[tan-1(y/x)+tan-1{y/(x+2a)}+tan-1{y/(x-2b)} +tan-1{y/(x+2a+2b)}
+tan-1{y/(x-2a-2b)}+............] (5.41)
In some cases, the source or sink may be a line of fnite or infnite length instead of being a single
point. The strength intensity along this line may be constant or variable. To deduce a relation for the
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stream function and a velocity potential of a line source along the x axis, Fig 5.16 is considered.
In the fgure, a line source of strength intensity q(x 0) extends along the x-axis between the points
(a,0) and (b,0). Consider an element of length D x. The strength of this element is hence q D x 0.
Applying the defnition of the point source to the element the following relation results:
D y = q/(2p ).tan-1 {y/(x-x0).D x0 (5.42)
Conducting the integration between a and b leads to equation (5.43-a)
y (x,y)= 1/(2p ) a.b q(x0).tan-1 {y/(x-x0)dx0 (5.43-a)
Similarly, it can be proven that the equation of the velocity potential is:
j (x,y)= 1/(2p ) a.b q(x0).ln {y2+(x-x0)2 dx0 (5.43-b)
The same equations (5.43) apply to a line sink between a and b. Only, in this case q (x0) takes
always negative values.
The line of sinks and lines of sources can be used to represent in nature drains and canals
respectively. They can also be used to represent other water bodies. The method of images can be
applied in the case of lines of sources and sinks in the same manner as it is applied for point
sources and sinks. Moreover, they can be combined with uniform fow to represent fow around
closed bodies. Theoretically, the fow around any shape can be simulated by a combination of lines
of sources and sinks together with the natural fow in the domain of consideration
5.2.3 Conformal Mapping:
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Let w be a single valued function of z in a certain domain D where both w and z are complex
variables. Assume further that the frst derivative of this function with respect to z does not vanish
identically in D, or dw/dz 0. According to the theories of complex variables, if there are two
intersecting curves C1z and C2z in the z-plane which meat at an angle a , then their images in the
w-plane C1w and C2w meet at the same angle a . The process of mapping a set of curves in the z-
plane into the w-plane or vice versa is called conformal mapping or conformal transformation.
This transformation can be of great use in solving potential fow problems, as complicated fgure in
the z-plane can be mapped into simpler fgures in the w-plane or the other way around. Thus, the
problem can be solved in the plane with the simpler shape and afterwards the obtained solution is
transformed back into the original plane.
As an example to the application of conformal mapping, consider the fow around a circular cylinder
in the z-plane. Assume that anew plane z is related to the z-plane through the relation
z = z+a 2/z (5.44)
According to the transformation (5.44), the fow around the cylinder is mapped onto a fow past a fat
plate of length 2a as shown in Fig. 5.17.
The use of the defnition of the velocity potential and stream function of the fow around the cylinder
given by equations (5.38) together with equation (5.44) leads to:
j = x (5.45-a)
&y = h (5.45-b)
where x & h are the real and imaginary parts of the complex variable z.
As another example defne a new plane X that is related to the plane z by the following equation:
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c = z-a2/z (5.46)
According to the above defnition, the fow around the circular cylinder in the z-plane is transformed
to the fow pattern shown in Fig. 5.18.
The use of conformal mapping in this example helped in transforming the complicated problem of
fow perpendicular to a fnite fat plate to the much simpler problem of the fow past a circular
problem.
5.2.4 Schwartz-Christoffel Transformation:
The Schwartz- Christoffel transformation is one of the strongest tools that can be used to solve
potential fow problems in domains that are bounded by straight line polygons.
The Transformation maps the interior of a closed polygon of n sides in the z-plane onto a half plane
z with the vertices of the polygon mapped on the real axis of W-plane. The relation between the z
and z planes have the following form:
dz/dz =C (z -a1)-a 1 /p (z -a2)- a 2/p .........(z -ai) -a 2/p ..............(z -an) -a n/p (5.47)
in which
C is a complex constant, while
a1, a2,....., ai, ........, an are the mapping of the vertices of the polyg on on the real axis of the z
-plane
& a 1, a 2,.....,a I,......,a n are the angles that the unit tangents rotate when traversing the boundary
in the z-plane
As an example to the Schwartz-Christoffel Mapping, Consider a point source that lies inside a semi
infnite strip of width and is bounded from three sides by impermeable layers as illustrated in Fig.
5.20
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Fig. 5.19 The Schwartz-Christoffel Transformation
According to equation (5.47), the z and z are related by the following formula:
dz/dz = C / [(z +1)(z -1)]1/2 (5.48)
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Conducting the integration and then substitute at points B and C leads to :
z= (D/p )ln {z + (z 2-1) } (5.49)
The point source in the z plane lies at the point [0, sinh(p a/D)]. Thus, from equation (5.33):
W=j +iy = {q/(2p ) ln[z -sinh{p a/D}} (5.50)
By separating the real and imaginary parts and equating both sides of the equation, the following
relations result:
j = q/(2p ) ln {x - sinh (p a/D)}2+ h 2 (5.51-a)
&y = q/(2p ). tan-1 [h /{x -sinh (p a/D)}] (5.51-b)
Equations (5.51) include the relations for the velocity potential and stream function in the z plane.
Their corresponding values in the z-plane can be obtained by substituting from equation (5.49) into
equations (5.51).
5.2.5 Inverse Velocity Hodograph Method:-
The inverse velocity hodograph plane V is defned by the following relation:
V= 1/(dW/dz) (5.52)
in which W and z are the complex potential and the physical plane s respectively. The defnition
of W in terms of the velocity potential j and the stream function y is :
W=j +iy (5.53)
The physical plane z has the same defnition used before z=x+iy. Conducting the differentiation
involved in equation (5.52) using the previous defnition of velocity components in terms of the
velocity potential and stream function leads to:
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V= {u/(u2+v2)} + i{v/( u2+v2)} (5.54-a)
or
V =Vr +iVj (5.54-b)
In many potential fow problems, especially those with free surface the inverse velocity hodograph
plane can be used to transform a physical plane with complicated or unknown boundary into a
polygon with straight line boundaries. The Schwartz- Christoffel theorem can hence be used to
transform the new plane to a further easier to deal with shape, namely a half plane..
As an example of this method the problem of parallel trapezoidal channels is treated. Consider a
system of parallel channels that are kept at a distance D from one another as illustrated in Fig.
5.21. Assume that each channel has a water depth H, a top breadth B and a side slope angle a
. A drainage layer of very high permeability is assumed to underlain the top soil layer whose
hydraulic conductivity is referred to by K. It is required to determine the shape of the curved free
surface water boundary together with the rate of seepage from the channels.
As the region is s ymmetric, onlly the domain kefghj is considered in the analysis. The lines ek and
ghj are streamlines with the values y =0 and y =Q/2 respectively where Q is the seepage rate from
a single channel. Also taking the water level in the channels as datum, then the equipotential lines
efg and kj have the value j =0 and j = KL respectively .The Complex potential plane W is illustrated
in Fig. 5.22-a.
The horizontal Component of the velocity vanishes along the lines hj, jk, ke and ef. Thus, from
equation (5.54-b), Vr= 0 and hence all these line are mapped on the V j axis in the complex V
plane.
The line fg is an equipotential line which means that the velocity vector there is perpendicular on the
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line. Using this property implies that the line is mapped in the V plane on the straight line Vr / Vj = tan
a which passes through the origin and makes an angle a with the Vj -axis.
The line gh is a streamline with y =Q/2 as stated before , hence differentiating in the tangential
direction of the streamline s leads to:
( y / x). (dx/ds)+ ( y / y).(dy/ds) = 0 (5.55-a)
Also, the line is a free surface with atmospheric pressure which means that
j =-Ky. Differentiating with respect to s leads to :
( j / x).(dx/ds)+ ( j / y).(dy/ds)= -K(dy/ds) (5.55-b)
from equation (5.55-a),
dx/ds= - ( y / y).(dy/ds)/ ( y / x). (5.55-c)
Applying the previous results in equation (5.55-b) and using the defnitions of u and v from
equations (4.13) and (4.14) leads to :
u2+v2= -Kv (5.56)
or:
Vj = v/(u2+v2) = -1/K (5.57)
The previous relation implies that the free surface gh is mapped in the V -plane into a straight line
parallel to the Vr-axis and lies at a distance 1/K below it. The inverse velocity hodograph plane is
illustrated in Fig. 5.22-b
As the problem is represented in both the W- and V- planes as polygons, the Schwartz- Christoffel
theorem is used to map them in the lower half of the z - plane shown in Fig. 5.22-c.
The points g,f,e,k& j are located on the real axis of the z - plane while the point h lies at the infnite
ends of the real axis of the same plane. There are two degrees of freedom to choose the locations
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of the polygon vertices on the real axis. Hence it is found convenient to choose the location of point
f at the origin and point g at +1 .The positions of the points e,k and j are assumed to be located in
the unknown positions (-l 1), (-l 2) and (-l 3) respectively. Accordingly, the V and W are related to z
through the following equations:
V=C1 0 z z (a /p - 1 ) {z -1} (1/2- a /p )dz (5.58)

with
C1 = [ (0.5!). I (0.5- a /p ) (tan a +i)]/[K.(1/2-a /p )!.(a /p -1)!] (5.59)
W= C2 z 1/ (z -1)( z -l 1)( z +l 2)(z +l 3) dz + C3 (5.60)
The constants C 2 and C 3 are given in terms of the rate of fow through one channel side Q s, the
seepage from channel base Qb as well as l 1, l 2& l 3.
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or :
C3 = (i.Qs)/[0 1 (z -1).(z +l 1).(z +l 2).(z +l 3) dz (5.61)
C3 = iQb/2 (5.62)
The values of l 1,l 2 and l 3 can be obtained by solving the following three equations
simultaneously.
[B/2- H cot(a )]+ C40 -l 1 F(x ) dx =0 (5.63)
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[B/2- H cot(a )]+i(L-H)+ C 4 0-l 2 F(x ) dx = 0 (5.64)
-[D+ H cot(a )-B/2]+i(L-H)+C 4-l 1 -l 3 F(x ) dx =0 (5.65)
In the previous equations:
x ( a / p -1) (1/2- a / p )
F(x ) = [0 { t (t-1) dt}]/[ (x -1).(x +l 1 (x +l 2) (x +l 3)] (5.66)
and
C4 = [ H cot(a )+i]/[0 1 F(x ) dx ] (5.67)
The solution of equations (5.63) to (5.65) can be done numerically assuming initial values for l 1, l
2& l 3 and calculate the corresponding channel and aquifer dimensions. The values of l 1, l 2, & l 3
then have to be changed in a trial and error process and the actual physical dimensions are
recalculated until a satisfactory approximation is reached..
The rate of fow can hence be calculated from these relations.
Qs = (-iKL)/[l 2l 1 (x -1).(x +l 1 (x +l 2) (x +l 3)dx ] (5.68)
Qb = (2KL)/[ l 2l 1 (x -1).(x +l 1 (x +l 2) (x +l 3)dx ] (5.69)
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The total seepage Q from a single trench is:
Q= 2Qs + Qb (5.70)
In the special case with L , the combination of equation (5.68) to (5.70) implies that:
Q= DK (5.71)
As a numerical example assume that a = p /4, l 1 = 1, l 2= 3& l 3= 5. The numerical solution of

