Language Culture and Society PDF

Language,
Culture,
and Society
F I F T H E D I T I O N
Language,
Culture,
and Society
An Introduction to
Linguistic Anthropology
ZDENEK SALZMANN,
J A M E S M . S TA N L A W,
N O B U KO A DAC H I
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14
ED

CONTENTS
Preface ix
1 Introducing Linguistic Anthropology 1

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2 Methods of Linguistic Anthropology 17

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3 Language Is Sound: Phonology 31

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4 Structure of Words and Sentences 53

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v
vi CONTENTS
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5 Nonverbal Communication 73
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6 The Development and Evolution of Language 87

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7 Acquiring Language(s): Life with First Languages,

Second Languages, and More 119
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8 Language Through Time 141

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CONTENTS vii
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9 Languages in Variation and Languages in Contact 169

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10 Ethnography of Communication 185

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11 Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization:

Meaning and Language in the Conceptual World 205
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viii CONTENTS
12 Language, Culture, and Thought 225

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13 Language and Ideology: Variations in Class, Gender, 257

Ethnicity, and Nationality
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14 Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World 291

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Resource Manual and Study Guide 327

Answers to the Objective Study Questions and Problems 371
Glossary 377
Bibliography 389
Languages Mentioned in the Text and Their Locations (Map) 419
Index 423
P R E FAC E TO T H E F I F T H E D I T I O N
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Zdenek Salzmann,
James M. Stanlaw, and
Nobuko Adachi
ix
1
Introducing Linguistic
Anthropology
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Why Should We Study Language? Language in Daily Life

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1
2 Chapter 1: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology
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Brief History of Anthropology 9
B OX 1 . 1 S A P I R O N L I N G U I S T I C A N D
C U LT U R A L C O M P L E X I T Y
All attempts to connect particular types of linguistic morphology with cer-

tain correlated stages of cultural development are vain. Rightly under-
stood, such correlations are rubbish. . . . Both simple and complex types
of language of an indefinite number of varieties may be found spoken at
any desired level of cultural advance. When it comes to linguistic form,
Plato walks with the Macedonian swineherd, Confucius with the head-
hunting savage of Assam.
It goes without saying that the mere content of language is intimately
related to culture. A society that has no knowledge of theosophy need
have no name for it; aborigines that had never seen or heard of a horse
were compelled to invent or borrow a word for the animal when they
made his acquaintance. In the sense that the vocabulary of a language
more or less faithfully reflects the culture whose purposes it serves it is
perfectly true that the history of language and the history of culture move
along parallel lines. But this superficial . . . kind of parallelism is of no
real interest to the linguist except in so far as the growth or borrowing of
new words incidentally throws light on the formal trends of the language.
The linguistic student should never make the mistake of identifying a lan-
guage with its dictionary.
from Edward Sapir, Language (1921), 234
Brief History of Anthropology

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Brief History of Anthropology 11
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BOUISPQPMPHZ DVMUVSBMBOUISPQPMPHZ BSDIBFPMPHZ BOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISP

QPMPHZ .PSF TQFDJBMJ[FE BSFBT PG DPODFSO BOE SFTFBSDI IBWF EFWFMPQFE
XJUIJOUIFTVCGJFMET BNPOHUIFNQPMJUJDBM FDPOPNJD VSCBO GFNJOJTU NFE
JDBM MFHBM OVUSJUJPOBM WJTVBM BOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMBOUISPQPMPHZ BOEUIFBO
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GFSFOUGBDFUTPGUIFIVNBODPOEJUJPOTPUIBUIVNBOLJOEDBOCFVOEFSTUPPE
JOJUTGVMMDPNQMFYJUZDVMUVSBM TPDJBM BOECJPMPHJDBM
Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology 13
0OFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDUIBUTFUTBOUISPQPMPHZBQBSUGSPNUIFPUIFSTPDJBMTDJ
FODFTJTBTUSPOHGJFMEXPSLDPNQPOFOU TPNFUJNFTBVHNFOUFE FTQFDJBMMZJO
BSDIBFPMPHZBOECJPMPHJDBMBOUISPQPMPHZ
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QBTUDVMUVSFT#JPMPHJDBMBOUISPQPMPHJTUTTUVEZTVDIUPQJDTBTUIFSFMBUJPO
TIJQ CFUXFFO DVMUVSF BOE EJTFBTF UIF CFIBWJPS PG OPOIVNBO QSJNBUFT
TVDIBTDIJNQBO[FFTBOEHPSJMMBT
HFOFQPPMGSFRVFODJFT BOEOVUSJUJPOBM
QBUUFSOT5IFZBMTPTFBSDIJOQBSUJDVMBSMPDBUJPOTPGUIFXPSMEGPSTLFMFUBM
SFNBJOTSFMBUJOHUPIVNBOFWPMVUJPO'PSTPNFUJNFOPX DVMUVSBMBOUISP
QPMPHJTUTIBWFOPUMJNJUFEUIFNTFMWFTUPUIFTUVEZPGUSJCBMTPDJFUJFT QFBTBOU
WJMMBHFT PSCBOETPGIVOUFSHBUIFSFSTJOSFNPUFQBSUTPGUIFXPSME.BOZ
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4UBUFT PSUIPTFGPVOEJO&VSPQF5IJTJTDFSUBJOMZBTJUTIPVMECF*GBOUISP
QPMPHZJTUSVMZUIFTUVEZPGIVNBOLJOE UIFOJUNVTUDPODFSOJUTFMGXJUIBMM
PGIVNBOLJOE
Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology

"OPUIFSEJTDJQMJOFUIBUBMTPGPDVTFTPOVOJRVFMZIVNBOBUUSJCVUFTJTMJO
HVJTUJDT UIFTDJFOUJGJDTUVEZPGMBOHVBHF-JOHVJTUJDT EPFTOPUSFGFSUPUIF
TUVEZ PG B QBSUJDVMBS MBOHVBHF GPS UIF QVSQPTF PG MFBSOJOH UP TQFBL JU
SBUIFS JUSFGFSTUPUIFBOBMZUJDBMTUVEZPGMBOHVBHF BOZMBOHVBHF UPSFWFBM
JUT TUSVDUVSFUIFEJGGFSFOULJOETPGMBOHVBHFVOJUT JUTTPVOET TNBMMFTU
NFBOJOHGVMQBSUTPGXPSET BOETPPO
BOEUIFSVMFTBDDPSEJOHUPXIJDI
UIFTFVOJUTBSFQVUUPHFUIFSUPQSPEVDFTUSFUDIFTPGTQFFDI5IFSFJTBEJWJ
TJPOPGMBCPS UIFO CFUXFFOMJOHVJTUTBOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT5IFJO
UFSFTUPGUIFMJOHVJTUJTQSJNBSJMZJOMBOHVBHFTUSVDUVSFUIFJOUFSFTUPGUIF
MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUJTJOTQFFDIVTFBOEUIFSFMBUJPOTUIBUFYJTUCFUXFFO
MBOHVBHFPOUIFPOFIBOEBOETPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSFPOUIFPUIFS BTTFFOJO
#PY
"TGPSUIFQSFSFRVJTJUFUSBJOJOH UIFMJOHVJTUEPFTOPUOFFEUPTUVEZ
BOUISPQPMPHZUPCFDPNFGVMMZQSPGJDJFOUJOMJOHVJTUJDTBMJOHVJTUJDBOUISP
QPMPHJTU JODPOUSBTU NVTUIBWFTPNFMJOHVJTUJDTPQIJTUJDBUJPOBOEBDRVJSF
UIFCBTJDTLJMMTPGMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTUPCFBCMFUPEPTJHOJGJDBOUSFTFBSDIJO
MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ
"UFSNJOPMPHJDBMOPUFJTBQQSPQSJBUFIFSF"MUIPVHIBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJO
HVJTUJDT IBTGSFRVFOUMZCFFOFNQMPZFEUPSFGFSUPUIFTVCGJFMEPGBOUISPQPM
PHZPUIFSXJTFLOPXOBTMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ BOEBSFTQFDUFEKPVSOBM
B OX 1 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C S CO N T R A S T E D W I T H
L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O LO G Y
Unlike linguists, [linguistic] anthropologists have never considered lan-

guage in isolation from social life but have insisted on its interdepend-
ence with cultural and social structures. In this sense, their technical
linguistic analyses are a means to an end, data from which it is possible
to make inferences about larger anthropological issues. Hence, under
the . . . label language and culture, anthropologists study topics such as
the relations between world views, grammatical categories and semantic
fields, the influence of speech on socialization and personal relationships,
and the interaction of linguistic and social communities. . . . As Hymes
has aptly remarked, language is not everywhere equivalent in commu-
nicative role and social value . . . [and] no normal person, and no normal
community is limited in repertoire to a single variety of [style], to an un-
changing monotony which would preclude the possibility of indicating
respect, insolence, mock-seriousness, humor, role-distance, etc., by
switching from one code variety to another. Consequently, the relation
between languages and social groups cannot be taken for granted, but is
a problem which must be ethnographically investigated.
from Pier Paolo Giglioli, ed., Language and Social Context (1972), 910
FYJTUTVOEFSUIBUOBNF "OUISPQPMPHJDBM-JOHVJTUJDT
UIFUFSNMJOHVJTUJDBO
UISPQPMPHZJTUPCFQSFGFSSFE BT,BSM75FFUFSBSHVFETPNFZFBSTBHP

#SJFGMZ JGBOUISPQPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZPGIVNBOJUZ BOEMBOHVBHFJTPOFPGUIF
NPTUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDGFBUVSFTPGIVNBOLJOE UIFOUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFJTBO
PCWJPVTBOEOFDFTTBSZBTQFDUPGBOUISPQPMPHZBTBXIPMF5PNPEJGZUIF
OPVOMJOHVJTUJDT CZUIFBEKFDUJWFBOUISPQPMPHJDBM JTDMFBSMZSFEVOEBOUCFDBVTF
FWFOUIPVHINFNCFSTPGBMMBOJNBMTQFDJFTDPNNVOJDBUF TPGBSBTJTLOPXO
OPPUIFSTQFDJFTVTFTBOZUIJOHDPNQBSBCMFUPIVNBOMBOHVBHF0OMZJG TBZ
NFNCFSTPGUIFDBUGBNJMZ 'FMJEBF
PSPGUIFDMBTTPGCJSET "WFT
IBETPNF
UIJOHMJLFIVNBOTQFFDI OPUKVTUTPNFTZTUFNPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO OPNBU
UFSIPXJOUSJDBUF
XPVMEJUNBLFTFOTFUPTQFBLPGBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT
UPEJTUJOHVJTIJUGSPNTPNFTVDIGJFMEPGTUVEZBTGFMJEPSBWJBOMJOHVJTUJDT
UIBUJT UIFTUVEZPGUIFMBOHVBHFPGDBUTPSCJSET
"TXFIBWFBMSFBEZTFFO
Summary and Conclusions 15
UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMTVCGJFMETPGBOUISPQPMPHZKVTUBTUIFTVCGJFMEDPODFSOFE
XJUIDVMUVSFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTDVMUVSBMBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFPOFDPODFSOFEXJUI
MBOHVBHFJTBQUMZSFGFSSFEUPBTMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ5IJTJTUIFUFSNVTFE
UISPVHIPVUUIJTCPPL*UTUBUFTFYBDUMZXIBUUIFTVCGJFMEJTBCPVUUIFTUVEZ
PGMBOHVBHF PSTQFFDI
XJUIJOUIFGSBNFXPSLPGBOUISPQPMPHZ
Summary and Conclusions

*OJUTNPEFSOGPSN MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZXBTUIFMBTUTVCGJFMEPGBOUISP
QPMPHZ UP CF EFWFMPQFE BOE SFDPHOJ[FE BOE XBT QSBDUJDFE QSJNBSJMZ CZ
/PSUI"NFSJDBOBOUISPQPMPHJTUT*UTCFHJOOJOHTHPCBDLUPUIFJOUFSFTUPG
OJOFUFFOUIDFOUVSZTDIPMBSTJOUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPG/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJ
FUJFTBOEUIFMBOHVBHFTUIFZTQPLF-JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTWJFXMBOHVBHF
JOJUTDVMUVSBMGSBNFXPSLBOEBSFDPODFSOFEXJUIUIFSVMFTGPSJUTTPDJBMVTF
UIFBOBMZTJTPGJUTTUSVDUVSFJTUIFSFGPSFPOMZBNFBOTUPBOFOE#ZDPOUSBTU
MJOHVJTUTJOUIFJSTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFTFNQIBTJ[FMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFBOEUIF
IJTUPSJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBOHVBHFT
+VTUBTJOUIFSFTUPGBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFEBUBGPSMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZBSF
GPSUIFNPTUQBSUPCUBJOFEJOUIFGJFME0WFSUIFEFDBEFT GJFMEXPSLFSTIBWF
EFWFMPQFEUFDIOJRVFTBOENFUIPETUPUIFQPJOUUIBUBOUISPQPMPHZEFQBSU
NFOUTXJUIBTJ[BCMFQSPHSBNJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZOPXPGGFSDPVSTFTJO
MJOHVJTUJDGJFMENFUIPET
2
Methods of Linguistic
Anthropology
8IBUMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZJTDPODFSOFEXJUIBSFUIFDPOTFRVFODFTPGUIF
QSPDFTTUIBUMFEUPMBOHVBHF#FDBVTFMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTUSZUPWJFX
MBOHVBHFGSPNUIFWFSZCSPBECBTFPGBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFJSSFTFBSDIJOUFSFTUT
BSFDPSSFTQPOEJOHMZDPNQSFIFOTJWFGSPNDPNNVOJDBUJPOBNPOHUIFQSJ
NBUFTUPMBOHVBHFPSJHJOTUPTUSVDUVSBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGMBOHVBHFUPOPO
WFSCBMUZQFTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOUPMBOHVBHFJOTPDJBMDPOUFYU BOETPPOUPP
NBOZUPGVMMZFOVNFSBUFIFSF*GUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFJTUIFNBJODPODFSO
PGMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT UIFOIPXEPFTMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZEJGGFS
GSPNMJOHVJTUJDT
Contrasting Linguistics with Linguistic Anthropology

-JOHVJTUJDTJTUIFTDJFOUJGJDTUVEZPGMBOHVBHF5IFUFSNEPFTOPUSFGFSUP
UIFTUVEZPGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFPSMBOHVBHFTGPSUIFQVSQPTFPGMFBSOJOH
UPTQFBLUIFNSBUIFS JUSFGFSTUPUIFBOBMZUJDBMTUVEZPGMBOHVBHF BOZMBO
HVBHF UPSFWFBMJUTTUSVDUVSFUIFEJGGFSFOULJOETPGMBOHVBHFVOJUT JUT
TPVOET TNBMMFTUNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTPGXPSET BOETPPO
BOEUIFSVMFTBD
DPSEJOH UP XIJDI UIFTF VOJUT BSF QVU UPHFUIFS UP QSPEVDF TUSFUDIFT PG
TQFFDI
5IFTVCKFDUNBUUFSPGMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ XIJDIDBOCFCSJFGMZEF
GJOFEBTUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFJOJUTCJPMPHJDBMBOETPDJPDVMUVSBMDPOUFYUT JT
CFTUJMMVTUSBUFECZUIFUBCMFPGDPOUFOUTPGUIJTCPPL1FSIBQTPOMZUIFUFSN
TPDJPDVMUVSBMOFFETBDPNNFOU5IFUFSN TPDJFUZ JTGSFRVFOUMZVTFEBMNPTU
17
18 Chapter 2: Methods of Linguistic Anthropology
JOUFSDIBOHFBCMZXJUIUIFUFSNDVMUVSF BOEUIFDPNQPVOEiTPDJPDVMUVSBMw
QPJOUTPVUUIFJSJOUFSDPOOFDUJPO5IFSFJTBGJOFEJTUJODUJPO UIPVHI CFUXFFO
TPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSF BOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTEFBMXJUIBTQFDUTPGCPUI
DPODFQUTXIFOUIFZTUVEZBOEEFTDSJCFUIFDPNNVOJDBUJWFMJOLTCFUXFFO
JOEJWJEVBMNFNCFSTPGBHSPVQBOECFUXFFOHSPVQTXJUIJOBTPDJFUZ BOE
XIFOUIFZTUVEZBOEEFTDSJCFUSBEJUJPOBMMFBSOFECFIBWJPS DVMUVSF
BOEIPX
JUSFMBUFTUPUIFWBMVFTPGUIFNFNCFSTPGBHSPVQ UIFJSMJOLBHFTXJUIMBO
HVBHFBSFTPDJPDVMUVSBM
5PHJWFDPODSFUFFYBNQMFTPGUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOMJOHVJTUJDTBOEMJO
HVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ DPOTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHGPVSTUBUFNFOUTUIFGJSTUUXPJM
MVTUSBUFTUBUFNFOUTNBEFCZBMJOHVJTU UIFMBTUUXPTUBUFNFOUTCZBMJOHVJTUJD
BOUISPQPMPHJTU
5IFUXPMJOHVJTUJDTUBUFNFOUT
*O&OHMJTI UIFOBTBMDPOTPOBOUO BTJOTJO BOE XSJUUFOBTOH

BTJO
TJOH BSFJODPOUSBTUCFDBVTFUIFZEJGGFSFOUJBUFUIFNFBOJOHTPGUXP
&OHMJTIXPSET
5IF.PEFSO&OHMJTIXPSEXPNBO EFWFMPQFEPWFSUIFDFOUVSJFTGSPN
UIF0ME&OHMJTIXkGNBO
0OFXJMMOPUJDFUIBUUIFSFJTOPSFGFSFODFJOUIFTFTUBUFNFOUTBTUPUIF
TQFBLFST PSUIFDJSDVNTUBODFTVOEFSXIJDIUIFXPSETIBWFCFFOVTFE
4UBUFNFOUTGSPNMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ
*O+BWBOFTF UIFDIPJDFPGXPSETJTEFUFSNJOFECZTVDIDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
PGUIFTQFBLFSBOEUIFBEESFTTFFBTUIFJSBHF HFOEFS XFBMUI FEVDB
UJPO BOEPDDVQBUJPOBOEUIFNPSFSFGJOFEUIFMFWFMPGTQFFDI UIF
TMPXFS TPGUFS BOENPSFFWFOUIFQSFTFOUBUJPOXJMMCF
5IFSFNBSLBCMFDBWFXBMMQBJOUJOHTBOEDBSWJOHTPGUIF6QQFS1BMF
PMJUIJD$SP.BHOPOTTFSWFBTBOJOEJSFDUQSPPGUIBUUIFTFQSFIJTUPSJD
QFPQMFIBEBGVMMGMFEHFEMBOHVBHF
5PTVNVQ UIFO BEJWJTJPOPGMBCPSFYJTUTCFUXFFOMJOHVJTUJDTBOEMJO

HVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT5IFJOUFSFTUPGUIFMJOHVJTUJTQSJNBSJMZJOMBOHVBHF
TUSVDUVSFBOEMFTTPGUFOJOMBOHVBHFDIBOHFTPWFSUJNFUIFJOUFSFTUPGUIF
MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUJTJOTQFFDIVTFBOEUIFSFMBUJPOTUIBUFYJTUCFUXFFO
MBOHVBHFPOUIFPOFIBOEBOEJUTVTFSTPOUIFPUIFS
The Fieldwork Component 19
The Fieldwork Component

3FTFBSDIDPODFSOJOHUIFDVMUVSFTBOEMBOHVBHFTPGDPOUFNQPSBSZTPDJFUJFT
JTGPSUIFNPTUQBSUDPOEVDUFEJOUIFGJFME&YQPTVSFPGBOUISPQPMPHJTUTUP
UIFTPDJFUJFTPSDPNNVOJUJFTUIFZXJTIUPTUVEZJTVTVBMMZOPUPOMZQSP
MPOHFE MBTUJOHBUMFBTUTFWFSBMNPOUIT BOEGSFRVFOUMZBGVMMZFBS
CVUBMTP
SFQFBUFE PODFBDDFQUFECZBHSPVQ BOUISPQPMPHJTUTUFOEUPSFUVSOGPSGPM
MPXVQSFTFBSDI
5IFJNNFSTJPOPGBOUISPQPMPHJDBMGJFMEXPSLFSTGPSBO
FYUFOEFEQFSJPEJOUIFEBZUPEBZBDUJWJUJFTPGUIFQFPQMFXIPNUIFZTUVEZ
JTSFGFSSFEUPBTQBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO5PCFBCMFUPDPNNVOJDBUFJO
UIFJSPXOMBOHVBHFXJUIUIFQFPQMFVOEFSTUVEZJTWFSZIFMQGVMUPUIFBO
UISPQPMPHJTU-BDLJOHTVDITLJMMT UIFBOUISPQPMPHJTUNVTUSFMZPOJOUFS
QSFUFSTXIP OPNBUUFSIPXFBHFSUIFZBSFUPIFMQ NBZVOXJUUJOHMZTJNQMJGZ
PSEJTUPSUXIBUJTCFJOHTBJECZUIPTFXIPTVQQMZDVMUVSBMPSMJOHVJTUJDEBUB
#FDBVTFNFNCFSTPGBTPDJFUZXIPBSFGMVFOUJOUXPMBOHVBHFTBSFTPNF
UJNFTDVMUVSBMMZNBSHJOBMQFPQMF UIFZTIPVMECFTFMFDUFEXJUIDBSF*OEJ
WJEVBMTXIPIBWFBEBQUFEUPPSCPSSPXFENBOZUSBJUTGSPNBOPUIFSDVMUVSF
DPVMEIBWFMPTUBTVCTUBOUJBMOVNCFSPGUSBJUTGSPNUIFJSPXO5PCFTVSF
TUVEJFTPGIPXBOEUPXIBUFYUFOUJOEJWJEVBMTPSXIPMFHSPVQTNBZIBWF
NPEJGJFEUIFJSDVMUVSFCZQSPMPOHFEPSWJHPSPVTDPOUBDUXJUIBOPUIFSTPDJ
FUZBSFPGHSFBUJNQPSUBODFBOEJOUFSFTU CVUUIFTFTUVEJFTDBOOPUCFDBSSJFE
PVU TBUJTGBDUPSJMZ VOMFTT UIF USBEJUJPOBM CBTF PG UIF DVMUVSF VOEFSHPJOH
DIBOHFJTXFMMVOEFSTUPPE
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B O X 2 . 1 PA R T I C I PA N T O B S E R VAT I O N
During [Malinowskis] trip to do his first fieldwork, World War I broke out.
When he landed in Australia, he learned that he was now the enemy, and
the Australians informed him that he was stuck for the duration. But he
convinced them that they should let him go and wander the territories,
do a little ethno-exploring. He spent two extensive periods of time on a lit-
tle string of atolls called the Trobriand Islands.
Malinowski became the patron saint of ethnography. He dived right in,
lived with the natives, and learned their language as they spoke it while
they went about their everyday business. He talked about the goal of it
all in romantic tonesto grasp the natives point of view, his relation to
life, to realize his vision of his world, or, as he sometimes put it, to get
inside the natives skin.
The name for this approach to fieldwork, a name that is now enshrined
in the jargon, is participant observation. You dont just stand around and
watch like a parody of a lab technician; you jump in and do everyday life
with people to get a firsthand feel for how things go. At the same time, you
keep a third eye at an altitude of several feet above the action and watch
whats going on in a more distant way.
Never mind that this is difficult, to passionately commit to the flow of
experience and keep your distance at the same time. The concept ex-
presses the right contradiction. Besides, participant observation hides Ma-
linowskis secret about culture. Like Boas and Whorf, he wrote about
culture as what those people have. But participant observation carries
with it a commitment to connect, to put your body and mind on the line,
to engage what those people are doing and figure out why, at first, you
didnt understand. Participant observation signals that culture has to get
personal.
Given the gregarious nature in general and his devotion to participant
observation in particular, its no surprise that Malinowski[s . . . ] first love
was the real situations that made up the daily life of the Trobriand Is-
landers. Language wasnt an isolated object that consisted of words and
the rules for stringing them together into sentences. Language was the way
that people came together in those situations and got things done.
from Michael Agar, Language Shock (1994), 92
A Checklist for Research in the Field 27
A Checklist for Research in the Field

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A Checklist for Research in the Field 29
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3
Language Is Sound:
Phonology
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31
32 Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology
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The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech 33
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The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech

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BCPVUPOFIVOESFENVTDMFTBTXFMMBTPUIFSUJTTVFT SFRVJSFTQSFDJTFDPPSEJ
OBUJPO8IFOPOFTQFBLT BJSJTUBLFOJOUPUIFMVOHTNPSFSBQJEMZUIBOJO
UIFOPSNBMDPVSTFPGJOCSFBUIJOHBOEUIFOFYIBMFEJOBTMPXBOETUFBEZ
TUSFBN*UJTGPSDFEGSPNUIFMVOHTUISPVHIUIFUSBDIFB XJOEQJQF
BOEVO
EFSHPFTJNQPSUBOUNPEJGJDBUJPOTJOUIFMBSZOY MPDBUFEBUUIFVQQFSFOEPG
UIFUSBDIFB5IFMBSZOY UIFQPTJUJPOPGXIJDIJTNBSLFEFYUFSOBMMZCZUIF
"EBNTBQQMF IPVTFTUXPCBOETPGNVTDVMBSUJTTVFLOPXOBTUIFWPDBMDPSET
PSWPDBMGPMET5IFWPDBMGPMETTUSFUDIGSPNGSPOUUPCBDLBOESFHVMBUFUIF
TJ[FPGUIFFMPOHBUFEPQFOJOHCFUXFFOUIFN UIFHMPUUJT%VSJOHTXBMMPXJOH
JOBEEJUJPOUPCFJOHQSPUFDUFECZUIFGPMEFEFQJHMPUUJTGSPNBCPWF UIFWPDBM
DPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFS XJUIUIFHMPUUJTDMPTFE UPQSFWFOUMJRVJETPSGPPE
QBSUJDMFTGSPNFOUFSJOHUIFMVOHTGPSUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGWPJDFE TPVOET TVDI
BTUIPTFNBLJOHVQUIFXPSECV[[ UIFDPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFSBOENBEF
UPWJCSBUFBTUIFBJSTUSFBNGPSDFTJUTXBZCFUXFFOUIFNJOXIJTQFSJOH UIFZ
BSFCSPVHIUDMPTFUPHFUIFS XJUIUIFHMPUUJTOBSSPXFEGPSUIFQSPEVDUJPOPG
WPJDFMFTT TPVOET TVDIBTUIPTFIFBSEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHBOEFOEPGUIFXPSE
TIJQ UIFZBSFTQSFBEBQBSUCVUUFOTFEBOEEVSJOHOPSNBMCSFBUIJOH UIFZBSF
SFMBYFEBOETQSFBEBQBSU5IFUFOTJPOPGUIFWPDBMDPSETEFUFSNJOFTUIFGSF
RVFODZPGUIFJSWJCSBUJPOBOEUIFSFGPSFUIFQJUDI XIFSFBTUIFGPSDFPGUIF
PVUHPJOHBJSSFHVMBUFTUIFMPVEOFTTPGTPVOET
)BWJOHQBTTFEUISPVHIUIFMBSZOY UIFBJSQSPDFFETPVUUISPVHIUIFQIBS
ZOYUPXBSETUIFPSBMBOEOBTBMDBWJUJFT8IFOUIFTPGUQBMBUF WFMVN
JOUIF
SFBSVQQFSQBSUPGUIFNPVUI KVTUBCPWFUIFVWVMB JTMPXFSFEBOEUIFMJQTBSF
DMPTFE UIFBJSJTSFMFBTFEUISPVHIUIFOPTF QSPEVDJOHOBTBMTPVOET TVDIBT
UIFUISFFEJGGFSFOUPOFTJOUIF4QBOJTIXPSENBBOB AUPNPSSPXPSUIFGJOBM
POFJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSELJOH *GUIFTPGUQBMBUFJTMPXFSFECVUUIFBJSBMMPXFE
UPFTDBQFTJNVMUBOFPVTMZUISPVHICPUIUIFOPTFBOEUIFNPVUI OBTBMJ[FE
TPVOETBSFUIFSFTVMU BTJOUIF'SFODICPO AHPPE5IFNBKPSJUZPGTPVOETJO
UIFMBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSMEBSFPSBM XJUIUIFBJSFTDBQJOHPOMZUISPVHIUIF
NPVUICFDBVTFUIFTPGUQBMBUFJTGVMMZSBJTFE NBLJOHDPOUBDUXJUIUIFCBDL
XBMMPGUIFQIBSZOYBOETIVUUJOHPGGUIFFOUSBODFUPUIFOBTBMDBWJUZ
35
F I G U R E 3 . 1 The Speech Apparatus. (a) A cross-section of the human head showing the
principal parts of the vocal tract. The lungs and the diaphragm below them are not shown.
E esophagus (gullet) 5 velum (soft palate)
L larynx (voice box) 6 uvula
N nasal cavity 7 molars
O oral cavity 8 lower lip
P pharynx 9 lower teeth (incisors)
T trachea 10 tongue tip
1 upper lip 11 tongue blade
2 upper teeth (incisors) 12 tongue root
3 alveolar ridge 13 epiglottis
4 (hard) palate 14 vocal cords
15 direction of outgoing air
(b) A view of the glottis (16), with a vocal cord on each side, during normal breathing. (c) The same
view, but with vocal cords vibrating during speech. Adapted from Bohuslav Hla: Uveden do
fonetiky c1 estiny, Prague, 1962, p. 63.
"TUIFBJSQBTTFTUISPVHIUIFVQQFSQBSUPGUIFTQFFDIUSBDU OVNFSPVT
NPEJGJDBUJPOTPGUIFWPDBMDIBOOFM JOWPMWJOHTVDIBSUJDVMBUPSTBTUIFTPGU
QBMBUF UPOHVF BOEMJQT NBLFQPTTJCMFUIFUSFNFOEPVTWBSJFUZPGTPVOET
IFBSEJOUIFTFWFSBMUIPVTBOEPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT5IFTFTPVOETBSFDVT
UPNBSJMZDMBTTJGJFEBDDPSEJOHUPUIFNBOOFSBOEQMBDFPGBSUJDVMBUJPOBOE
USBOTDSJCFECZNFBOTPGQIPOFUJDTZNCPMT XIJDIBSFFODMPTFEJOTRVBSF
CSBDLFUT<>
Articulation of Speech Sounds

5IFUXPNBJODMBTTFTPGTQFFDITPVOETBSFWPXFMT BOEDPOTPOBOUT TFF
/PUFTBOE4VHHFTUJPOTGPS'VSUIFS3FBEJOHVOEFS$IBQUFSJOUIF3FTPVSDF
.BOVBMBOE4UVEZ(VJEF
*OUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGWPXFMT UIFBJSUIBUFTDBQFT
UISPVHIUIFNPVUI GPSPSBMWPXFMT
BTXFMMBTUISPVHIUIFOPTF GPSOBTBM
J[FEWPXFMT
JTSFMBUJWFMZVOJNQFEFE7PXFMTBSFDMBTTJGJFEBDDPSEJOHUPUIF
QBSUPGUIFUPOHVFUIBUJTSBJTFE UIFDPOGJHVSBUJPOPGUIFMJQT BOEUIFFYUFOU
UPXIJDIUIFUPOHVFBQQSPBDIFTUIFQBMBUFBCPWFJU TFF5BCMF
"OPUIFS
WBSJBCMFJTUIFEFHSFFPGNVTDVMBSFGGPSUBOENPWFNFOUUIBUHPFTJOUPUIF
QSPEVDUJPOPGWPXFMTPVOET*GUIFUFOTJPOJOUIFUPOHVFNVTDMFTJTQSPNJ
OFOU WPXFMTBSFTBJEUPCFUFOTF BTJOCFBU PSCPPUJGJUJTMBDLJOHPSTDBSDFMZ
OPUJDFBCMF UIFZBSFTBJEUPCFMBY BTJOCJU PSCPPL
&WFOUIPVHIBOVUUFSBODFNBZCFWJFXFEBTBTVDDFTTJPOPGJOEJWJEVBM
TPVOET NPTUTQFBLFSTUFOEUPTVCEJWJEFVUUFSBODFTOBUVSBMMZJOUPTPNFXIBU
MBSHFSVOJUTTZMMBCMFT5PCFGVMMZTFSWJDFBCMF UIFUFSNTZMMBCMF OFFETUPCFEF
GJOFETFQBSBUFMZGPSFBDIMBOHVBHF CVUJOHFOFSBMPOFNBZTBZUIBUBTZMMBCMF
DPOTJTUTPGBOVDMFVTVTVBMMZCVUOPUBMXBZTBWPXFM 7
XJUIPSXJUIPVUB
DPOTPOBOU $
PS DPOTPOBOUT CFGPSF PS BGUFS JU 5IF GPMMPXJOH &OHMJTI
XPSETB PO NF QJO TQJO ESJGU BOETUSFOHUITBMMDPOTJTUPGPOFTZMMBCMF
BOE NBZ CF SFQSFTFOUFE BT 7 7$ $7 $7$ $$7$ $$7$$ BOE
$$$7$ $
$$ SFTQFDUJWFMZ*OUIFXPSECVUUPO UIFOVDMFVTPGUIFTFDPOE
TZMMBCMFJTUIFOBTBM<O> CFDBVTFUIFPSUIPHSBQIJDWPXFMP JTOPUQSPOPVODFE
"DPOTPOBOUGVODUJPOJOHBTUIFDFOUFSPGBTZMMBCMFJTTBJEUPCFTZMMBCJD
5IFWPXFMTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIEJBMFDUTPDDVSGPSUIFNPTUQBSUTJOHMZ BT
JOUIFXPSETMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ <***J>)PXFWFS TPNFUJNFT
UIFSFJTBDIBOHFJOWPXFMRVBMJUZXJUIJOBTZMMBCMF BTJOUIFXPSETCJUF CPVU
BOECPZ 8IBUPDDVSTJOFBDIPGUIFTFUISFFXPSETBOEPUIFSTMJLFUIFNJTB
NPWFNFOUGSPNUIFGJSTU NPSFQSPNJOFOUWPDBMJDQBSUUPUIFTFDPOE XIJDI
TA B L E 3 . 1 Types of Vowels According to Place and Manner of Articulation
Place and Manner
of Articulation Vowel Types
If the air excapes oral
through the mouth
If the air escapes nasal(ized)
also through the nose
According to the part of front central back
the tongue that is raised
According to the unrounded rounded unrounded unrounded rounded
position of the lips (spread)
According to the position high (close) i beat German khl Russian occurs in u boot
of the highest point cool to be Turkish
of the tongue in the lower high I bit I as in just (you u book
mouth (according to the wait)
closeness of the tongue mid e bait; German German schn the second o boat; French
to the roof of the mouth) See sea lovely vowel of sofa beau beautiful
lower mid bet French peur butt bought
fear
low (open) bat a body pot; in London
English, not
It is not easy to illustrate various vowel types by examples from English because of wide dialect variation. For example, people native to eastern
New England, the central Atlantic seaboard, and the coastal South pronounce the words Mary, marry, and merry differently, whereas in the rest
of the United States, these three words are usually pronounced alike.
37
JTTIPSUFSBOEMFTTEJTUJODU"DIBOHFJOWPXFMRVBMJUZXJUIJOUIFTBNFTZMMB
CMFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTBEJQIUIPOH
*OUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGDPOTPOBOUT QMBDFTPGBSUJDVMBUJPOSBOHFBMMUIFXBZ
GSPNUIFHMPUUJTUPUIFMJQT UIFMBTUQMBDFJOUIFWPDBMUSBDUXIFSFUIFPVUHP
JOHBJSDBOCFNPEJGJFE TFF5BCMF
5IFNBOOFSPGBSUJDVMBUJPOSFGFSTUP
UIFTFWFSBMLJOETPGDPOTUSJDUJPOUIBUNBZCFTFUVQBUTPNFQPJOUBMPOHUIF
TQFFDIUSBDUCZUIFBSUJDVMBUPST TFF5BCMF

5IFWPXFMBOEDPOTPOBOUUZQFTTVSWFZFEIFSFJODMVEFPOMZUIFCBTJDPOFT
+VTUBTTPVOETDBOVOEFSHPMFOHUIFOJOHPSOBTBMJ[BUJPO UIFZDBOCFNPEJ
GJFECZTFDPOEBSZBSUJDVMBUJPOT5IFTFHJWFSJTFUPMBCJBMJ[FE QBMBUBMJ[FE WF
MBSJ[FE QIBSZOHFBMJ[FE BOEPUIFSXJTFNPEJGJFETPVOET4PNFDPOTPOBOUT
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"SUJDVMBUPSZQIPOFUJDT UIFTUVEZPGUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOETCZ
UIFWPDBMPSHBOT JTOPUUIFPOMZXBZUPFYBNJOFUIFSBXNBUFSJBMPGMBOHVBHF
*UJTBMTPQPTTJCMFUPFYBNJOFTQFFDITPVOETGPSUIFJSQIZTJDBMQSPQFSUJFT UIBU
JT GSPNUIFQFSTQFDUJWFPGBDPVTUJDQIPOFUJDT 5IJTBQQSPBDISFRVJSFTUIF
TPVOE TQFDUSPHSBQI B EFWJDF UIBU WJTVBMMZ SFQSFTFOUT BDPVTUJD GFBUVSFT PG
TQFFDITPVOETJOUIFGPSNPGTQFDUSPHSBNT PSWPJDFQSJOUT4QFDUSPHSBNTTIPX
UISFFEJNFOTJPOTPGTPVOET%VSBUJPO UJNF
JTEJTQMBZFEIPSJ[POUBMMZ GSF
RVFODZWFSUJDBMMZ BOEJOUFOTJUZCZUIFEFHSFFPGEBSLOFTT'PSFYBNQMF FBDI
WPXFMJTDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZTFWFSBMSFTPOBODFCBOET SFGFSSFEUPBTGPSNBOUT
XIJDISFQSFTFOUUIFPWFSUPOFTUSVDUVSFPGBWPXFMQSPEVDFECZUIFTIBQFPG
UIFWPDBMUSBDU#FDBVTFUIFQPTJUJPOPGUIFUPOHVFDIBOHFTXJUIUIFQSPEVDUJPO
PGEJGGFSFOUWPXFMT UIFGPSNBOUTWBSZDPSSFTQPOEJOHMZ TFF#PY

TA B L E 3 . 2 Types of Consonants According to Place of Articulation
Place of
Articulation General Description Consonant Type Example(s)
Glottis Vocal folds are positioned so as to cause a Glottal glottal stop that in some dialects
closure or friction. of English replaces the t sound (-tt-)
in such words as bottle
Pharynx Back wall of the pharynx articulates with the Pharyngeal common in Arabic
root of the tongue.
Uvula Back of the tongue articulates with the uvula. Uvular the r sound frequently heard in German
(voiced variety) or French (voiceless)
Velum, or Back of the tongue articulates with the soft Velar initial sound of calf
soft palate palate.
(Hard) palate Front of the tongue articulates with the hard Palatal the nal sound of the German
palate. ich I
Area where the Blade of the tongue (and sometimes the tip) Palato-alveolar initial sound of ship
palate and the articulates with the palato-alveolar area.
alveolar ridge Tip of the tongue, curled back, articulates Retroex typically, t and d sounds in
meet with the palato-alveolar area. English as spoken by East Indians
Alveolar ridge Front of the tongue articulates with the Alveolar the initial sound of sit
alveolar ridge.
Teeth Tongue tip articulates with the upper teeth. Dental t and d sounds of Irish English
Tongue tip is positioned between the upper Interdental the initial sounds of thin and this
and lower teeth.
Lower lip and Lower lip articulates with the upper teeth. Labiodental the initial sounds of fan and van
upper teeth
Lips Both lower and upper lips articulate. Bilabial the initial and nal sound of bob
39
40
TA B L E 3 . 3 Types of Consonants According to Manner of Articulation
Type of Subtype of Consonant
Constriction Constriction General Description Type Examples with Description
CLOSURE Total complete closure at some point in the Plosive, the initial sound of pick; closure
vocal tract, with soft palate raised; or stop at the lips
sudden release of air pressure
Total complete closure at some point in the Nasal the initial and nal sound of mom;
mouth, with soft palate lowered and air closure at the lips
escaping through the nose
Total complete closure at some point in the Affricate the initial and nal sound of judge;
mouth, with soft palate raised; gradual the tongue blade forms closure with
release of air pressure the front of the hard palate
Intermittent an articulator apping loose or one Trill the r sound in Scottish pronunciation
articulator tapping against another or in the Spanish perro dog; the
tongue vibrates against the alveolar ridge
Intermittent a single tap by one articulator against the Flap the r sound in British English
roof of the mouth pronunciation of very or in the Spanish
pero but; the tongue taps the
alveolar ridge
Partial partial closure in the mouth allowing the Lateral the initial sound of law; the middle
air to escape around one or both sides part of the tongue touches the top
of the closure of the mouth
NARROWING at some point in the vocal tract the Fricative the initial and nal sounds of fuss;
opening is narrowed so as to produce air is forced between the lower lip
audible friction and upper teeth, and between the
front of the tongue and the alveolar
ridge, respectively
From Phones to Phonemes 41
B O X 3 . 1 A C R O B AT I C S O F S P E A K I N G
The sounds that we hear when spoken to and that we emit when speak-
ing are produced by complex gymnastics executed by our lips, tongue,
velum, larynx, and lungs. The activities of these independent anatomical
structures are coordinated with a precision that should be the envy of the
most highly trained ballet dancer; yet this truly remarkable exercise is per-
formed at the drop of a hat by even the clumsiest person. In contrast, even
the most adroit primates have never been able to master it, despite inten-
sive training. These facts suggest that the ability to speak is linked to our
genetic endowment, that it is one of the aspects in which humans differ
from all other mammals.
The gymnastic feats involved in speaking are clearly not the whole
story. Speech is not just some noise that humans are capable of emitting;
it is a noise that is produced to convey meaning. And how speech conveys
meaning is surely one of the great puzzles that has intrigued thinkers for
centuries.
from Morris Halle, The Rules of Language (1980), 54
From Phones to Phonemes
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TPVOEDPOTJEFSFEBQIZTJDBMFWFOU"TVDDFTTJPOPGQIPOFTJOBQBSUJDVMBS
MBOHVBHFNBLFTVQBTUSFUDIPGTQFFDI PSBOVUUFSBODF&BDIVUUFSBODFJT
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DIJME PSIBQQFOTUPCFDMFBSPSIPBSTF#FDBVTFUIFSFJTTPNVDIMJLFOFTTJO
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GFSFODFPCUBJOTCFUXFFOUIFQTPGQBJS QFDL QFFS BOEQJLF POUIFPOFIBOE
BOEUIPTFPGTQBSF TQFDL TQFBS BOETQJLF POUIFPUIFS
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BOEBOVOSFMFBTFE<Q>JOUIFTFOUFODFGJOBMQPTJUJPO XIFSF<QI>PS<Q>NBZ
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EFUBJMT UIFEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFWBSJFUJFTPGUIF&OHMJTIQ TPVOEBOEUIFJSPD
DVSSFODFIBTCFFOTJNQMJGJFE
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QIPOFUJDBMMZBT<QI*O> <T1*O> BOE<C*O>5IFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFQ PGQJO
BOEC PGCJO JTDMFBSMZPGBOPUIFSLJOEUIBOUIBUCFUXFFO<QI>BOE<Q>PS<QI>
BOE<1>#ZDIPPTJOHFJUIFSC PSQ GPSUIFJOJUJBMTPVOE UIFTQFBLFSJTEJT
UJOHVJTIJOHCFUXFFOUXPNFBOJOHGVMJUFNTPGUIF&OHMJTIWPDBCVMBSZ CJO
BOEQJO&WFOJGPOFXFSFUPJOUFSDIBOHFUIFQSPOVODJBUJPOPGUIFQ TPVOET
JOQJO BOETQJO BOETBZ<1*O>BOE<TQI*O>JOTUFBE POFXPVMEOPEPVCUCFVO
EFSTUPPE UIPVHIUIFMJTUFOFSXPVMEQSPCBCMZTVTQFDUUIBUFJUIFS&OHMJTIJT
OPUUIFTQFBLFSTOBUJWFMBOHVBHFPSUIFTQFBLFSJTUSZJOHUPJNJUBUFBGPSFJHO
BDDFOU"TBNBUUFSPGGBDU OBUJWFTQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTIOFWFSIBWFUPDIPPTF
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From Phones to Phonemes 43
8JUITQFDJGJDSFGFSFODFUP&OHMJTICFDBVTFBMMMBOHVBHFTNVTUCFFYBN
JOFEBOEBOBMZ[FEPOMZPOUIFJSPXOUFSNTMJOHVJTUTFTUBCMJTIUIFC TPVOE
PGCJO BOEUIFQ TPVOEPGQJO BTUXPDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEVOJUT PSQIPOFNFT
BOE UIFZ DMBTTJGZ UIF TFWFSBM WBSJFUJFT PG UIF Q TPVOE<QI> <1> <Q>
BOE<Q>BTBMMPQIPOFT PGUIFQIPOFNFQ /PUFUIFVTFPGTMBOUMJOFT
BSPVOEUIFTZNCPMUPJOEJDBUFJUTQIPOFNJDTUBUVT
5PQVUJUEJGGFSFOUMZ
XIFOQ JTVTFEUPSFQSFTFOUUIF&OHMJTIQIPOFNFQ JUTFSWFTBTBDPWFS
TZNCPMGPSBDMBTTPGQIPOFUJDBMMZTJNJMBSTPVOETUIBUBSFJODPNQMFNFOUBSZ
EJTUSJCVUJPOPSGSFFWBSJBUJPO1IPOFTBSFJODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPOJG
UIFZOFWFSPDDVSJOUIFTBNFQIPOFUJDFOWJSPONFOUGPSFYBNQMF TJNQMJ
GJFE <1>JTGPVOEBMXBZTBGUFST XIFSF<QI>OFWFSPDDVST1IPOFTBSFJOGSFF
WBSJBUJPOJGTVCTUJUVUJOHPOFGPSBOPUIFSEPFTOPUDBVTFBDIBOHFJONFBOJOH
#VUJGUXPQIPOFTDPOUSBTU BTEPFT<C>JOCJO XJUI<QI>JOQJOUIBUJT JGTVC
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UPUXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT PS QISBTFEEJGGFSFOUMZ UIFZBSFBMMPQIPOFTPG
UXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT

5IFTJNQMFTUXBZUPFTUBCMJTIQIPOFNJDDPOUSBTUTJOBMBOHVBHFJTCZ
NFBOTPGNJOJNBMTFUT JOXIJDIFBDIXPSEIBTBEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHCVU
WBSJFTGSPNUIFSFTUJOPOFTPVOEPOMZ'SPNUIFGPVSTPNFPGXPSETCJU CFU
CBU BOECVUU XFFTUBCMJTIQIPOFNJDDPOUSBTUBNPOHBMMGPVSWPXFMT"TGPS
DPOTPOBOUT BMMUIFJOJUJBMTPVOET OPUMFUUFST
PGUIFGPMMPXJOHTFUPGXPSET
DPOUSBTUXJUIPOFBOPUIFSBOEBSFUIFSFGPSFBTTJHOBCMFUPEJGGFSFOU&OHMJTI
QIPOFNFTCZ EJF GJF HVZ IJHI MJF NZ OJHI QJF SZF TIZ TJHI UIJHI UIZ
UJF WJF BOEXIZ ZJFMEJOHC E G H I M N O Q S T U W X
5PEFNPOTUSBUFUIFGVOEBNFOUBMQSJODJQMFTVOEFSMZJOHQIPOFNJDBOBMZTJT
XFIBWF GPSPCWJPVTSFBTPOT VTFE&OHMJTI#VUMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT
UZQJDBMMZGBDFBEJGGFSFOUTJUVBUJPOXIFOUIFZTUVEZQFPQMFTXIPTFMBOHVBHFT
IBWFOFWFSCFGPSFCFFOXSJUUFO"UIPSPVHIQIPOFNJDBOBMZTJTPGBMBOHVBHF
JOWPMWFTNPSFUIBOKVTUDPNQJMJOHNJOJNBMTFUTJUUBLFTXFFLTPGQBJOTUBL
JOHMJTUFOJOHGPSDPOUSBTUJOHTPVOET SFQFBUJOHXPSETBOEVUUFSBODFTBOE
SFDPSEJOHUIFNPOUBQF BOEQIPOFUJDBMMZUSBOTDSJCJOHBHPPEEFBMJOUIFJOJ
UJBMTUBHFTPGXPSL5IFGPMMPXJOHOFFEUPCFFTUBCMJTIFEUIFEJTUJODUJWFTPVOET
PSQIPOFNFT PGBMBOHVBHFUIFQSPTPEJDGFBUVSFTUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FJUTVUUFS
BODFTUIFNBJOBMMPQIPOFTPGFBDIQIPOFNFBOEUIFQIPOFUJDFOWJSPONFOU
JOXIJDIUIFZPDDVSUIFQBUUFSOPGQIPOFNFTWPXFMT DPOTPOBOUT BOEUIFJS
TVCDMBTTFTBOEUIFSVMFTGPSUIFJSDPNCJOBUJPOTBNPOHFBDIPUIFSBOEJO
IJHIFSMFWFMVOJUT/FYU UIFQSBDUJDBMUBTLGPSUIFMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTU
JTUPEFWJTFBOBQQSPQSJBUFBMQIBCFUTPUIBUUIFMBOHVBHFDBOCFUSBOTDSJCFE
QIPOFNJDBMMZ XJUIPVUUIFNBOZQIPOFUJDEFUBJMTPGUIFJOJUJBMUSBOTDSJQUJPO
UIBUIBWFOPXCFDPNFFBTJMZSFUSJFWBCMF8IFOXFXSJUFQJO&OHMJTI XF
LOPXVOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFTUIJTQIPOFNFJTQIZTJDBMMZSFBMJ[FEBTPOF
PGJUTGPVSBMMPQIPOFT <QI> <Q> <1> BOE<Q>
*UJTJNQPSUBOUUPSFNFNCFSUIBUUIFTBNFQIPOFNFTEPOPUOFDFTTBSJMZ
DIBSBDUFSJ[FFWFSZTQFBLFSPG&OHMJTI*UJTDPNNPOLOPXMFEHFUIBU#SJUJTI
"VTUSBMJBO BOEPUIFSGPSNTPG&OHMJTIEJGGFSGSPN"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI BOE
UIBUFBDIPGUIFTFFYJTUTJOTFWFSBMEJBMFDUBMWBSJFUJFT QBSUJDVMBSMZBTGBSBT
WPXFMTBSFDPODFSOFE*OHFOFSBM UIPVHI FBDIMBOHVBHFDPOUBJOTJUTPXO
QBSUJDVMBSPWFSBMMTZTUFNPGEJTUJODUJWFTPVOET*O4QBOJTI GPSFYBNQMF B
DFSUBJOWPXFMTPVOEBQQSPYJNBUFTUIBUIFBSEJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSECFBU CVU
UIFSFJTOP4QBOJTIQBSBMMFMUPUIF&OHMJTIWPXFMTPVOEPGCJU 5IJTBOETJN
JMBSEJGGFSFODFTBSFUIFTPVSDFPGUIFiOBUVSBMwNJTQSPOVODJBUJPOTPGOBUJWF
TQFBLFSTPG4QBOJTIMFBSOJOH&OHMJTI BTXIFOUIFZQSPOPVODFUIFXPSENJMM
BTUIPVHIJUXFSFNFBM 5IFJS4QBOJTITQFFDIIBCJUTDBSSZPWFSJOUPBMBO
HVBHFUIFZBSFMFBSOJOHPSBSFOPUGBNJMJBSXJUI
5IFTUVEZPGUIFQIPOFUJDTBOEQIPOFNJDTPGBMBOHVBHFBOEPGUIFTPVOE
DIBOHFTUIBUUBLFQMBDFPWFSUJNFJOBMBOHVBHFPSJOTFWFSBMSFMBUFEMBO
HVBHFTJTSFGFSSFEUPBTQIPOPMPHZ
"OE POF NPSF SFNBSL BCPVU XSJUJOHUIJT UJNF BCPVU EFWFMPQJOH B
XSJUJOHTZTUFNGPSMBOHVBHFTUIBUBSFTQPLFOCVUOPUXSJUUFO XIJDINFBOT
QSJNBSJMZGPSMBOHVBHFTPGTNBMMUSJCBMTPDJFUJFT5PEBZNPTUNFNCFSTPG
TVDITPDJFUJFTJOFWJUBCMZBMTPTQFBLUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIFMBSHFSTPDJFUZUIBU
TVSSPVOETUIFN BOENBOZBSFOPMPOHFSTVGGJDJFOUMZQSPGJDJFOUJOUIFJSOB
UJWFMBOHVBHFUPTQFBLJU0OFNBZBTL 8IZHJWFBXSJUUFOGPSNUPBMBO
HVBHF UIBU JT EFTUJOFE UP CFDPNF FYUJODU JO B HFOFSBUJPO PS UXP 0OF
SFBTPOXPVMECFUPFOBCMFUIFMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTU PSMJOHVJTU
UP
SFDPSEUIFTPDJFUZTUBMFT QSBZFST SJUVBMTQFFDIFT BOEFWFSZEBZMBOHVBHFJO
UIFPSJHJOBMGPSNXIJMFJUJTTUJMMQPTTJCMF#VUUIFO UPP UIFBWBJMBCJMJUZPG
BXSJUUFOGPSNIFMQTUPCPMTUFSUIFWJBCJMJUZPGBUISFBUFOFEMBOHVBHFCZ
HJWJOHJUQSFTUJHFJOUIFPVUTJEFXPSME*UNBZCFQPTTJCMF GPSFYBNQMF UP
JODMVEFMFTTPOTJOUIFOBUJWFMBOHVBHFJOUIFFMFNFOUBSZTDIPPMTZTUFN
TFSWJOHUIFHSPVQ0OFPGUIFBVUIPSTPGUIJTUFYU 4BM[NBOO
GPSFYBN
QMF DPNQJMFEJOB%JDUJPOBSZPG$POUFNQPSBSZ"SBQBIP6TBHF UPIFMQ
"SBQBIPUFBDIFSTSFNFNCFSBOEVTFUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIFJSHSBOEQBSFOUT
#VUUIFOBQSPCMFNBSPTFOBNFMZ IPXUPSFQSFTFOUTPNFPGUIFTPVOETPG
Phonemes of English 45
UIFMBOHVBHF XIJDIJOMJOHVJTUJDMJUFSBUVSFXPVMECFEPOFCZNFBOTPGQIP
OFUJDTZNCPMT 5PVTF&OHMJTITQFMMJOHXPVMECFWFSZDPOGVTJOHGPSSFB
TPOT FYQMBJOFE FMTFXIFSF JO UIJT CPPL
)FSF UIF BEWJDF PG JOGPSNBOUT
DPVMECFWFSZWBMVBCMF"OFYBNQMF0OFPG4BM[NBOOTJOGPSNBOUTTVH
HFTUFEUIBUUIFTPVOEVTVBMMZSFQSFTFOUFECZUIF(SFFLMFUUFSUIFUB UIBUJT
CZ DPVMECFSFQSFTFOUFECZBHSBQIJDTZNCPMGPVOEPOUIFLFZCPBSEPG
"NFSJDBOUZQFXSJUFST UIFSFCZFOBCMJOHBUFBDIFSUPUZQF"SBQBIPMFTTPOT
GPSTUVEFOUT5IJTTBNFJOGPSNBOUTVHHFTUFEVTJOHUIFOVNFSJDTZNCPM
CFDBVTFUIF&OHMJTIXPSEUISFF CFHJOTXJUIUIJTQBSUJDVMBSTPVOE XSJUUFO
JO&OHMJTIBTUI
4BM[NBOOBDDFQUFEUIJTQSBDUJDBMBOEJOHFOJPVTTVHHFT
UJPO BOETPUIF"SBQBIPXPSEGPSEPHJOUIFEJDUJPOBSZJTXSJUUFOBTIF
SBUIFSUIBOQIPOFUJDBMMZ QIPOFNJDBMMZ
BTI
Phonemes of English
5IFEJBMFDUTPG&OHMJTIWBSZTPNFXIBUXJUISFTQFDUUPWPXFMT FWFOXJUIJO
UIF6OJUFE4UBUFT5IFSFQFSUPSZPGWPXFMQIPOFNFTJO5BCMFJTSFQSF
TFOUBUJWFPGBHSFBUNBOZTQFBLFSTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI UIPVHIOPUBMM5IF
MJTUJTTVQQMFNFOUFECZUISFFEJQIUIPOHT
5IFMJTUPGDPOTPOBOUQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIJTTIPXOJO5BCMF
XIFOFWFSQPTTJCMF UIFPDDVSSFODFPGFBDIQIPOFNFJTFYFNQMJGJFEGPS
UIFXPSEJOJUJBM XPSENFEJBM BOEXPSEGJOBMQPTJUJPOT

)PXEPFTUIFQIPOFNJDTZTUFNPG&OHMJTIDPNQBSFXJUIUIFTZTUFNTPG
PUIFSMBOHVBHFT *OUIFOVNCFSPGTFHNFOUT JUCFMPOHTUPUIFNJEEMFSBOHF
BMPOHXJUIUIFMBSHFNBKPSJUZPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT"DDPSEJOHUPBTVSWFZ
CBTFEPOUIFQIPOFNJDJOWFOUPSJFTPGBTBNQMFPGMBOHVBHFT .BEEJFTPO

TPNFMBOHVBHFTDPOUBJOOPNPSFUIBOBEP[FOTFHNFOUBMQIPOFNFT
GPSUIFNPTUQBSUUIFZBSFNFNCFSTPGUIF*OEP1BDJGJDBOE"VTUSPOFTJBO
MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFT
XIJMFBGFXMBOHVBHFTBSFSFQPSUFEUPIBWFJOFYDFTTPG
POFIVOESFE NFNCFSTPGUIF,IPJTBOGBNJMZJOTPVUIFSO"GSJDB
5IFNFBO
OVNCFSPGDPOTPOBOUTQFSQIPOFNJDJOWFOUPSZJTJOUIFMPXUXFOUJFT

UIBUPGWPXFMTDMPTFUPOJOF
*ONPTUMBOHVBHFT UIFUPUBMOVNCFSPG
DPOTPOBOUTJTNPSFUIBOUXJDFBTMBSHFBTUIFOVNCFSPGWPXFMT5IFNPTU
DPNNPO DPOTPOBOUBM TVCTZTUFN JODMVEFT GSPN GJWF UP FMFWFO QMPTJWFT
TUPQT
JODMVEJOHBGGSJDBUFTPOFUPGPVSGSJDBUJWFTUXPUPGPVSOBTBMTBOE
GPVSDPOTPOBOUTPGPUIFSUZQFT5IFNPTUDPNNPOWPXFMTBSFUIPTFDMBTTJ
GJFEBTIJHIGSPOUVOSPVOEFE IJHICBDLSPVOEFE NJEGSPOUVOSPVOEFE NJE
46
TA B L E 3 . 4 Typical Vowel Phonemes in American English

Phonemic Symbol Example
Single vowels
/i/ bead
/i/ bid
/e/ bade (rhyming with made)
// bed
// bad
// (unstressed = //) bud
/a/ body
/u/ boot
/u/ book
/o/ bode
// bought
Diphthongs
/ai/ bite
/au/ bout
/i/ boy
TA B L E 3 . 5 Consonant Phonemes in American English

Phonemic Symbol Examples
/p/ pit, supper, rip
/b/ bit, ber, rib
/t/ tip, meaty, kit
/d/ dip, odor, kid
/k/ cap, locker, pick
/g/ gap, soggy, pig
/O/ chin, itchy, rich
/j/ gin, pudgy, ridge
/f/ fat, gopher, belief
/v/ vat, ivy, believe
// thin, ether, breath
// then, either, breathe
/s/ seal, icy, hiss
/z/ zeal, cozy, his
/s/ show, potion, rush
// , leisure, rouge
/h/ hasp, ahoy,
/m/ moon, simmer, loom
/n/ noon, sinner, loon
// , singer, king
/l/ limb, miller, reel
/r/ rim, mirror, rear
/w/ wet, lower,
/y/ yet, layer,
Prosodic Features 47
CBDL SPVOEFE BOE MPX DFOUSBM VOSPVOEFE 5IF JOWFOUPSZ PG TFHNFOUBM
QIPOFNFTJO&OHMJTIBQQFBSTUPCFNVDIMJLFUIFTZTUFNTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPG
UIFCVMLPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT5IJTJTOPUUPTBZ IPXFWFS UIBU&OHMJTIJT
BUZQJDBMMBOHVBHF"MUIPVHIBMMOBUVSBMMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFFEEJTUJODUWBSJB
UJPOTPOBDPNNPOUIFNFIVNBOMBOHVBHFFBDIIBTJUTPXOQFDVMJBSGFB
UVSFTPGTUSVDUVSFUIBUNBLFJUVOJRVF
Prosodic Features
7PXFMT BOE DPOTPOBOUT UIBU DPNCJOF JOUP XPSET BOE TFOUFODFT NBZ CF
UIPVHIUPGBTTFHNFOUT PSTFHNFOUBMVOJUT UIBUJT BTEJTDSFUFVOJUTUIBUDBO
CFJEFOUJGJFEJOUIFTUSFBNPGTQFFDIBOETFQBSBUFEGSPNPUIFSTVDIVOJUT
BTJOQBSU QBSU BOETMFQU TMFQU
#VUUIFSFJTNPSFUPTQFFDIUIBO
KVTUPSEFSJOHUIFTFTFHNFOUTBDDPSEJOHUPUIFSVMFTPGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHF
"EEJUJPOBMGFBUVSFTBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSBOVUUFSBODFUPTPVOEOBUVSBMBOEUPCF
GVMMZNFBOJOHGVM FTQFDJBMMZTUSFTTBOEQJUDI UIFTFUXPTPNFUJNFTMVNQFE
UPHFUIFSVOEFSUIFUFSNBDDFOU 5IFTFPUIFSGFBUVSFTBSFDBMMFEQSPTPEJD
GFBUVSFT*UJTJNQPSUBOUUPOPUFUIBUQSPTPEJDGFBUVSFTDBOCFEJTUJODUJWFJO
TPNFMBOHVBHFT
4USFTTSFGFSTUPUIFEFHSFFPGGPSDF PSQSPNJOFODF BTTPDJBUFEXJUIBTZM
MBCMF*OUIFXPSEVOEFS UIFQSPNJOFOUTUSFTTJTPOUIFGJSTUTZMMBCMF XIFSFBT
JOCFMPX JUJTPOUIFTFDPOE*OUIFTFOUFODFi8JMMZPVQFSNJUNFUPVTFZPVS
QFSNJU wUIFXPSEQFSNJU GVODUJPOJOHBTBWFSCJTTUSFTTFEEJGGFSFOUMZGSPN
QFSNJU VTFEBTBOPVO4PNFMJOHVJTUTDMBJNUIBUUPEFTDSJCF&OHMJTIBEF
RVBUFMZ BTNBOZBTGPVSEFHSFFTPGTUSFTTBSFOFFEFE SBOHJOHGSPNQSJNBSZ