equations (5.63) to (5.65) results that L=1.324 B, H=0.066B& D= 1.218B. The substitution in
equations (5.68) and (5.69) leads to Qs=0.420 B, Qb= 1.211 B This means that Q=2.051 B.
The free surface gh is represented in this case by the following integral relation:
z= E0x [{ 0x {t (t-1)}dt / x 2-1).(x +3)(x +5)]dx +G, 1 x (5.72)

with E= 0.058 and G= 0.325-0.025i
5.3 Solution by Separation of Variables

The method of separation of variables is suitable for boundary value problems with linear partial
differential equations in domains in two and three dimensions provided that the domain of interest
has a regular shape such as a rectangle, a parallelepiped, an ellipse or an ellipsoid.
The solution of the differential equation is assumed to be in an infnite series form. Each term of the
series consists a multiplication of a number of functions equals the number of independent
variables.. Each one of these functions is dependent on a single independent variable.
The substitution of these unknown functions in the original partial differential equation reduces it to a
number of ordinary differential equations equals the number of independent variables. The available
boundary conditions are used to determine the value of the constants which appear in the solution
of the ordinary differential equations up to a group of Eigen values .The obtained solutions are
called Eigen functions.
The general solution is assumed to be composed of an infnite series of the Eigen functions
multiplied by constants which have to be determined using the known boundary conditions.
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To illustrate this method, a simple example is introduced. Consider the rectangular domain shown in
Fig. 5.23 which contains a potential fow through a homogeneous isotropic porous media with
constant hydraulic conductivity k. Assume that the left hand side of the rectangle is of length D and
has a constant velocity potential j =0. The top side of the rectangle has a length L and is also an
equipotential line with j = 1. The other two sides of the rectangle are assumed to be impermeable.
In this example, the boundary value problem is represented by the equations
2j / x2+ 2j / y2 =0 (5.73-a)
j (0,y) =0 0< y<D (5.73-b)
j (0,L)/ x=0 0<y<D (5.73-c)
j (x,0)/ y=0 0<x<L (5.73-d)
j (x,D) = 1 0<x<L (5.73-e)
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A solution by separation of variables means that one seeks a solution j n of the form :
j n= Xn(x).Yn(y) (5.74)
with Xn and Yn are functions of x and y respectively.
The substitution from equation (5.74) into equation (5.73-a) results the following relation :
Yn.d2 Xn/dx2 + Xn. d2Yn/dy2 =0 (5.75)
Dividing the previous relation by (Xn .Yn ), provided that neither Xn nor Yn vanishes identically, leads
to :
-d2 Xn/dx2/Xn = d2Yn/dy2/Yn (5.76)
The left hand side of equation (5.76) is function of x only, which means that it is independent of y.
Similarly the right hand side is independent of x. Thus, the equality of the left hand side with the
right hand side implies that they must equal a constant. This constant is referred to by l n , or:
d2 Xn/dx2 +l n Xn =0 (5.77-a)
d2Yn/dy2 - l n Yn =0 (5.77-b)
The two ordinary equations (5.77-a),(5.77-b) replace the partial differential equation (5.73-a). The
solution of these equations using the three boundary conditions given by equations (5.73-b), (5.73-
c) and (5.73-d) leads to the following solutions for Xn and Yn.
Xn= sin ( l n x) (5.78-a)
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Yn = cosh ( l n y) (5.78-b)
where
l n = [{p (2n-1)}/(2L)]2 , n=1,2,3,........... (5.78-c)
The general solution of the problem hence takes the following infnite series form:
j = n=1 [an .sin ( l n x ). cosh ( l n y) ] (5.79)
The use of the boundary condition (5.73-e) and the theory of Fourier series leads to the values of
the constants an as given by relation (5.80).
an = 4/[p (2n-1) . cosh ( l n D)] , n=1,2,3..... (5.80)
This completes the solution for the velocity potential j . If it is required to obtain the stream
function y , there are two possibilities either to construct the new value problem for y and solve
it in a similar manner to that used to solve for the velocity potential j or to use the Cauchy-
Reimann conditions to obtain it from equation (5.79). Both methods lead to the following relation:
y =n=0 [an .cos ( l n x ). sinh ( l n y)] (5.81)
where l n and a n have the same defnitions as given by equations (5.78-c ) and (5.80)
respectively.
The fownet diagram as calculated from equations (5.79) and (5.81)
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The next presented example of the use of method of separation of variables is that of the fow
through an anisotropic porous media in a rectangular domain of length L and breadth D using
similar boundary conditions to that of the previous example. The bou ndary condition in this case is
given by equations (5.82)
kx 2h/ x2+ky 2h/ y2 =0 (5.82-a)
h(0,y) =0 0< y<D (5.82-b)
h(0,L)/ x=0 0<y<D (5.82-c)
h(x,0)/ y=0 0<x<L (5.82-d)
h(x,D) = 1 0<x<L (5.82-e)
It is clear here that the total head h is used instead of the velocity potential as the fow is not
potential any more.
h(x,y) =n=1 [an sin { (kyl n)/kx x }. cosh { l n y) ] (5.83)
where
l n =(kx/ky) [{p (2n-1)}/(2L)]2 , n=1,2,3,........... (5.84)
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an = 4/[p (2n-1) . cosh ( l n D)] , n=1,2,3..... (5.85)
The lines of total head and that of fow path are shown in Fig. 5.25.
The fgure is drawn for the case kx =2 ky and D= 0.50 L In the fgure j represents the total head
and not the potential while y represents the fow vector direction and the rate of fow. It must also be
noticed that constant j and y lines do not meat orthogonally
5.4 Solution using Integral Transforms

The differential equations of unsteady state fow through compressible porous media are developed
in chapter 4 of this book. It is clear that the fow is represented by parabolic type differential
equation. One of the strongest tools that deal with this type of equations is the use of integral
transforms.
An integral transform of a function f(t) is a new function F(p) which is related to the original function
by a limit integral relation of the following general form:
F(p) =- G(p,t) f(t) dt (5.86)
where,
p= p r+ipj is a complex parameter , G(p,t) is a function depending on the integral transform used in
the analysis.
The main idea of using integral transforms to transform the feld of work into a new feld-p where the
function f(t) is transformed into another function F(p). The treatment of F(p) is usually easier to deal
with than the original function, otherwise there is no sense in conducting the transform. After
completing the solution in the p-feld, an inverse transform is conducted to obtain f(t).
The four steps of the problem solution using the integral transforms are summarized below:
1. choose a suitable transform integral
2. transform the differential equation and boundary conditions in the p-
feld using the integral transform.
3. solve the problem in the p feld
4. transform the obtained solution back to the original feld to obtain f(t)
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One of the strongest and most used transforms that are used in mathematical physics is the
Laplace transform. It has the following defnition:
F(p) =0 e-p t f(t) dt (5.87)
The integral transform usually helps in simplifying the problem by transforming it from a partial to an
ordinary differential equation or from an ordinary differential equation to an algebraic equation.
The diffculty usually occurs in the process of the inversion of the function F(p) back to f(t). Tables
that include the f(t) functions that correspond to different F(p) relations are available. However,
these tables include a limited number of functions. In many cases, numerical methods are used to
obtain an approximation of the sought solution.
Aa an example to the use of Laplace transform, the unsteady fow to an artesian well in an infnite
homogeneous aquifer is considered. The total head in the aquifer is assumed to be H at time t<0.
Staring at t=0, water is assumed to be pumped with a constant rate Q. The total water head starts to
drop and it is required to determine its value h (r,t) fora variable distance from the well center r at
any time t. The transimissivity and storativity of the aquifer are assumed to be T and S
respectively. The problem is illustrated in Fig. 5.26
The boundary value problem of this unsteady state fow case is represented by the following
equations :
(1/r). / r(r h/ r)=(S/T) h/ t, 0<r< , 0<t< (5.88-a)
h( ,t) =H , 0<t< (5.88-b)
h(r,0)=H , 0<r< (5.88-c)
& Q/(2p T)= lim (r. h/. r) (5.88-d)
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r 0
Multiplying each of equations (5.88) by e-pt and integrating w.r.t. t from t=0 to t leads to the
following new boundary value problem in the p feld:
(1/r). R/ r(r R/ r)=(S/T)pR (5.89-a)
R( , p) =F(H) (5.89-b)
Q/(2p Tp)= lim (r. h/. r) (5.89-c)
r 0
where ,
R(r,p) = 0 e-p t h(r,t) dt (5.90)
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The solution of equations (5.89) is:
R(r,p) = Q/(2 p Tp) 0 [(1/t).e- {1/t+tu(r,p)/4} ] dt (5.91-a)
where,
u(r,p) = r 2 .(S.p/T) (5.91-b)
The inverse of transform of R can be obtained using the inverse of zero order modifed Bessel
function, or:
h(r,t) = Q/(4 p T)a [(1/v).e- v ] dv (5.92-a)
where,
A=(Sr2)/(4Tt) (5.92-b)
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The equation (5.92-a) is written often in the simpler form
h= H - Q/(4p T) .W(A) (5.93)
W(A) is called the well function and can be written in the following series form:
W(A)=[ -.5772-lnA+A -A 2/(2. 2!)+A3/(3. 3!)- A 4/(4. 4!) +-.... (5.94)
There are also tables for W(A) as it is frequently used in the pumping test analyses of fully
penetrating wells in artesian aquifers.
5. 5 Problems on chapter 5:
1) A rectangular piece of land 1.00 Km. X 2.00 Km has the soil profle as shown. The groundwater
fows horizontally in the direction shown in Figure. The locations A and B have total heads 2.00 m
and 1.00 respectively. total. Calculate the total amount of fow through the top 8.00 m of the soil that
cross the sections x1-x1, x2-x2& x3-x3
Soil Profle
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Answer: 2.45 x 10-4 , 0.00, 2.45 x 10-4 m3/s
2) Water fows vertically downwards in the soil of problem (1) with the rate of 4.00x10-5 m3/min/sq.
m. If the total head on the ground level is 1.00 m, calculate the total head at the interfaces between
the soil layers.
Answer : 1.655 m
3) The hydraulic conductivity of a soil profle varies with the depth z according to the relation k=
1.00x10-5 (1-z) Derive a relation between the total head h and the depth z. Draw the relation in the
range 0<z<1 if h=0,10 for z=0 and 0.5 respectively ( use any units)
Answer : h(0) =0, h(1)
4) Derive and draw the relation for h in terms of x for a fow through the sand fll thin tube shown in
Figure. Compute Q (k= 1.5 x10-5m/s).
Answer : Q = 2.75 x10-8 m/s
5) A straight thin tube full of sand has a cross sectional area A that varies with distance x from origin
according to the relation: A= A 0(1++bx). The total head at x =0.1 m is 1.00 m while that at x=0.2 m
is 0.50 m. Draw the total head distribution in the tube between x=0.0 and x=1.0 m for the values of
b=0.0, 0.1, -0.1. Assume A 0=0.05 m2, k= 0.000013 m/s
6) A masonry dam is underlain by a thin sandy layer as shown in fgure. Draw the uplift stress
distribution under the dam for the following cases:
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uplift stress distribution under the dam for the following cases:
i. a = b =0.5 m , k 1=k 2= 0.000003 m/s,
ii. a = 2b =0.5 m , k 1=k 2= 0.000003 m/s
iii. a = 0.5b =0.5 m , k 1=k 2= 0.000003 m/s
iv. a = b =0.5 m , k 1=2k 2= 0.000003 m/s
v. a = b =0.5 m , k 1=0.5k2= 0.000003 m/s
vi. a = 2b =0.5 m , k 1=.5k2= 0.000003 m/s
vii. a = .5b =0.5 m , k 1=2k2= 0.000003 m/s
viii. a = 2b =0.5 m , k 1=2k 2= 0.000003 m/s
7) Sketch the fow net and draw the total head distribution of total head on the wall
Source (q=0.1)
8) A uniform fow passes parallel to the y-axis with velocity v= 1m/s. A source and a sink of equal
strength 3 m3/s are located at points (0,-2) and (1,1) respectively. Derive relations for the velocity
potential and stream function. Sketch the streamline y =0. Sketch the stream lines and the potential
distribution around the rigid body.
9) For the velocity potential fow shown in fgure. Calculate the potential distributions on the walls.
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF SEEPAGE PROBLEMS
6.1 Homogeneous Isotropic Flow

In case of homogeneous isotropic fow, the total head h satisfes the equation (4.12) . In the
mean time, the velocity potential j and the stream function y have the defnitions given by
equations (4.12) and (4.17) respectively. The functions j and y are orthogonal and hence the
streamlines and lines of constant potential meat always at right angles.
As j = kh as defned in equation (4.11), then for k= constant, the streamlines and the lines of
equal heads also meet at right angle. This property can be used to obtain a graphical solution of
steady state fow through homogeneous porous media.
This is conducted by the construction of a fownet that includes a set of streamlines and lines of
equal potentials ( or equal heads). The degree of accuracy of the solution depends on the
accuracy reached in the construction of the fownet.
In the fownet, the following conditions are to be satisfed:
1. all impermeable boundaries are streamlines.
2. all water bodies are lines of constant head (equipotential lines)
3. streamlines meet equipotential lines at right angles
4. streamlines do not intersect one another
5. equipotential lines do not intersect one another.
Using the previous conditions, it is recommended to start the fownet construction by drawing the
streamlines taking the advantage of the existing impermeable surfaces in the domain of fow and
making sure that they meet water bodies at right angles.
The equipotential lines are sketched in the next step such that each cuts the streamlines
CHAPTER 6
perpendicularly. The process may need a lot of erasing and correction especially for beginners
until the fow net is completed to the persons satisfaction. However, after that the calculation of
the fow rates and pressure distribution becomes a routine matter.
A typical well drawn fow net is illustrated in Fig. 6.1.a It represents the fow under a masonry
dam A horizontal impermeable layer exists at a distance below the ground level. The difference
in head between the upstream and downstream is h.
The fownet is constructed such that the dam base and the impermeable layers are the extreme
stream lines while the highest and lowest equipotential head lines are the ground levels on the
upstream and downstream respectively..
It is always suggested to construct the fownet such that all its elements are nearly squares. This
is not absolutely necessary but it is only recommended to facilitate the calculation as it will be
noticed.
CHAPTER 6
Around the corners, it may be diffcult to construct the fow net elements as squares. In this case
choose their shapes that the average length of the two sides in the direction of fow equal to the
average length of the other two sides.
In the fownet, the stream tube is defned as the space between two neighboring streamlines. It is
obvious from the equation of continuity that the fow through a stream tube is always constant
despite the change in the width of the tube as the fow cannot cross any of its sides since they
are both stream lines.
Consider the three shaded elements A, B& C of Fig. 6.1- a which are enlarged in Fig. 6.1-b. The
fow across element A equals the fow across the element B as they both lie in the same stream
tube. Thus, From Darcys Law
qA = bA .k.(D hA)/lA =qB =bB. k.(D hB)/lB (6.1)
in which, D hA and D hB are the head losses through the elements A and B respectively.
As the elements are chosen to be squares, then b A=lA and b B= l B. The use of this property in
equation 6.1 leads to the conclusion that D hA=D hB. This means that if the fownet is constructed
as squares the drop of head in all elements of the streamtube are equal . In other words, if the
number of elements in a stream tube is N d and the total difference in head between the up
stream and down stream is H, then the drop in head in each element D h= H/N d. Thus, the rate
of fow through the stream tube equals (k. H)/Nd.
Consider another streamtube, say that containing the element C, the fow q C through that tube
must be k.bC.( D hC)/ lC .Since the elements are squares, then b C=lC .. Moreover, the elements B
and C lie between the same two equipotential lines, hence D h C =D h B which means that D h C =
H/Nd and the fow qC equals kH/Nd .
This means that the fow through all the tubes are equal. Hence, if N f is the number of
streamtubes, Then the whole amount of seepage under the dam Q is given by the following
relation:
Q= k. H.Nf / Nd (6.2)
Also, the total head at the front of an element that lies after m drops behind the upstream is given
by the relation:
CHAPTER 6
hm = hu - m.H/Nd (6.3)
where hu is the total head at the upstream of the dam.
As a numerical example, Fig. 6.2 is considered . It consists of a masonry dam of length 20 m.

The dam is supplied by two sheet piles to reduce the uplift on the dam base as well as the rate of
seepage. One of the sheet piles is located at the upstream end of the dam base while the other
is fxed to its downstream end. The water level in the up stream is 10 m above the ground level
while it coincides with the ground level in the down stream. The impermeable layer lies at a
distance 20 m below the ground level. The hydraulic conductivity k=1.5x10-6 m/s.
From the constructed fownet ;
Nd = 22, Nf = 8
& Q= (1.5x10-6 )x.(10 )x(8)/22 = 5.45x10-6 m2/s
The uplift distribution under the dam is illustrated in Fig 6.2 b
6.2 Flow through Multilayer Soil

It is clear from equation (5.18) and Fig. 5.3 that a streamline which crosses the interface between
two layers suffers a defection that is dependent on the ratio between the hydraulic conductivity
of the two layers. To study the infuence of the sudden change of the value of hydraulic
conductivity on the fow net construction, Fig. 6.3 is considered.
CHAPTER 6
Assume that the fownet is constructed such that the elements are squares in region I whose
hydraulic conductivity is k1 (i.e. l1 = b1). In that region, the fow through the drawn streamtube is
k1 .D h1 .
At the interface between the two layers, the stream tube suffers a defection such that (k 1/k2 ) =
(tanq 1 /tanq 2). However, from the continuity equation, the rate of fow through the stream tube
remains unchanged, or
k2 . b2 .(D h2/l 2) = k1.D h1 (6.4)
Choose the element dimensions in layer II such that D h 2 = . D h 1 , then the substitution in
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equation (6.4) leads to the following relation:
l2/b2 = k2/k1 (6.5)
This means that the fownet elements in region II, will be rectangles whose length l 2 equals the
average breadth of the stream tube at the element b2 multiplied by (k2 /k1 ).
To illustrate that, the trivial problem of uniform fow through a multilayer soil is considered.
Assume that the fow occurs downwards perpendicular to three parallel layers of equal thickness
4 m. Assume further that the upper surface of the top layer (layer I) has a total head 2.00 m more
than the lower surface of the bottom layer (layer III). For k 1 = 0.5 k 2 = 2 k 3= 2x 10 -6 m/s, it is
required to calculate the amount of fow through 4.00 m breadth of the layers. In Fig. 6.5, the fow
net of the problem is illustrated.
From the fgure:
f =4, Nd = 14, Q= (k 1.Nf .H)/Nd= (2x10-6. 4.2)/14 =1.143x10-6 m2/s
This problem can be solved using equation (5.14). In this case:
kh = [(4x3)/( 4/2+4/4+4/1)]x10-6 = 1.714x10-6
v = kh. H/B = [(1.714).(2)/(12)]x10-6 = 2.857x10-7 m/s
Q = 4.v= 1.143x10 -6 m/s
which is the same result as that obtained from the fow net method.
CHAPTER 6
As another example, the fow through the earth dam of Fig. 6.5 is considered. The dam
dimensions are shown in the fgure. The water level in the upstream is 16.00 m above the bed
level . In the down stream a drainage flter with atmospheric pressure exists.
The dam is constructed using two types of isotropic soil. The soil in zone 1 in the up stream part
has a hydraulic conductivity 1.00x10 -7 m/s. The soil in zone 2 has a hydraulic conductivity 4x10 -7
m/s. The interface between the two layers is an inclined plane as shown in the fgure.
Fig. 6.5 Seepage through an Earth Dam (from, Cedergren, Seepage
Drainage and Flow Nets)
The fownet is constructed such that its elements in zone 1 are squares. Since k 2 = 4 k 1, the
elements in zone 2, are rectangles with the length equals 4 times the stream tube breadth.
CHAPTER 6
From the fgure, Nf = 3.5, Nd = 8
accordingly:
Q= (1x10-7) . (3.5).(16)/(8) = 7x10-7 m/s
6.3 Use of Transformations to solve nonhomogeneous and anisotropic
Problems
The steady state fow through porous media is described in its general form by equation (4.23).
In two dimensions, the equation reduces to:
{k (h/ x)}/ x+ {k( h/ y)}/ y =0 (6.6)
The defnitions of potential fow of section 4. 3 do not apply in this case . However, if a
transformation of the dependent variable h(x,y) can be found such that the equation reduces to a
form similar to that given by equation (4.10), then a graphical solution in the transformed domain
may be possible.
This can be explained as follows. Assume that there is a variable H which is a known
continuous single valued function of h, x & y whose frst two derivatives with respect to x
and y exist and are continuous, or:
H= f(h,x,y) (6.7-a)
The inverse of this function is also assumed to be existing and is unique, i.e.
h =f-1 (H,x,y) (6.7-b)
Now the function H (h, x,y) can be chosen such that it satisfes the Laplace equation, i.e
2H/ x2+ 2H/ y2 = 0 (6.8)
Then the velocity potential and stream function can be defned and a graphical solution of H
becomes possible. Knowing H in terms of x,y , relation (6.7-b) can be used to obtain the
corresponding values of H.
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However, it must be stated that fnding a variable H that satisfes equations (6.7) and (6.8)
together with the conditions of uniqueness and continuity is not simple .A lot of trial and error
works may or may not lead to a fruitful result.
The transformation can be also done in the independent variables. This means that a new
domain is found such that the coordinates of this new domain X, Y are related to the original
coordinates x, y by unique single valued continuous functions with continuous frst and second
derivatives. These functions may have the form:
X(x,y)= fx(x,y) (6.9-a)
Y(x,y)= f y(x,y) (6.9-b)
In the meantime, the inverse function of f x and f y exist and are unique. If the actual h in the new
domain satisfes Laplace equation, then a graphical solution in the (X,Y) domain becomes also
possible. After completing the solution in the new domain, the inverse of equations (6.9) can be
used to transform the solution in the original domain.
The transformation of the independent variable can be applied to solve problems of fow through
anisotropic soil. In two dimensions, equation(4.33) takes the following form:
kx 2h/ x2+ky 2h/ y2 =0 (6.10)
Assume that this equation is satisfed in the domain d of (x,y) plane of Fig. 6.6-a. Defne the
variables X, Y such that:
X=( ky /kx ).x (6.11-a)
Y = y (6.11-b)
The substitution from relations (6.11) in equation (6.10) for k x 0& ky 0 implies that:
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2h/ X2 + 2h/ Y2 =0 (6.12)
This means that h satisfes Laplace equation in the (X,Y) plane and hence the fow net can be
constructed in this plane.
The solution of the problem can be conducted as explained following these steps :
1. use equations (6.11) to draw the boundaries of the considered domain in the (X,Y)-plane
2. draw the fownet in the (X,Y)-plane and hence calculate Nf and Nd .
3. calculate the rate of seepage from the equation:
Q= (ka .H.Nf) /Nd (6.13)
where,
ke= kx ky (6.14)
1. Use the inverse of equations (6.11 ) to map the fow net in the original (x,y)-plane. Note that
the fow lines and lines of equal head do not necessarily meet at right angle in the (x,y)-
plane. This fow-net can be used to compute the total head values and uplift forces.
An example of the explained procedure is illustrated in Fig. 6.7. It is concerned with the fow
under a sheet pile in an anisotropic media with k x=4 k y = 6x10 -7 m/s. The water level in the
upstream is 10.00 m above the ground level while it coincides with the ground level in the
downstream. The impermeable layer lies at a depth of 12.00 m below the ground level and the
sheet pile extends 6.00 m through the soil. It is required to draw the fownet and calculate the
rate of seepage under the sheet pile.
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Defne the new plane (X,Y) with X=x. (ky/kx) =1/ 6 x and Y=y and the domain of fow is drawn
as shown in Fig. 6.8-a. The constructed fow net is shown in the same fgure. The total seepage
can hence be calculated using formula (6.13).
Q= 10-7[ 1.6 . 4.10]/8 = 1.22x10-6 m2/s
To draw the fownet in the actual (x,y) plane, use the relation x= 6 X, y=Y to map the points on
stream lines and lines of equal head from the (X,Y) plane. For example the point X=5, Y=0 on
the down stream whose head= 0 will be mapped into the point x=12.24, y=0. The whole mapped
fow net is shown in Fig. 6.8-b.
CHAPTER 6
6.4 Problems on Chapter 6