UPXFBL
BTJOEJDUJPOBSZ
BOEFMFWBUPSPQFSBUPS

*O&OHMJTIUIFQMBDJOHPGTUSFTTJTOPUDPNQMFUFMZQSFEJDUBCMF BTJUJTJO
$[FDI XIFSFBTBSVMFUIFNBJOTUSFTTGBMMTPOUIFGJSTUTZMMBCMF PSJO1PMJTI
XIFSFJUGBMMTPOUIFQFOVMUJNBUF PSOFYUUPUIFMBTU TZMMBCMF
"EJTUJODUJWFQJUDI MFWFMBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBTZMMBCMFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTUPOF
"NPOHUIFTFWFSBMEJBMFDUHSPVQTJO$IJOB .BOEBSJO$IJOFTFQSPWJEFTB
HPPEFYBNQMFPGBUPOFTZTUFN4JNQMFSUIBOUIFTZTUFNTPGPUIFS$IJOFTF
UPOFMBOHVBHFTPSEJBMFDUT .BOEBSJOFNQMPZTGPVSSFMBUJWFQJUDIDPOUPVST PS
UPOFT UPEJTUJOHVJTIBNPOHOPSNBMMZTUSFTTFETZMMBCMFTUIBUBSFPUIFSXJTF
JEFOUJDBM TFF5BCMF

#ZDPOUSBTU UIFVTFPGQJUDIJO&OHMJTIJTOPUBTTPDJBUFEXJUIJOEJWJEVBMTZM
MBCMFTCVUXJUIVUUFSBODFTJOBWBSJFUZPGJOUPOBUJPOQBUUFSOT 5IFJOUPOBUJPO
TA B L E 3 . 6 The Four Distinctive Tones of Mandarin Chinese

Tone Tone Pitch Pinyin
Syllable Number Description Letter Contour Transcription Meaning
ma 1 high and 55 mother
level
ma 2 rising 35 hemp
ma 3 falling, 214 horse

then rising
ma 4 high 51 to scold
falling
The tone letter provides a simplied time-pitch graph of each syllable under nor-
mal stress. The time-pitch graph is drawn from left to right, with the vertical line
serving as a reference scale for pitch range. Similarly, the pitch contour represents
pitches by numbers from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest.
UIBUBDDPNQBOJFTUIFRVFTUJPOi8IPSBOPGG .PUIFS wBEESFTTFEUPUIF

TQFBLFSTNPUIFS NBZFMJDJUTPNFTVDIBOTXFSBTi:PVSTJTUFSw8JUIUIFBQ
QSPQSJBUFMZEJGGFSFOUJOUPOBUJPO UIFRVFTUJPOi8IPSBOPGG.PUIFS wBE
ESFTTFEUPTPNFPUIFSNFNCFSPGUIFGBNJMZNBZFMJDJUTPNFTVDIBOTXFSBT
i:FT XJUIPVUFWFOMFBWJOHBOPUFw
5IFQIZTJDBMEVSBUJPOPGBTPVOEJTSFGFSSFEUPBTJUTRVBOUJUZ PSMFOHUI
*O&OHMJTIUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFTIPSUWPXFMJOCJU BOEUIFMPOHFSPOF
JOCFBU JTOPUTUSJDUMZPSQSJNBSJMZBEJGGFSFODFJOMFOHUICFDBVTFUIFUXPWPX
FMTWBSZJOPUIFSSFTQFDUT:FUUIFDPOTPOBOUXSJUUFOBTUUJODBUUBJM JTTPNF
XIBUMPOHFSUIBOUIBUXSJUUFOBTUUJODBUUMF *O$[FDI UIPVHI MFOHUIJT
DPOUSBTUJWFTVDIXPSEQBJSTBTMBL AWBSOJTIBOEML AQJDLMF CSJOF
PSEBM AIF
HBWFBOEEM AGBSUIFSBSFBMJLFFYDFQUGPSUIFDPOTJEFSBCMFMFOHUIFOJOHPGUIF
WPXFM JO UIF TFDPOE XPSE PG FBDI QBJS NBSLFE JO DPOWFOUJPOBM $[FDI
TQFMMJOHCZUIFEJBDSJUJD}PWFSUIFWPXFM

4PNFMJOHVJTUTBMTPEJTUJOHVJTIQIPOFUJDGFBUVSFTUIBUNBSLUIFKPJOJOHPG
POFHSBNNBUJDBMVOJUUPBOPUIFSTPDBMMFEKVODUVSFT &OHMJTIFYBNQMFTJO
DMVEFUIFBVEJCMFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFNFNCFSTPGTVDIQBJSTBTOJUSBUF
BOEOJHIUSBUF *TDSFBN BOEJDFDSFBN BOEBOBJN BOEBOBNF
Etics and Emics 49
Etics and Emics

-FUVTGJSTUCSJFGMZSFWJFXUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOQIPOFUJDTBOEQIPOFNJDT
"QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO PSEFTDSJQUJPO
PGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFJTBOBU
UFNQUUPBDDPVOUGPSBMMUIFBVEJCMFPSQFSDFJWBCMFEJGGFSFODFTBNPOHUIF
TPVOETPGUIBUMBOHVBHF'PSFYBNQMF UIFQIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPG&OHMJTI
XPSETXPVMESFHJTUFSUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFQ TPVOETPGQJLF BOETQJLF
UIFGJSTU <QI> JTBTQJSBUFEXIFSFBTUIFTFDPOE <Q> JTOPU
PSCFUXFFOUIF
JOJUJBMDPOTPOBOUTPGTIPPU BOETIFFU CPUIDPOWFOUJPOBMMZXSJUUFOBTTI UIF
GJSTU <> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTSPVOEFEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPGBSPVOEFE
WPXFMUIFTFDPOE <> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTTQSFBEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPG
BOVOSPVOEFEWPXFM
#ZDPOUSBTU UIFQIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPGUIFTFGPVS
TPVOETJOUIFUXPQBJSTPGXPSETXPVMECFTJNQMZQBOETCFDBVTFJO&OH
MJTIOFJUIFS<QI>BOE<Q>OPS<>BOE<>EJTUJOHVJTINFBOJOHJOUIFXBZO
BOE EP GPSFYBNQMF JOTJO BOETJOH XPSETHJWFOEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHCZ
WJSUVFPGOWFSTVT 5IFUFSNTFUJD BOEFNJD BOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOH
OPVOTFUJDT BOEFNJDT
XFSFEFSJWFEGSPNQIPOFUJD T
BOEQIPOFNJD T
BOE
DPJOFECZUIFMJOHVJTU,FOOFUI-1JLF o
JOBXPSLJOXIJDIIFBU
UFNQUFEUPSFMBUFUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFUPBVOJGJFEUIFPSZPGUIFTUSVDUVSFPG
IVNBOCFIBWJPS
"DDPSEJOHUP1JLF
UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMJNQPS
UBOUEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOUIFFUJDBOEFNJDBQQSPBDIFTUPMBOHVBHFBOEDVM
UVSF'PSFYBNQMF TPDJBMTDJFOUJTUTXIPTUVEZCFIBWJPS JODMVEJOHMBOHVBHF
GSPNPVUTJEFBQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFNBSFGPMMPXJOHUIFFUJDBQQSPBDICFDBVTFUIF
VOJUTUIFZVTFBSFBWBJMBCMFJOBEWBODF BTBSFUIFOVNFSPVTQIPOFUJDTZN
CPMTSFQSFTFOUJOHUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPGTPVOETPDDVSSJOHJOUIFNBOZMBO
HVBHFTPGUIFXPSME

#ZDPOUSBTU UIFFNJDBQQSPBDIJOWPMWFTBTUVEZGSPNXJUIJO5IFFNJD
VOJUTNVTUCFEJTDPWFSFECZTVCKFDUJOHBQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFNUPBOBMZTJT BMJO
HVJTUBSSJWFTBUUIFQIPOFNFTPGBMBOHVBHFPOMZBTBSFTVMUPGBOBOBMZTJT

.PSFPWFS UIFFUJDBQQSPBDIJTQPUFOUJBMMZDSPTTDVMUVSBMBOEDPNQBSBUJWFJO
UIBUJUNBZCFBQQMJFEUPTFWFSBMMBOHVBHFTPSDVMUVSFTBUBUJNFUIFFNJDBQ
QSPBDIJTMBOHVBHFoPSDVMUVSFTQFDJGJDCFDBVTFJUDBOCFBQQMJFEPOMZUPPOF
BUBUJNF'VSUIFSNPSF FUJDDSJUFSJBBSFEJSFDUMZNFBTVSBCMFBOENBZCFDPO
TJEFSFEBCTPMVUF'PSFYBNQMF CPUI&OHMJTIBOE$[FDIJODMVEFTPVOETUIBU
BSFQIPOFUJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEBT<N> <O> BOE< >&NJDDSJUFSJB IPXFWFS BSF
SFMBUJWFUPPOFQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFN*O&OHMJTIN O BOE BSFQIPOFNJ
DBMMZEJTUJODU BTJOTVN TVO BOETVOH CVUJO$[FDIPOMZNBOEOBSF
F I G U R E 3 . 2 Deetzs Facteme and Allofacts Illustrated

on Arrowheads
CFDBVTF< >JO$[FDIJTBOBMMPQIPOFPGO JUPDDVSTCFGPSFWFMBSDPOTP

OBOUT
/BUJWFTQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHF PGDPVSTF EPOPULOPXBOEEPOPU
IBWFUPLOPXUIFQIPOFNJDTZTUFNPGUIFJSNPUIFSUPOHVFUIFZJOUFSOBMJ[F
JUXIFOUIFZMFBSOUIFJSMBOHVBHFJOFBSMZDIJMEIPPE
"OPUIFSXBZUPFYFNQMJGZUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOFUJDTBOEFNJDTJTUP
QPJOUPVUUIBUOBUJWFTQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTIFODPEFUIFJSNFTTBHFTFUJDBMMZ
BMUIPVHIVOBXBSFUIBUUIFZBTQJSBUFTPNFQTTUSPOHMZ PUIFSTXFBLMZ BOE
TUJMMPUIFST BGUFSBOT PGUIFTBNFTZMMBCMF
OPUBUBMMCVUVODPOTDJPVTMZEF
DPEFUIFNFNJDBMMZ QBZJOHBUUFOUJPOPOMZUPEJTUJODUJWFGFBUVSFT TVDIBTUIF
WPJDJOHUIBUEJTUJOHVJTIFTCGSPNQJOCVODI BOEQVODI CFTU BOEQFTU BOE
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Etics and Emics 51
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4
Structure of Words
and Sentences
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OJBMTQFFDIFT
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BSSBOHFTUIFNJOUPXPSET QISBTFT BOETFOUFODFTJOBQBSUJDVMBSXBZ BOE
FWFSZMBOHVBHFIBTJUTPXOHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFTUIBUWBSZGSPNPOFMBO
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53
54 Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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Morphemes and Allomorphs

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BOBMZTJTXBTQSFTFOUFEJOUIFQSFWJPVTDIBQUFS-FUVTOPXTIJGUUPUIFMFWFM
PG BOBMZTJT DPOWFOUJPOBMMZ SFGFSSFE UP BT HSBNNBS $POTJEFS UIF QISBTF
TIPDLJOHMZEJTHSBDFGVMBDUT XIJDIDBOCFTVCEJWJEFEJOUPUIFGPMMPXJOHNFBO
JOHGVMTFHNFOUT UPTJNQMJGZNBUUFST DPOWFOUJPOBMTQFMMJOHJOTUFBEPGQIPOF
NJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOJTVTFECFMPX

TIPDL NFBOJOHiUPTUBSUMF PGGFOE EJTUSFTT w

JOH BOBEKFDUJWBMTFHNFOUNFBOJOHiDBVTJOHUP w
Morphemes and Allomorphs 55
MZ BOBEWFSCJBMTFHNFOUNFBOJOHiJOa..NBOOFS w
EJT NFBOJOHiOPU PQQPTJUFPG w
HSBDF NFBOJOHiQSPQSJFUZ EFDFODZ w
GVM NFBOJOHiDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZ w
BDU NFBOJOHiEFFE wBOE
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NFOUTPG&OHMJTI OPOFPGXIJDIDBOCFGVSUIFSTVCEJWJEFEXJUIPVUUIFMPTT
PGUIFPSJHJOBMNFBOJOH JUDBOOPUCFDMBJNFE GPSFYBNQMF UIBUUIFXPSE
HSBDF JTNBEFVQPGHQMVTSBDF
-JOHVJTUJDVOJUTUIBUIBWFBNFBOJOHCVU
DPOUBJOOPTNBMMFSNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTBSFUFSNFENPSQIFNFT 5PQVUJUEJG
GFSFOUMZ BNPSQIFNFJTUIFTNBMMFTUDPOUSBTUJWFVOJUPGHSBNNBS5IFTFBSDI
GPSTVDIVOJUTJOBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFJTDBMMFENPSQIFNJDBOBMZTJT"OEUIF
TUVEZPGXPSETUSVDUVSF JODMVEJOHDMBTTJGJDBUJPOPGBOEJOUFSSFMBUJPOTIJQT
BNPOHNPSQIFNFT JTSFGFSSFEUPBTNPSQIPMPHZ
5IFSFBSFNBOZUIPVTBOETPGNPSQIFNFTJOBOZMBOHVBHF5IFMBSHFNB
KPSJUZBSFDPNNPOMZGSFFNPSQIFNFT CFDBVTFUIFZNBZPDDVSVOBUUBDIFEUP
PUIFSNPSQIFNFT UIBUJT UIFZDBOTUBOEBMPOFBTJOEFQFOEFOUXPSETJO
UIFFYBNQMFBCPWF HSBDF TIPDL BOEBDU 4PNFNPSQIFNFT CVUVTVBMMZSFM
BUJWFMZGFX BSFCPVOENPSQIFNFTCFDBVTFUIFZOPSNBMMZEPOPUPDDVSPO
UIFJSPXOCVUPOMZJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIBOPUIFSNPSQIFNFGPSFYBNQMF
EJT JOH MZ BOET 5IFTUFNJTUIBUQBSUPGUIFXPSEUPXIJDIJOGMFDUJPOBM
BGGJYFT TVDIBTUIFQMVSBM
BSFBUUBDIFE
*O&OHMJTIBOEPUIFSMBOHVBHFT CPVOENPSQIFNFTPDDVSJOMJNJUFE
OVNCFST 5IFSF BSF MBOHVBHFT UIPVHI JO XIJDI NPTU NPSQIFNFT BSF
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PUIFSMBOHVBHFT UIPTFOPVOTUFNTUIBUTUBOEGPSPCKFDUTXIJDIBSFUZQJ
DBMMZQPTTFTTFEEPOPUPDDVSBTGSFFNPSQIFNFT5IJTJTUSVF GPSFYBNQMF
PG"SBQBIPOPVOTSFGFSSJOHUPCPEZQBSUT LJOTIJQSFMBUJPOTIJQT BOEBGFX
PUIFSSFGFSFOUT *O"SBQBIP UIFBDVUFBDDFOU<}>NBSLTTUSFTTFEWPXFMT
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FBS
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BOBOJNBM BEBVHIUFSXJUIPVUBNPUIFSPSGBUIFS BGSJFOEVOBUUBDIFEUP
BOPUIFSCZBGGFDUJPO PSBMPVTFPSGMFBUIBUDPVMETVSWJWFXJUIPVUEFSJWJOH
CFOFGJUTGSPNBIPTU5IFGPSNTCUFF XPOPUOP OPUOF CUFI BOE

CFU DPOTJTUPGFJUIFSUIFGJSTUQFSTPOQPTTFTTJWFNPSQIFNFOJOOPUOF
PSUIFJOEFGJOJUFQFSTPOBMQPTTFTTPSNPSQIFNFCPSXJOUIFPUIFSGPVS
OPVOT/POFPGUIFTFGPVSPSTPNFUXPIVOESFEPUIFSOPVOTFWFSPDDVST
BTBGSFF VOQPTTFTTFE
TUFN
4PNFCVUOPUBMMCPVOENPSQIFNFTJOBMBOHVBHFBSFBGGJYFTBUUBDIFEUP
PUIFSNPSQIFNFT UIFZNPEJGZNFBOJOHJOTPNFXBZBOENBLFNPSFDPN
QMFYXPSET*GBOBGGJYJTBUUBDIFECFGPSFBTUFN JUJTDBMMFEBQSFGJY JGJUGPM
MPXTBTUFN JUJTBTVGGJY BOEJGJUJTQMBDFEXJUIJOBOPUIFSNPSQIFNF JUJT
DBMMFEBOJOGJY *O&OHMJTIPOMZUIFGJSTUUXPUZQFTPGBGGJYFTPDDVS&YBNQMFT
PGQSFGJYFTBSFCF EF JO QSF SF BOEVOBTJOCFGSJFOE EFCVH JOMBZ QSF
XBTI SFXSJUF BOEVOEPFYBNQMFTPGTVGGJYFTBSFFO FS IPPE JTI J[F
BOEXBSE BTJOPYFO TNBMMFS DIJMEIPPE CPPLJTI FRVBMJ[F BOETLZXBSE "O
FYBNQMFPGBOJOGJYNBZCFUBLFOGSPN$IPOUBM BMBOHVBHFTQPLFOCZBQFP
QMFJOTPVUIFSO0BYBDB .FYJDPBLO AXPNBO LO AHSBOEDIJME TFX
ANBHQJF BOETFWFSBMPUIFSTUFNTGPSNUIFQMVSBMCZJOTFSUJOHBOJOGJYJOUIF
GPSNPG BWPJDFMFTTMBUFSBMDPOUJOVBOU
CFGPSFUIFTFDPOEDPOTPOBOU
ZJFMEJOHakn women, kn grandchildren, and sew magpies
*OGJYBUJPO JT GBJSMZ DPNNPO JO /BUJWF "NFSJDBO 4PVUIFBTU "TJBO BOE
"GSJDBOMBOHVBHFT
8IBUBCPVUTVDIiJSSFHVMBSwQMVSBMTJO&OHMJTIBTGFFU HFFTF NFO BOE
NJDF 3BUIFS UIBO CZ BEEJOH B TVGGJY UP UIF TUFNT GPPU HPPTF NBO BOE
NPVTF UIFQMVSBMJTGPSNFECZDIBOHJOHUIFTUFNWPXFMGPSFYBNQMF JO
GPPU m GFFU BOEHPPTF m HFFTFCZGSPOUJOHBOEVOSPVOEJOHJU TFF#PY

1MVSBMJ[BUJPOJOTVDIXPSETJTFGGFDUFECZXIBUJTTPNFUJNFTSFGFSSFEUPBTB
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UIFTUFN BTJODBU QMVTT

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TJEFSBCMFWBSJBUJPOJOUIFQIPOFNJDTIBQFPGBNPSQIFNF/PVOTUFNTFOE
JOHJOBTPDBMMFETJCJMBOU BOTMJLFPSTIMJLFGSJDBUJWF
GPSNUIFJSQMVSBMCZ
BEEJOHBWPXFMQMVTB[ TPVOE WFSZDPNNPOMZ<[> BTJOCPYFT QBTTFT
CV[[FT CVTIFT HBSBHFT QBUDIFT BOEKVEHFT5IFHSFBUNBKPSJUZPGOPVO
TUFNTFOEJOHJOWPJDFEOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFE<[> XIFSFBTUIPTF
FOEJOHJOWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFMFTT<T> BTJOCFBST DBOT
DPNNBT MBUIFT QBET QJMMT SJCT SJHT BOETPOHT POUIFPOFIBOE BOE
DBUT MBVHIT MJQT BOEUJDLT POUIFPUIFS#VUBOVNCFSPGOPVOTUFNTGPSN
Morphemes and Allomorphs 57
B OX 4 . 1 W H Y E N G L I S H I S S O H A R D
Compared to other Indo-European languages, English has few grammatical

affixes. But as in all natural languages, there are some irregular forms, as
this anonymous poem points out. All the italicized words were used in
English before the twelfth century except vow and booth (thirteenth cen-
tury), boot (fourteenth century), and moose (earliest recorded date of use
is 1603). They are old words, not likely to become regularized.
Well begin with a box, and the plural is boxes,

But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes.
Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese,
Yet the plural of moose should never be meese.
You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice,

But the plural of house is houses, not hice.
If the plural of man is always called men,
Why shouldnt the plural of pan be called pen?
The cow in the plural may be cows or kine,

But the plural of vow is vows, not vine.
And I speak of a foot, and you show me your feet,
But I give you a bootwould a pair be called beet?
If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth,

Why shouldnt the plural of booth be called beeth?
Then one may be that, and three may be those,
Yet the plural of hat would never be hose.
We speak of a brother and also of brethren,

But though we say mother, we never say methren.
So our English, I think you will agree,
Is the trickiest language you ever did see.
UIFQMVSBMEJGGFSFOUMZBNPOHUIFNBMVNOB BMVNOVT DIJME DSJTJT DSJUFSJPO

EBUVN LJCCVU[ BOEPYUIFJSQMVSBMTBSF SFTQFDUJWFMZ BMVNOBF BMVNOJ DIJM
ESFO DSJTFT DSJUFSJB EBUB LJCCVU[JN BOEPYFO "OEUIFOUIFSFBSFBSFMBUJWFMZ
GFXOPVOTUFNTUIFQMVSBMTPGXIJDIBSFOPUPWFSUMZNBSLFE GPSFYBNQMF
TIFFQ BOETXJOF 5IFTFBOEPUIFSTVDIOPVOTBSFTBJEUPIBWFUIFJSQMVSBMT
NBSLFECZB[FSP XSJUUFOBT
UIBUJT CZUIFBCTFODFPGBOPWFSUMJOHVJT
UJDGFBUVSF5IFWBSJBOUGPSNTPGBQBSUJDVMBSNPSQIFNFBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTJUT
BMMPNPSQIT KVTUBTUIFWBSJFUJFTPGBQIPOFNFBSFDBMMFEBMMPQIPOFT
PS
NPSQIFNFBMUFSOBUT"MMPNPSQITPGBHJWFONPSQIFNF UIFO BSFEJGGFSFOU
GPSNTPGUIFNPSQIFNF EFQFOEJOHPOUIFDPOUFYUJOXIJDIUIFZPDDVS
*OTVNNBSZ UIFO POFNBZTBZUIBUUIFQMVSBMNPSQIFNFJO&OHMJTIIBT
BOVNCFSPGBMMPNPSQIT SBOHJOHGSPNUIFNPTUDPNNPOPOFTPG[ T
BOE[ UISPVHITFWFSBMPUIFSTBTTPDJBUFEFTQFDJBMMZXJUIMPBOXPSET UP
[FSP"OEJOUIFDBTFPGQMVSBMJ[JOHUIFOPVONBO UPNFO POFXPVMESFQSF
TFOUUIFQMVSBMBMMPNPSQIBTm5IFQMVSBMNPSQIFNFJO&OHMJTIJTCZ
OPNFBOTBOFYDFQUJPOJOUIBUJUIBTNPSQIFNFBMUFSOBOUT'PSFYBNQMF UIF
TUFNDIJME IBTBEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNJDTIBQFJOJUTQMVSBMGPSN DIJMESFO
GSPN
XIFOJUPDDVSTCZJUTFMGPSXIFOJUJTTVGGJYFECZIPPE JTI BOEMJLF JO
DIJMEIPPE DIJMEJTI BOEDIJMEMJLF

.PSQIFNFTBMTPWBSZDPOTJEFSBCMZJOMFOHUI4PNFDPOTJTUPGBTJOHMF
QIPOFNF'PSFYBNQMF UIFUISFF&OHMJTINPSQIFNFTNBSLJOHUIFQMVSBM
UIFQPTTFTTJWF BOEUIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBS BTJOBQFT BQFT BOE<IF>BQFT
<TPNFPOF>
IBWFTBTPOFPGUIFJSTFWFSBMBMMPNPSQIT0UIFST MJLFDBUFSQJM
MBS PSIJQQPQPUBNVT DPOTJTUPGTFWFSBMTZMMBCMFT8PSET UPP JO&OHMJTIWBSZ
JOMFOHUIB JTUIFTIPSUFTU CVUJUJTJNQPTTJCMFUPMJTUUIFMPOHFTU4VQQPTF
ZPVXJTIUPSFGFSUPBMJOFBMQBUFSOBMNBMFSFMBUJWFGSPNUIFTJYUFFOUIDFO
UVSZ)FXPVMECFZPVSHSFBUHSFBU......HSFBUHSBOEGBUIFS
Morphological Processes
+VTUBTMBOHVBHFTEJGGFSJOUIFJSQIPOFNJDTZTUFNT UIFZEJGGFSJOUIFJSNPS
QIPMPHJFT 4PNF NPSQIPMPHJDBM QSPDFTTFT IPXFWFS BSF RVJUF DPNNPO
UISPVHIPVUUIFXPSMEFWFOUIPVHIUIFZNBZCFBQQMJFEEJGGFSFOUMZJOTQFDJGJD
MBOHVBHFT0OFTVDIQSPDFTTJTEFSJWBUJPO CZNFBOTPGXIJDIOFXXPSETBSF
GPSNFEGSPNFYJTUJOHPOFT GSFRVFOUMZCZDIBOHJOHUIFNGSPNPOFXPSEDMBTT
UPBOPUIFS*O&OHMJTIUIJTQSPDFTTPGXPSEGPSNBUJPOJTGSFRVFOUMZBDDPN
QMJTIFECZUIFVTFPGEFSJWBUJPOBMBGGJYFT'PSFYBNQMF BGGJYFTDIBOHFUIFBE
KFDUJWFNPEFSO UPUIFWFSCNPEFSOJ[F UIFOPVOGSJFOE UPUIFBEKFDUJWFGSJFOEMZ
UIFWFSCTQFBL UPUIFOPVOTQFBLFS BOEUIFBEKFDUJWFBCSVQU UPUIFBEWFSC
BCSVQUMZ 5IFZBMTPQSPEVDFTVDIXPSETBTLJOHEPN PVUCJE BOEEFTQJUF
5IFPUIFSDPNNPONPSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTJTJOGMFDUJPO UIFVTFPGBGGJYFT
UPJOEJDBUFHSBNNBUJDBMSFMBUJPOTIJQT OVNCFS DBTF QFSTPO UFOTF BOEPUI
Morphological Processes 59
FST
*O&OHMJTIBMMJOGMFDUJPOBMBGGJYFTBSFTVGGJYFTBOEBSFMJNJUFEUPUIFQMVSBM
BOEQPTTFTTJWFNBSLFSTJOOPVOT BTJONPUIFST BOENPUIFST
DPNQBSBUJWF
BOETVQFSMBUJWFNBSLFSTJOBEKFDUJWFT BTJOUBMMFS BOEUBMMFTU
BOEUIFUIJSE
QFSTPOTJOHVMBSQSFTFOUUFOTFNBSLFSBOEUIFQBTUUFOTF QSPHSFTTJWF BOEQBTU
QBSUJDJQMFNBSLFSTJOWFSCT BTJOXBJUT XBJUFE <JT>TJOHJOH BOECFBUFO

%FSJWBUJPOBMBOEJOGMFDUJPOBMNPSQIFNFTNBZIBWFUIFTBNFQIPOFNJD
TIBQF0OFJOH JO&OHMJTITFSWFTBTUIFEFSJWBUJPOBMTVGGJYDIBOHJOHBWFSC
JOUPBOPVOBTJOi&YDFTTJWFFBUJOHJTIBSNGVM wXIFSFBTBOPUIFSJOH JTBO
JOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYNBSLJOHUIFQSPHSFTTJWFWFSCGPSNBTJOi5IFZXFSFFBU
JOHWPSBDJPVTMZw*O&OHMJTIJOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYFTBMXBZTGPMMPXEFSJWBUJPOBM
TVGGJYFT BTJOSFBEFST PSHBOJ[FST BOEGSJFOEMJFTU SFBEFST PSHBOJ[ F
FST
BOEGSJFOEMJFTU

"T MBOHVBHFT HP &OHMJTI IBT WFSZ GFX JOGMFDUJPOBM BGGJYFT DPNQBSFE
XJUI GPSFYBNQMF -BUJO"TBHBJOTUUIFIBOEGVMPGEJGGFSFOUGPSNTPGBO
&OHMJTIWFSC TQFBL TQFBLT TQFBLJOH TQPLF BOETQPLFO
B-BUJOWFSCIBT
TDPSFT3FHBSEJOHOVNCFS &OHMJTIEJTUJOHVJTIFTGPSNBMMZPOMZCFUXFFO
UIFTJOHVMBSBOEUIFQMVSBM XIFSFBTTPNFMBOHVBHFTIBWFTQFDJBMGPSNT
BMTPGPSUIFEVBMUPSFGFSUPUXPPGBLJOE BOEFWFOGPSNTUPSFGFSUPUISFF
BOEGPVSPGBLJOE0ME&OHMJTINBSLFEUIFEVBMOVNCFSJOJUTQFSTPOBM
QSPOPVOT#FTJEFTJD A*BOEX [ AXF UIFSFXBTXJU AXFUXPCFTJEFTN[ A UP
NFBOET A UP
VT UIFSFXBTVOD A UP
UIFUXPPGVTBOETPPO5IFTF
EVBMGPSNTHSBEVBMMZEJTBQQFBSFEEVSJOHUIFTFDPOEQBSUPGUIFUIJSUFFOUI
DFOUVSZ IBMGXBZUISPVHIUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE)PXFWFS EFSJWBUJPOBM
TVGGJYFTJO&OHMJTIBSFQMFOUJGVMBCMF BTJOSFBTPOBCMF
BEF CMPDLBEF

BHF CSFBLBHF
BM DPBTUBM
BODF BTTJTUBODF
BOU TFSWBOU
BS MJOFBS

BSE ESVOLBSE
BSZ CVEHFUBSZ
BUF BDUJWBUF
BUJD QSPCMFNBUJD
BOE
TDPSFTPGPUIFST
4PNFMBOHVBHFTEJTUJOHVJTIOPVOTBDDPSEJOHUPTFWFSBMHFOEFST FBDIPG
XIJDINBZSFRVJSFDPSSFTQPOEJOHGPSNTJOQSPOPVOT BEKFDUJWFT BOEFWFO
WFSCT'SFRVFOUMZUIFSFJTOPDPSSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOHSBNNBUJDBMBOEOBUVSBM
HFOEFS*O&OHMJTIBMMJOBOJNBUFPCKFDUTBSFSFGFSSFEUPCZUIFQSPOPVOJU JO
(FSNBO IPXFWFS EFS-GGFM ATQPPOJTNBTDVMJOF EJF(BCFM AGPSLJTGFNJ
OJOF BOEEBT.FTTFS ALOJGFJTOFVUFS BTBSFBMTPEBT8FJC AXPNBOBOEEBT
.EDIFO AHJSM*O0ME&OHMJTI TUGO ATUPOFBOEXkGNBO AXPNBOXFSFNBT
DVMJOF EVSV AEPPS BOE TVOOF ATVO GFNJOJOF BOE XPSE AXPSE BOE XkG
AXPNBO XJGFOFVUFS5IFTVCTUJUVUJPOPGOBUVSBMGPSHSBNNBUJDBMHFOEFS
BMTPUPPLQMBDFEVSJOHUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE
"OPUIFSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZUIBUNBZTFSWFBTBOFYBNQMFJTDBTF "M
UIPVHI0ME&OHMJTIIBEUISFFDBTFGPSNTGPS TBZ TUGO ATUPOFJOUIFTJOHVMBS
OPNJOBUJWFBOEBDDVTBUJWFTUGO HFOJUJWFTUGOFT BOEEBUJWFTUGOF
BOEUISFF
JOUIFQMVSBM TUGOBT TUGOB BOETUGOVN SFTQFDUJWFMZ
.PEFSO&OHMJTINBO
BHFTRVJUFXFMMXJUIPOMZUXPGPSNT OBNFMZTUPOF BOETUPOFT*UIBTSFUBJOFE
DBTFGPSNTPOMZJOUIFJOUFSSPHBUJWFQSPOPVOXIP UIBUJTXIPN
BOEJOTFW
FSBMQFSTPOBMQSPOPVOTNF UIFPCKFDUJWFDBTFGPSNPG* BOEIJN IFS VT
BOEUIFN*OPUIFSMBOHVBHFT IPXFWFS DBTFTBSFBOJNQPSUBOUBOEFMBCP
SBUFHSBNNBUJDBMGFBUVSF'PSFYBNQMF UIF$[FDIMBOHVBHFIBTTFWFODBTFTJO
CPUITJOHVMBSBOEQMVSBMBQQMJFEOPUPOMZUPOPVOTCVUBMTPUPQSPOPVOT BE
KFDUJWFT BOEOVNFSBMT
'JOOJTIIBTBQBSUJDVMBSMZSJDIDBTFTZTUFN8IBUJO&OHMJTIJTVTVBMMZFY
QSFTTFECZNFBOTPGQSFQPTJUJPOT 'JOOJTIEPFTXJUIDBTFT"NPOHUIFTF
DBTFTNPEJGZJOH GPSFYBNQMF UIFOPVOUBMP AIPVTF JTUIFBEFTTJWF DBTF