1. Sketch the fow net and compute the rate of seepage under the dam with sheet pile shown
in fgure for the 4 cases,a,b,c&d
a) kx1= ky1= kx2= ky2
b) kx1= ky1=2 kx2= 2ky2
CHAPTER 6
c) kx1= ky1= 0.5kx2=0.5 ky2
d) kx1= 2ky1= kx2= 2ky2
Answer:( 5x10-6)
2)A masonry dam is underlain by a sandy layer as shown in fgure. Draw the uplift stress
distribution under the dam for the following cases:
i. a = b =5 m , k 1=k 2= 0.000003 m/s
ii. a = .5b =5 m , k 1=k 2= 0.000003 m/s
iii. a = b =5 m , k 1=2k 2= 0.000003 m/s
iv. a = b =.5 m , k 1=0.5k2= 0.000003 m/s
v. a = .5b =5 m , k 1=2k 2= 0.000003 m/s
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 7
NUMERICAL METHODS AND SEEPAGE PROBLEMS
7.1 Main Numerical Methods of Solution
The fow through porous media occurs usually in domain shapes that make the possibility of
obtaining an analytical solution highly improbable. The nonhomogenity of the soil, the complexity
of the boundaries and boundary conditions makes the situation even more diffcult.
The graphical methods can be used to solve a wider class of problems than analytical method.
Their advantage is highly remarkable in case of potential fow through domains with irregular
boundaries. Other types of fow such as that through two dimensional anisotrobic homogeneous
soil or multilayers can also be treated graphically.
However, the graphical method requires a lot of experience and many trial and error works
before reaching a solution with reasonable accuracy. Moreover, the unsteady fow, that through
nonhomogeneous soil or the three dimensional fow can not be expected to be solved using a
graphical technique.
The numerical solution of boundary value problems is a very old subject. In the past, the diffculty
lied in the huge number of the obtained simultaneous algebraic equations, which have to be
solved to reach the solution.
The use of numerical methods started to be very popular more than half a century ago. The wide
spread of its use may be attributed to two types of reasons:
1. The development of strong numerical methods that can be applied to almost all types of
problems of fow through porous media. This lead to the production of high quality easy to
use software that can solve complicated problems and present the results in most
convenient forms
2. The production of relatively cheep computer hardware that supplies the user with huge
storage capacity, simple disk operating system and good output devices.
The most two widely used methods of numerical treatment of boundary value problems are:
3. the Finite- Difference Method
4. the Finite Element Method
Both methods can be applied to practically all types of seepage problems in mos possible
CHAPTER 7
boundary shapes and conditions. Software using both methods is available in competitive prices
all over the world
7.2 The Finite- Difference Method:-
The fnite differences method is dependent on the division of the domain of study into a number
of nodes. The partial derivatives of the differential equation are approximated into expressions in
terms of the variable values at the nodes. This is done using the known numerical methods. This
process is explained by the special case explained below.
7.2.1 Two dimensional Potential Flow
Consider the domain D of Fig. 7.1 in the (x,y)-plane. Divide the plane by lines parallel to the x
and y axes such that the distance between each two neighboring lines is constant and equals d
where d is a small number.
The point O(x,y) and the four neighboring points which lie on the lines passing through it are
drawn in Fig. 7.2
Assume that the total head at point O is h o. The head h1 at point 1 can be written in terms of
ho using Taylor series, or:
h1= ho + d. ho / x+[1/(2!)].d2 . 2 ho / x2 +................(7.1-a).
Also, the head h2 can be written in terms of ho, or:
h2= ho -d. ho / x+[1/(2!)].d2 . 2 ho / x2 -+......... (7.1-b)
The addition of equations (7.1-a) and (7.1-b) and neglecting terms of order d4 or highe leads to the following
CHAPTER 7
relation:
2 ho / x2 (h1 +h2 -2ho)/(2d) (7.2-a)
In a similar manner it can be shown that:
2 ho / y2 (h3 +h4 -2ho)/(2d)(7.2-b)
The potential fow through porous media as explained in chapter 4 satisfes Laplace equation:
2 h/ x2 + 2 h/ y2 =0 (7.3)
The substitution from equation (7.2) into equation (7.3) leads to the following algebraic relation:
h1+h2+h3+h4-4ho =0(7.4)
Relations similar to (7.4) can be obtained for all interior points of the domain. A point (x c,yc) on
the boundary of a water with total head H, will be represented by the relation
h(xc,yc) = H (7.5)
On an impermeable boundary, the velocity component in the direction perpendicular to the

boundary vanishes, or:
h/ n =0 (7.6)
CHAPTER 7
This condition can be written in numerical form using the theory of images. To explain that, the
point Q on the impermeable boundary of Fig. 7.1 is considered. The point Q and its
neighboring points is drawn in a larger scale in Fig. 7.3
The points Q, 1& 2 lie on the impermeable boundary which is parallel to the x-axis. The point
3 lies at a perpendicular distance d from the boundary. An image point 3 is assumed to be
existing at a distance d on the other side of the boundary in order to allow for a vanishing
velocity component perpendicular to the impermeable
boundary.
Applying the same procedure as that used to deduce equation (7.4), the following relation
results:
h1+h2+2h3 -4hQ =0(7.7)
After representing all interior and boundary points in algebraic forms similar to those in equations
(7.4) to (7.7), the obtained equations are solved simultaneously by any of the conventional exact
or relaxation methods. The result includes the total head of all nodes in the domain of
consideration.
As a numerical example, the total head at boundary points of Fig. 7. 4. are as indicated. It is
required to calculate the head at points A, B, C and D. It is clear that the line passing through
points B and D is a line of symmetry. Hence:
hA = hC(7.8-a)
The equations for different points are:
10+hB +hD-4hA = 0(7.8-b)
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2hA-4hB =0(7.8-c)
20+2hA-4hD = 0 (7.8-d)
The simultaneous solution of equations (7.8) leads to:
hA=5, hB = 2.5, hC = 5& hD = 7.5 ( use any length units)
7.2.2 Solution by Relaxation Method:-
If the number of nodes with unknown head is not very big (less than 10 seems a good limit!), it is
possible to obtain a quick solution of the problem without the need of a computer. This solution is
reached using a relaxation procedure
The steps of this procedure are as follows:
assume values for the total head at the nodes of unknown values and write the chosen
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value at the left side of each node. The choice of a reasonable assumption helps the process
of convergence to the fnal solution. However, even if the assumption is very far from the
correct solution, the convergence is guaranteed but it may take longer relaxation cycles.
calculate the residual value R at each node. For example at point O of Fig. 7.1, the
residual value is given by the relation:
h1+h2+h3+h4-4ho =R (7.9)
write the residual value at the right side of each node.
chose the starting node and the relaxation cycle which should pass through all nodes
whose total head values are not known apriori.
change the value of the total head in the starting point such that the residual R1 becomes
zero by adding (-R1) to it. This can be achieved by increasing h by the amount R1 /4.
calculate the infuence of the change in the value of h at the starting point on the residual
of all neighboring points. It is clear that the residual of each of the surrounding points will be
increased by (R1 /4). Write that change above the residual value of each of the four points.
move to the second point and calculate its new residual R2. Increase the value of h2 by
(R2/4) and calculate the infuence on the residue of neighboring points and repeat the steps
done in the case of the frst point.
continue the cycle by moving from one point to the next until the last point is reached.
go back to the staring point and reduce its new residual to zero and repeat the whole
process as before at that point and the next points of the cycle..
it will be noticed that the residual values decrease from one relaxation cycle to another. The
process is stopped after reaching the required accuracy.
The process of relaxation is better explained by solving the same numerical example of
section 7.2.1.
Assume that hA= 6, hB= 4, hC= 5& hD= 8. These values are written on the left side of each
point as shown in Fig. 7.5.
According to the assumed h values:
RA= 0+10+4+8 -4x6 =-2
similarly, RB= -5, RC = +2, RD = -1
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The calculated residuals are written on the right of the nodes. Chose A as a starting point and the
cycle to be clockwise as shown by arrows.
To make RA=0, it has to be increased by +2. This means hA has to be reduced by (2/4). The
change in hA which is -0.5 is written above the original value of hA. This change reduces RB
and RD by -0.5. So this change is written above the original values to the right of points B and
D respectively.
Fig. 7.5 A Numerical Example of Relaxation Method
Now at point D which follows A in the cycle, the residual becomes -1.5 which means that hD
should be reduced by -0.375. This implies a reduction of the same value in RC and RA.
The next point in the cycle is C. It s new residual RC =2- 0.375=+1.625. This means that RC
has to be reduced by 1.625 in order to become zero which in turn implies that hC must be
increased by 0.406. This causes an increase in RB and RD by the same amount
Point B is the last point in the cycle. It can be shown that hB must be reduced by 1.274. This
causes a negative change of the same amount in both RA and Rc. These values are used in the
second cycle which starts again at point A and ends at point B.
However, it is found satisfactory for the purpose of explanation of the method to stop at the end
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of the second cycle . In this stage hA= 6.00-.5-.406 =5.09, hB= 2.54, hC = 5.09 & hD = 7.62 . A
comparison with the results which are obtained using the fnite difference method indicate that
the conduction of more relaxation is necessary.
7.3 The Finite Element Method :-
In this method, the domain of fow is divided into a number of elements as shown in Fig. 7.6. The
elements do not have to be triangular as shown in the fgure. They may take any plane or three
dimensional shape. The sides may be straight lines or curves.
Actually, the type of fow controls to a great degree the chosen shape of elements. Also, in the
same problem, more than one shape of elements can be used. It is only necessary, that the
elements cover the whole domain and not overlap. Several shapes of commonly used elements
are shown in Fig. 7.8.
The method of fnite elements depends on the theories of calculus of variation. The boundary
value problem is substituted by its equivalent minimal variational integral. Of course this is not
always easy as the variational problem that is equivalent to the boundary value problem of
interest may not be known.
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It is fortunate that the widely used boundary value problems of the fow through porous media
have known equivalent variational integrals. For example , the functional given by the relation
7.10 correspond to the boundary value problem which represents the fow through
nonhomogeneous porous media with variable conductivity K (x,y) and known pressure values on
the boundary as given by equations 7.11.
I(F) = R {0.5[ K(F/x)2 +K(F/y)2] +fF}dx dy (7.10)
and,
/x (KF/x)+ /y (KF/y) = f(x,y) (7.11-a)
B.C., Fb(x,y) = G(x,y) (7.11-b)
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Also, the unsteady fow through porous media, which is represented by the boundary value
problem given by equations 7.12, is equal to the minimal integral of relation 7.13
2 F/ x2 +2 F/y2 = (S/T) F/t (7.12-a)
I.C., F (x,y,0) = f(x,y) (7.12-b)
B.C., Fb (x,y) =G(x,y) (7.12-c)
and,
I(F) = R {0.5[(F/x)2 +(F/y)2] +(S/T). (F/t). F}dx dy (7.13)
The steps of work using the method of fnite elements are as follows:
i) Defne the minimal problem that corresponds to the considered boundary value problem
ii) Divide the domain of fow into a number of elements. such that each element has a number of
nodes. the more nodes chosen in each element, the more accurate is the obtained the results.
However, this will be at the expense of calculation time and effort.
iii) Assume a function Fe to be representing the fow through each element. This function may
be a polynomial with number of constant equal to the number of nodes.
For example, if the chosen element i is triangular with three nodes at the vertices, a, b, c, the
Fe for element i is given by the linear relation 7.14
Fi = Ai + Bi x +Ci y (7.14)
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The values of the constants Ai , Bi , Ci are obtained in terms of the unknown F values at the
vertices Fa , Fb , Fc by simple substitution at the three points in equation 7.14 and solving the
three linear equations.
iv) As each element i contributes to the total value of the integral functional, then the minimal
process implies that
I(F) /Fi = 0 i=1,2,.. ,m (7.15)
where m is total number of elements.
The application of equation 7.15 m times on the functional integral for each value of m, leads to
m linear algebraic equations for the values of F at the nodes.
v) The solution of the obtained algebraic equations leads to the values of F at the nodes while
the application of these values in Fe leads to the values any where inside the fnite elements.
To illustrate step iii), consider a triangular elements which has three nodes at the vertices ai
(0,0), bi (1,0), ci (0,1). The substitution in equation 7.14 at each of the three nodes leads to:
Fa = Ai +0 +0 (7.15 -a)
Fb = A i + Bi +0 ( 7.15-b)
Fc = A i+0+Ci (7.15-c)
The simultaneous solution of the three equations leads to the determination of Ai , Bi & Ci in
terms of Fa , Fb ,Fc . Thus equation 7.14 for the element i takes the following form:
Fi = Fa + (Fb - Fa ) x + (Fc - Fa)y (7.16 )
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As an example to the use of fnite element method in the problems for fow through porous
media, the situation illustrated in Fig. 8
The considered problem represents the fow under a masonry dam with a sheet pile under the
upstream side of the dam base. The domain is divided into rectangular elements. To get good
accuracy, each element is chosen to be having 8 nodes, one at each vertex and one at the
middle of each of the rectangular sides. The study domain and the fnite elements are shown in
Fig. 7.9
The solution of this problem is conducted using a special software following the same procedure
that is explained in this section, the obtained results In Fig. 7.10, the lines of equal head as well
CHAPTER 7
as the fuid fow vectors are illustrated. The total head and the pressure head under the dam
base are shown in Fig 7.11 and Fig. 7.12 respectively
7.4 Problems on Chapter 7
1) Find the velocity potential points a,b,c&d indicated in the fgure using the relaxation method
(k=5x10-5 m/s), Dx=Dy=1m
Answer (2.5x10-5, 1.25x10-5, 3.75x 10-5)
2) Solve problem (1) using the fnite differences method
Answer ( same as problem 1)
1) For the groundwater fow
shown in fgure, write
the fnite differences equation,
For the following points
a) The intersection points
between the GW and
Sheet pile
b) at point A on the sheet pile
2 m below the ground level
c) at point B which lies 2m to the right of point B
d) at point C which lies 2m above point B
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
There is no doubt that the presence of water in the soil has its merits. The presence of
groundwater level close to the ground surface has its economic advantages, especially if it is
used for production. On the other hand, numerous types of causalities could be avoided if the
groundwater level is kept low enough.
In this chapter, several cases, in which the groundwater plays a major, are considered
8.1 Temporary Groundwater level Control
In excavation works, the presence of groundwater in higher levels, makes the process very
complicated. Generally, it is found more practical to lower the groundwater level far enough to
make the excavation and other execution works easier. This is done in several ways depending
on the original groundwater level, soil properties, importance of the structure and the length of
the subsurface construction period.
Among the methods of groundwater control are the following:
dewatering
freezing
electro-osmosis
grouting
compressed air
8.1.1 Control of groundwater Level by Dewatering Methods:-
The use of pumping methods to lower the groundwater water level is the most widely used and in
many cases, the more economical. The groundwater can be directly pumped or allowed to seep
CHAPTER 8
to sumps at the boundaries of the excavation site, where it can be pumped from there.
The use of sumps is particularly useful in case of cohesive soils and generally for the cases of
low permeable soil. It can also be applied in case of cohesionless soils provided that the side
slopes are kept safe from failure through the choice of proper side slopes or the use of earth
retaining measures.
In case of soils with high permeability values, the sump capacity may not be enough to take the
amount of seepage from the excavation bottom and sides. In these cases, the use of one or
more deep wells may be the solution. For the case of N number of wells, the draw down di of
well number i equals (H-hi ) where H is the initial water depth to the impermeable layer and hi can
be obtained by solving equation 8.1
k={qi ln(ri/rw)}/[ p{( hi -s)2 -ti 2}.{1+(0.3+10 rw/hi).sin(1.8s/hi)}] (8.1)
where :
k= hydraulic conductivity of the soil
qi = discharge of well number i
ri = distance of well number i from point of consideration
rw = radius of well
s = the height of the bottom of the well over the impermeable layer.
ti = depth of water in the well
CHAPTER 8
The total draw down d is hence, given by :
d= S di , i=1,2,......N (8.2)
The considered confguration for the case of two wells is shown in Fig. 8.2
One of the most popular methods of groundwater lowering is the use of well points systems.
This method is illustrated in Fig. 8.3
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The system consists of vertical well points connected through vertical pipes (risers). The
risers discharge their water in horizontal pipes called headers. The riser is surrounded by a
coarse sand flter in order to facilitate the fow of water towards the well points. These details
are shown in Fig, 8.4. The headers are connected to the pump. When the pump is strated, the
water rises from the well points through the risers and from it to the headers and fnally is
discharged outside the system to collecting tanks or vehicles.
The distance between the well points depends mainly on the hydraulic conductivity and the head
of water to be raised. Usually, it ranges between 0.30 m and 5.0 m
In case of deep excavation, dewatering can be done on stages as it is shown in Fig. 8.5.
The proper way to design a well point system is to use the theory of partially penetrating wells.
The total drawdown at any point is the integration of the draw down that occurs due to discharge
of each of the well points. Thus for a number of well points, equations 8.1 and 8.2 are applicable.
In this case, the groundwater level is required to be lowered to a certain water level (below
foundation or working level for example). To design the well point system means, that it is
required to calculate the total amount of discharge as well as the number and location of well
points.
CHAPTER 8
The usual procedure of design is as follows
a) Set a minimum and a maximum value for the distance between well points from practice ( 0.50
m and 10 m respectively are safe assumptions). Also assume an infnitesimal rate of iteration dL
b) Assume distribution of well points such that the distance between well points is as much as it
is reasonably possible (less than the maximum distance between well points )
c) Assume a very low rate of discharge ( experience can help in making a reasonable start
assumption) and an infnitesimal rate of iteration dQ.
d) Apply equations 8.1 and 8.2 to calculate the drawdown at different locations in the site ( for
example cover the area with a mesh of points and calculate at every node of the mesh)
e) If the water level at all points is lowered below the maximum allowed level, stop the iteration
process and move to point f). If the water level at one or more points remains higher than the
allowed level, increase the discharge by a small element dQ and return to point d)
f) Register the value of the computed discharge and distance between well points.
g) Test the distance between the well points whether it reaches the minimum value. If it does
move to point h) .If not, Decrease the distance between the well points by a small value d L and
move to point c).
h) Now, there is a set of solutions each has a certain discharge rate and the corresponding
distances between the well points. Each one of these solutions satisfy the condition of lowering
CHAPTER 8
the groundwater surface below the required level. A choice between the solutions is governed by
economic considerations and the technical capability of the available well pint system.
The previous method is tedious and includes a lot of iteration steps. It may be easy to conduct
the calculations using a computer program. In this case, treating the problem as a potential fow
problem with point sinks in the location of well points is a possibility.
Amore simplifed method, is to substitute the well points by a single well at the center of the site
as shown in Fig. 8.6. The radius of this well rw is obtained such as the area of the well equals the
area of the site, i.e.
rw =A/p (8.3)
where A= site area
Some analysts prefer to equate the circumference of the site C, with the well circumference. In
this case:
rw = C/(2 p) (8.4 )
The total discharge of the system, can be obtained simply from the following single well
equation:
Q = [p k ( H2 -h2w)] / [ln(R0/rw)] (8.5)
Where
H= Depth from water level before pumping to impermeable layer.
hw = steady state depth of water in the well after pumping
R0= radius of infuence of the well
CHAPTER 8
The radius of infuence can be determined from topography and geology. A rough estimate can
be obtained from the relation:
R0 = rw + (Tt)/(lCs) (8.6)
Where :
T = aquifer transmissivity
t = time
Cs = aquifer storage coeffcient
l= a constant depends on used dimensions ( equals 640 for metric system)
The computed Q of equation 8.5 for the equivalent single well is usually less than that actually
needed to be collected by a big number of well points. Therefore, it is recommended to multiply it
by 2 to be in the safe side.
Another method of dewatering is done through the use of horizontal wells . This method is more
convenient for the case of fssured rocks. Horizontal perforated pipes are branched out of a
vertical shaft. The water collected by the horizontal walls is pumped out of the shaft to the ground
level with a rate that guarantees a water surface below the desired level. A typical horizontal well
dewatering system is shown in Fig. 8.7.
CHAPTER 8
8.1.2 Control of Groundwater by Freezing
This is one of the most expensive methods of groundwater control. It is actually used when it is
practically impossible to use any other method. Double walled Pipes are inserted vertically to the
required depth through the soil at distances 1-1.5 m center to center around the excavation area.
The fuid used to freeze the water is compressed through the inner tube from the freezing plant.
The fuid fows back to the plant through the distance between the two walls of the tube.
The process of freezing may take several months to be completed. Moreover, the freezing of the
bottom of the excavation is far more diffcult than the sides.
8.1.3 Use of Electro-Osmosis Methods to Control Groundwater
For low permeable soils, the normal pumping methods of dewatering may not be adequate. In
such cases, the electro-osmosis procedure may be helpful. In any event, it is much cheaper and
faster than freezing.
If an anode is penetrated in the soil close to the excavation edge and a cathode is located far
enough from the excavation, the groundwater fows from the excavation side away from it as it is
illustrated in Fig. 8.8.
Hence, if a perforated tube is located near the position of the cathode, it collects water, which
seeps away from the excavation site towards that tube. Water can be pumped from the pipe to
the ground level.
CHAPTER 8
8.1.4 Control of Groundwater by Grouting
In highly permeable cohesionless soil, the safety of the side slopes may be endangered through
the application of severe pumping. In such cases, especially if control of the groundwater is
required permanently, the methods of grouting can be used.
The main idea is to insert fne materials or chemicals around the excavation in order to reduce
the hydraulic conductivity of the surrounding soil to a minimum.
In other words, the grouting process creates an almost impervious curtain around the excavation.
The grouting is conducted using movable pipes with holes. The grout material is injected under
pressure as it fows outside the pipes through the holes to fll the voids of the surrounding soil as
illustrated in Fig. 8.9
The material used for grouting may be clay, cement or special chemical compounds.
CHAPTER 8
8.1.5 Use of Compressed Air to Control Groundwater
In deep excavation under groundwater level, the process of dewatering may be very diffcult. This
occurs specially in case of caissons and tunnels construction. The water pressure may assume
very high values in such cases.
To overcome the water pressure, compressed air under higher pressure is applied in order to
overcome the water and earth stresses. Naturally, the compressed air method is applied only in
closed and relatively small areas. This method is comparatively expensive.
8.2 Impacts of Groundwater Movement
The movement of groundwater in the vertical direction causes a change on the stress distribution
of the soil medium. This occurs due to the change of the state of the soil from submurged to
saturated condition or vice-versa. For example, if the groundwater level is reduced by an
amount h, an excess stress s is applied due to the change of the state of the soil above the
new groundwater level from the submurged to the saturated condition. This increase in stress
equals:
s = h.(gs -gsub) (8.7)
where gs , gsub are respectively the saturated and submurged specifc weight of the soil.
On the other hand if the water rises above any point by h, the stress changes according to the
following equation:
s = -h..(gs-gsub) (8.8)
The impact of groundwater is not restricted to the changes in stresses as there are some types of
soil whose structures are strongly infuenced by wetting. Among these are the expansive and
collapsible soils.
8.2.1 Infuence of Groundwater movement on Expansive Soils
CHAPTER 8
The rising or lowering of groundwater level may have severe effects on the soil characteristics.
Several types of clayey soils are sensitive to the value of its water content. The type of minerals
that constitute the clay plays the major role in this respect .Clay minerals can be classifed into
three main groups. These are
The kaolin group