NFBOJOHABU OFBS BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPMMB ABUUIFIPVTF FMBUJWF NFBOJOHAPVUPG
BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPTUB AGSPN JOTJEF
UIFIPVTF JOFTTJWFAJO XJUIJO BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPTTB AJOUIFIPVTF JMMBUJWFAJOUP BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPPO AJOUPUIFIPVTF
BMMBUJWFAUP XBSET
BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPMMF AUP XBSET
UIFIPVTF BOETFWFSBM
PUIFST
"TQFDU JTBHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZFYQSFTTJOHIPXBDUJWJUJFTEFOPUFECZ
WFSCTBSFSFMBUFEUPUJNF5IJTDBUFHPSZJTQBSUJDVMBSMZXFMMEFWFMPQFEJO
4MBWJDMBOHVBHFT BTTPNFPGUIFGPMMPXJOHFYBNQMFTGSPN$[FDIXJMMTIPX
$[FDIWFSCTBSFQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTDPNQMFUFPSDPODMVEFE BT
JOUIFTVQQMFUJWFQJFM iIFIBTDPNF BSSJWFEwGSPNUIFJOGJOJUJWFQJKU PS
JNQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTJODPNQMFUFPSSFQFBUFE BTJOFM AIFXFOU
GSPNKU AUPHP5IFNVMUJQMJDJUZPGWFSCBMBDUJPOJTFYQSFTTFEJOUIFJUFSBUJWF
GPSNOPTJM AIFDBSSJFEBOEUIFNPSFJOUFOTJWFGSFRVFOUBUJWFGPSNOPTWBM
AIFVTFEUPDBSSZ"QBSUJDVMBSQIBTFPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFTQFDJGJFEBT
BOJOJUJBUPSZPOF BTJOWZCZIM AIFSBOPVU BDPNQMFUFEPOF BTJOEPCZIM AIF
SFBDIFE<BQMBDF>CZSVOOJOH BOEBUFSNJOBUJWFPOF BTJOQSPCZIM TF AIFIBE
SVO5IFFYUFOUPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFNPNFOUBSZ BTJOTUFMJM AIFUPPL
BTIPU PSEVSBUJWF FYQSFTTJWFDPOUJOVJUZ BTJOTUMFM AIFGJSFEBXBZPSUIF
FYUFOUJTTNBMM BTJOVTNMTF AIFHBWFBTNJMF wPSMBSHF BTJOOBTNMTF AIF
IBEBHPPEMBVHI
"OJOUFSFTUJOHNPSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTJTSFEVQMJDBUJPO UIFEPVCMJOHPS
SFQFUJUJPOPGBQIPOFNFPSQIPOFNFT*O*TUINVT/BIVBU BEJBMFDUPG/BIV
BUMTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJOFBTUFSO.FYJDP WFSCTUFNTBSFEFSJWFE
Morphophonemics 61
CZSFEVQMJDBUJPOUPNBSLEJGGFSFOULJOETPGSFQFUJUJWFBDUJPOLBLBMBLJ AFOUFS
BIPVTFNBOZUJNFTGSPNLBMBLJAFOUFSQBIQBOPAQBTTCZNBOZUJNFT
GSPNQBOPAQBTTCZQPQPTUFLJACSFBLNBOZUJNFTPSACSFBLJOUPNBOZ
QJFDFTGSPNQPTUFLJACSFBLQBQBLB AXBTINBOZUJNFTBOEQBIQBLB
AXBTINBOZUIJOHTGSPNQBLBAXBTIBOEUIFMJLF5IFDPNQPVOEHPPEZ
HPPEZ IFMUFSTLFMUFS UFFOZXFFOZ BOE XJTIZXBTIZ BSF SFEVQMJDBUJPOT PG
TPSUT CVUUIFQSPDFTTJO&OHMJTIJTRVJUFMJNJUFE
0OFDPVMEHPPOJMMVTUSBUJOHWBSJPVTPUIFSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFTGPVOE
JOUIFUIPVTBOETPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT BTQFDU NPPE UFOTF WPJDF BOE
TPPO
BOEUIFQSPDFTTFTCZXIJDIUIFZBSFNBSLFE CVUUIFFYBNQMFTBMSFBEZ
HJWFOTIPVMETVGGJDF)PXFWFS POFJNQPSUBOUQPJOUNVTUCFNBEF8IFUIFS
PSOPUBMBOHVBHFGPSNBMMZNBSLTBQBSUJDVMBSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZEPFTOPU
NBLFJUTVQFSJPS PSJOGFSJPS
UPPUIFST*GJUXFSFTP 0ME&OHMJTIXPVMEIBWF
UPCFSBUFEBTNVDITVQFSJPSUP.PEFSO&OHMJTITPNFUIJOHOPPOFDBOTF
SJPVTMZNBJOUBJO"MMMBOHVBHFTBSFGVMMZBEFRVBUFCFDBVTFUIFZFOBCMFOB
UJWFTQFBLFSTUPFYQSFTTBMMUIBUUIFZXJTIUPTBZBCPVUUIFTPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSF
JOXIJDIUIFZMJWF
Morphophonemics
4PVOEBMUFSOBUJPOTMJLFUIFPOFCFUXFFOGBOEWJOLOJGF BOELOJWFT MJGF
BOEMJWFT MPBG BOEMPBWFT BOEXJGF BOEXJWFT BSFDPNNPOJO&OHMJTIBOE
PUIFSMBOHVBHFT"MUFSOBUJPOTPGUIJTLJOEBSFDIBOHFTJOUIFQIPOFNJDTIBQF
PGUIFBMMPNPSQITPGBNPSQIFNF BOEBTTVDIUIFZSFQSFTFOUJNQPSUBOU
QSPDFTTFTJOUIFTUSVDUVSFPGMBOHVBHF5IFTUVEZPGUIFSFMBUJPOTCFUXFFO
NPSQIPMPHZBOEQIPOPMPHZPS UPQVUJUJOPUIFSXPSET UIFTUVEZPGUIF
QIPOFNJDEJGGFSFODFTBNPOHBMMPNPSQITPGUIFTBNFNPSQIFNF JTSFGFSSFE
UPBTNPSQIPQIPOFNJDT PSNPSQIP QIP
OPMPHZ BOEUIFHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOT
DPODFSOJOHUIFPDDVSSFODFPGUIFWBSJPVTTIBQFTPGNPSQIFNFTBSFDBMMFE
NPSQIPQIPOFNJDSVMFT5PGPSNVMBUFTVDIBSVMFPOFVTVBMMZTFMFDUTBQBS
UJDVMBSBMMPNPSQIBTUIFCBTFGPSNBOEUIFOEFTDSJCFTUIFDPOEJUJPOTVOEFS
XIJDIPUIFSBMMPNPSQITPGUIFTBNFNPSQIFNFPDDVS5PSFGFSUPBOFYBN
QMFVTFEFBSMJFSJOUIJTDIBQUFS OPVOTJO&OHMJTI FYDFQUGPSUIPTFTQFDJGJ
DBMMZFYFNQU
GPSNUIFQMVSBMCZBEEJOH[UPUIFJSTUFN BTJOMFH MFHT
CVU
JOTFSUCFGPSFUIFQMVSBMTVGGJYJGUIFTUFNFOETJOBTJCJMBOU T [
O PS BTJOLJTT LJTTFT
PSDIBOHFUIFWPJDFE[UPWPJDFMFTTTJGUIF
TUFNUFSNJOBUFTJOBWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOU BTJOOFDL OFDLT

.PSQIPQIPOFNJDSVMFTJOBOZMBOHVBHFBSFTUBUBCMFFWFOJGUIFZBSF
GBJSMZDPNQMFY'PSFYBNQMF JO"SBQBIP BO"MHPORVJBOMBOHVBHFTQPLFO
CZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJO8ZPNJOHBOE0LMBIPNB UIFXPSEO JCIF ANZ
HSBOENPUIFSJTSFHVMBSMZDIBOHFEUPIJO JJXIP UPNFBOAIJTIFSHSBOE
NPUIFS 5IFFYQMBOBUJPOPGXIZUIJTDIBOHFUBLFTQMBDFJTGBJSMZDPNQMFY
CVUUPTBUJTGZUIFDVSJPVT IFSFJUJT*OBEEJUJPOUPUIFUXPDPNNPOXPSE
JOJUJBMQSFGJYFTNBSLJOHQPTTFTTJPO<ANZBOEAIJTIFS> UIFEJGGFSFODFTCF
UXFFOUIFUXPGPSNTBSFBMTPSFHVMBS5IFGJOBMP JOIJO JJXIP JTUIF
PCWJBUJWFTVGGJY<BNPSQIFNFUIBUNBSLTUIFTPDBMMFEGPVSUIQFSTPOXIFO
UXPUIJSEQFSTPOTBSFSFGFSSFEUP JOUIJTDBTFBHSBOENPUIFSBOEUIFQFS
TPOXIPDMBJNTIFSBTHSBOENPUIFS>5IFWPXFMPGUIFPCWJBUJWF P JOGMV
FODFTUIFTFMFDUJPOPGBMJLFWPXFMJOUIFEJNJOVUJWFTVGGJYCFGPSFJU BOEC
SFHVMBSMZDIBOHFTJOUPX CFGPSFBCBDLWPXFM<JOUIJTDBTFP>5IFXPSEBQ
QBSFOUMZNFBOTAIJTIFSMJUUMFPOF<NPUIFS>BSBUIFSHFOUMFXBZPGSFGFS
SJOHUPPOFTHSBOENPUIFS
"OPUIFSFYBNQMFPGBNPSQIPQIPOFNJDSVMFJTGPVOEJO5VSLJTI POFPG
UIFMBOHVBHFTXJUIWPXFMIBSNPOZ UIFSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUWPXFMTXJUIJOB
XPSEIBWFBDFSUBJOTJNJMBSJUZ8JUISFMBUJWFMZGFXFYDFQUJPOT 5VSLJTITVG
GJYFTDPOUBJOJOHIJHIWPXFMTIBWF
J JPSF GSPOUVOSPVOEFEWPXFMT

V
^\
JGUIFQSFDFEJOHTZMMBCMFIBT
PS GSPOUSPVOEFE
PSB CBDLVOSPVOEFE
VPSP CBDLSPVOEFE
XIFSFBTTVGGJYFTDPOUBJOJOHMPXWPXFMTIBWF
F J F PS GSPOUWPXFMT
B ^\
JGUIFQSFDFEJOHTZMMBCMFIBT
B V PSP CBDLWPXFMT
)PXFWFS PO PDDBTJPO NPSQIPQIPOFNJD DIBOHFT BSF JSSFHVMBS JO UIF

TFOTFUIBUUIFZBSFMJNJUFEUPPOFNPSQIFNFBOEBSFOPUSFQFBUFEFMTFXIFSF
JOUIFMBOHVBHF&YBNQMFTBSFUIFGPSNTBN BSF JT GSPN UP
CF UIFQBTU
UFOTFGPSNXFOU GSPN UP
HP BOEUIFDPNQBSBUJWFGPSNCFUUFS PSTVQFSMB
UJWFCFTU GSPNHPPE 5IFPDDVSSFODFPGQIPOFNJDBMMZVOSFMBUFEBMMPNPSQIT
PGBNPSQIFNFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTTVQQMFUJPO BOEUIFTQFDJGJDJOTUBODFTPGJU
TVQQMFUJWFGPSNT 4VQQMFUJPOTFFNTUPPDDVSJOBMMOBUVSBM BTPQQPTFEUP
The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis 63
BSUJGJDJBM
MBOHVBHFTIPXFWFS JUJTOFWFSFYUFOTJWFCFDBVTFJSSFHVMBSJUZPOB
MBSHFTDBMFXPVMEUFOEUPIJOEFSDPNNVOJDBUJPO
The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis

+VTUBTTQFFDITPVOETOPSNBMMZEPOPUPDDVSJOJTPMBUJPO OFJUIFSEPXPSET
"TBSVMF IVNBOVUUFSBODFTBSFNBEFVQPGMBSHFSVOJUTQISBTFTBOETFO
UFODFT*UJTOPUFBTZUPEFGJOFUIFTFUXPUFSNTSJHPSPVTMZGPSPVSQVSQPTFT
MFUVTTBZUIBUBTFOUFODFJTUIFMBSHFTUTUSVDUVSBMVOJUPGUIFHSBNNBSPGB
MBOHVBHFBOEUIBUBQISBTFGPSFYBNQMF UPNPSSPXFWFOJOH JOUIFTLZ UIF
XJDLFEXJUDIJTBTUSVDUVSBMVOJUMBSHFSUIBOBTJOHMFXPSECVUTNBMMFSUIBO
BDMBVTF
5IFOVNCFSPGEJGGFSFOUTFOUFODFTUIBUDBOCFQSPEVDFEJOBOZMBOHVBHF
JTJOGJOJUF'PSFYBNQMF JUJTNPTUVOMJLFMZUIBUUIFTFOUFODFi8IFOFWFSUIF
NPPOJTGVMM CBUTHBUIFSUPEJTDVTTUIFTUBUFPGUIFMPDBMFDPOPNZwIBTFWFS
CFFOTBJECFGPSF0OFDPVMEFBTJMZHFOFSBUFOPWFMTFOUFODFTCZUIFUIPV
TBOET)PXJTJUQPTTJCMFUIBUTQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHFDBOBOEEPQSPEVDFBOE
VOEFSTUBOETFOUFODFTDPOGPSNJOHUPUIFSVMFTPGHSBNNBSFWFOUIPVHIUIFZ
IBWFOFWFSCFFOTBJEPSIFBSECFGPSF 5IFBOTXFSJTTJNQMF/BUJWFTQFBLFST
LOPXUIFTZOUBY PGUIFJSMBOHVBHFUIFJOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSFPGTFOUFODFTBOE
UIFJOUFSSFMBUJPOTIJQTCFUXFFOUIFWBSJPVTTFOUFODFFMFNFOUT
"MMTQFBLFSTIBWFBMBSHFMZVODPOTDJPVTLOPXMFEHFPGUIFTZTUFNPGHSBN
NBUJDBMSVMFTUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FTUIFJSOBUJWFMBOHVBHFPSBMBOHVBHFJOXIJDI
UIFZBSFUSVMZGMVFOU5IJTLOPXMFEHFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTDPNQFUFODF8IBUMBO
HVBHFVTFSTBDUVBMMZEPXJUIUIJTLOPXMFEHFJOTQFBLJOHPSDPNQSFIFOEJOH
TQFFDI IPXFWFS JTTPNFXIBUEJGGFSFOUBOEJTSFGFSSFEUPBTQFSGPSNBODF
"MUIPVHIBOJOEJWJEVBMTDPNQFUFODFNBZCFFYQFDUFEUPSFNBJOGBJSMZTUB
CMFGPSBMPOHUJNF QFSGPSNBODFUFOETUPTVGGFSXIFOBTQFBLFSJTTMFFQZ
UJSFE JMM QSFPDDVQJFE PSVOEFSUIFJOGMVFODFPGBMDPIPM4FOUFODFTUIBUDPO
GPSNUPUIFTZOUBDUJDSVMFTPGBMBOHVBHFBSFHSBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTUIPTF
UIBUEPOPUBSFVOHSBNNBUJDBM BTXIFOBTQFBLFSTQFSGPSNBODFIBTOP
UJDFBCMZTVGGFSFE
(SBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTNBZCFNFBOJOHMFTT BTJOi+BC
CFSXPDLZ wUIFQPFN"MJDFXBTBCMFUPSFBECZVTJOHUIFNJSSPSJO-FXJT
$BSSPMMT5ISPVHIUIF-PPLJOH(MBTT
5XBTCSJMMJH BOEUIFTMJUIZUPWFT
%JEHZSFBOEHJNCMFJOUIFXBCF
NP VP
Art N V NP
Art N
The stream carries the boat.

F I G U R E 4 . 1 A Simple Sentence Diagrammed in Tree Form
:FUTPNFVOHSBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTNBZCFNFBOJOHGVM BTXIFOBGPS
FJHOFSTBZT i*OPUTQFBL&OHMJTIHPPEw BOBTUFSJTLJTQMBDFECFGPSFBTFO
UFODFUPTIPXUIBUJUJTVOHSBNNBUJDBMPSVOBDDFQUBCMF
5IFOUIFSFBSF
TFOUFODFTUIBUBSFHSBNNBUJDBMCVUTUSVDUVSBMMZBNCJHVPVT UIBUJT IBWJOH
NPSFUIBOPOFNFBOJOHGPSFYBNQMF i7JTJUJOHJOMBXTDBOCFWFSZUSZJOHw
*TJUWFSZUSZJOHUPWJTJUJOMBXT PSBSFJOMBXTXIPWJTJUWFSZUSZJOH
5PHBJOTPNFVOEFSTUBOEJOHPG&OHMJTITFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFXFNJHIUMPPLBU
UIFTFOUFODFi5IFTUSFBNDBSSJFTUIFCPBUw5IJTTFOUFODF 4
IBTUXPNBKPS
DPOTUJUVFOUT5IFGJSTU DPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFUSBEJUJPOBMTVCKFDUPGUIFTFOUFODF
JTUIFOPVOQISBTF /1
iUIFTUSFBNwUIFTFDPOE DPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFUSBEJ
UJPOBMQSFEJDBUF JTUIFWFSCQISBTF 71
iDBSSJFTUIFCPBUw5IFTFDPOTUJUVFOUT
DPOTJTUVMUJNBUFMZPGMFYJDBMDBUFHPSJFTBOBSUJDMF "SU
BOPVO /
BOEBWFSC
7
5IFUSFFEJBHSBNPGUIFTFOUFODF TFF'JHVSF
HJWFTUISFFLJOETPGJO
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FHPSZPGFBDIXPSE BOEUIFHSPVQJOHPGUIFXPSETJOUPTUSVDUVSBMDPOTUJUVFOUT
5IJTTFOUFODFIBTUIFTUSVDUVSFUZQJDBMPGTJNQMF&OHMJTIEFDMBSBUJWFTFO
UFODFT UIBUJT TFOUFODFTVTFEUPFYQSFTTTUBUFNFOUT
#VUXIBUPGUIFDPSSF
TQPOEJOHJOUFSSPHBUJWFTFOUFODF i%PFTUIFTUSFBNDBSSZUIFCPBU w5IFSVMF
UIBUDIBOHFTUIFEFDMBSBUJWFTFOUFODFUPUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHJOUFSSPHBUJWFTFO
The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis 65
UFODFSFRVJSFTDFSUBJODIBOHFT"OPQFSBUJPOUIBUBEET EFMFUFT PSDIBOHFTFM

FNFOUTJOPOFTUSVDUVSFUPQSPEVDFBOPUIFSJTSFGFSSFEUPBTUSBOTGPSNBUJPO
BOEUIFHFOFSBMTUBUFNFOUEFTDSJCJOHTVDIBOPQFSBUJPOBTBUSBOTGPSNB
UJPOBMSVMF *OUIFTFOUFODFBCPWF UIFBQQSPQSJBUFGPSNPGUIFWFSCEP JT
QMBDFEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHPGUIFTFOUFODFBOEBQQSPQSJBUFDIBOHFTBSFNBEFJO
UIFNBJOWFSC BTJOi.PUIFSLOPXTCFTUwm i%PFT.PUIFSLOPXCFTU w
5IJTJTPOMZBWFSZCSJFGJMMVTUSBUJPOPGIPXPOFBQQSPBDIFTUIFTUVEZPG
TFOUFODFTUSVDUVSF"DPNQMFUFEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPGTFOUFODF
UZQFTJO&OHMJTIBOEUIFQSPDFTTFTPGUIFJSEFSJWBUJPOXPVMEFBTJMZGJMMBTJ[
BCMFCPPL4VDIBEFTDSJQUJPOXPVMEJODMVEFUSBOTGPSNBUJPOTIBWJOHUPEP
XJUIDPNNBOET FYDMBNBUJPOT DPNQMFYTFOUFODFT DPOTJTUJOHPGBNBJO
DMBVTFBOEBUMFBTUPOFTVCPSEJOBUFDMBVTF
FNCFEEJOH BTJOi5IFNBOXIP
TVEEFOMZBQQFBSFEJOUIFEPPSXBTNZGJSTUDPVTJO wJOXIJDIi5IFNBOTVE
EFOMZBQQFBSFEJOUIFEPPSwJTFNCFEEFEJOUIFNBUSJYTFOUFODFi5IFNBO
XBTNZGJSTUDPVTJOw
BOENBOZPUIFSDPOTUSVDUJPOT
"TTIPXOJO'JHVSF BOBMZTJTJTNPUJWBUFECZFNQJSJDBMFWJEFODF UIBU
JT JUDBOCFWFSJGJFEPSSFKFDUFEPOUIFCBTJTPGPCTFSWBUJPOPSJORVJSZ/PU
POMZEPMJOHVJTUTSFKFDUVUUFSBODFT TFOUFODFT
OBUJWFTQFBLFSTDPOTJEFSVO
HSBNNBUJDBM CVUUIFZNBZPDDBTJPOBMMZBTLXIFUIFSUXPDMPTFMZTJNJMBSVU
UFSBODFTIBWFUIFTBNFNFBOJOH GPSFYBNQMF i%POUZPVXBOUTPNFTPVQ w
BOEi%POUZPVXBOUBOZTPVQ wNBOZTQFBLFSTXPVMEDPOTJEFSUIFNUP
CFTMJHIUMZEJGGFSFOU
PSBDDPVOUGPSTUSVDUVSBMBNCJHVJUJFT GPSFYBNQMF UIF
QISBTFi'SFODIIJTUPSZQSPGFTTPSwNBZNFBOiBIJTUPSZQSPGFTTPSXIPJT
'SFODIw PS iB QSPGFTTPS XIP UFBDIFT 'SFODI IJTUPSZ w BOE BDDPSEJOHMZ JU
XPVMECFSFQSFTFOUFEBT
F h p
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Inflections and Word Order

&OHMJTIJTBXPSMEMBOHVBHF BOEGPSTFWFSBMSFBTPOT*UJTBOPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHF
JOTPNFDPVOUSZPSDPVOUSJFTPOFWFSZDPOUJOFOUUIF6OJUFE,JOHEPNJO&V
SPQF (IBOBJO"GSJDB *OEJBJO"TJB #FMJ[FJO$FOUSBM"NFSJDB (VZBOBJO
4PVUI"NFSJDB 'JKJJO0DFBOJB BOEJO"VTUSBMJB#VUUIFSFBSFBMTPGPSNBM
MJOHVJTUJDSFBTPOTXIZUIFVTFPG&OHMJTIJTTPXJEFTQSFBE"MUIPVHI&OHMJTI
IBTPOFPGUIFMBSHFTUWPDBCVMBSJFTBNPOHUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT JUTHSBNNBS
JTSFMBUJWFMZTJNQMF UPQVUJUCSJFGMZ
8IBUJTNFBOUCZUIBU $POTJEFSUXP
&OHMJTITFOUFODFTBOEUIFJSGPMMPXJOHUSBOTMBUJPOTJOUP-BUJOBOE$[FDI
&OHMJTI
"IVOUFSUSBDLTBMJPO BOE
"MJPOUSBDLTBIVOUFS
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7FOBUPSMFPOFNWFTUJHBU BOE
-FPWFOBUPSFNWFTUJHBU
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-FWTUPQVKFMPWDF
"MUIPVHIUIFNFBOJOHTPGUIFUXP&OHMJTITFOUFODFTBSFRVJUFEJGGFSFOU
UIFGJWFXPSETPGFBDITFOUFODFBSFFYBDUMZUIFTBNF8IFUIFSUIFIVOUFSPS
UIFMJPOJTUIFHSBNNBUJDBMTVCKFDUPSUIFHSBNNBUJDBMPCKFDU UIBUJT UIF
HPBMPGUIFBDUJPOPGUIFXPSEiUSBDLTw
UIFTBNFGJWFXPSETBSFBMMUIBUBSF
OFFEFE8IPJTUSBDLJOHXIPNJTGVMMZJOEJDBUFECZUIFXPSEPSEFSUIBUJT
UIFBSSBOHFNFOUPGXPSET
0GUIFUXPPUIFSMBOHVBHFT -BUJOBOE$[FDIBSFSJDIMZJOGMFDUJPOBM UIBUJT
DIBOHJOHUIFGPSNPGUIFXPSETUPNBSLWBSJPVTHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFT*O
-BUJO UIFGPSNPGUIFXPSEGPSUIFIVOUFSBTBHSBNNBUJDBMTVCKFDUJTWFOBUPS
BOEBTBHSBNNBUJDBMPCKFDUJTWFOBUPSFN6OMJLFJO&OHMJTI UIFXPSEPSEFS
EPFTOPUJOEJDBUFUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQPGUIFXPSETPGBTFOUFODF CVUJOTUFBETIPXT
FNQIBTJT*GB3PNBOIBETBJE7FOBUPSMFPOFNWFTUJHBU IFXPVMEIBWFNFBOU
TPNFUIJOHMJLF*UJTUIF)6/5&3XIPUSBDLTUIFMJPO CVUJGB3PNBOIBETBJE
-FPOFNWFOBUPSWFTUJHBU IF XPVMEIBWFNFBOUTPNFUIJOHMJLF*UJTUIF-*0/
XIPNUIFIVOUFSUSBDLT SBUIFSUIBO GPSFYBNQMF B%&&3PSB)034&

"TJNJMBSFYQMBOBUJPOPGUIFVTFPGJOGMFDUJPOBMGPSNTIPMETBMTPGPS$[FDI
BOENBOZPUIFSMBOHVBHFT*O&OHMJTI POMZBGFXFYBNQMFTPGUIFGPSNFSJO
GMFDUJPOTTUJMMTVSWJWFEJSFDUPCKFDUGPSNTNF IJN IFS VT BOEUIFN PGUIF
QFSTPOBMQSPOPVOT* IF TIF XF BOEUIFZ
5PTIPXUIFSJDIOFTTPGUIFJOGMFDUJPOBMTZTUFNJO-BUJO IFSFBSFUIFGPSNT
DBTFT
PGUIFOPVOWFOBUPS JOUIFTJOHVMBS JODMVEJOHUIFQMVSBMXPVMEJO
DSFBTFUIFOVNCFSPGGPSNTCZUISFF
WFOBUPS OPNJOBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIF
Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 67
TVCKFDUPGBWFSC
WFOBUPSJT HFOJUJWF JOEJDBUJOHQPTTFTTJPO MJLFiPG wJO&OH
MJTI
WFOBUPSJ EBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIFJOEJSFDUPCKFDUPGBWFSC MJLFiUPwBTJO
iUISPXUIFCBMMUPIJNw
WFOBUPSFN BDDVTBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIFEJSFDUPCKFDU
PGBWFSC
WFOBUPS WPDBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIFQFSTPOCFJOHTQPLFOUPUIFGPSN
JTUIFTBNFBTUIFOPNJOBUJWF
BOEWFOBUPSF BCMBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIFJOTUSV
NFOUPSNFUIPECZXIJDITPNFUIJOHJTEPOF MJLFiCZwPSiXJUIwJO&OHMJTI

5IFEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFTJY-BUJODBTFTIBTCFFOTJNQMJGJFE
5PSFUVSOUPUIFDMBJNJOUIFJOJUJBMQBSBHSBQIPGUIJTTFDUJPO MFBSOFSTPG
&OHMJTIBTBTFDPOEMBOHVBHFIBWFBUSFNFOEPVTBEWBOUBHFPWFSMFBSOFSTPG
BIJHIMZJOGMFDUFEMBOHVBHFBTBTFDPOEMBOHVBHF CFDBVTFMFBSOFSTPG&OHMJTI
EPOUIBWFUPSFNFNCFSBMBSHFOVNCFSPGHSBNNBUJDBMGPSNTUIFZXPVME
OFFEUPLOPXUPNBLFUIFNTFMWFTGVMMZVOEFSTUPPE5PDBSSZPOBTBUJTGBD
UPSZHFOFSBMDPOWFSTBUJPOJO&OHMJTI IPXFWFS BNPEFTUWPDBCVMBSZPG&OH
MJTIXPSETJTBMMPOFOFFET
Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar

5IF TUVEZ PG MBOHVBHFT BOE MJOHVJTUJDT IBT CFFO EPDVNFOUFE GPS BODJFOU
(SFFDFBTFBSMZBTUXPBOEBIBMGNJMMFOOJBBHP"UBCPVUUIBUUJNF UIFFBSMJ
FTUQSFTFSWFETDJFOUJGJDHSBNNBSXBTDPNQJMFEJO*OEJB5IFXPSLJT1GyJOJT
HSBNNBSPG4BOTLSJU XSJUUFOBSPVOEUIFGJGUIDFOUVSZ #$ PSFWFOFBSMJFS
BOEEFTDSJCFECZBEJTUJOHVJTIFE"NFSJDBOMJOHVJTUBTiPOFPGUIFHSFBUFTU
NPOVNFOUTPGIVNBOJOUFMMJHFODFw #MPPNGJFME
/PUBHSFBUEFBMJT
LOPXOBCPVUUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGMJOHVJTUJDTEVSJOHUIF.JEEMF"HFT CVUCPUI
QFEBHPHJDBMBOEQIJMPTPQIJDBMTUVEJFTPGMBOHVBHFTDPOUJOVFE*O&VSPQF BU
UFOUJPOXBTHJWFOBMNPTUFYDMVTJWFMZUPDMBTTJDBM-BUJOSBUIFSUIBOUPUIFMJW
JOHMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOCZUIFEJGGFSFOUQFPQMFT#ZDPOUSBTU "SBCHSBNNBSJBOT
GVSOJTIFEFYDFMMFOUEFTDSJQUJPOTPGUIFJSPXOMBOHVBHF
"MUIPVHIUIFSPPUTPGNPEFSOMJOHVJTUJDTHPCBDLUPUIFFOEPGUIFFJHI
UFFOUIDFOUVSZ NPTUPGUIFSFWPMVUJPOBSZEFWFMPQNFOUTEJEOPUDPNFBCPVU
VOUJMUIFCFHJOOJOHPGUIFUXFOUJFUI5PTJNQMJGZNBUUFSTDPOTJEFSBCMZ POF
NBZTBZUIBUUIFGJSTUIBMGPGUIFTXBTDIBSBDUFSJ[FEQSJNBSJMZCZTUSVD
UVSBMBOEEFTDSJQUJWFBQQSPBDIFTJOUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFTUSVDUVSBM CFDBVTF
MBOHVBHFBOZMBOHVBHFXBTDPOTJEFSFEUPCFBDPNQMFYTZTUFNPGFMF
NFOUTUIBUXFSFJOUFSSFMBUFEBOEDPVMECFTUVEJFEBOEBOBMZ[FEPOMZBTTVDI
EFTDSJQUJWF CFDBVTFUIFBJNXBTUPEFTDSJCFBDUVBMVTBHFSBUIFSUIBOXIBU
BDDPSEJOHUPBUSBEJUJPOBMJTUWJFX VTBHFPVHIUUPCF%VSJOHUIFTFDPOEIBMG
PGUIFT MJOHVJTUJDTEFQBSUFESBEJDBMMZGSPNUIFTFFBSMJFSBQQSPBDIFTBT
BSFTVMUPGUIFDPOUSJCVUJPOPGUIF"NFSJDBOMJOHVJTU/PBN$IPNTLZ XIPTF
UIFPSFUJDBMQFSTQFDUJWFBOENFUIPEPMPHZBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTHFOFSBUJWF PS
USBOTGPSNBUJPOBM PSUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWF
HSBNNBS
6TJOHUIFEFTDSJQUJWJTUBQQSPBDI MJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTUTXPVMECFHJOCZXSJU
JOHEPXOXPSETBOEQISBTFTPGBMBOHVBHFQIPOFUJDBMMZ BOEXIFOTVGGJDJFOU
QIPOFUJDEBUBIBECFFODPMMFDUFE QSPDFFEUPEFUFSNJOFUIFQIPOFNFTPGUIF
MBOHVBHF0ODFUIFZIBEDPNQMFUFEQIPOFNJDBOBMZTJTBOEEFWJTFEUSBO
TDSJQUJPO UIFBOBMZTUTXPVMEQIPOFNJDBMMZUSBOTDSJCFXPSET QISBTFT TFO
UFODFT BOEFOUJSFVUUFSBODFTJOPSEFSUPVOEFSTUBOEUIFNPSQIPMPHZPGUIF
MBOHVBHFBTXFMMBTUIFNFBOJOHTPGJUTEJGGFSFOUNPSQIFNFT4FOUFODFTUSVD
UVSFXPVMEVTVBMMZSFDFJWFPOMZTFDPOEBSZBUUFOUJPO
#ZDPOUSBTU MJOHVJTUTUSBJOFEJOUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS
QSPDFFEUIFPUIFSXBZBSPVOE GSPNUIFTFOUFODFUPJUTWBSJPVTDPOTUJUVFOUT
-FUVTDPOTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHQBJSPGTFOUFODFTi'BUIFSJTFBHFSUPQMFBTFw
BOEi'BUIFSJTFBTZUPQMFBTFw5IFTUSVDUVSFPGCPUITFOUFODFTBQQFBSTUPCF
UIFTBNF BOEJOBOBOBMZTJTDPODFSOFEXJUIMJTUJOHNPSQIFNFTBOEUIFJS
BSSBOHFNFOUTUIFUXPXPVMECFDPOTJEFSFEWFSZNVDIBMJLF:FUUIFZBSF
GVOEBNFOUBMMZEJGGFSFOU*OUIFGJSTUPOF JUJT'BUIFSXIPJTEPJOHUIFQMFBT
JOHBOEJTUIFTVCKFDUPGUIFTFOUFODF XIFSFBTJOUIFTFDPOE'BUIFSJTUIF
QFSTPOCFJOHQMFBTFEBOEUIFSFGPSFUIFVOEFSMZJOHPCKFDU*GPOFDIBOHFTUIF
TFOUFODFTGSPNBDUJWFUPQBTTJWFWPJDF i'BUIFSJTFBTJMZQMFBTFEwJTBDDFQU
BCMFBTHSBNNBUJDBMBOENFBOJOHGVM CVUi'BUIFSJTFBHFSMZQMFBTFEwJTDMFBSMZ
OPU"MUIPVHIUIFTVQFSGJDJBM PSTVSGBDF TUSVDUVSFPGUIFUXPPSJHJOBMTFO
UFODFTJTNVDIUIFTBNF UIFSFJTBCBTJDEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFN BOEJUDBO
POMZSFTVMUGSPNEJGGFSFODFTJOUIFJSEFFQTUSVDUVSF*UBQQFBST UIFO UIBUUIF
NFSFMJTUJOHPGNPSQIFNFTBOEUIFJSBSSBOHFNFOUJOTFOUFODFTJTOPUFOPVHI
UPBDDPVOUGPSUIFEJGGFSFODFTUIBUNBZPCUBJOCFUXFFOUIFN
5PXSJUFUIFHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBSPGBMBOHVBHF UIFO JTUPEFWFMPQBGJ
OJUFEFWJDFDBQBCMFPGHFOFSBUJOHBOJOGJOJUFOVNCFSPGHSBNNBUJDBMTFO
UFODFTPGUIFMBOHVBHF5IBUJTBWFSZUBMMPSEFSFWFOGPSQSPGFTTJPOBMMJOHVJTUT
BOEJUJTPOFSFBTPOPVSDPWFSBHFPGUIJTUZQFPGHSBNNBSIBTCFFOTPCSJFG
5IFPUIFS BOENBJO SFBTPOJTUIBUBUUIJTQPJOUUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWF
HSBNNBSJTOPUBUPPMUIBUNPTUMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTBSFBCMFUPVTFPS
XPVMEQSPGJUGSPNVTJOH5IFTFNBOUJDDPNQPOFOUJOUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBM
HFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBSIBTOPUZFUCFFOGVMMZDIBSUFE)PXFWFS JGMFYJDBMTF
NBOUJD TUSVDUVSF DBO CF TJHOJGJDBOUMZ SFMBUFE UP UIF TUSVDUVSF PG UIF
Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 69
B OX 4 . 2 CO N T R A S T I N G T H E D E S C R I P T I V E
A N D G E N E R AT I V E A P P R O A C H E S
Consider the operation of a gas-powered automobile. Like a language, a car

that runs is a complex functioning whole. Like a language, too, it consists of
many different parts that make up various systems (the drive train, the electric
system, the cooling system, and others), each of which operates according to
specific principles. Applying the view of Chomsky and his followers to this ex-
ample, one can liken the descriptivist approach to the skills and operations of
a mechanic who is well acquainted with the various automobile parts and
their functions but who is not seriously concerned with how and why a car
runs. Very much like the descriptivist linguist, who restricts his or her analy-
sis to surface structures, the mechanic is familiar with the car only superfi-
cially, although capable of maintaining it in good running condition.
According to Chomsky, such an approach is not truly scientific because
it makes no effort to explain. A real understanding of what makes a car run
comes from the comprehension of such fundamental principles as those of
combustion, friction, application of force, and the like. Not until these prin-
ciples are grasped can one say significant things not only about a particu-
lar make of car but about cars in general, and about other conveyances that
utilize these principles (for example, snowmobiles). Consequently, the fun-
damental principles, like the rules of grammar, are prior; and the parts and
their arrangements, like the linguistic units and their arrangements, assume
secondary importance. . . . Nevertheless, for the anthropological field
worker, who is mainly concerned with recording native terms in a service-
able phonemic transcription and who rarely possesses intuitive knowledge
of the language he or she is dealing with, the descriptivist approach con-
tinues to be useful.
from Oriol Pi-Sunyer and Zdenek Salzmann,
Humanity and Culture (1978), 356357
DPSSFTQPOEJOHDVMUVSF UIFOGVUVSFSFTFBSDIJOUIJTBSFBXJMMCFPGTQFDJBMJO
UFSFTUUPMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT
)PXXPVMEPOFDPNQBSFUIFNFSJUTPGEFTDSJQUJWFBOETUSVDUVSBMMJOHVJT
UJDTXJUIUIPTFPGHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS BOEJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZUPXIBU
FYUFOUIBTUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBSSFQMBDFEUIFFBSMJFSBQ
QSPBDIFT 0OFXBZPGBOTXFSJOHUIFRVFTUJPOJTQSFTFOUFEJO#PY

.PSQIPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZBOEEFTDSJQUJPOPGXPSEGPSNBUJPO5IFQSJODJQBM
VOJUPGNPSQIPMPHZJTUIFNPSQIFNF UIFTNBMMFTUNFBOJOHGVMQBSUPGMBO
HVBHF5IFSFBSFUIPVTBOETPGNPSQIFNFTJOBOZMBOHVBHF5IPTFUIBUNBZ
CFVTFECZUIFNTFMWFTBSFUFSNFEGSFFUIPTFUIBUPDDVSPOMZBUUBDIFEUP
PUIFSNPSQIFNFTBSFUFSNFECPVOE.BOZNPSQIFNFTIBWFNPSFUIBOPOF
QIPOFNJDTIBQFUIFWBSJBOUGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNFBSFJUTBMMPNPSQIT(SBN
NBSUIF WBSJPVT SVMFT UIBU HPWFSO UIF XPSLJOHT PG B MBOHVBHF BOE UIF
QSPDFTTFTUIBUJNQMFNFOUUIFTFSVMFTWBSJFTGSPNPOFMBOHVBHFUPUIFOFYU
4PNFMBOHVBHFTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZNBOZJOGMFDUJPOBMGPSNT GPSFYBNQMF
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PUIFSTCZSFMBUJWFMZGFX GPSFYBNQMF &OHMJTI
5IFDPNQMFYJUZPG
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BWBSJFUZPGBMMPNPSQITPOFNBZUIFSFGPSFTQFBLPGUIFNPSQIPQIPOFNJD
SVMFTPG&OHMJTIOPVOQMVSBMJ[BUJPO
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HSBNNBS TZOUBYSFGFSTOPUPOMZUPTFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFCVUUPXPSETUSVDUVSF
BTXFMM*OUIJTBQQSPBDI UIFTZOUBDUJDDPNQPOFOUJTPOFPGUISFFNBKPSPS
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NVDIBCPVUUIFJSOBUJWFMBOHVBHFTBTUIFZEPXJUIPVUBOZGPSNBMMFBSOJOH
"DDPSEJOH UP $IPNTLZ POF NVTU BTTVNF UIBU DIJMESFO BSF CPSO XJUI B
LOPXMFEHFPGXIBUDBOCFUFSNFEVOJWFSTBMHSBNNBS JOPUIFSXPSET UIBU
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UIFMBOHVBHFUIFZBSFBDRVJSJOH GPSFYBNQMF UIFMFYJDPO

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HVBHFXJUIJOUIFPWFSBMMNBUSJYPGDVMUVSF BOETQFFDIBTBOJOTFQBSBCMFMJOL
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WFMPQNFOUTJOMJOHVJTUJDUIFPSJFTBOENFUIPETCFDBVTFPGUIFJSJOUFSFTUJO
UIFTQFFDIPGUIPTFXIPTFDVMUVSFTUIFZTUVEZ
5
Nonve rbal
Communication
4QPLFO MBOHVBHFTQFFDIJT CZ GBS UIF NPTU DPNNPO BOE JNQPSUBOU

NFBOTCZXIJDIIVNBOTDPNNVOJDBUFXJUIPOFBOPUIFS CVUJUJTOPUUIF
POMZPOF5IFNBOZEJGGFSFOUXSJUJOHTZTUFNTVTFEUISPVHIPVUUIFXPSMEBSF
PGUSFNFOEPVTJNQPSUBODFGPSDPNNVOJDBUJPO IBWJOHJOTPNFSFTQFDUTBO
BEWBOUBHFPWFSTQPLFOMBOHVBHF FTQFDJBMMZUIFJSSFMBUJWFQFSNBOFODF
5IFUFSNOPOWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPO UBLFOMJUFSBMMZ SFGFSTUPUIFUSBOT
NJTTJPOPGTJHOBMTBDDPNQMJTIFECZNFBOTPUIFSUIBOTQPLFOPSXSJUUFO
XPSET/PUFWFSZPOFBHSFFTPOXIBUUIFUFSNFODPNQBTTFT BOETPNFFWFO
RVFTUJPOXIFUIFSOPOWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOJTEFGJOBCMF6TFECSPBEMZ UIF
UFSNJODMVEFTCPEJMZHFTUVSFT GBDJBMFYQSFTTJPOT TQBDJOH UPVDI BOETNFMM
BTXFMMBTXIJTUMF TNPLFTJHOBM BOEESVNiMBOHVBHFT wBOETVDIPQUJPOBM
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FSFEBQBSUGSPNBDUVBMXPSET
/POWFSCBMTZTUFNTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPONBZCFEJWJEFEJOUPUIPTFUIBUBSF
EFSJWFEGSPNTQPLFOMBOHVBHFBOEUIPTFUIBUBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGJU8JUI
POMZBGFXFYDFQUJPOT XSJUJOHTZTUFNTCFMPOHUPUIFGJSTUDBUFHPSZ SFQSF
TFOUJOHBTUIFZEPUIFTPVOETPGTQFFDI*OUVSO XSJUJOHTZTUFNTNBZTFSWF
BTUIFTPVSDFPGPUIFSTZTUFNT5IF&OHMJTIXPSEXSJUUFOBTUSFF DBOCFUSBOT
NJUUFEJOUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM.PSTF$PEFCZBVEJCMFPSWJTVBMTJHOBMTBTo r o r
r r XJUIo ror BOErSFQSFTFOUJOHSFTQFDUJWFMZUIFMFUUFSTU S BOEF4JNJMBSMZ
UIFCSBJMMFBMQIBCFU BTZTUFNPGXSJUJOHGPSUIFCMJOE NBLFTVTFPGSBJTFE
EPUTXJUIJOB NBUSJY5IFEJGGFSFOUBSSBOHFNFOUTPGSBJTFEEPUT t
SFQSFTFOUUIFMFUUFSTPGUIFBMQIBCFU BTJO
73
74 Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
DPSSFTQPOEJOHUPU S F F
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XIJTUMFiMBOHVBHFT w XIJDIJNJUBUFTPNFPGUIFSFQSPEVDJCMFEJTUJODUJWFGFB
UVSFTPGUIFTQPLFOMBOHVBHFTBMPOHXJUIXIJDIUIFZBSFVTFE
4PNFTJHOMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGTQFFDI#FDBVTFTPNFBSF JOEF
QFOEFOU JUXBTQPTTJCMFGPSUIF1MBJOT*OEJBOTUPVTFTJHOMBOHVBHFBTB
NFBOTPGFGGFDUJWFDPNNVOJDBUJPOBNPOHUSJCFTTQFBLJOHEJGGFSFOU BOE
NBOZUJNFTFWFOVOSFMBUFE MBOHVBHFT
"OPUIFSXBZPGDMBTTJGZJOHOPOWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJWFTZTUFNTJTBDDPSE
JOHUPDIBOOFM PSUIFNFEJVNCZXIJDITJHOBMTBSFDPOWFZFE5IFDIBOOFM
FNQMPZFEJOESVNiMBOHVBHFwJTBDPVTUJD XIFSFBTTJHOMBOHVBHFPSTNPLF
TJHOBMTVTFUIFPQUJDBMDIBOOFM*OEJWJEVBMTXIPBSFCMJOENBLFVTFPGUPVDI
XIFOUIFZGFFMUIFSBJTFEEPUTPGUIFCSBJMMFTZTUFN BOEUIPTFXIPBSFEFBG
BTXFMMBTCMJOENBZMFBSOUPNPOJUPSBSUJDVMBUPSZNPWFNFOUTCZQMBDJOHB
IBOEPOUIFTQFBLFSTGBDFBOEOFDL 5BEPNBNFUIPE
5IFPMGBDUPSZDIBO
OFMJTOPUVTFEJOUIFIJHIMZTUSVDUVSFENBOOFSPGUIFDIBOOFMTKVTUNFO
UJPOFE CVUJUTIPVMEOPUCFVOEFSFTUJNBUFE"TBSVMF "NFSJDBOTEPOPU
JOEVMHFJOFBUJOHGSFTIHBSMJDCFGPSFBTPDJBMPDDBTJPOPSBOJNQPSUBOUCVTJ
OFTTFOHBHFNFOUGPSGFBSPGTFOEJOHUIFXSPOHTJHOBMT
'PSUIFNPTUQBSU IVNBODPNNVOJDBUJPOJTBNVMUJDIBOOFMBGGBJSPQFS
BUJOHPOWFSCBMBOEOPOWFSCBMMFWFMT3FHBSEMFTTPGUIFTPDJFUZ JUJTOPUPOMZ
IPXQFPQMFUBMLBOEXIBUUIFZTBZCVUBMTPIPXUIFZQSFTFOUUIFNTFMWFTUP
PUIFSTUIBUTFFNTUPNBLFBEJGGFSFODFBTUPIPXUIFZBSFQFSDFJWFE5IF
TUVEZPGUIFQSPQFSUJFTPGTJHOTBOETZNCPMTBOEUIFJSGVODUJPOTJODPNNV
OJDBUJPOJTSFGFSSFEUPBTTFNJPUJDT #FDBVTFPGUIFJODSFBTJOHBUUFOUJPOHJWFO
UPBMMNPEFTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOJOIVNBOTBOEPUIFSBOJNBMT UIFGJFMEPG
TFNJPUJDTIBTCFFOTUFBEJMZHSPXJOHJOWPMVNFBOEQPQVMBSJUZ"NPOHUIF
TVCGJFMETPGTFNJPUJDTBSFCJPTFNJPUJDT UIFTFNJPUJDTUVEZPGMJWJOHTZTUFNT
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BOEBMTPCFDBVTFDFSUBJOGPPETDBOCFTZNCPMJDPGTQFDJGJDTPDJBMDPEFTBOE
TPDJBMTFNJPUJDT XIJDIJODMVEFTUIFJOUFSQSFUBUJPOPGTVDIDVMUVSBMDPEFTBT
GBTIJPOBOEBEWFSUJTJOH
Paralinguistics 75
Paralinguistics
$IBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGWPDBMDPNNVOJDBUJPODPOTJEFSFENBSHJOBMPSPQUJPOBM
BOEUIFSFGPSFFYDMVEBCMFGSPNMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTQBSB
MBOHVBHF 5IFNPTUDPNNPOQBSBMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFTBSFVTVBMMZBTTJHOFE
UPUISFFDBUFHPSJFT
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BOEUIFZJODMVEFWBSJBUJPOTJOWPMVNFPSJOUFOTJUZ GPSFYBNQMF PWFSMPVE
PWFSTPGU
QJUDI OPUJDFBCMZIJHI OPUJDFBCMZMPX
UFNQP PWFSMZGBTU PWFSMZ
TMPX
BOEBSUJDVMBUJPO GPSFYBNQMF ESBXMJOH DMJQQJOH PSSBTQJOH

#FTJEFTUIFTFBOEPUIFSWPJDFRVBMJGJFST UIFSFBSFWBSJPVTWPJDFDIBSBD
UFSJ[FST UIBUBDDPNQBOZTQFFDIPS NPSFQSFDJTFMZ UISPVHIXIJDIPOFUBMLT
5IFTFSBOHFGSPNMBVHIJOHBOEHJHHMJOHUPDSZJOHBOETPCCJOHUPZFMMJOH
NPBOJOH HSPBOJOH XIJNQFSJOH BOEXIJOJOH
"OEUIFOUIFSFBSFUIFTPDBMMFEWPDBMTFHSFHBUFT SFQSFTFOUFEGPSUIFNPTU
QBSUCZTVDIFYUSBMJOHVJTUJDTPVOET UIBUJT TPVOETOPUQBSUPGUIFQIPOF
NJDTZTUFN
BTUIFPOFTHSBQIJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEJO&OHMJTIUFYUTBTVIIVI UP
JOEJDBUFBHSFFNFOUPSHSBUJGJDBUJPO VIVI UPJOEJDBUFEJTBHSFFNFOU UTLUTL
UPFYQSFTTNJMEEJTBQQSPWBM BOEPUIFSHSBQIJDBQQSPYJNBUJPOTPGEJGGFSFOU
LJOETPGTOPSUTBOETOJGGT
)FSFBSFTPNFDPODSFUFFYBNQMFTPGQBSBMJOHVJTUJDCFIBWJPS)JHIMZDPO
USPMMFEBSUJDVMBUJPOQSPEVDFTUIFDSJTQ QSFDJTFQSPOVODJBUJPOFYQFDUFEPGGPSNBM
QSPOPVODFNFOUTBEESFTTFEUPMBSHFBVEJFODFTCZDPOUSBTU TQFFDITPSFMBYFEBT
UPCFDPNFTMVSSFEJTIFBSEGSPNUIPTFXIPBSFWFSZUJSFE TMFFQZ PSVOEFSUIF
JOGMVFODFPGBMDPIPMPSPUIFSESVHT4QFBLFSTPG&OHMJTIBOEPUIFSMBOHVBHFT
UFOEUPBTTPDJBUFFYUSFNFQJUDIWBSJBUJPOXJUIIBQQJOFTTBOETVSQSJTFIJHIQJUDI
MFWFMPSGBTUUFNQPXJUIGFBS TVSQSJTF PSBOHFSBOEMPXQJUDIMFWFMPSTMPX
UFNQPXJUICPSFEPNBOETBEOFTT5IFSPVOEJOHPGMJQTJNQBSUTUPUIFWPJDF
UIFDPPJOHRVBMJUZUIBUJTGSFRVFOUMZVTFECZBEVMUTXIFOUBMLJOHUPBCBCZ
"TBOBEEJUJPOBMFYBNQMF DPOTJEFSXIJTQFSJOH"QFSTPONBZXIJTQFSUP
BWPJEXBLJOHVQPUIFSTXIPBSFOBQQJOHPSTMFFQJOH BOFYBNQMFPGUIPVHIU
GVMCFIBWJPS
UPBWPJECFJOHPWFSIFBSE DPOTJEFSBUJPOPGQSJWBDZ
UPDPO
WFZBTFDSFUPSBDPOTQJSBDZPSUPTQSFBESVNPSTPGBOJOUJNBUFOBUVSFBCPVU
TPNFPOF IFODFUIFQISBTFiXIJTQFSJOHDBNQBJHOw

*OUIFEJTDVTTJPOPGTQFFDI POFNBZCFUFNQUFEUPDPOTJEFSTJMFODF PS
GPSCFBSBODFGSPNTQFFDI OPUXPSUINFOUJPOJOH)PXFWFS UIBUXPVMECFB
NJTUBLF%FQFOEJOHPOUIFDPOUFYU TJMFODFDBOJOEJDBUFBWBSJFUZPGNFBO
JOHTPSGFFMJOHT*OBUFOTFTJUVBUJPO TJMFODFDBOCFUISFBUFOJOHJGJUJTVTFEEF
MJCFSBUFMZJOTUFBEPGBOBQQFBTJOHSFNBSLCZDPOUSBTU JUNBZIFMQUPMFTTFO
UFOTJPOCZXJUIIPMEJOHBDPNNFOUUIBUDPVMEXPSTFOBTJUVBUJPO4JMFODF
NBZBMTPFYQSFTTPOFTVODFSUBJOUZDPODFSOJOHBOJTTVF PSIFMQUPBWPJEBO
BSHVNFOU*UNBZCFBHFOUMFTVCTUJUVUFGPSTBZJOHiOP wBTXIFOBZPVOHNBO
BTLTi8JMMZPVNBSSZNF wBOEOPSFTQPOTFJTGPSUIDPNJOH4PNFPGUIFTF
BOEPUIFSVTFTPGTJMFODFBSFCZOPNFBOTVOJWFSTBMUIFZNBZWBSZTPNF
XIBU PSFWFORVJUFEFFQMZ GSPNDVMUVSFUPDVMUVSF
Kinesics
+VTUBTBOZTQFFDIUIBUJTOPUOFVUSBMUFOETUPCFBDDPNQBOJFECZPOFPS
NPSFQBSBMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFT JUJTBMTPMJLFMZUPCFTVQQMFNFOUFECZWJTVBM
HFTUVSFT5IJTJTUIFTVCKFDUPGLJOFTJDT UIFTUVEZPGCPEZMBOHVBHF
5IFSFJTOPRVFTUJPOUIBUCPEJMZHFTUVSFT JOUIFCSPBEFTUTFOTF
TFSWFBT
BOJNQPSUBOUNFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO$PNFEJBOTBSFOPUBCMZBEFQUBU
TMBOUJOH DBODFMJOH PSDPNQMFUFMZUVSOJOHBSPVOEUIFNFBOJOHPGUIFJSTQP
LFOMJOFTXJUIBXFMMDIPTFOHSJNBDFPSHFTUVSFPGEJGGFSFOUDPNNVOJDBUJWF
DPOUFOU BOEQSPGFTTJPOBMNJNFTLOPXIPXUPNPWFUIFJSBVEJFODFTUPUFBST
PSMBVHIUFSXJUIPVUVUUFSJOHBTJOHMFXPSE#VUTQFFDISFMBUFECPEZNPUJPOT
BSFCZOPNFBOTMJNJUFEUPQFSGPSNFSTUIFZBSFBOJOUFHSBMQBSUPGFWFSZ
POFTEBJMZDPNNVOJDBUJWFBDUJWJUZ
5IFCBTJDBTTVNQUJPOTUIBUVOEFSMJFLJOFTJDTJTUIBUOPCPEZNPWFNFOUPS
GBDJBMFYQSFTTJPOJTMJLFMZUPMBDLNFBOJOHCFDBVTF KVTUMJLFPUIFSBTQFDUTPG
WPMVOUBSZIVNBOCFIBWJPS CPEZNPWFNFOUT QPTUVSF BOEGBDJBMFYQSFTTJPOT
BSFQBUUFSOFEBOEPDDVSUPHFUIFS'PSFYBNQMF BDDJEFOUBMNFFUJOHTPGHPPE
NBMFGSJFOETBSFDPNNPOMZDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZBCSJFGSBJTFPGIBOEGJSTU UIFO
BGJSNIBOETIBLF BCSJFGSJTJOHPGFZFCSPXT BOEBTNJMF
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BTQFDUTPGIVNBODPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSCZNFBOTPGVOJUTUIBUQBSBMMFM
UIPTFFNQMPZFEJOMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJT0OFTVDIVOJU UIFLJOFNF BOBMPHPVT
UPUIFQIPOFNF
IBTCFFOEFGJOFEBTUIFTNBMMFTUEJTDSJNJOBCMFDPOUSBTUJWF
VOJUPGCPEZNPUJPO
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BTTPDJBUFEGBDJBMFYQSFTTJPO FZFDPOUBDU CPEZQPTUVSF BOEIBOEHFTUVSFT
Kinesics 77
'BDJBM FYQSFTTJPOTTJHOBMBXJEFSBOHFPGFNPUJPOTGSPNQMFBTVSF IBQQJ

OFTT BOEQMFBTBOUTVSQSJTFUPTVTQJDJPO TBEOFTT GFBS BOHFS EJTBQQSPWBM
PSEJTHVTUUPMJTUPOMZUIFNPTUDPNNPOGFFMJOHT
5IFOBUVSFPGFZFDPOUBDUCFUXFFOQFPQMFJOGBDFUPGBDFJOUFSBDUJPOWBSJFT
OPUPOMZGSPNDVMUVSFUPDVMUVSFCVUBMTPXJUIJOUIFTBNFTPDJFUZ QBSUJDVMBSMZ
TVDIBMBSHFTPDJFUZBTPVSPXO
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UPUIFFYQFSJFODF BHF TFMGDPOGJEFODF BOEJOUFOUJPOTPGUIFDPNNVOJDBUPS
&ZFDPOUBDUTUIFSFGPSFSBOHFBMMUIFXBZGSPNBWPJEBODFUPUIFMPPLPGBQFS
TPOXIPJTJOMPWF
5ZQFTPGIBOEHFTUVSFTBSFUPPNBOZUPDMBTTJGZJOUIJTCSJFGTVSWFZ BOE
UXPBSFNFOUJPOFEUPJMMVTUSBUF0OFQVSQPTFUIFZTFSWFJTUPFNQIBTJ[FXIBU
JTCFJOHTBJEBOE UXP IBOETIBLJOHBTBHSFFUJOHDBOCFBDDPNQMJTIFEJOB
WBSJFUZPGNFUIPET5IFIBOETDBOCFDPNCJOFEUPHFUIFSJOWBSJPVTXBZT
BOEPOFTTFDPOEIBOEDBOCFVTFEUPJNQBSUFNQIBTJTUPUIFIBOETIBLF
XJUIPOFIBOE)BOETIBLJOHNBZCFFMFWBUFEUPIBOEDMBTQJOH BSNDMBTQJOH
TIPVMEFSDMBTQJOH PSTIPVMEFSFNCSBDJOH"MMUIFTFHFTUVSFTJOWPMWFUPVDI
JOHCFIBWJPS BOEUIBUJTDVMUVSFTQFDJGJD
#PEZQPTUVSFDPOWFZTUIFJOEJWJEVBMTBUUJUVEFUPUIFGBDFUPGBDFJOUFSBD
UJPOIFPSTIFJTQBSUJDJQBUJOHJO*UDBOTJHOBMGFFMJOHTSBOHJOHGSPNJOUFSFTU
DPODFSO PSBOUJDJQBUJPOUPCPSFEPN EFQSFTTJPO PSJNQBUJFODF%VSJOH
TPNFSJUVBMPDDBTJPOT PGDPVSTF TQFDJGJDCPEZQPTUVSFTBSFFYQFDUFEPSSF
RVJSFEGPSFYBNQMF LOFFMJOH TUBOEJOH PSCPXJOH
0CTFSWBOUUSBWFMFSTOPUJDFEDFOUVSJFTBHPUIBUNFNCFSTPGTPDJFUJFTBMPOH
UIF.FEJUFSSBOFBO4FBVTFENBOZNPSFCPEJMZHFTUVSFTBOEGBDJBMFYQSFTTJPOT
UIBO TBZ UIPTFMJWJOHJO4DBOEJOBWJBPS+BQBO)PXFWFS OPUBMM*UBMJBOT GPSFY
BNQMF VTFUIFTBNFiCPEZMBOHVBHF wKVTUBTUIFZEPOPUBMMTQFBLUIFTBNFEJ
BMFDUPG*UBMJBO#JSEXIJTUFMMPGGFSFEBOJOUFSFTUJOHFYBNQMFJOTVQQPSUPGUIF
FYQFDUBUJPOUIBULJOFTJDCFIBWJPSJTMJLFMZUPCFKVTUBTDVMUVSFTQFDJGJDBTUIF
DPSSFTQPOEJOHMBOHVBHF)FSFQPSUFEUIBUFWFOXIFOUIFTPVOEJTSFNPWFE
GSPNGJMNTNBEFCBDLJOUIFTBOETPGUIFTQFFDIFTPGUIFMBUFQPMJUJ
DJBOBOENBZPSPG/FX:PSL$JUZ'JPSFMMP-B(VBSEJB JUJTQPTTJCMFUPUFMM
XIFUIFSIFJTTQFBLJOH&OHMJTI :JEEJTI PS*UBMJBO BTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDCPEZNP
UJPOTBSFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIFBDIMBOHVBHF #JSEXIJTUFMM
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IPMJTUJDBOEDPOUFYUVBMBQQSPBDIUPDPNNVOJDBUJPOUIBU#JSEXIJTUFMMBEWP
DBUFEIBTCFFOVOJGPSNMZBDDFQUFE UIFFYUFOUUPXIJDIiCPEZMBOHVBHFwDBOCF
BOBMZ[FEJOUFSNTPGIJTVOJUTSFNBJOTDPOUSPWFSTJBM JOQBSUCFDBVTFUIFEF
UBJMFEUSBOTDSJQUJPOIFEFTJHOFEJTGBSUPPDPNQMJDBUFEBOEUJNFDPOTVNJOH
TA B L E 5 . 1 The Four Distance Zones of Informal Interpersonal Space Among

Middle-Class Americans of North European Heritage
1IZTJDBM%JTUBODF "DPVTUJD"VEJUPSZ
%JTUBODF;POF BQQSPY JOGFFU
$IBOOFM 0MGBDUPSZ$IBOOFM
*OUJNBUF
$MPTF o HSVOUT HSPBOT
'BS o XIJTQFSTPSWFSZ
MPXWPJDF
1FSTPOBM
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4PDJBMDPOTVMUBUJWF
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'BS o MPVEFSWPJDF EJTBQQSPWFEPG
1VCMJD
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Proxemics
*OUIFFBSMZT UIFJOUFSEFQFOEFODFCFUXFFODPNNVOJDBUJPOBOEDVM
UVSFTUJNVMBUFE&EXBSE5)BMMUPEFWFMPQQSPYFNJDT UIFTUVEZPGUIFDVM
UVSBMQBUUFSOJOHPGUIFTQBUJBMTFQBSBUJPOJOEJWJEVBMTNBJOUBJOJOGBDFUPGBDF
FODPVOUFST5IFUFSNIBTTVCTFRVFOUMZDPNFUPFNCSBDFTUVEJFTDPODFSOFE
XJUIQSJWBDZ DSPXEJOH UFSSJUPSJBMJUZ BOEUIFEFTJHOJOHPGCVJMEJOHT QSJWBUF
BTXFMMBTQVCMJD XJUIUIFWJFXPGNFFUJOHUIFEJGGFSFOUDVMUVSBMFYQFDUBUJPOT
PGUIFJSQSPTQFDUJWFVTFST
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EFQFOEPOUIFOBUVSFPGUIFJSNVUVBMJOWPMWFNFOUBOEBSFDVMUVSFTQFDJGJD
'PSFYBNQMF VOEFSOPSNBMDJSDVNTUBODFT NJEEMFDMBTT"NFSJDBOBEVMUTPG
OPSUIFSO&VSPQFBOIFSJUBHFNBLFSFHVMBSVTFPGGPVSQSPYFNJD[POFT PS
EJTUBODFT SBOHJOHGSPNJOUJNBUFUPQVCMJD FBDIPGUIF[POFTDPOTJTUJOHPGB
DMPTFBOEBGBSQIBTF TFF5BCMF

*O UIF DMPTF QIBTF PG UIF JOUJNBUF EJTUBODF UIF JOEJWJEVBMT BSF DMPTF
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JOEJWJEVBMSFDFJWFTUIFCPEZIFBUBTXFMMBTBOZPEPSPSTDFOUFNBOBUJOHGSPN
UIFPUIFSJOEJWJEVBM BOEUIFPUIFSQFSTPOTCSFBUIJTGFMUCFDBVTFPGUIF
Proxemics 79
DMPTFOFTT WJTJPONBZCFCMVSSFEPSEJTUPSUFEBOETQFBLJOHJTBUBNJOJNVN
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NBLJOH QSPUFDUJOH PSDPNGPSUJOH
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BSFQBSUJDJQBOUTBUDBTVBMTPDJBMHBUIFSJOHTUIFGBSQIBTFDIBSBDUFSJ[FTNPSF
GPSNBMCVTJOFTTUSBOTBDUJPOT TVDIBTJOUFSWJFXTPSTJUVBUJPOTJOXIJDIUXP
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QFBSSVEFCZOPUDPNNVOJDBUJOH'PSJOTUBODF SFDFQUJPOJTUTXIPBSFBMTP
FYQFDUFEUPUZQFBOENBOBHFBTXJUDICPBSENVTUIBWFFOPVHITQBDFCF
UXFFOUIFNBOEUIFWJTJUPSTUPQFSNJUUIFNUPXPSLSBUIFSUIBOUPGFFMUIFZ
NVTUFOHBHFJOQPMJUFDPOWFSTBUJPOXJUIUIPTFXBJUJOHUPCFTFFO
5IFNBOOFSJOXIJDINFNCFSTPGEJGGFSFOUTPDJFUJFTTQBDFUIFNTFMWFTJO
FBDIPUIFSTQSFTFODFWBSJFTBMPOHBDPOUBDUOPODPOUBDUDPOUJOVVN'PSFY
BNQMF "SBCT PUIFS.FEJUFSSBOFBOQFPQMFT BOE-BUJO"NFSJDBOTQSFGFSTQB
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B OX 5 . 1 H A L L O N P ROX E M I C S I N
A C R O S S - C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T
In Latin America the interaction distance is much less than it is in the

United States. Indeed, people cannot talk comfortably with one another
unless they are very close to the distance that evokes either sexual or hos-
tile feelings in the North American. The result is that when they move
close, we withdraw and back away. As a consequence, they think we are
distant or cold, withdrawn and unfriendly. We, on the other hand, are
constantly accusing them of breathing down our necks, crowding us, and
spraying our faces.
Americans who have spent some time in Latin America without learn-
ing these space considerations make other adaptations, like barricading
themselves behind their desks, using chairs and typewriter tables to keep
the Latin American at what is to us a comfortable distance. The result is
that the Latin American may even climb over the obstacles until he has
achieved a distance at which he can comfortably talk.
from Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (1959), 209
Many Americans feel that [older] Germans are overly rigid in their be-
havior, unbending and formal. Some of this impression is created by dif-
ferences in the handling of chairs while seated. The American doesnt
seem to mind if people hitch their chairs up to adjust the distance to the
situationthose that do mind would not think of saying anything, for to
comment on the manners of others would be impolite. In Germany, how-
ever, it is a violation of the mores to change the position of your chair. An
added deterrent for those who dont know better is the weight of most
German furniture. . . . To a German, light furniture is anathema, not only
because it seems flimsy but because people move it and thereby destroy
the order of things, including intrusions on the private sphere. In one
instance reported to me, a German newspaper editor who had moved to
the United States had his visitors chair bolted to the floor at the proper
distance because he couldnt tolerate the American habit of adjusting the
chair to the situation.
from Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (1966), 129
Whistle Languages 81
Whistle Languages
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Sign Languages
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Sign Languages 83
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Sign Languages 85
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6
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87
88 Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Communication Among Social Insects 89
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Communication Among Social Insects 91
F I G U R E 6 . 1 Communication of Honeybees
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Communication Among Nonhuman Primates

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Communication Among Nonhuman Primates and Other Vertebrates 93
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Communication Among Nonhuman Primates and Other Vertebrates 95
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When Does a Communication System Become Language?

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Milestones in Human Evolution 97
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Milestones in Human Evolution

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98
Years Stages Landmarks Presumed

Before of in Stages in the
the Hominid Prehistoric Cultural Evolution
Present Evolution Periods Evolution of Language
Neolithic Farming (Proto-Indo-
_10,000 lithic European)
Meso
Upper Spectacular portable Earliest stage of

_40,000 Cro-Magnons and cave-wall art full-fledged
(H. s. sapiens) language
Middle Ritual activities

_100,000 Duality of
Neanderthals Stone tools from patterning
Homo sapiens prepared cores Beginnings of
neanderthalensis Belief in afterlife? articulate speech
Paleolithic
_500,000 Organized hunting
Archaic
Homo sapiens Lower
Control and use Early stage of

of fire prelanguage
H
_1 million
om
Hunting Blending
oe
rec
tu
H
_2 million
om
s
oh
First tools made

ab
and used
ili
s
Adaptations
Se th p
_3 million for prelanguage

ve e g ith
of tralo
Au
ra en ec
l s u us
s
Simple multimodal
pe s
cie
_4 million communication
s
_5 million Hominids branch

off from other
hominoids
Monkeys and apes
diverge
_50 million
Primates emerge
_100 million
F I G U R E 6 . 2 Presumed Stages of Human Evolution

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Milestones in Human Evolution 99
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EFSUIBMT )PNPTBQJFOTOFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT
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QPMPHJTUT EJEOPUDPNQMFUFUIFGVMMUSBOTJUJPO0OUIFCBTJTPGTPNFSFDFOU
UFTUTPGNJUPDIPOESJBM%/"GSPN/FBOEFSUIBMGPTTJMTQFDJNFOT TPNFBO
UISPQPMPHJTUTIBWFTVHHFTUFEUIBU/FBOEFSUIBMTTIPVMECFBTTJHOFEUPBTFQ
BSBUFTQFDJFT )PNPOFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT
"UUIJTQPJOU BDBVUJPOBSZOPUFJTJOPSEFS5IFVTFPGUBYPOT GPSNBM

OBNFTSFGFSSJOHUPUBYPOPNJDHSPVQT
QBSUJDVMBSMZJOTVDIBOBCCSFWJBUFE
BDDPVOUPGIPNJOJEFWPMVUJPOBTUIBUQSFTFOUFEBCPWF NBZCFNJTUBLFOMZ
UBLFOUPTVHHFTUBTUSBJHIUGPSXBSEVOJMJOFBSQSPDFTTUPXBSEBOBUPNJDBMMZ
NPEFSOGPSNT/PUIJOHDPVMECFGVSUIFSGSPNXIBUUIFCVMLPGFWJEFODFJO
EJDBUFT"UFBDITUBHFPGIVNBOFWPMVUJPOUIFSFNVTUIBWFFYJTUFEDPOTJEFS
BCMFWBSJBUJPO XJUIHFOFSBMJ[FEIPNJOJEGPSNTDIBOHJOHUPNPSFTQFDJBMJ[FE
POFTBTBSFTVMUPGBEBQUBUJPOBQSPDFTTLOPXOBTBEBQUJWFSBEJBUJPO*O
PUIFSXPSET UIFCSBODIFTPGUIFiUSFFwPGIVNBOFWPMVUJPONVTUIBWFCFFO
UBOHMFEJOEFFE"NJEBMMUIFEJGGFSFOUJBUJPO IPXFWFS BSFMBUJWFMZOBSSPX
UISFBEPGDPOUJOVJUZGSPNQPQVMBUJPOUPQPQVMBUJPOIBTMFEUPDPOUFNQPSBSZ
IVNBOT BOEJUJTBMPOHUIJTMJOFUIBUUIFWBSJPVTDIBOHFTSFTVMUJOHJOMBO
HVBHFNVTUIBWFUBLFOQMBDF
5IFFWPMVUJPOGSPN)PNPFSFDUVT UP)PNPTBQJFOT XBTNBSLFECZBTJH
OJGJDBOUJODSFBTFJODVMUVSBMDPNQMFYJUZ5IF/FBOEFSUIBMT XIPQFSTJTUFE
JO&VSPQFVOUJMUIFBQQFBSBODFPGUIF$SP.BHOPOTPGUIF)PNPTBQJFOT
TBQJFOT WBSJFUZ BQQFBSUPIBWFCFFOUIFGJSTUUPCVSZBUMFBTUTPNFPGUIFJS
EFBEXJUIEFMJCFSBUFDBSF GVSOJTIJOHUIFNXJUIUPPMTBOEGPPE EFDPSBUJOH
UIFNXJUISFEPDIFS BOEFWFOTVSSPVOEJOHUIFNXJUIXJMEGMPXFST4FWFSBM
GJOET UBLFOUPSFQSFTFOUTPNFTPSUPGCFBSDVMU DPOTJTUPGBOVNCFSPGCFBS
TLVMMT TPNFOFBUMZBSSBOHFEJOBSPDLDIFTU PUIFSTDBSFGVMMZQMBDFEJOXBMM
OJDIFT5IFTFBOEPUIFSBDUJWJUJFTPGUIF/FBOEFSUIBMTBSFDPOTJEFSFECZ
TPNFBTFWJEFODFPGSJUVBMCFIBWJPSBOEQPTTJCMZFWFOCFMJFGJOBOBGUFSMJGF
5IFNBUFSJBMDVMUVSFPGUIF/FBOEFSUIBMTBMTPCFDBNFNPSFDPNQMFY5IFJS
DIBSBDUFSJTUJDNFUIPEPGQSPEVDJOHBWBSJFUZPGTQFDJBMJ[FEJNQMFNFOUT
NBEFVTFPGGMBLFTTUSVDLPGGTUPOFDPSFTUIBUIBECFFODBSFGVMMZTIBQFEJO
BEWBODF
5IF0ME4UPOF"HF SFGFSSFEUPUFDIOJDBMMZBTUIF1BMFPMJUIJD MBTUFEGPS
NPSFUIBONJMMJPOZFBST UFSNJOBUJOHPOMZBCPVU UP ZFBSTBHP
5IFNPTUSFDFOUTVCEJWJTJPOPGUIF1BMFPMJUIJD FYUFOEJOHGSPNBCPVU
UP ZFBSTCFGPSFUIFQSFTFOU JTSFGFSSFEUPBT6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJD 'SPN
UIF0MEPXBOUSBEJUJPOUISPVHIUPUIF.PVTUFSJBODVMUVSF BTQBOPGBCPVU
NJMMJPOZFBST QSPHSFTTJOUPPMNBLJOHXBTWFSZTMPX#VUBOFYQMPTJPOPGDSF
BUJWFBDUJWJUZPDDVSSFEEVSJOHUIF6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJD XIFOUIF$SP.BHOPOT
CFHBOUPGBTIJPOFMBCPSBUFPCKFDUTCVSJOT CBSCFEIBSQPPOT TQFBSUISPX
FST CPOFOFFEMFT BOE BCPWFBMM FYRVJTJUFBSU 8PSLJOHXJUIQBJOUTBTXFMMBT
JOTUPOF DMBZ CPOF JWPSZ BOEBOUMFS UIFZDSFBUFEBSUCPUIEFMJDBUFBOENPO
Design Features of Language 101
VNFOUBM POFGSJF[FQPSUSBZJOHBOJNBMTPGUIFIVOUJTBCPVUGPSUZGFFUMPOH
JO
TUZMFTSBOHJOHGSPNBCTUSBDUBOEHFPNFUSJDUPOBUVSBMJTUJDPSEBSJOHMZTUZM
J[FE5IFSBUIFSTVEEFOBOESBQJEBEWBODFTJOUIFNBOVGBDUVSFPGBMBSHFWB
SJFUZ PG NBUFSJBM JUFNT OP EPVCU QBSBMMFM TJNJMBS BEWBODFT JO DPHOJUJWF
QSPDFTTFTBOEJOEJDBUFUIBUGVMMGMFEHFEMBOHVBHFXPVMEIBWFCFFOJOQMBDF
5PEBZ OPPOFXPVMERVFTUJPOUIFBTTVNQUJPOUIBUMBOHVBHFXBTXFMMFT
UBCMJTIFEBUUIFUJNFPGUIFSFMBUJWFMZCSJFG.FTPMJUIJDQFSJPEUIBUGPMMPXFE
UIF6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJDBOEVTIFSFEJOUIF/FPMJUIJD.PTUDFSUBJOMZ UIFSFW
PMVUJPOBSZDIBOHFTUIBUIVNBODVMUVSFVOEFSXFOUEVSJOHUIF/FPMJUIJDBTB
DPOTFRVFODFPGUIFEPNFTUJDBUJPOPGQMBOUTBOEBOJNBMTBSFVOUIJOLBCMF
XJUIPVUGVMMGMFEHFEMBOHVBHF
Design Features of Language

*GIVNBOMBOHVBHFJTVOJRVFBNPOHUIFNBOZLOPXOTZTUFNTPGDPNNVOJ
DBUJPOUIBUFYJTUJOUIFBOJNBMLJOHEPN UIFOJUNVTUQPTTFTTTPNFGFBUVSFT
PGEFTJHOOPUUPCFGPVOEFMTFXIFSF*OUIFT $IBSMFT')PDLFUUBOE
PUIFSTQSPQPTFEBTFUPGiEFTJHOGFBUVSFTwPGMBOHVBHFQSPQFSUJFTUIBU
DIBSBDUFSJ[FIVNBOTQFFDI
5IJTXBTBSBEJDBMTIJGUJOUIJOLJOHJOMJOHVJTUJDT BOEFWFOUPDFSUBJOFY
UFOU JOBOUISPQPMPHZ5IPVHIUIFSFXBTHFOFSBMBHSFFNFOUPOUIFCJPMPHJ
DBMBGGJOJUZCFUXFFOIVNBOTBOEPUIFSBOJNBMT MBOHVBHFXBTUIPVHIUUPCF
VOBTTBJMBCMFJOUIBUJUXBTBTTVNFEUPCFFYDMVTJWFMZIVNBO&WFOUISPVHI
UIFTBOETNBOZTUSVDUVSBMMJOHVJTUTSFGVTFEUPFOUFSUBJOUIFQPT
TJCJMJUZUIBUJODJQJFOUMJOHVJTUJDCFIBWJPSNJHIUCFGPVOE TBZ JODIJNQBO[FFT
PSHPSJMMBT5IFZPGUFOEFGJOFEMBOHVBHFBUUIFWFSZCFHJOOJOHBTTPNFUIJOH
QPTTFTTFEPOMZCZIVNBOT FH 5SBHFS

)PDLFUUPSJHJOBMMZQSPQPTFETFWFOEFTJHOGFBUVSFTCVUTPPOJODSFBTFEUIF
OVNCFSUPTJYUFFO *OMJHIUPGOFXGJOEJOHTGSPNMJOHVJTUJDTBOEDPHOJUJWF
TDJFODFXFXJMMBMTPQSPQPTFGPVSNPSFTIPSUMZ
5IFGPMMPXJOHBSFUIFQSPQ
FSUJFTUIBU)PDLFUUBSHVFEDIBSBDUFSJ[FEIVNBOMBOHVBHF
7PDBMBVEJUPSZDIBOOFM 4PNFTPVOETQSPEVDFECZBOJNBMTBSFOPU
WPDBM GPSFYBNQMF UIFDIJSQJOHPGDSJDLFUT
OPSBSFUIFZSFDFJWFE
BVEJUPSJMZ BTXJUICFFT IBWJOHOPFBST
8SJUJOH PGDPVSTF JTFYDMVEFE
CFDBVTFUIFDIBOOFMVTFEGPSXSJUUFONFTTBHFTJTPQUJDBMSBUIFSUIBO
WPDBMBVEJUPSZ
"NPOHNBNNBMT UIFVTFPGUIFWPDBMBVEJUPSZDIBOOFM
GPSDPNNVOJDBUJPOJTFYUSFNFMZDPNNPO UIPVHIUIFZPGUFOVTFPUIFS
NFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO FH BEPHiNBSLJOHwJUTQSFTFODFBHBJOTUB
USFF
0OFJNQPSUBOUBEWBOUBHFPGVTJOHUIFWPDBMBQQBSBUVTUPDPN
NVOJDBUFJTUIBUUIFSFTUPGUIFCPEZJTMFGUGSFFUPDBSSZPOTJNVMUBOF
PVTMZWBSJPVTPUIFSBDUJWJUJFT
#SPBEDBTUUSBOTNJTTJPOBOEEJSFDUJPOBMSFDFQUJPO 4QFFDITPVOETNPWF
PVUGSPNUIFTPVSDFPGUIFJSPSJHJOJOBMMEJSFDUJPOT BOEUIFTFOEFSBOE
UIFSFDFJWFSOFFEOPUTFFFBDIPUIFSUPDPNNVOJDBUF OPSEPUIFZIBWF
UPiBJNwUIFJSTQFFDIJOBOBSSPXEJSFDUJPO#JOBVSBMSFDFQUJPO JO
WPMWJOHCPUIFBST
NBLFTJUQPTTJCMFUPEFUFSNJOFUIFMPDBUJPOPGUIF
TPVSDFPGTPVOET
3BQJEGBEJOH 4QFFDITJHOBMTJNNFEJBUFMZEJTBQQFBSUPDMFBSUIFDIBO
OFMGPSOFXNFTTBHFTUPDPNF5IJTJTNPSFJNQPSUBOUUIBONJHIUBQ
QFBSBUGJSTUHMBODF*GXFDPNNVOJDBUFEPMGBDUPSJMZ BTNBOZBOJNBMT
EP XFXPVMEIBWFUPXBJUGPSPMENFTTBHFTUPEJTTJQBUF5IJTXPVMECF
WFSZUJNFDPOTVNJOH)VNBOTPVOET POUIFPUIFSIBOE BSFIFBSE
POMZBUUIFUJNFUIFZBSFCFJOHQSPEVDFE"GUFSUIBUUIFZBSFJSSFUSJFW
BCMZMPTU BOEUIFDIBOOFMJTSFBEZGPSOFXNFTTBHFT
*OUFSDIBOHFBCJMJUZ 4QFBLFSTPGIVNBOMBOHVBHFTDBOCFTQFBLFSTBOE
IFBSFSTUIBUJT TQFFDITJHOBMTDBOCFUSBOTNJUUFEPSSFDFJWFEJOUFS
DIBOHFBCMZCZBMMBEVMUNFNCFST BOENPTUDIJMENFNCFST
PGBDPN
NVOJUZ*OUIFPSZ BUMFBTU IVNBOCFJOHTBSFDBQBCMFPGVUUFSJOHXIBU
PUIFSTTBZ JG PGDPVSTF UIFMBOHVBHFVTFEJTGBNJMJBS
5IJTJTOPUUSVF
PGNBOZBOJNBMTQFDJFTJOXIJDIUIFOBUVSFPGNFTTBHFTWBSJFTCFUXFFO
NBMFTBOEGFNBMFTPSBDDPSEJOHUPPUIFSOBUVSBMEJWJTJPOT'PSFYBN
QMF JOTPNFTQFDJFTPGDSJDLFUTPOMZUIFNBMFTDIJSQCZSVCCJOHUP
HFUIFS QBSUT PG UIFJS GPSFXJOHT BOE UIF EBODF MBOHVBHF PG XPSLFS
IPOFZCFFTJTOPUVOEFSTUPPEOPSDBOJUCFQFSGPSNFECZBRVFFOPS
UIFESPOFTPGUIFTBNFDPMPOZ
$PNQMFUFGFFECBDL 4QFBLFSTPGBOZMBOHVBHFIFBSXIBUUIFZUIFNTFMWFT
BSFTBZJOHBOEBSFUIFSFGPSFDBQBCMFPGNPOJUPSJOHUIFJSNFTTBHFTBOE
QSPNQUMZNBLJOHBOZDPSSFDUJPOTUIFZDPOTJEFSOFDFTTBSZPSBQQSP
QSJBUF #Z DPOUSBTU B NBMF TUJDLMFCBDL B GJTI
DBOOPU NPOJUPS UIF
DIBOHJOHPGUIFDPMPSPGIJTFZFTBOECFMMZUIBUTFSWFTUPTUJNVMBUFUIF
GFNBMFPGUIFTQFDJFT*UBMTPiNBLFTQPTTJCMFUIFTPDBMMFEJOUFSOBMJ[B
UJPOPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSUIBUDPOTUJUVUFTBUMFBTUBNBKPSQPS
UJPOPGAUIJOLJOHw )PDLFUU

Design Features of Language 103
4QFDJBMJ[BUJPO )VNBOTQFFDITFSWFTOPPUIFSGVODUJPOUIBOUPDPN
NVOJDBUF#ZDPOUSBTU UIFQSJNBSZQVSQPTFPG TBZ UIFQBOUJOHPGB
EPHJTUPFGGFDUCPEZDPPMJOHUISPVHIFWBQPSBUJPO FWFOUIPVHIQBOU
JOHQSPEVDFTTPVOETUIBUDBSSZJOGPSNBUJPO GPSFYBNQMF UIFMPDBUJPO
PGUIFEPHPSUIFEFHSFFPGJUTEJTDPNGPSU
*OPUIFSXPSET UIFDPN
NVOJDBUJPOTZTUFNPGNBOZBOJNBMTUSBOTNJUTTJHOBMTPOMZBTBCZ
QSPEVDUPGTPNFPUIFSCJPMPHJDBMGVODUJPO
4FNBOUJDJUZ 4QFFDIIBTNFBOJOHi4BMUwNFBOTTBMUBOEOPUTVHBSPS
QFQQFS4PNFGFBUVSFTPGIPOFZCFFEBODFMBOHVBHFEFOPUFUIFEJTUBODF
PGBGPPETPVSDFGSPNUIFCFFIJWF BOEPUIFSTHJWFUIFEJSFDUJPOJO
XIJDI UIF GPPE JT UP CF GPVOE )PXFWFS JO OP TZTUFN PUIFS UIBO
IVNBOMBOHVBHFJTUIFSFTVDIBOFMBCPSBUFDPSSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOUIFWBTU
OVNCFSPGXPSETBOEQPTTJCMFTFOUFODFTBOEUIFXJEFMZEJGGFSFOUUPQ
JDTIVNBOTUBMLBCPVU
"SCJUSBSJOFTT 5IFSFJTOPJOUSJOTJDSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOUIFGPSNPGB
NFBOJOHGVMVOJUPGBMBOHVBHFBOEUIFDPODFQUGPSXIJDIUIFVOJUTUBOET
5IFDPNNPOEPNFTUJDBOJNBMUIBUCBSLT$BOJTGBNJMJBSJT CZJUTTDJFO
UJGJD-BUJOOBNFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTEPH JO&OHMJTI )VOE JO(FSNBO DIJFO
JO'SFODI QFSSP JO4QBOJTI QFT JO$[FDI DJOF JO3PNBOJBO TPCBLB JO
3VTTJBO LQFL JO5VSLJTI LVUZB JO.BHZBS QPILP JO)PQJ IF JO"SB
QBIP BOEJOV JO+BQBOFTF#VUUIFSFJTOPUIJOHBCPVUDBOJOFTUIBUNBLFT
&OHMJTITQFBLFSTDBMMUIFNiEPHT wBOEUIFSFJTOPUIJOHJOIFSFOUJOUIF
TPVOET%0(UIBUNBLFUIFNOFDFTTBSJMZBQQMZUPDBOJOFT
%JTDSFUFOFTT .FTTBHFTJOIVNBOMBOHVBHFTEPOPUDPOTJTUPGTPVOET
UIBUBSFDPOUJOVPVT MJLFBTJSFO GPSFYBNQMF
CVUBSFNBEFVQPGEJT
DSFUFUIBUJT JOEJWJEVBMMZEJTUJODUTFHNFOUT5IFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFO
UIF &OHMJTI RVFTUJPOT i8PVME ZPV DBSF GPS B QJFDF PG UPBTU w BOE
i8PVMEZPVDBSFGPSBQJFDFPGSPBTU wJTEVFTPMFMZUPUXPEJTDSFUF
TPVOETBUUIFTBNFQMBDFJOFBDITFOUFODF POFXSJUUFOBOEQSPOPVODFE
BTU BOEUIFPUIFSBTS#ZDPOUSBTU CFFEBODFMBOHVBHFJTDPOUJOVPVT
JUEPFTOPUNBLFVTFPGEJTDSFUFFMFNFOUT
%JTQMBDFNFOU )VNBOTDBOUBMLBCPVU PSXSJUFBCPVU GPSUIBUNBUUFS
TPNFUIJOHUIBUJTGBSSFNPWFEJOUJNFPSTQBDFGSPNUIFTFUUJOHJO
XIJDI UIF DPNNVOJDBUJPO PDDVST 0OF NBZ GPS JOTUBODF EFTDSJCF
RVJUF WJWJEMZ BOE JO TPNF EFUBJM UIF NJMJUBSZ DBNQBJHO PG UIF
$BSUIBHJOJBOHFOFSBM)BOOJCBMBHBJOTUBODJFOU3PNF FWFOUIPVHIUIF
4FDPOE1VOJD8BSUPPLQMBDFNPSFUIBO ZFBSTBHPPOBOPUIFS
DPOUJOFOU0SQFPQMFNBZUBMLBCPVUXIFSFUIFZQMBOUPMJWFBGUFSSF
UJSFNFOUTPNFUXFOUZPSUIJSUZZFBSTJOUIFGVUVSF%JTQMBDFNFOUPG
UIJTLJOEFYJTUTOPXIFSFFMTFJOUIFBOJNBMLJOHEPNBTGBSBTXFLOPX
1SPEVDUJWJUZPQFOOFTT)VNBOTDBOTBZUIJOHTUIBUIBWFOFWFSCFFO
TBJECFGPSF BOEUIFZDBOVOEFSTUBOEUIJOHTUIFZIBWFOFWFSIFBSECF
GPSF5IJOLJOHVQBOPWFMTFOUFODFJTOPUEJGGJDVMU BT GPSFYBNQMF
i0VS UXP DBUT BSHVF BCPVU BQQSPBDIFT UP MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ
XIFOFWFSUIFZBSFMFGUBUIPNFBMPOFw
(PPEQPFUTRVJUFSFHVMBSMZVTF
MBOHVBHFJOJOOPWBUJWFXBZT8IFOBOFXUIJOHJTJOWFOUFEXFNBLF
VQBOFXOBNFGPSJU0UIFSBOJNBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOTZTUFNTIBWFMJN
JUFESFQFSUPJSFT XIJDIDBOCFVTFEPOMZJOMJNJUFEXBZT
%VBMJUZ PGQBUUFSOJOH 5IJTJTQFSIBQTUIFNPTUTVCUMFEFTJHOGFBUVSF
QSPQPTFECZ)PDLFUU5IJTGFBUVSFUFMMTVTUIBUIVNBOMBOHVBHFJTPS
HBOJ[FEPOUXPEJTUJODUMFWFMT B
BMFWFMPGNFBOJOHMFTT TPVOETBOE C
BMFWFMPGNFBOJOHGVM QBSUTPGBMBOHVBHF#PUIIBWFUIFJSPXOMBSHFMZJO
EFQFOEFOUQBUUFSOT SVMFTGPSDSFBUJOHDPNCJOBUJPOT
'PSFYBNQMF DPO
TJEFSKVTUUIFTFUISFFTPVOETU BOEL0OUIFQIPOFNJD TPVOE
MFWFM UIFZIBWFOPNFBOJOH CVUUIFZDBOCFDPNCJOFEUPGPSNXPSET