The montomorillonite group
The illite group
The Kaolin minerals have fxed lattices and exhibit only a small degree of hydration and
adsorptive properties. On the other hand, the montomorillonite minerals have expanding lattices
and exhibit a high degree of hydration and cation adsorption. The illite minerals have an
expanding lattice structure similar to montomorillonite while their expansion potential is low.
Two important properties of expansive soils have to be considered, namely the swelling
percentage and swelling pressure. The infuence of these properties on buildings and
infrastructure is obvious.
As the moisture content of the expansive soil increases, swelling pressure is induced. In the
case of light buildings or roads, this pressure may exceed the total over burden pressure. This
allows the soil to expand causing a heave condition which may result severe damages to the
buildings or infrastructure.
Holtz and Gibbs (1956) studied the phenomena and correlated soil index properties with the
probable volume changes. Table 8.1 includes a summary of their results:
Table 8.1 Relation of Soil Index Properties and Expected
Data from Index Tests

Total Volume
Colloid Content Degree of
Change (Dry to
Percecent<0.001 Plasticity Index Shrinkage Limit(%) Saturated Condition) Fxpansion
mm
>28 >35 <11 >30 Very high
20-31 25-41 7-12 20-30 High
13-23 15-28 10-16 10-20 Mwdium
<15 <10 >15 <10 Low
To overcome the impacts of moisture content change on buildings and roads that are to
be constructed on expansive soil, one or more of these measures may be applied:
CHAPTER 8
Replace expansive soil by a soil with small expansive proiperties such as sand for example
Construct a permanent dewatering system that guarantees a constant groundwater

level
Increase the dead load of the building such that it induces stress values that
exceeds the swelling pressure
Conduct proper compaction of the soil to reduce the expected expansion in volume
and induced pressure
Construct the building of statically determined elements to allow of nondestructive

movement of these elements as swelling pressure comes into action
Allow space under the foundation that is flled with light material such as loose sand
or empty carton boxes to make room for expanding soil and hence reduce swelling pressure
below the foundation.
The designer has to choose between the mentioned alternatives according to the importance of
the structure and economic considerations
8.2.2 Infuence of Groundwater movement on dispersive
Soils
Some types of soil become highly erodible when subjected to water of low salt content. Such
soils can be found in food-plain deposits, loess and lake beds. These soils often contain clay
minerals with high content of dissolved sodium cation in their pore water.
The particles of these soils change into suspension condition in fowing water and migrates with
the moving fuid. This leads to the creation of piping through the soil mass. The size and number
of the pipes increases as the process of dissolving of the salt contained in the soil continues.
Complete or partial collapse may occur.
There are several direct and indirect methods to identify the dispersive properties of clay. Among
these methods are the double hydrometer test, crumb test, pinhole test and chemical tests that
relate the percentage of sodium to total soluble salt content in pore water.
Chemical additives can be used to reduce the erosive behavior of soil. Also, the use of sand
flters that contain a considerable portion of fne sand is found useful in reducing migration of
dispersive clay particles in the cases of embankments and earth dams. Of course, soil
replacement is always a good solution which, however, is subjected to economic considerations.
CHAPTER 8
8.2.3 Regional Lowering of Groundwater Levels
In urbanized areas, the ground water receives a lot of infow from different domestic sources.
Among these sources are:
leakage from public fresh water networks
leakage from public sewerage networks and septic tanks
leakage from inside the house water and sewage systems
excess irrigation of public and private green areas
The infow from these sources causes generally a continuous rise of the groundwater level. This
has dangerous environmental and health impacts together with the engineering impacts on the
infrastructure and buildings basements and foundations.
The groundwater rise can be controlled by one of two means. These are:
Conservation of water use and reduction of water losses
keeping the groundwater table below a safe level
The interest here is concentrated on the second alternative as the frst is outside of the scope of
subjects discussed in this book. The methods mentioned in section 8.1.1 can in general be used
to guarantee a permanent groundwater level control.
However, an another method that is more suitable for the case of urbanized areas is the use of
covered drains. This method has the advantage of having fewer side effects on the foundation
safety and a far less maintenance cost.
They collect water their water through slots across their perimeter or at joints between the
elements as shown in Fig. 8.10.
CHAPTER 8
The covered drains cause a relatively mild free surface gradient, which means small differential
settlement values of building foundations. And less impacts on the infrastructure. The fow
through drains occurs under gravity, which means that the processes of pumping are generally
avoided. This results a low operation and maintenance cost.
On the other hand, the cost of drain construction is usually higher than deep wells. Also, the
installation of gravity drains requires longer time and may cause traffc diffculties during the
construction process. However, after it is completed, it usually causes far less trouble than the
other methods.
The gravity drains are usually constructed in a network form along the streets such that they
follow the natural street gradient as much as possible. The drain pipes may be of clay, PVC or
Asbestos.
Several methods are available for the design of parallel gravity drains. The method introduced
by Houghoudt is from those most widely used. It represents the case shown in Fig. 811.
In this method, the distance a between drains is given by equation 8.9. This equation is deduced
for the case of deep open drain. In order to apply it for circular covered drain, the depth D has to
CHAPTER 8
be modifed to another depth d using a multiplication factor which can be obtained from Table
8.2.
a = (8 k1 d h+4k2 h20/q) (8.9)
where
k1 = hydraulic conductivity above drain level (m/d)
k2 = hydraulic conductivity below drain level (m/d)
h = vertical distance between highest water level and drain level (m)
q = infltration rate per unit area
D = actual depth from drain level to impermeable area
d= modifed drain depth
Table 8.2 Modifcation Factor of Drain Depth
D(m)/
5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
a(m)
0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.50 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.75 0.60 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.76 0.76
1.00 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.89 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.96 0.96 0.96
1.25 .070 0.82 0.89 1.05 1.05 1.09 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.15
1.50 0.71 0.88 0.97 1.19 1.19 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.35 1.36
2.00 0.71 0.91 1.02 1.30 1.30 1.39 1.45 1.49 1.52 1.55 1.57
2.25 0.71 0.93 1.08 1.41 1.41 1.50 1.57 1.62 1.66 1.70 1.72
2.50 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.57 1.57 1.69 1.79 1.87 1.94 1.99 2.02
3.00 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.67 1.67 1.83 1.97 2.08 2.16 2.23 2.29
3.50 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.75 1.75 1.93 2.11 2.24 2.35 2.45 2.54
4.00 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.81 1.51 2.02 2.22 2.37 2.51 2.62 2.71
5.00 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.88 1.88 2.15 2.38 2.58 2.75 2.89 3.02
0.71 0.93 1.14 1.89 1.89 2.24 2.58 2.91 3.24 3.56 3.88
The Nomogram developed by van Bears, which is shown in Fig. 8.12, can be used instead of
CHAPTER 8
Equation 8.9 and Table 2.
To determine the diameter of the drain and the velocity of fow, the equation of Prandtl-Colebrook
can be applied. It has the following the form:
v = 8g d i lg [ kb/(3.71 d) +(2.51 n)/(d2 g d i )] (8.10)
where
v= average velocity through the drain (m/s)
g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
d= diameter of drain (m)
i= slope of drain pipe
kb= drain pipe roughness (mm)
n = Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Usually the rate of infltration is known, and the calculation of the distance between the drains is
to be computed. Regarding the application of equation 8.10, the slope i is obtained from the
topography and has to be at least 0.003and preferably <0.08.
CHAPTER 8
The value of kb depends on the material of drain pipe. For clay pipes kb =0.70 mm, for rough
PVC pipes, kb =2 mm , while for smooth PVC pipes , kb =0.20 mm. The assumption of a
reasonable velocity( 1 m/s, for example ), leads to the estimation of the corresponding drain
diameter
8.3 Soil Consolidation
If a saturated soil mass is subjected to an extra loading, the water inside the pores is forced out
and the solid particles come closer together. This process is defned as consolidation. The
phenomenon of consolidation is noticed clearly in Compressible soils such as clay or peat.
Sandy or gravely in loose or rock conditions suffer far less from this phenomenon.
8.3.1 General Theory of Consolidation:
Consider a mass of a compressible soil, which is surrounded by an environment consisting of low

compressibility characteristics. The considered condition is illustrated in Fig. 8.11. Assume
further that an extra loading is applied on the ground surface. Excess stresses reach the
compressible soil causing the consolidation process to take place.
Considering a small element D x Dy Dz of the compressible soil, the total volume V/t of fuid
that leaves this element through unit time (as indicated in Chapter 4) is given by the following
equation:
V/t = [(kx.h/x)/x +(ky.h/y)y+(kz.h/z)/z] D xDyDz (8.11)
CHAPTER 8
where
x, y, z = Cartesian coordinates
h = u/ g+z = total fuid head
u= pore water pressure
g = fuid specifc weight
kx , ky , kz = Hydraulic conductivity in the x, y and z directions respectively
In this case, the change in volume is solely due to the change in pore pressure u as the position
head z remains unchanged, hence
d h = (1/ g)du (8.12)
or:
V/t =(1/g).[(kx.u/x)/x+(ky.u/y)y+(kz.u/z)/z]DxDyDz (8.13)
The volume of soil element V consists of the volume of solids V s and volume of voids V v. As the
volume of solids in the element remains unchanged. Then:
V/t = Vv/t (8.14)
For a void ratio e:
Vv/t =Vs e/t = 1/(1+e) . ( D x Dy Dz.) (e/t) (8.15)
The change in void ratio is inversely related to the change in effective stress s. For an
infnitesimal time element, this relation can be considered linear, or
e/t = - av s/t (8.16)
CHAPTER 8
where av is referred to as the coeffcient of compressibility.
The increase of s is due to the decrease of excess pore water pressure u., hence:
e/t = av u/t (8.17)
The coeffcient of volume compressibility mv is defned by following relation :
mv = av /(1+e) (8.18)
The Application of equations 8.14, 8.15, 8.17 and 8.18 in equation 8.13 leads to the general
equation of consolidation 8.19
(1/g) .[(kx.u/x)/x +(ky.u/y)y+(kz.u/z)/z] =mv u/t (8.19)
In the case of a homogenous isotropic soil where the hydraulic conductivity k is constan t,
equation 8.19 . takes the following simpler form:
2u/x2 + 2u/y2 +2u/z2 = (1/Cv)u/t (8.20)
where Cv is called the coeffcient of consolidation and is defned by the following relation:
Cv = k /( g mv ) (8.21)
In the special case of one dimensional consolidation in the z direction, which is shown in Fig.
8.12, equation 8.21 reduces to the following form:
u/t =Cv 2u/z2 (8.22)
CHAPTER 8
Equations 8.19 and 8.20 after adding the boundary and initial conditions can be solved
numerically using any of the known methods such as the fnite difference method, the fnite
element method. These two methods are explained in Chapter 7.
An analytical solution of equation 8.22 is only possible for simple types of boundary and initial
conditions. In other cases, numerical methods may have to be used.
One of the simple cases is that of a thin compressible layer of constant thickness D that is
bounded from top and bottom by highly permeable incompressible layers. The initial pore
pressure is zero every where. At at t=0 a constant excess pressure u i= -Dp is applied. A solution
of this boundary value problem using the method of separation of variables is possible. In this
case, the pore pressure u at any level z has the following form:
u=m=0 m= [(2ui/M). {sin (2Mz/D)}exp(-M2T)] (8.23)
where
T= (4tCv)/H2 and is known as the time factor
& M= (2m+1) p/2
The average rate of consolidation at any time t can be deduced from the previous equation by
integration over the thickness of the layer and division by D. Thus:
U=1- m-0 m=[(2 /M2).exp(-M2T)] (8.24)
The total settlement Sf occurs after infnite time and can be obtained from the relation :
CHAPTER 8
Sf= D. mv.Dp (8.25)
The settlement S(t) at any time t can be obtained in terms of average rate of consolidation U
from the following equation:
S(t) =U.Sf (8.26)
In which U is calculated from equation 8.25
As it is clear from Fig. 8.12, the previous equations are deduced for the case in which the
drainage takes place from top and bottom. If an impermeable layer exists, at the bottom for
example, then the drainage takes place from the top only.
The direct way to handle this problem is to solve this problem is to solve the differential
equation 8.22 with the same initial condition as before. However, in this case the boundary
conditions will be:
u (D/2, t)= ui (8.27)
and
u(-D/2, t)/z=0 (8.28)
It is also possible to solve the previous problem by taking advantage of the solution of the two
way drainage given by equations 8.23 to 8.26. The impermeable layer is taken as a line of
symmetry and the theory of images is used to obtain the solution for a layer of thickness 2D.The
calculated settlement at any time t for the theoretical layer of thickness 2D is double that of the
layer of thickness D.
It is obvious that the same procedure can be adopted if the impermeable layer bounds the
compressible soil from the top.
8.4 Vertical Sand Drains
Some compressible soils has very low permeability values. In such cases, the value of C v
becomes very small as it is clear from equation 8.21. This in turn leads to the result that the
settlement values increases very slowly with time as the time factor T which appears in equations
CHAPTER 8
8.23 and 8.24 becomes also small. In other words, too much time is needed before a
considerable part of the expected settlement is reached.
Another reason that may slow down the soil settlement is the increase of the length of the
drainage path. This may be due to the thickness of the compressible layer impermeable layers
bound it.
In many cases of practical interest, it may become necessary to reach a considerable part of the
total settlement in a short time. For example if the construction period is so small such that the
construction may be complete, while only a small percentage of the total settlement took place.
This may lead to structural damage to the structure as high settlement values continue to
increase.
One of the commonly adopted methods to accelerate the settlement, is the construction of
vertical sand drains. The distribution and diameter of sand drains depends on soil properties and
on how quick the maximum settlement is expected to be reached
Usually the drains have diameters between 250 mm and 600 mm. They are usually distributed in
the form of a network on parallel lines or staggered form. The distance between drains may be
as low as 2.00 m and as high as 5.00m. In Fig. 8.13, a system of sand drains is shown in plan
and a vertical section.
Fig. 8.13 Sand Drains in Plan and Elevation
CHAPTER 8
The fow to the sand drains will be mainly horizontal. Using Cylindrical Coordinates, the
differential equation of consolidation takes the following form:
u/t= Ch [2u/r2 +(1/r)u/r] (8.29)
where
r = the radial distance
Ch = coeffcient of consolidation for horizontal drainage
The area of infuence of each sand drain is obtained by bisecting the lines connecting the drain
with the neighboring drains and drawing from the point of intersection perpendicular straight lines
as shown in Fig. 8.14. It is clear from the fgure that the area of infuence for a square network
with side length "a" is an equal square with the same side length.
For a staggered drain distribution, the infuence area is a hexagon with side length a/3.
The
equivalent
circle is
defned as
the circle
with the
same area
as that of the
drain
infuence
area. Thus
for a square
CHAPTER 8
network, the
Ur which appears as an ordinate represents the percentage consolidation. The time factor T r
equivalent
which
area hasappears
a as abscissas is defned as:
radius R=
a/ p while
T = C t/ (4R2) (8.30)
for ra h
staggered
network R=