MJLFiUBDL wiDBU wPSiBDUw IFSFXSJUUFOJOUIFDPOWFOUJPOBM&OHMJTIPS
UIPHSBQIZ
5IBUJT UIFVOJUTPOUIFGJSTUMFWFMUIFMFWFMPGTPVOEBSF
VTFEUPDPOTUSVDUVOJUTPOUIFTFDPOEMFWFMUIFMFWFMPGXPSET5IFPC
WJPVTBEWBOUBHFPGEVBMJUZPGQBUUFSOJOHJTUIBUBMJNJUFEOVNCFSPGMJO
HVJTUJDVOJUTPGPOFLJOENBLFVQBWBTUOVNCFSPGVOJUTPOBOPUIFS
MFWFM NVDIBTUIFBUPNTPGPOMZBCPVUOJOFUZOBUVSBMMZPDDVSSJOHFMF
NFOUTNBLFVQUIFNPMFDVMFTPGNJMMJPOTPGEJGGFSFOUDPNQPVOET
$VMUVSBM PSUSBEJUJPOBM
USBOTNJTTJPO 5IPVHIUIFSFBSFCJPMPHJDBMQSF
EJTQPTJUJPOTGPSIVNBOTUPBDRVJSFMBOHVBHF MJOHVJTUJDJOGPSNBUJPOJT
OPUQBTTFEPOHFOFUJDBMMZ CVUDVMUVSBMMZ0OFEPFTOPUJOIFSJUBQBSUJDV
MBSMBOHVBHFDIJMESFOMFBSOMBOHVBHFGSPNQBSFOUTPSPUIFSTXIPNUIFZ
TQFBLXJUI4QFBLJOHBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFJTUIFSFGPSFBQBSUPGPOFT
PWFSBMMDVMUVSBMCFIBWJPS UIBUJT CFIBWJPSBDRVJSFEUISPVHIMFBSOJOH
1SFWBSJDBUJPO8IBUBQFSTPONBZTBZDBOCFDPNQMFUFMZBOELOPX
JOHMZGBMTF BTJGTPNFPOFBTTFSUTUIBUUIFNPPOJTNBEFPGHSFFODIFFTF
PSUIBU8BTIJOHUPOJTBOIPVSTMFJTVSFMZXBMLGSPN4U1FUFSTCVSH
"E
NJUUFEMZ BOPQPTTVNNBZGFJHOEFBUI QMBZQPTTVN
JGTVSQSJTFEPO
UIFHSPVOE PSBCJSENBZQSFUFOEUPIBWFBCSPLFOXJOHUPMFBEQSFE
BUPSTBXBZGSPNIFSOFTU CVUUIFTFCFIBWJPSTBSFQSPCBCMZJOTUJODUJWF
Language as an Evolutionary Product 105
BOEEPOPUSFGMFDUBDPHOJUJWFEFDJTJPOPSBOJOUFOUUPEFDFJWF0OUIF
XIPMF BUUFNQUTBUEFDFQUJPOBSFOPUDPNNPOBNPOHBOJNBMT
3FGMFYJWFOFTT)VNBOTDBOVTFMBOHVBHFUPUBMLBCPVUMBOHVBHF PS
DPNNVOJDBUJPOJOHFOFSBM BOEJOEFFEEPTPBMMUIFUJNF/POIVNBO
BOJNBMTEPOPUBQQFBSUPCFDBQBCMFPGUSBOTNJUUJOHJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVU
UIFJSPXOPSPUIFSTZTUFNTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO
-FBSOBCJMJUZ"OZIVNBOTQFBLFSDBOQPUFOUJBMMZMFBSOBOZIVNBOMBO
HVBHF4QFBLFSTPGPOFMBOHVBHFDBOMFBSOBTFDPOEMBOHVBHF PSFWFO
TFWFSBMMBOHVBHFT JOBEEJUJPOUPUIFJSNPUIFSUPOHVFT4PNFDPNNV
OJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSBNPOHOPOIVNBOBOJNBMTJTBMTPUIFSFTVMUPGMFBSO
JOH FJUIFSCZFYQFSJFODFPSGSPNIVNBOT/PPUIFSBOJNBMT IPXFWFS
QPTTFTTUIFBCJMJUZUPMFBSOPOFPSTFWFSBMTZTUFNTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO
BTDPNQMFYBTMBOHVBHF
)VNBOMBOHVBHFTQPTTFTTBMMUIFTFEFTJHOGFBUVSFT XIFSFBTUIFDPNNV
OJDBUJWFTZTUFNTPGPUIFSBOJNBMTQPTTFTTPOMZTPNF'PSFYBNQMF BDDPSEJOH
UP)PDLFUU
DBMMTQSPEVDFECZHJCCPOTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZUIFQSFT
FODFPGEFTJHOGFBUVSFTUISPVHICVUMBDLEJTQMBDFNFOU QSPEVDUJWJUZ BOE
EVBMJUZPGQBUUFSOJOH )PDLFUUJTVOTVSFBCPVUUSBEJUJPOBMUSBOTNJTTJPO

,OPXJOHUIBUOPOFPGUIFTFEFTJHOGFBUVSFTJTBDPNQMFUFMZFJUIFSPSQSPQP
TJUJPO )PDLFUUBOE"MUNBOO
DBMMFEGPSFYBNJOJOHEFTJHOGFBUVSFT
VTJOHGJWFGSBNFXPSLTUIFTPDJBMTFUUJOH UIFCFIBWJPSBMBOUFDFEFOUTBOE
DPOTFRVFODFTPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFBDUT UIFDIBOOFMPSDIBOOFMTFNQMPZFE
DPOUJOVJUZBOEDIBOHFJODPNNVOJDBUJPOTZTUFNT BOEUIFTUSVDUVSFPGNFT
TBHFTBOEUIFJSSFQFSUPSJFTJOTQFDJGJDTZTUFNT"DDPSEJOHMZ JGPOFJTUPTUVEZ
BQBSUJDVMBSDPNNVOJDBUJWFTZTUFNPSUSBOTBDUJPO POFTIPVMEJODMVEFJO
RVJSJFTDPODFSOJOHXIPUIFQBSUJDJQBOUTBSFBOEXIFSFBOEVOEFSXIBUDJS
DVNTUBODFTUIFZDPNNVOJDBUF XIBUDIBOOFMPSDIBOOFMTUIFZVTF XIBUUIF
TUSVDUVSFPGUIFJSNFTTBHFTBOEPGUIFDPEFBTBXIPMFJT BOETPPO
5IFTFBOESFMBUFEDPODFSOTOPUPOMZBSFOFDFTTBSZGPSBGVMMFSVOEFSTUBOE
JOHPGTVCIVNBODPNNVOJDBUJPOCVUBSFFRVBMMZJNQPSUBOUGPSUIFTUVEZBOE
BQQSFDJBUJPOPGIVNBOMBOHVBHFJOUIFDPOUFYUPGTPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSF
Language as an Evolutionary Product

-JLFBMMBTQFDUTPGUIFIVNBODPOEJUJPO MBOHVBHFBMTPNVTUIBWFCFFOB
QSPEVDUPGFWPMVUJPO)PXFWFS VOMJLFJUFNTPGNBUFSJBMDVMUVSF MBOHVBHF
MFBWFTOPQIZTJDBMUSBDFTPGJUTFWPMVUJPOBSZQBTU6OUJMSFDFOUMZ NBOZBO
UISPQPMPHJTUT MJOHVJTUT BOECJPMPHJTUTCFMJFWFEUIBUUIFSFXBTMJUUMFUIBUDPVME
CFTBJEBCPVUUIFPSJHJOTPGMBOHVBHF
5IPVHIOPEFGJOJUJWFBOTXFSTDBOCFHJWFOBUQSFTFOU SFDFOUTUVEJFTJO
IVNBOHFOFUJDT CFIBWJPSBMCJPMPHZ BOBUPNZ BOEBSUJGJDJBMJOUFMMJHFODFHJWFVT
SFBTPOTUPCFPQUJNJTUJDBCPVUTPMWJOHTPNFPGUIFNZTUFSJFTPGUIFPSJHJOBOE
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PQNFOU IFQPJOUFEPVU NBZCFWJFXFEGSPNUXPTIBSQMZEJGGFSJOHQPTJUJPOT
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MJOFPWFSUJNF"DDPSEJOHUPUIJTWJFX IVNBOMBOHVBHFEJGGFSTGSPNBOJNBM
iMBOHVBHFTwPOMZRVBOUJUBUJWFMZ UIBUJT CZWJSUVFPGJUTNVDIHSFBUFSDPNQMFY
JUZ"MUIPVHIUIFQSPQPOFOUTPGBWBSJBOUWFSTJPOPGUIJTUIFPSZBSHVFUIBUEJG
GFSFODFTCFUXFFOIVNBOBOEBOJNBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBSFRVBMJUBUJWFSBUIFSUIBO
NFSFMZRVBOUJUBUJWF UIFZBMTPCFMJFWFUIBUBMMDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSJOUIF
BOJNBMLJOHEPNIBTDPNFBCPVUXJUIPVUJOUFSSVQUJPO XJUITJNQMFSGPSNT
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SFDPHOJ[FEBTVOJRVF XJUIPVUFWPMVUJPOBSZBOUFDFEFOUT*UTEFWFMPQNFOU
DBOOPUCFJMMVNJOBUFECZTUVEZJOHWBSJPVTDPNNVOJDBUJWFTZTUFNTPGBOJ
NBMTQFDJFTBUSBOEPNBOEUIFODPNQBSJOHUIFNXJUIIVNBOMBOHVBHF0OF
TUBUFNFOUDPODFSOJOHUIFBOUJRVJUZPGMBOHVBHF IPXFWFS DBOCFNBEFXJUI
TPNFBTTVSBODF#FDBVTFBMMIVNBOTQPTTFTTUIFTBNFCJPMPHJDBMQPUFOUJBM
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BDUFSJ[FEUIFDPNNPOBODFTUPSTPGBMMIVNBOTCFGPSFQPQVMBUJPOTBEBQUFEUP
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-FOOFCFSHSFKFDUFEUIFDPOUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFEFWFMPQNFOUGPS
TFWFSBMSFBTPOT&WFOUIPVHIUIFHSFBUBQFTBSFUIFBOJNBMTNPTUDMPTFMZ
SFMBUFEUPIVNBOT UIFZBQQFBSUPIBWFGFX JGBOZ PGUIFTLJMMTPSCJPMPHJDBM
Language as an Evolutionary Product 107
QSFSFRVJTJUFTGPSTQFFDI'SFRVFOUMZDJUFEFYBNQMFTPGBOJNBMDPNNVOJDB
UJPOIBWFCFFOESBXOGSPNJOTFDUT CJSET BOEBRVBUJDNBNNBMT CVUUIFFWP
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NVOJDBUJWFUSBJUTJOEJDBUFTUIBUTVDITQFDJFTTQFDJGJDCFIBWJPSBMUSBJUTIBWF
OPUCFDPNFHFOFSBMJ[FEBOEUIFSFGPSFBSFMJLFMZUPCFPGSFMBUJWFMZSFDFOUEBUF
*OUIFGPMMPXJOHEJTDVTTJPO IVNBOTQFFDIBOEUIFTFWFSBMSFQSFTFOUBUJWF
DPNNVOJDBUJWFTZTUFNTPGPUIFSBOJNBMTTIPVMEUIFSFGPSFCFWJFXFEBTIBW
JOHOPFWPMVUJPOBSZDPOUJOVJUZ5IFSFJT JOTIPSU OPFWJEFODFUPTVHHFTUUIBU
IVNBOTQFFDIJTBOBDDVNVMBUJPOPGTFQBSBUFTLJMMTUISPVHIPVUUIFMPOH
DPVSTFPGFWPMVUJPO*GJUXFSFTP HJCCPOT DIJNQBO[FFT PSBOHVUBOT BOEHP
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BSHVFEUIBUFWPMVUJPOBSZCJPMPHZOFFEFEBUFSNGPSGFBUVSFTUIBUBSPTFBTCZ
QSPEVDUTPG SBUIFSUIBOBDUVBM BEBQUBUJPOT)FDBMMTTVDIGFBUVSFTTQBOESFMT
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Monogenesis Versus Polygenesis

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Monogenesis Versus Polygenesis 109
F I G U R E 6 . 3 A Simplified Representation of the Fuzzy Version of the Mono-

genetic Theory.
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B OX 6 . 1 H O C K E T T O N B L E N D I N G
Suppose a gibbon finds himself in a situation characterized by both the

presence of food and the imminence of danger. The factors, we shall say,
are closely balanced. The normal consequence among gibbons is that one
or the other factor prevails and just one call is given. This time we imag-
ine our gibbon atypical. Instead of emitting either the food call or the dan-
ger call, he utters a cry that has some of the characteristics of each: he
produces a blend of the two.
This is beyond the experience of the other gibbons in his band. De-
pending on acoustic conditions, some of them may hear the actual cry as
the food call, others as the danger call, and others as nonsense. It is un-
likely that any hear it as a new signal, conveying two kinds of information
at once. The consequences are thus negligible.
But now suppose that the early hominids had a somewhat richer call
system (though closed) functioning in a somewhat more complex social
order. Then we may also assume that this type of event occasionally hap-
pened, and that sooner or later the other members of a band responded
appropriately, thus handling an unusually complex situation more effi-
ciently than otherwise. With this reinforcement, the habit of blending two
calls to produce a new one would gain ground.
We have to assume that this is what happened, because blending is
the only way in which a closed system can move towards openness of the
kind characteristic of language.
from Charles F. Hockett, Mans Place in Nature (1973), 381
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Estimating the Age of Language: Linguistic Considerations

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Estimating the Age of Language: Linguistic Considerations 111
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UIFNCFDBVTFiIVNBOMBOHVBHFTXFSFUIFOBQQSFDJBCMZDMPTFSUPUIFJSDPN
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PGZFBSTBOZPGUIFQSPUPMBOHVBHFTMJOHVJTUTIBWFCFFOBCMFUPSFDPOTUSVDUUP
EBUF UIPVHIDPOUSBSZUP,JQBSTLZTFTUJNBUF UP ZFBSTNBZOPU

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Estimating the Age of Language: The View from Prehistory

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Estimating the Age of Language: The View from Prehistory 113
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Estimating the Age of Language: Evidence from Anatomy 115
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7
Acquiring Language(s):
Life with First Languages,
Second Languages, and More
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The First Steps of Language Acquisition in Childhood

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119
120 Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
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Theories of Language Acquisition 121
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Theories of Language Acquisition

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B OX 7 . 1 C H OM S K Y O N L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N
We can think of every normal humans internalized grammar as, in effect,

a theory of his language. This theory provides a sound-meaning correla-
tion for an infinite number of sentences. . . .
In formal terms . . . we can describe the childs acquisition of language
as a kind of theory construction. The child discovers the theory of his lan-
guage with only small amounts of data from that language. . . . Normal
speech consists, in large part, of fragments, false starts, blends, and other
distortions of the underlying idealized forms. Nevertheless, as is evident
from a study of the mature use of language, what the child learns is the un-
derlying ideal theory. This is a remarkable fact. We must also bear in mind
that the child constructs this ideal theory without explicit instruction, that he
acquires this knowledge at a time when he is not capable of complex in-
tellectual achievements in many other domains, and that this achievement
is relatively independent of intelligence or the particular course of experi-
ence. These are facts that a theory of learning must face. . . .
. . . It is unimaginable that a highly specific, abstract, and tightly or-
ganized language comes by accident into the mind of every four-year-old
child.
from Noam Chomsky, Language and the Mind (1968), 66
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Language and the Brain

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Language and the Brain 127
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DBVTFT BT HVOTIPU XPVOE UVNPS TUSPLF PS JOGFDUJPO SFTVMU JO EJGGFSFOU
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F I G U R E 7 . 1 The Human Brain

Side view of the left hemisphere of the human brain, with
its front on the left. The locations of the areas mentioned in
the text are indicated as follows: AC = auditory cortex; AG
= angular gyrus; B = Brocas area; MC = motor cortex; W =
Wernickes area. The thalamus is not seen from this view.
DJSDVNMPDVUJPOT JNQBJSFEBCJMJUZUPVOEFSTUBOEXSJUUFOBOETQPLFOMBOHVBHF
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Bilingual and Multilingual Brains

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Bilingual and Multilingual Brains 129
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HVBMJTNPSUSJMJOHVBMJTNSBUIFSUIBONPOPMJOHVBMJTN UIBUJTNPTUDPNNPO
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GJHVSFTTIPXUIBUBUMFBTUQFSDFOUPGUIFQPQVMBUJPOSFHVMBSMZTQFBLBMBO
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"OPUIFSNBUUFSXIJDINVTUCFDPOTJEFSFEJTEFGJOJUJPOi#JMJOHVBMwPS
iNVMUJMJOHVBMwDBONFBOBWBSJFUZPGUIJOHT4PNFQFPQMFNBZMFBSOUXPMBO
HVBHFTOBUJWFMZBTDIJMESFO BOECFFRVBMMZQSPGJDJFOUBOEDPNGPSUBCMFJO
CPUI0UIFSTNBZIBWFPOMZGVMMDPNQFUFODFJOPOFMBOHVBHF BOEKVTUHFU
CZJOUIFPUIFS4PNFQFPQMFNBZCFQBTTJWFPSSFDFQUJWFCJMJOHVBMT IBWJOHUIF
BCJMJUZUPVOEFSTUBOEBTFDPOEMBOHVBHFCVUOPUCFJOHBCMFUPTQFBLJU 5IFSF
JTBMTPUIFJTTVFPGPSEFS"SFXFEFBMJOHXJUITJNVMUBOFPVTCJMJOHVBMJTN
XIFSFBDIJMEMFBSOTUXPMBOHVBHFTBUUIFTBNFUJNFPSTFRVFOUJBMCJMJO
HVBMJTNXIFSFBQFSTPOCFDPNFTCJMJOHVBMCZGJSTUMFBSOJOHPOFMBOHVBHF
BOEUIFOBOPUIFS "OEQSPCBCMZFWFSZCPEZVOEFSTUBOETBUMFBTUBMJUUMFPG
TPNFPUIFSMBOHVBHF XIFUIFSJUJTUIFMFGUPWFSTGSPNIJHITDIPPM4QBOJTI
DMBTT UIFXPSETBOEQISBTFTGSPNOFJHICPST PSXPSETQJDLFEVQPOBKPC
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HVBMBDRVJTJUJPOQSPDFTTNBZCFDPOTJEFSFEBTUISFFEFWFMPQNFOUBMTUBHFT
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XPSETGSPNCPUIMBOHVBHFT CVUVTVBMMZLFFQUIFNTFQBSBUF BOEOPUBTUSBOT
MBUJPOTPGFBDIPUIFS4FDPOE BTTFOUFODFTCFHJOUPBQQFBS XPSETGSPNCPUI
MBOHVBHFTDBOCFVTFE5IJTNJYJOHSBQJEMZEFDMJOFT IPXFWFS ESPQQJOHBM
NPTUDPNQMFUFMZCZUIFFOEPGUIFUIJSEZFBS"GUFSUIJT WPDBCVMBSZJOCPUI
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GPVSUIZFBS IPXFWFS UIFTZOUBYPGFBDIMBOHVBHFCFDPNFTEJTUJODUBTUIF
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The Social Aspects of Multilingualism

"QBSUJDVMBSQFPQMFJTBTBSVMFMJOLFEXJUIBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHF BOEUIJT
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The Social Aspects of Multilingualism 131
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The Social Aspects of Multilingualism 133
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B OX 7 . 2 T H E H UM A N B R A I N A N D
L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N
Why arent babies born talking? We know that part of the answer is that
babies have to listen to themselves to learn how to work their articula-
tors, and have to listen to their elders to learn communal phonemes,
words, and phrase orders. Some of these acquisitions depend on other
ones, forcing development to proceed in a sequence: phonemes before
words, words before sentences. But any mental mechanism powerful
enough to learn these things could probably do so with a few weeks or
months of input. Why does the sequence have to take three years?
Could it be any faster?
Perhaps not. Complicated machines take time to assemble, and
human infants may be expelled from the womb before their brains are
complete. A human, after all, is an animal with a ludicrously large head,
and a womans pelvis, through which it must pass, can be only so big.
If human beings stayed in the womb for the proportion of their life cycle
that we would expect based on extrapolation from other primates, they
would be born at the age of eighteen months. That is the age at which
babies in fact begin to put words together. In one sense, then[,] babies
are born talking!
And we know that babies brains do change considerably after birth.
Before birth, virtually all the neurons (nerve cells) are formed, and they
migrate into their proper locations in the brain. But head size, brain
weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex (gray matter), where the
synapses (junctions) subserving mental computation are found, continue
to increase rapidly in the year after birth. Long-distance connections
(white matter) are not complete until nine months, and they continue to
grow their speed-inducing myelin insulation throughout childhood.
Synapses continue to develop, peaking in number between nine months
and two years (depending on the brain region), at which point the child
has fifty percent more synapses than the adult! Metabolic activity in the
brain reaches adult levels by nine to ten months, and soon exceeds it,
peaking around the age of four. The brain is sculpted not only by adding
neural material but by chipping it away. Massive numbers of neurons die
in utero, and the dying continues during the first two years before level-
(continues)
(continued)
ing off at age seven. Synapses wither from the age of two through the rest
of childhood and into adolescence, when the brains metabolic rate falls
back to adult levels. Language development, then, could be on a matu-
rational timetable, like teeth. Perhaps linguistic accomplishments like
babbling, first words, and grammar require minimum levels of brain size,
long-distance connections, and extra synapses, particularly in the lan-
guage centers of the brain. . . .
So language seems to develop about as quickly as the growing brain
can handle it.
from Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (1994), 288289
8
Language Through Time
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How Languages Are Classified

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141
142 Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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How Languages Are Classified 143
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Internal and External Changes 145
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Internal and External Changes 147
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How and Why Sound Changes Occur

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How and Why Sound Changes Occur 149
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Reconstructing Protolanguages 151
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Reconstructing Protolanguages
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Reconstructing Protolanguages 153
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Reconstructing the Ancestral Homeland

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Reconstructing the Ancestral Homeland 155
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Reconstructing the Ancestral Homeland 157
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Reconstructing a Protoculture
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Reconstructing a Protoculture 159
B OX 8 . 1 S I E B E RT O N T H E O R I G I N A L H OM E O F
T H E P ROTO - A LG O N Q U I A N P E O P L E
The primeval home. . . . lay between the almost strictly coniferous forests
to the north and the deciduous woodlands to the south. That the Proto-
Algonquians lived in a mixed-forest zone is evident from the frequent use
of the two contrasting noun-finals in many tree names, PA *-antakw-
evergreen tree, conifer and *-axkw- wood; hardwood or deciduous
tree. The relatively southern species of deciduous trees, like the white
ash, sugar maple, basswood, and beech, extend more or less only slightly
farther north than the Algonquian homeland, whereas northern conifers,
like the white spruce and tamarack, were found commonly only to the
southern borders of the original home or slightly beyond.
The original home lay at the southern limit of the woodland caribou. . . .
The harbour seal is the only seal that is common on the eastern coast of
the United States . . . [but] in aboriginal times its ascent penetrated . . . into
the interior along the upper St. Lawrence River and affluent streams. . . .
The distributions of [four species of fish] provide additional reasons for pin-
pointing the earliest Algonquian residence to southern Ontario rather than
to a more western portion of the Great Lakes region. . . .
In order to allow for possible undetermined changes in the distribution
of fauna and flora in the prehistoric period . . . the earliest original home
is diagrammatically represented as Stage Number 1 . . . and an expanded
area of occupancy of slightly later date, which certainly includes the en-
tire Algonquian homeland, is characterized as Stage Number 2. To these
the tentative dates of 1200 B.C. and 900 B.C., respectively, are assigned as
suppositions to serve as a basis for further discussion. . . .
The earliest residence of the speakers of Proto-Algonquian is ascer-
tained by the multiple intersections of the distributional lines of signifi-
cant species. The original home of the Algonquian peoples lay in the
region between Lake Huron and Georgian Bay and the middle course of
the Ottawa River, bounded on the north by Lake Nipissing and the Mat-
tawa River and on the south by the northern shore of Lake Ontario, the
headwaters of the Grand River, and the Saugeen River.
from Frank T. Siebert, Jr., The Original Home of
the Proto-Algonquian People (1967), 3640
160
F I G U R E 8 . 1 The Two Assumed Stages of the Proto-Algonquin Home and Their Locations
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Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology 161
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BOEEFQFOEFEPOPSLFQUIPSTFT DPXT EPHT TIFFQ QJHT BOEHPBUTGVS
UIFSNPSF UIBUUIFZMJWFEJOBOFOWJSPONFOUJOXIJDIUIFZFODPVOUFSFE
XPMWFT CFBST GPYFT FBHMFT TBMNPO QSPCBCMZBUZQFPGUSPVUSFTFNCMJOH
TBMNPO
PUUFST CFBWFST BOEPUIFSBOJNBMTBTXFMMBTBMEFS BTQFO CFFDI
CJSDI PBL BOEZFXBNPOHUIFGMPSB5IFZQSBDUJDFEBHSJDVMUVSFBOEDVMUJ
WBUFEDFSFBMT XIJDIUIFZHSPVOEJOUPGMPVS5IFBODJFOU*OEP&VSPQFBOT
VTFEOVNFSBMTBUMFBTUUISPVHIPOFIVOESFEBOEFNQMPZFEBEFDJNBMTZT
UFN5IFZXFSFMFECZUSJCBMDIJFGTPSLJOHTBOE KVEHJOHGSPNUIFSFDPO
TUSVDUJCMFWPDBCVMBSZ EFWFMPQFESBUIFSFMBCPSBUFSFMJHJPVTQSBDUJDFT5IF
XJEF EJTUSJCVUJPO PG XPSET GPS TOPX BOE UIF FBTZ SFDPOTUSVDUJCJMJUZ PG
TOFJHXIA UP
TOPXBQQFBSUPFYDMVEFBTUIFQSPCBCMFBODFTUSBM*OEP&VSP
QFBOIPNFMBOEUIPTFXBSNTPVUIFSOQBSUTPG&VSPQFBOETPVUIXFTUFSO"TJB
XIFSFTOPXJTOPUTFFO
5IFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOTPGQSPUPDVMUVSFIBWFOPUCFFOMJNJUFEUPQSFIJTUPSJD
*OEP&VSPQFBOTPDJFUZCVUIBWFCFFOFYUFOEFEUPPUIFSQBSUTPGUIFXPSME
GPS FYBNQMF TVC4BIBSBO "GSJDB 4PNF MJOHVJTUJD JOGFSFODFT BCPVU FBSMZ
#BOUVIJTUPSZBSFSFQSPEVDFEJO#PY UIF#BOUVMBOHVBHFTGPSNBMBSHF
TVCHSPVQPGUIF/JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ

Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology

"NPEFSOBUUFNQUUPEFUFSNJOFTUBUJTUJDBMMZUIFMFOHUIPGUJNFEVSJOHXIJDI
BMBOHVBHFPSBHSPVQPGHFOFUJDBMMZSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTIBTCFFOVOEFSHPJOH
JOEFQFOEFOUEFWFMPQNFOUXBTNBEFCZ.PSSJT4XBEFTIJOIJTBSUJDMFDPO
DFSOJOHUIFJOUFSOBMSFMBUJPOTIJQTXJUIJOUIF4BMJTIBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZPGUIF
"NFSJDBO/PSUIXFTU 4XBEFTI
5IFNFUIPE XIJDI4XBEFTIBOEPUI
FSTTVCTFRVFOUMZFMBCPSBUFE JOWPMWFTMFYJDPTUBUJTUJDTBOEHMPUUPDISPOPMPHZ
JOUIBUPSEFS
-FYJDPTUBUJTUJDT JTBNFUIPEPGFTUBCMJTIJOHMJOHVJTUJDSFMB
UJPOTIJQPOUIFCBTJTPGBRVBOUJUBUJWFTUVEZPGMFYJDBMJUFNT XPSET
HMPU
UPDISPOPMPHZ JT B NFUIPE PG EFUFSNJOJOH UIF UJNF EFQUI PG B MJOHVJTUJD
SFMBUJPOTIJQ'PSUIFTBLFPGCSFWJUZ XFBSFDPNCJOJOHUIFVTFPGUIFTFUXP
NFUIPETVOEFSUIFUFSNHMPUUPDISPOPMPHZ 5IFNFUIPECFDBNFDPOUSP
WFSTJBMTPPOBGUFSJUTJOUSPEVDUJPO CVUCFDBVTFJUIBTCFFOSFQFBUFEMZBQQMJFE
UPMJOHVJTUJDEBUBBOEGSFRVFOUSFGFSFODFTUPJUBQQFBSJOUIFMJUFSBUVSF JUEF
TFSWFTUPCFCSJFGMZFYBNJOFE
8IFOGJSTUJOUSPEVDFE HMPUUPDISPOPMPHJDBMBOBMZTJTZJFMEFESFMBUJWFEBUFT
OPU VOMJLF UIPTF BSDIBFPMPHJTUT PCUBJO GSPN UIF TUSBUJHSBQIJD SFDPSE 5IF
NFUIPEXBTMBUFSSFWJTFETPUIBUBCTPMVUFEBUFTDPVMECFEFUFSNJOFENVDIMJLF
UIPTFBSDIBFPMPHJTUTPCUBJOCZVTJOHDBSCPOUPEBUFBODJFOUPSHBOJDNBUF
SJBMTSFDPWFSFEGSPNBSDIBFPMPHJDBMTJUFT(MPUUPDISPOPMPHJDBMEBUJOHJTCBTFE
POUIFBTTVNQUJPOUIBUJOBMMMBOHVBHFTUIFSFBSFDFSUBJOXPSETUIBUUFOEUPCF
SFQMBDFEBUBDPOTUBOUSBUFPWFSMPOHQFSJPETPGUJNF5IJTCBTJDDPSFWPDBCV
MBSZDPOTJTUTPGXPSETUIBUEFTJHOBUFUIJOHT RVBMJUJFT BOEBDUJWJUJFTNPTUMJLFMZ
UPCFOBNFEJOBMMMBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSME"NPOHUIFTFXPSETBSFCPEZQBSUT
OBUVSBMPCKFDUTBOEQIFOPNFOB QMBOUTBOEQMBOUQBSUT BOJNBMT DPMPST OV
NFSBMT CPEJMZTFOTBUJPOTBOEBDUJWJUJFT BOEXPSETCFMPOHJOHUPTFWFSBMPUIFS
TFNBOUJDEPNBJOT BNPOHUIFNQPTJUJPOTBOENPWFNFOUT QFSTPOT BOEDPN
NPORVBMJUJFT0OUIFCBTJTPGUFTUTNBEFXJUIUXPIVOESFEXPSEMJTUTGSPN
MBOHVBHFTXIPTFIJTUPSZJTLOPXO UIFSBUFPGSFQMBDFNFOU PSMPTT PGUIFCBTJD
DPSFWPDBCVMBSZBQQFBSTUPBWFSBHFOFBSMZQFSDFOUQFS ZFBST BNPVOU
JOHUPBXPSESFUFOUJPOSBUFPGKVTUPWFSQFSDFOU'PSUIFTNBMMFSBOENPSF
DPODFOUSBUFEPOFIVOESFEXPSEMJTUEFWFMPQFECZ4XBEFTIJO TFF5BCMF

UIFDPNQBSBCMFSBUFTBSFBOEQFSDFOU"DDPSEJOHUPUIFQSPQPOFOUT
PGHMPUUPDISPOPMPHZ UIFMFOHUIPGUJNFSFRVJSFEGPSUXPMBOHVBHFTUPEJWFSHF
GSPNBTJOHMFMBOHVBHFDBOCFDBMDVMBUFECZVTJOHUIFGPSNVMBU MPH$
MPH
S
XIFSFU JTUIFUJNFEFQUIJONJMMFOOJB $JTUIFQFSDFOUBHFPGDPHOBUFT BOE
S JTUIFDPOTUBOU UIBUJT UIFQFSDFOUBHFPGDPHOBUFTBTTVNFEUPSFNBJOBGUFS
ZFBSTPGEJWFSHFODF QFSDFOUGPSUIFUXPIVOESFEXPSEMJTUBOE
QFSDFOUGPSUIFPOFIVOESFEXPSEMJTU

*OBQQMZJOHUIFNFUIPE POFGJSTUUSBOTMBUFTUIFCBTJDDPSFWPDBCVMBSZJOUP
UIFDPMMPRVJBMFRVJWBMFOUTPGUIFUXPSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTBOEUIFOEFUFSNJOFT
XIJDIQBJSTBSFDPHOBUFCZWJSUVFPGTJNJMBSJUZ'PSFYBNQMF UIF&OHMJTI
XPSETCMPPE DMPVE IBJS TBOE USFF BOECMBDL XPVMEUSBOTMBUFJOUP(FSNBO
BT#MVU 8PMLF )BBS 4BOE #BVN BOETDIXBS[ 0GUIFTJYQBJST POMZUISFF
XPVMECFDPOTJEFSFEDPHOBUF CMPPE IBJS BOETBOE BOEUIFJS(FSNBOFRVJW
BMFOUT
*ODPOUSBTU EFFS BOE(FSNBO5JFS ABOJNBMBSFDPHOBUFCVUOPMPOHFS
FRVJWBMFOU0UIFSQBJSTPGXPSETBSFDPHOBUFCVUNBZOPUCFSFDPHOJ[FEBT
TVDI GPSFYBNQMF UIF&OHMJTIXPSEUPF BOEUIF(FSNBODPHOBUF;FIF AUPF
&OHMJTICFBN BOE(FSNBO#BVN AUSFF BOE&OHMJTITXBSU IZ
BOE(FSNBO
TDIXBS[ ACMBDL
Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology 163
TA B L E 8 . 1 The 100-Word Core Vocabulary