a3/(2p).
Usually
Baron has sand drains are constructed in the cases in which the vertical drainage is very slow.
Some the
solved times, it may be totally neglected in the calculations.
problem for
If it is required to be taken into consideration, a good approximation may be reached if it is
pure
calculated separately using the equations of section 8.3. Hence the resultant percentage
horizontal
consolidation Ut can be obtained from the following relation:
consolidation
and
presented
Ut = 100- (1-U) (100-Ur) (8.31)
the solution
in the
Where U and Ur can be obtained from equation 8.24 and Fig. 8.29 respectively
graphical
form that is
A more accurate result can be obtained through the numerical solution of the following axis
illustrated in
symmetrical three dimensional differential equation
Fig. 8.15
u/t= Ch [2u/r2 +(1/r)u/r] +Cv 2u/z2 (8.32)
All parameters and variables that appear in the equation are previously defned.
8.5 Seepage through Embankments and Earth Dams
Embankments and earth dams are constructed to protect agricultural and urban areas against
food aggression. Earth dams are also constructed for the purpose of water conservation.
As the water level in the front side is not always equal to that in the back, seepage through the
dam takes place. This infuences the dam stability Moreover the seeped water may cause
environmental impacts on the area behind the dam. A typical shape of earth dams is illustrated in
Fig. 8.16.
CHAPTER 8
Earth dam designers are usually concerned about the following aspects:
Dam stability under different upstream and down stream water level conditions
The free surface shape and location
The rate of seepage through the earth dam
Before the wide use of personal computers and the spread of professional software, the
empirical and graphical methods were the most popular. Now, it is easier and much more
accurate to apply numerical methods such as the fnite differences and fnite element to treat the
problem. Ready software are available for almost all possible conditions of earth dams.
There are several ways to improve the static and hydraulic conditions of an earth dam.
One of these is to construct a highly permeable blanket in the lower part of the downstream end
of the dam. This will force the free surface down to the level of the blanket and hence, reduce the
seepage through the back side of the dam to a negligible value. This prevents the inundation of
the areas in the downstream of the dam. The environmental advantage of that is obvious.
However, this will be on the cost of increasing the rate of seepage through the dam as the drain
blankets collects more water than that which seeps through a dam without a downstream drain..
Another method is to construct a vertical core of a highly impermeable soil inside the dam. This
serves two purposes. First it lowers the free surface behind the core and secondly it reduces the
rate of seepage considerably.
Other methods such as installing vertical sheet piles through the dam or increasing the dam are
also being used
A numerical example is presented to illustrate the infuence of the application of seepage control
methods on the fow conditions through earth dams. The considered example is shown in Fig.
8.17 .
As it is clear from the fgure, the dam rests on an impermeable soil. The bottom and top widths
CHAPTER 8
of the dam are 52.00 m and 4.00 m respectively. The front and back side slopes are both 2:1.
The water level on the upstream is 11.00 m above the ground level. The earth dam is
constructed of a soil with hydraulic conductivity k= 8.6 x10-3 m/d
The problem is solved for the following three cases:
No blanket or core is used
A drain blanket is located below the dam on the ground level. It extends below the
last 14.00 of the back side slope of the dam.
A core of width 4 m over the whole height of the dam is situated at the center of the
dam. The core material has a hydraulic conductivity k=1x10-4 m/d
The solution of case a, which represents the fow without seepage control is shown in Fig. 8.18.
The fgure includes, the equipotential lines, the groundwater free surface and the rate of fow
across 2 indicated sections.
The rate of seepage per meter length of dam in this case is 1.737 m 3/d. The groundwater free
surface meets the back side slope at a height of 8.00 m. Thus the water seeps through most of
the backside of the dam. The high concentration of equipotential lines around the tail is an
indication of high seepage rates in that region. As stated before, this has its impacts on the
environment.
CHAPTER 8
Fig. 8.19 includes the results of case b in which a drain blanket exists. Here, the free surface
converges downwards as it meets the drain blanket 13.00 m ahead of the tail. Thus, the rate of
seepage across the back side slope becomes negligible. The fow seeps mainly to the drain
blanket. This means that the environmental impacts are avoided. However in this case, the rate
of seepage in per meter length of dam increases to 3.508 m 3/d. This is about double the rate of
case a. In many cases the seeped water is collected by gravity pipes outside the site where it
can be reused.
The solution of the third and last case( case c) is shown in Fig. 8.20. The rate of fow per meter
length of dam is reduced to 3.505x 10 -3 m3/d. which is a very small values compared with the
other two cases. The free surface meets the back side slope about 3 m above the ground level.
Thus, water still seeps around the tail of the dam although that occurs small rates. This means
that the environmental effects are reduced considerably but not completely avoided
CHAPTER 8
The previous example is solved using the method of fnite elements. Similar Problems can be
solved using the same method
8.6 Contaminant Transport through Porous Media
The sources of contamination of groundwater are numerous. Generally, they are the result of the
unfriendly way in which the man treats his environment. The contamination of groundwater has
its direct infuence on the health of people, animals and plants. It has its indirect effect on the
economy and engineering structures. The main sources of groundwater contamination are
leakage from waste water networks
disposal of industrial wastes
leakage from landflls
leakage from petrol and oil change service stations
fertilizers used in agricultural areas
The fow of fuid through porous media depends on the characteristics of fuid as well as those of
the medium through which it fows. The fow through the partially saturated zone is a two phase
problem. If the fuid contains in the mean time a foreign matter such as a contaminant material,
the situation changes to a three phase problem that depends also on the contaminant
characteristics.
The contaminant motion consists of two accumulative components, namely the advection and
the dispersion. The advection component is the motion with the same fuid velocity as the fuid
CHAPTER 8
moves. The dispersion is a motion of the contaminant due to the change of concentration rate
within the media. Hence, if the fuid is stationary, the contaminant tends to disperse from
locations of high concentration to others with lower concentration.
The contaminant transport through porous media in three dimensions can be studied by
considering the fuid and contaminant fow balance in an infnitesimal three dimensional element
However, due to the large number of parameters involved, and for the purpose of explanation, a
one dimensional consideration of the problem is presented as a frst step. The considered
situation is illustrated in Fig. 8.21
Assume that the contaminant concentration is C, M is the mass dissolved in a unit volume of
fuid, q is the mass fow rate in the x direction and Q is the water content in the porous media,
then from principle of mass conservation:
C/t =-q/x (8.33)
The mass fux q consists of both advection and dispersion components. The advection = U C
with U is the Darcian velocity. The dispersion = - Q D C/x where D is the hydrodynamic
dispersion coeffcient. Thus, equation 8.33 can be written as:
QC/t = -/x [DC/x+UC] (8.34)
If the solid soil unit mass is rs, the adsorption rate per mass of solid is S and the concentration
decays exponentially through a time decay coeffcient l, then the previous equation takes the
following form:
(Q+rs S/C)C/t = -/x [Q DC/x+UC]-l QC- lS rs (8.35)
CHAPTER 8
In tensor form, the two dimensional contaminant transport through fully saturated soil is given by
the following formula:
/ xi(Dij C/ xj ) = C/ ti,j=1,2 (8.36)
where D ij is the dispersion coeffcient matrix which is dependent
on
the dispersivity and molecular diffusion.
From the previous arguments, it can be concluded that the solution of contaminant
transport problems involve the solution of two boundary value problems. The frst one, is the
solution of the fuid fow problem using the equations discussed in Chapter 4.The obtained result
includes the advection component of the contaminant movement.
To obtain the dispersion component, the solution of equation 8.26 has to be completed.
The resultant solution is obtained by simply adding the two solution.
As an example to the problem of contaminant transport through porous media, the situation
shown in Fig.8.22 is considered. It consists of a system of parallel covered drain. They are
located at a distance D below the ground level and are located at a distance L/2 apart. An
impermeable layer exists below the drains level by a distance Y. Contaminant sources are
assumed to be located on the ground level.
The advection component is obtained by solving the fuid fow problem using special software
called "SEEPW". The obtained total head distribution is shown in Fig. 8.23.
CHAPTER 8
In order to obtain the dispersion component, a Software called "TRANSC" is applied to solve
Equation 8.36. A sample of the obtained resultant contaminant concentration distribution is
shown in Fig. 8.24.
The presented fgure represents the contaminant concentration distribution after 1.0486e+6
seconds from the time when disposal of contaminant started.

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CHAPTER 1

2.1 Types of Subsurface Water:

The water in the topsoil layers is referred to by subsurface

2.2 Pore Pressure in subsurface Layers:-

In the absence of external loading, the water level represents

The groundwater may be confined by impermeable soil layers,

If an external force is applied to a soil element, the load is

The force is transmitted across this plane through contact areas of

As = iAs , i=1,.....,n (2.1)

In this case, the actual stress st is given by the following relation:

Fig. 2.3 Load Transmission by Soil Particles

In practice, As is very difficult to determine and hence it is found more

In case of fully saturated soil, the groundwater participates in resisting

The system consists of a rigid box containing a fully saturated soil. A

The lower part of a vertical tube with diameter d is immersed in a

Considering the equilibrium of stresses at point A, the following relation

dT cos = ( d2/4).Hcw (2.5)

T = unit surface tension force per unit length (m/t2)

& w= specific weight of water (m/l2 t2)

An approximation was presented by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) for the

Hc max = C/(e D10) ( 2.7)

C is a grain shape constant, which ranges between 10 and 50 mm2 , D10 is

of the smallest 10% of soil particles. & e is the void ratio

It is found important to indicate that the wide range of Hc values is due to

Table 2.1 Capillary Rise in Soil

MEDIUM SAND 0.60-0.20 50-150

In case of submerged soil conditions, the water pore pressure as explained

In the partial saturation zone Bishop (1955) suggested this relation:

2.3 Problems on Chapter 2:

1) A trench with 4.00 m depth and 10.00 m width is excavated in a two

groundwater level is 2.00 m below the ground level. Calculate the

Answer [wA=5 m, sA = 3.03 m, A=8.03 m]

[ wB= 11 m, sB= 9.45 m. B= 20.45 m]

[ of w(z) are: w(0)= 0.00 m, w (-2+ )=2.00 m, w (-2-)=00.0 m]

Answer [Hc >15.00 m, top 2.00 m lie in the capillary zone,]

[ w (0)= -2.00 m, w (-2) =0.00, w (-20) =18.00 m]

5) The soil in a site consists of clayey silt. The free groundwater

6) Find the water capillary rise in the Following cases

Answer :T=75 dynes/cm,

a ) fine sand soil

(use min. possible capillarity

Fig. 2.1 Types of Subsurface Water

As = S DiAs , i=1,.....,n (2.1)

Fig. 2.3 Load Transmission by Soil Particles

Considering the equilibrium of stresses at point A, the following relation results:

pdT cos a = (p d2/4).Hcgw (2.5)

Hc= (4T cos a) /(gwd) (2.6)

Hc max = C/(e D10) ( 2.7)

SIZE OF PARTICLES (mm)

In the partial saturation zone Bishop (1955) suggested this relation:

is the head if the soil is fully saturated.

2.3 Problems on Chapter 2:

particles specifc gravity is 2.75. The (-7 m) A

6) Find the water capillary rise in the Following cases

a ) fne sand soil

(use min. possible capillarity

3. 1 Types of Flow through Porous Media:

3.1.1 Laminar Flow

E = z + p/gf + v2/ (2g )(3.1)

experiments, Darcy used an apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. 3.1

v = - k{-( ZB + HB)+ (ZA+HA)}/L ( 3.4)

Q= ka{(ZB+HB) -(ZA+HA)}/L (3.5)

In Equation (3.7), is is written in terms of the average hydraulic gradient i.

vs= v/(n.T) (3.8)