I dog nose die smoke
you louse mouth kill re
we tree tooth swim ash
this seed tongue y burn
that leaf claw walk path
who root foot come mountain
what bark knee lie red
not skin hand sit green
all esh belly stand yellow
many blood neck give white
one bone breasts say black
two grease heart sun night
big egg liver moon hot
long horn drink star cold
small tail eat water full
woman feather bite rain new
man hair see stone good
person head hear sand round
sh ear know earth dry
bird eye sleep cloud name
It should be noted that the large majority of these words can be traced to Old Englishthat
is, they are very old English words. Because of the universal nature and occurrence of the
referents for which these words stand, equivalents in other languages are available and may
also be expected to be old.
"MNPTUTJODFUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGHMPUUPDISPOPMPHZ JUTCBTJDBTTVNQUJPOT
IBWFCFFODPOUSPWFSTJBM4PNFPGUIFQSPCMFNTXFSFBQUMZTVNNBSJ[FECZ
%XJHIU#PMJOHFSi8FDBOOPUCFTVSFUIBUUIFTPDJBMBOEIJTUPSJDBMGPSDFTPG
DIBOHFIBWFOPUCFFOTUSPOHFSJOPOFFQPDIUIBOJOBOPUIFS PSUIBUNBOZ
JUFNTPGTVQQPTFEMZCBTJDWPDBCVMBSZIBWFOPUBDUVBMMZCFFOCPSSPXFESBUIFS
UIBOJOIFSJUFEw'VSUIFS IFDPOUJOVFE SFGFSSJOHUPBTUVEZCZ-BCPW i"TVS
WFZPGUIFTQFFDIPGUIFZFBSSPVOEJOIBCJUBOUTPG.BSUIBT7JOFZBSEGPVOE
UIBUUIFJSEFTJSFUPCFEJGGFSFOUGSPNUIFEFUFTUFENBJOMBOEFSTJTMFBEJOH
UIFNUPTQFFEVQDFSUBJODIBOHFTJOUIFQSPOVODJBUJPOPGUIFJSWPXFMT4P
DJBMQSFTTVSFTDSFBUFWBSJBCMFSBUFTPGDIBOHFJOQIPOFUJDTBTXFMMBTJOWP
DBCVMBSZw #PMJOHFSo
*UJTBMTPLOPXO GPSFYBNQMF UIBUUIF
SFUFOUJPOPGDPHOBUFTCFUXFFO0ME/PSTFBOE.PEFSO*DFMBOEJDJTNVDI
IJHIFSUIBOUIFGPSNVMBXPVMEJOEJDBUF"OPUIFSQSPCMFNJTUIFBTTVNQUJPO
UIBUUIFCBTJDDPSFWPDBCVMBSZMJTUJTFRVBMMZBQQMJDBCMFUPBMMDVMUVSFT UIBUJT
UIBUJUIBTOPDVMUVSBMCJBTBOEJTUSVMZVOJWFSTBM)BSSZ)PJKFS o
TIPXFE GPSFYBNQMF UIBUPOFXPVMEIBWFUPDIPPTFGSPNBNPOHGJWF/BWBKP

GPSNTGPSUIF&OHMJTIUIJT BOEUIBU GSPNBNPOHGPVSGPSXIP BOEXIBU GSPN
BNPOHUXPGPSCMBDL BOETPPO )PJKFS

5PFMJNJOBUFUIFPCKFDUJPOUIBUUIFBDDFQUBODFPGBCTPMVUFUJNFSFGFS
FODFTJTVOUFOBCMF UIFTVHHFTUJPOXBTNBEFUPBEPQUBSFMBUJWFVOJUPGUJNF
EFQUIUIBUXPVMECFMFTTNJTMFBEJOH5IJTVOJUJTSFGFSSFEUPBTEJQ GPSiEF
HSFFPGMFYJDBMSFMBUJPOTIJQw
5PBSSJWFBUEJQT UIFBCTPMVUFUJNFEFQUI JO
NJMMFOOJB
JTNVMUJQMJFECZGPVSUFFO"DDPSEJOHMZ UXPSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFT
FBDIPGXIJDIIBTHPOFJUTPXOXBZGPS ZFBST XPVMECFTFQBSBUFECZ
UXFOUZFJHIUEJQT
*OTVNNBSZ JGBQQMJFEUPSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTXIPTFIJTUPSZJTOPULOPXO
BOEGPSXIJDIXSJUUFOSFDPSETEPOPUFYJTU HMPUUPDISPOPMPHZNBZQSPWJEF
TPNFQSFMJNJOBSZFTUJNBUFTPGUIFJSDMPTFOFTT#VUDBSFGVMMJOHVJTUJDBOUISP
QPMPHJTUTXPVMEMPPLGPSTVQQPSUJOHFWJEFODFGSPNBSDIBFPMPHZ DPNQBSB
UJWFFUIOPMPHZ BOEMJOHVJTUJDSFDPOTUSVDUJPOVTJOHUIFDPNQBSBUJWFNFUIPE
CFGPSFBDDFQUJOHHMPUUPDISPOPMPHJDBMSFTVMUTBTWBMJE
Time Perspective in Culture

)PXMJOHVJTUJDEBUBDBOBJEUIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGDVMUVSBMIJTUPSZXBTEJT
DVTTFEBUMFOHUIBOEFYFNQMJGJFEJOPOFPGUIFFBSMZXPSLTPG&EXBSE4BQJS
BCSJMMJBOU"NFSJDBOMJOHVJTUBOEBOUISPQPMPHJTU BOEQSPCBCMZUIFHSFBUFTU
TQFDJBMJTUPO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOMBOHVBHFTVOUJM8PSME8BS**5JNF1FSTQFD
UJWF JO "CPSJHJOBM "NFSJDBO $VMUVSF " 4UVEZ JO .FUIPE
XBT IJT
MPOHFTUNPOPHSBQIJOFUIOPMPHZBOEJTUFTUJNPOZUPIJTNFUIPEPMPHJDBM
QSPXFTT5IFGFXFYBNQMFTUIBUGPMMPXJMMVTUSBUF4BQJSTEJTDVTTJPOPGJOGFS
FOUJBMMJOHVJTUJDFWJEFODFGPSUJNFQFSTQFDUJWF
5IFSFMBUJWFBHFPGBDVMUVSFFMFNFOUDBOCFEFUFSNJOFEXJUITPNFSFMJB
CJMJUZGSPNUIFGPSNPGUIFOBUJWF OPUCPSSPXFE
XPSEUIBUSFGFSTUPUIFFM
FNFOU4VDITJNQMFBOEOPUGVSUIFSBOBMZ[BCMFXPSETBTCPX QMPX TQFBS
BOEXIFFM BSFBTBSVMFNVDIPMEFSUIBOXPSETUIBUDBOCFCSPLFOEPXOJOUP
TNBMMFSDPOTUJUVFOUQBSUTGPSFYBNQMF BJSQMBOF CBUUMFTIJQ SBJMSPBE BOE
TQBDFTIJQ*SSFHVMBSHSBNNBUJDBMGPSNTBMTPJOEJDBUFUIFHSFBUBHFPGUIPTF
XPSETXJUIXIJDIUIFZBSFBTTPDJBUFEBOE CZJNQMJDBUJPO PGUIPTFFOUJUJFTUP
XIJDIUIFZSFGFSIFODFUIFQMVSBMTHFFTF LJOF BSDIBJDQMVSBMPGDPX
MJDF
PYFO BOETIFFQ POUIFPOFIBOE CVUFMFQIBOUT MJPOT QBSSPUT BOEUJHFST PO
UIFPUIFS
Time Perspective in Culture 165
B OX 8 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C I N F E R E N C E S
A B O U T E A R LY B A N T U H I S T O R Y
The oldest Bantu subsistence vocabulary so far reconstructible accords

with postulation of a high-rainfall, tropical environment for the proto-
Bantu homeland. No grain terms can be reconstructed, but there is in-
stead a word for yam. Two or three possible root words dealing with the
oil palm may also date to proto-Bantu, and the reconstructible proto-
Bantu name for alcoholic drink apparently referred specifically to palm
wine. At least one cucurbit, probably the bottle gourd, a pulse (the cow-
pea?), and probably the Voandzeia groundnut were also known to the
proto-Bantu. . . . These three crops would all have been domesticated
elsewhere than in the proto-Bantu homeland, but apparently they could
be effectively grown in high-rainfall savanna and/or rain forest. . . .
A second indication of a high-rainfall environment is provided by the
reconstructibility of fishing and boating vocabulary. . . . Apparently the
proto-Bantu made considerable use of riverine resources and lived where
large perennial streams were commonplace.
Knowledge of two domestic animals, cattle and goats, can be recon-
structed. . . . Whatever the cause of proto-Bantu knowledge of cattle, it was
lost by those who expanded into the equatorial rain forest, for the proto-
Bantu root *nyaka is found no farther south than some of the forest lan-
guages in which it was reapplied, in the absence of cattle, to the buffalo. . . .
Contrary to a widely held view, knowledge of ironworking cannot be
linguistically reconstructed for proto-Bantu. . . . By the beginnings, how-
ever, of Bantu expansion into eastern Africa, on linguistic grounds most
probably during the last millennium B.C., metallurgical terms had come
into use among at least the ancestral Eastern Bantu communities.
from Christopher Ehret, Linguistic Inferences
About Early Bantu History(1982), 6162
-PBOXPSET XIJDIVTVBMMZEFTJHOBUFFMFNFOUTPGGPSFJHODVMUVSFT DBOGSF

RVFOUMZCFJEFOUJGJFECZUIFJSEJGGFSFOUQIPOFUJDTUSVDUVSF XFXPVMEOPX
TBZiQIPOFNJDw
5IVT BMUIPVHI[BOE// PDDVSJOPMEXPSETPGUIFOBUJWF
&OHMJTIWPDBCVMBSZJONFEJBMPSGJOBMQPTJUJPO BTJOGSP[FO SJTF CSJEHFT
BOESJEHF
JOJUJBMMZUIFTFUXPTPVOETBSFGPVOEPOMZJOMPBOXPSET GPSFY
BNQMF JO [FBM BEBQUFE GSPN -BUF -BUJO
PS KVTU BEBQUFE GSPN .JEEMF
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4JNJMBSMZ TPNFDPNCJOBUJPOTPGTPVOETCFUSBZUIFGPSFJHOPSJHJO
PGXPSETJOXIJDIUIFZPDDVS BTQTEPFTJOBQTF BOEMBQTF CPUIGSPN-BUJO
BOESIBQTPEZ GSPN(SFFLWJB-BUJO
#VUUIFGJOBMQTJOMJQT TMFFQT TIJQT
BOEPUIFSTVDIXPSETJTOPUDPNQBSBCMFCFDBVTFUIFTSFQSFTFOUTPUIFS
NPSQIFNFTUIFQMVSBM UIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBS PSUIFQPTTFTTJWF SF
TQFDUJWFMZ'PSTPDJFUJFTXJUIBMPOHUSBEJUJPOPGXSJUJOH JOGFSFOUJBMMJOHVJT
UJDFWJEFODFNBZBEEMJUUMFJGBOZUIJOHUPXIBUJTBMSFBEZLOPXOBCPVUUIFJS
DVMUVSBMIJTUPSZ5IJTJTOPUUIFDBTF IPXFWFS XJUIOPOMJUFSBUFTPDJFUJFT
5IFBTTJHONFOUPGSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTUPBMBOHVBHFGBNJMZJNQMJFTUIFFBS
MJFSFYJTUFODFPGBOBODFTUSBMMBOHVBHFGSPNXIJDIBMMNPEFSOMBOHVBHFTPG
UIFGBNJMZIBWFEFTDFOEFE5IFNPSFEJGGFSFOUJBUFEUIFTFEFTDFOEBOUMBO
HVBHFTBSF UIFMPOHFSUIFQFSJPEPGUJNFPOFNVTUBMMPXGPSUIFJSEFWFMPQ
NFOUUPIBWFUBLFOQMBDFUIFUJNFEFQUIIBTJNQPSUBOUDPOTFRVFODFTGPS
DVMUVSFIJTUPSZ
-JOHVJTUJDTDIPMBSTIBWFLOPXOGPSTPNFUJNFUIBUQIPOFUJD PSQIPOFNJD
BOENPSQIPMPHJDBMTJNJMBSJUJFTTPNFUJNFTFYJTUBNPOHVOSFMBUFEOFJHICPSJOH
MBOHVBHFTUPBOFYUFOUUIBUDPVMETDBSDFMZCFEVFUPDIBODF4VDITJNJMBSJUJFT
BSFJOEJDBUJWFPGBOFYUFOTJWFQFSJPEPGDVMUVSBMDPOUBDUCFUXFFOUIFSFTQFD
UJWFTPDJFUJFT BDJSDVNTUBODFUIFFUIOPMPHJTUNVTUUBLFJOUPBDDPVOU
*OUIFDPODMVEJOHSFNBSLTPGIJTNPOPHSBQI 4BQJSNBEFUIFQPJOUUIBU
BMUIPVHIEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTNVDIUPCFQSFGFSSFEUPJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODFJO
UIFTUVEZPGDVMUVSFIJTUPSZBOEUIFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGDVMUVSFTFRVFODFT BO
UISPQPMPHJTUTGSFRVFOUMZGBDFTJUVBUJPOTXIFSFEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTFJUIFSJO
TVGGJDJFOUPSDPNQMFUFMZMBDLJOH*OTVDIDBTFTJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODF MJOHVJTUJD
JOQBSUJDVMBS CFDPNFTJOWBMVBCMF

-JWJOHMBOHVBHFTDIBOHFTMPXMZCVUDPOTUBOUMZ5IF0ME&OHMJTIJTOPMPOHFS
JOUFMMJHJCMFUPTQFBLFSTPG.PEFSO&OHMJTI BOEFWFOXPSETUIBUSIZNFEJO
4IBLFTQFBSFT UJNF EP OPU BMXBZT SIZNF UPEBZ 5IF UFOEFODZ PG TPVOE
DIBOHFTUPCFSFHVMBSNBLFTJUQPTTJCMFUPSFDPOTUSVDUUIFBTTVNFEBODFTUSBM
MBOHVBHFPGEBVHIUFSMBOHVBHFT3FDPOTUSVDUJCMFXPSETIBWJOHUPEPXJUIUIF
OBUVSBMFOWJSPONFOUPGBQSFIJTUPSJDTPDJFUZGBDJMJUBUFEFUFSNJOJOHUIFMPDB
UJPOPGJUTBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE'VSUIFSNPSF UIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGQSPUPXPSET
NBZBMTPUISPXMJHIUPOGFBUVSFTPGBQSFIJTUPSJDDVMUVSFOPUEJTDPWFSBCMFCZ
PUIFSNFBOT'PSFYBNQMF UIFSFDPOTUSVDUJCJMJUZPGDFSUBJOLJOTIJQUFSNT TVDI
BTUIPTFGPSJOMBXT NBZQSPWJEFDMVFTUPQPTUNBSJUBMSFTJEFODFQSBDUJDFTPG
UIFQFPQMFXIPVTFEUIFN3FDPOTUSVDUJPOPGBOBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOEMPDB
UJPOBOEPUIFSQSPUPDVMUVSBMGFBUVSFTPOUIFCBTJTPGMJOHVJTUJDEBUBJTOPUBM
XBZTBTUBOEBSEQSPDFEVSF CVUXIFOUIFBSDIBFPMPHJDBMSFDPSEJTJOTVGGJDJFOU
PSMBDLJOH JUNBZCFUIFPOMZNFBOTPGQSPCJOHUIFQSFIJTUPSJDQBTU
8IFOMBOHVBHFTBSFDMBTTJGJFEHFOFUJDBMMZ UIPTFUIBUBSFSFMBUFECZWJSUVF
PGBDPNNPOPSJHJOBSFBTTJHOFEUPPOFMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ5IFPSJHJOBMDPO
DFQUPGBMBOHVBHFGBNJMZXBTDPOTFSWBUJWF SFRVJSJOHUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQTBNPOH
UIFNFNCFSMBOHVBHFTPGBGBNJMZUPCFDMPTFBOEXFMMEPDVNFOUFE5IFUFO
EFODZTJODFUIFTIBTCFFOUPHSPVQUPHFUIFSMBOHVBHFTUIBUBSFDPOTJE
FSFEUPCFNVDINPSFSFNPUFMZSFMBUFE4VDIMBOHVBHFTBSFTBJEUPDPOTUJUVUF
BQIZMVNPSFWFOBTVQFSQIZMVN PSNBDSPQIZMVN
5IFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFO
UIFPMEFSDPOTFSWBUJWFVOJUPGMBOHVBHFGBNJMZBOEUIFOFXFSQIZMVNDBOCFTU
CFJMMVTUSBUFECZDPNQBSJOHOVNCFST5IFTFWFSBMIVOESFEMBOHVBHFGBNJMJFT
PGUIF/FX8PSMEBSFTBJEUPCFSFEVDJCMFUPPOMZUISFFTVQFSQIZMB
-JOHVJTUJDUZQPMPHZ POUIFPUIFSIBOE JTCBTFEPOFYBNJOJOHTJNJMBSJ
UJFTBNPOHMBOHVBHFTPUIFSUIBOUIPTFEVFUPBDPNNPOPSJHJO4DIPMBSTFO
HBHFEJOGJOEJOHDPNNPOGFBUVSFTPSBUUSJCVUFTJODSPTTMJOHVJTUJDEJWFSTJUZ
IBWFUBLFOWBSJPVTBQQSPBDIFTBTUIFZBUUFNQUUPBTTJHOUPBSFMBUJWFMZGFX
CBTJDUZQFTUIFNBOZMBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSME
9
Languages in Va riation and

Languages in Contact
4USJDUMZTQFBLJOH UIFTQFFDIQBUUFSOPGPOFJOEJWJEVBMJTTPNFXIBUEJGGFS
FOUGSPNUIFTQFFDIQBUUFSOPGUIFOFYU FWFOUIPVHIUIFUXPTQFBLUIFTBNF
MBOHVBHF BOESFHJPOBMWBSJFUJFTPGMBOHVBHFEJGGFSGSPNFBDIPUIFSCZGFB
UVSFTPGWPDBCVMBSZ HSBNNBS BOEQSPOVODJBUJPO
Idiolects
5IJTJTXIZJUJTQPTTJCMFUPJEFOUJGZPWFSUIFUFMFQIPOFQFPQMFXFLOPXXFMM
XJUIPVUUIFJSIBWJOHUPTBZXIPUIFZBSFTJNJMBSMZ XFSFDPHOJ[FGBNJMJBSUFM
FWJTJPOOFXTDBTUFSTFWFOXIFOXFDBOOPUTFFUIFTDSFFO5IFSFDPHOJUJPOPG
JOEJWJEVBMTCZWPJDFBMPOFJTQPTTJCMFCFDBVTFPGUIFJSJEJPTZODSBUJDDPNCJOB
UJPOPGWPJDFRVBMJUZ QSPOVODJBUJPO HSBNNBUJDBMVTBHF BOEDIPJDFPGXPSET
7PJDFRVBMJUZ PSUJNCSF JTEFUFSNJOFECZUIFBOBUPNZPGUIFWPDBMUSBDU UIF
UPOHVF UIFOBTBMBOEPSBMDBWJUJFT UIFWPDBMDPSET UIFMBSZOY BOEPUIFSQBSUT

PWFSXIJDIUIFTQFBLFSIBTMJUUMFPSOPDPOUSPM0UIFSWPJDFGFBUVSFTGPSFY
BNQMF UFNQP MPVEOFTT BOEUPTPNFFYUFOUFWFOQJUDISBOHFDBOCFDPO
USPMMFEGBJSMZTJNQMZ#VUOPOFPGUIFTFGFBUVSFTPGBOJOEJWJEVBMTTQFFDIQBUUFSO
JTDPOTUBOU7PJDFRVBMJUZDIBOHFTXJUIBHFBTNVTDMFTBOEUJTTVFTEFUFSJPSBUF
BOEUIFEFOUJUJPOVOEFSHPFTNPEJGJDBUJPO0WFSBMJGFUJNF DIBOHFTUFOEUP
PDDVSJOUIFDIPJDFPGXPSET HSBNNBS BOEQSPOVODJBUJPOBTXFMM
"OJOEJWJEVBMTTQFFDIWBSJFUZJTSFGFSSFEUPBTBOJEJPMFDU "MNPTUBMMTQFBL
FSTNBLFVTFPGTFWFSBMJEJPMFDUT EFQFOEJOHPOUIFDJSDVNTUBODFTPGDPNNV
OJDBUJPO'PSFYBNQMF XIFOGBNJMZNFNCFSTUBMLUPFBDIPUIFS UIFJSTQFFDI
169
170 Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in Contact
IBCJUTUZQJDBMMZEJGGFSGSPNUIPTFBOZPOFPGUIFNXPVMEVTFJO TBZ BOJOUFS

WJFXXJUIBQSPTQFDUJWFFNQMPZFS5IFDPODFQUPGJEJPMFDUUIFSFGPSFSFGFSTUPB
WFSZTQFDJGJDQIFOPNFOPOUIFTQFFDIWBSJFUZVTFECZBQBSUJDVMBSJOEJWJEVBM
Dialects
0GUFO QFPQMFXIPMJWFJOUIFTBNFHFPHSBQIJDBSFB IBWFTJNJMBSPDDVQBUJPOT
PSIBWFUIFTBNFFEVDBUJPOPSFDPOPNJDTUBUVTTQFBLSFMBUJWFMZTJNJMBS JEJPMFDUT
DPNQBSFEUPUIPTFGSPNPUIFSHSPVQT5IFTFTIBSFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTNBZFO
UBJMTJNJMBSJUJFTJOWPDBCVMBSZ QSPOVODJBUJPO PSHSBNNBUJDBMGFBUVSFT8IFO
BMMUIFJEJPMFDUTPGBHSPVQPGTQFBLFSTIBWFFOPVHIJODPNNPOUPBQQFBSBU
MFBTUTVQFSGJDJBMMZBMJLF XFTBZUIFZCFMPOHUPUIFTBNFEJBMFDU5IFUFSNEJ
BMFDU UIFO JTBOBCTUSBDUJPO*USFGFSTUPBGPSNPGMBOHVBHFPSTQFFDIVTFECZ
NFNCFSTPGBSFHJPOBM FUIOJD PSTPDJBMHSPVQ%JBMFDUTUIBUBSFNVUVBMMZJO
UFMMJHJCMFCFMPOHUPUIFTBNFMBOHVBHF"MMMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOCZNPSFUIBOPOF
TNBMMIPNPHFOFPVTDPNNVOJUZBSFGPVOEUPDPOTJTUPGUXPPSNPSFEJBMFDUT
.VUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZ PGDPVSTF DBOWBSZBTUPEFHSFF*OUIFFBSMZT B
OVNCFSPGNFOBOEXPNFOGSPNFJHIUSFTFSWBUJPOTJO/FX:PSLBOE0O
UBSJPXFSFUFTUFEJOBOFYQFSJNFOUEFTJHOFEUPEFUFSNJOFXIJDIPGUIFJSMPDBM
EJBMFDUTXFSFNVUVBMMZJOUFMMJHJCMFBOEUIFSFGPSFEJBMFDUTPGPOFMBOHVBHF BOE
XIJDIXFSFOPUBOEUIFSFGPSFDPVMECFDMBTTJGJFEBTJOEJWJEVBMMBOHVBHFTPGUIF
*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ&WFOUIPVHIUIFJOWFTUJHBUPSTBSSJWFEBUQFSDFOU
BHFTPGJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZCFUXFFOBOZUXPPGUIF*SPRVPJBOTQFFDIDPNNVOJUJFT
UIFRVFTUJPOPGXIFSFUIFCPVOEBSJFTMBZCFUXFFOJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZBOEVOJOUFM
MJHJCJMJUZSFNBJOFEVOSFTPMWFE*GUIFCPVOEBSJFTCFUXFFOMBOHVBHFBOEEJ
BMFDUIBECFFOESBXOBUQFSDFOUPGNVUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZ UIFSFXPVMEIBWF
CFFOGPVSEJGGFSFOUMBOHVBHFT PGXIJDIPOFXPVMEIBWFDPOTJTUFEPGUXPEJ
BMFDUTBOEBOPUIFSPGUISFF*GTFUBUQFSDFOU UIFSFXPVMEIBWFCFFOGJWF
MBOHVBHFT UXPPGXIJDIXPVMEIBWFDPOTJTUFEPGUXPEJBMFDUTFBDI
#FDBVTFJUJTTQPLFOJOTPNBOZEJGGFSFOUBSFBTUIFXPSMEPWFS &OHMJTIJT
QBSUJDVMBSMZEJWFSTJGJFEEJBMFDUBMMZ4QFBLFSTIPNFDPVOUSJFTNBZCFHVFTTFE
GSPNUIFJSQSPOVODJBUJPOBOEGSPNUIFVTFPGDFSUBJOXPSETUIBUBSFDIBSBD
UFSJTUJDPGTQFDJGJDWBSJFUJFTPG&OHMJTI'PSFYBNQMF JODMVEFEJOUIFWPDBCV
MBSZPG"VTUSBMJBOTJTCMVEHFS AMPBGFS TIJSLFSPG$BOBEJBOTUPCPPLPGG AUP
OPUJGZBOFNQMPZFSUIBUPOFJTOPUSFQPSUJOHGPSXPSLPGUIF*SJTITQBMQFFO
ASBTDBMPGUIF4DPUTDVUUZTBSL ATIPSU VOEFS)HBSNFOUBOEPGUIF#SJUJTIUP
LOPDLVQ AUPXBLFVQ TPNFPOF
BTCZLOPDLJOHPOUIFXJOEPX"TQFBLFS
Styles 171
PGBOZEJBMFDUPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIJTMJLFMZUPGJOEJURVJUFEJGGJDVMUUPVO
EFSTUBOEBDBCESJWFSJO-POEPOXIPTQFBLTDPDLOFZ UIFEJBMFDUPG-POEPOT
&BTU&OE FWFOUIPVHICPUITQFBLEJBMFDUTPGUIFTBNFMBOHVBHF
&OHMJTIXBTCSPVHIUUP/PSUI"NFSJDBEVSJOHUIFTFWFOUFFOUIDFOUVSZCZ
DPMPOJTUTGSPN&OHMBOEXIPTFUUMFEBMPOHUIF"UMBOUJDDPBTUGSPN.BJOFUP
(FPSHJB5IFMBOHVBHFPGUIFTFDPMPOJTUTDPOTJTUFEPGEJBMFDUTSFGMFDUJOHUIF
TPDJBMTUSBUJGJDBUJPOBOEHFPHSBQIJDEJWJTJPOPGUIFJSGPSNFSIPNFDPVOUSZ
5PEBZ EFTQJUFSFHJPOBMEJGGFSFODFT FTQFDJBMMZBMPOHUIF&BTU$PBTUBOEJOUIF
4PVUI
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UPSJDBMMZ UIJTVOJGPSNJUZSFTVMUFEGSPNUIFNJOHMJOHPGTFUUMFSTGSPNWBSJPVT
QBSUTPGUIF&BTUBTUIFZQVTIFEXFTUXBSETJODF8PSME8BS**JUIBTCFFOEVF
UPUIFFWFSJODSFBTJOHNPCJMJUZPG"NFSJDBOT5PEBZ GFXQFPQMFMJWFJOUIF
DPNNVOJUJFTJOXIJDIUIFZXFSFCPSONPTUNPWFGSPNPOFQMBDFUPBOPUIFS
XIFOUIFZDIBOHFKPCT NBSSZ PSSFUJSF/FWFSUIFMFTT DFSUBJOSFHJPOBMEJ
BMFDUTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBSFXFMMLOPXOBOESFBEJMZSFDPHOJ[BCMFXIFO
IFBSEGPSFYBNQMF UIPTFPG#PTUPO 7JSHJOJB PS5FYBT7PDBCVMBSZNBZCF
KVTUBTIFMQGVMJOJEFOUJGZJOHXIFSFPMEFSTQFBLFSTGSPNSVSBMBSFBTIBWFDPNF
GSPN'PSFYBNQMF UIFESBHPOGMZJTSFGFSSFEUPJONPTUPG7JSHJOJBBTTOBLF
EPDUPS JOTPVUIXFTUFSO1FOOTZMWBOJBBTTOBLFGFFEFS JOFBTUFSO/PSUI$BS
PMJOBBTNPTRVJUPIBXL JO/FX&OHMBOEBT EFWJMT
EBSOJOHOFFEMF JODPBTUBM
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5IFXBZJOEJWJEVBMTTQFBLWBSJFTOPUPOMZBDDPSEJOHUPUIFJSSFHJPOBMBOE
TPDJBMEJBMFDUTCVUBMTPBDDPSEJOHUPDPOUFYU5IFEJTUJODUJWFNBOOFSJOXIJDI
QFPQMFFYQSFTTUIFNTFMWFTJOBQBSUJDVMBSTJUVBUJPOJTSFGFSSFEUPBTTUZMF
4QFFDITUZMFTBSFUIVTDPNQBSBCMFUPTUZMFTPGESFTT0OFXPVMEGFFMPVUPG
QMBDFBOEVODPNGPSUBCMFHPJOHPOBIJLJOHUSJQJOGPSNBMBUUJSFPSBUUFOEJOH
BUSBEJUJPOBMXFEEJOHSFDFQUJPOJOTOFBLFST KFBOT BOEBTXFBUTIJSU4JNJ
MBSMZ BQFSTPOXIPNJHIUVTFUIFWVMHBSFYQSFTTJPOi*NQJTTFEwXIFOUBML
JOHXJUIGPSNFSTDIPPMNBUFTXPVMEQSPCBCMZTVCTUJUVUFUIFDPMMPRVJBMQISBTF
i*NNBEwVOEFSPUIFSDJSDVNTUBODFTBOEVTFTVDIXPSETBTiBOHSZwPSiBH
HSBWBUFEwVOEFSNPSFGPSNBMDPOEJUJPOT
Styles
4UZMJTUJDWBSJBUJPOTBSFOPUPOMZMFYJDBM CVUBMTPQIPOPMPHJDBM GPSJOTUBODF UIF
DBTVBMQSPOVODJBUJPOPGCVUUFS XJUIUIFGMBQ[] SBUIFSUIBOUIFEFOUBM

NPSQIPMPHJDBM BTJOUIFDBTVBMMZTUZMFEi8IPBSFZPVUBLJOHUPMVODI wBT
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BOETZOUBDUJD BTJO
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"TUZMJTUJDPSEJ
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GPSNBMPDDBTJPOT BOEDBSSJFTTPDJBMQSFTUJHFJTDPOTJEFSFETUBOEBSEWBSJFUJFT
UIBUEPOPUNFBTVSFVQUPUIFTFOPSNTBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTOPOTUBOEBSEPSTVC
TUBOEBSE4UBOEBSE#SJUJTI&OHMJTI PGUFOSFGFSSFEUPBT3FDFJWFE4UBOEBSE
BOEJUTQSPOVODJBUJPOBT3FDFJWFE1SPOVODJBUJPO
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IFBSEEVSJOHSBEJPBOEUFMFWJ
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UVEF TFSNPOT MFDUVSFT BOEUIFMJLF
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BOJODSFBTJOHUFOEFODZUPVTFBTUZMFUIBUEFWJBUFTGSPNPSGBMMTTIPSUPGUIF
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JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBOEFMTFXIFSF
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UJO+PPT o
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PGIJTEJBMFDUPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI TQPLFOJOUIFFBTUDFOUSBM6OJUFE4UBUFT

IF UFSNFE UIFN GSP[FO GPSNBM DPOTVMUBUJWF DBTVBM BOE JOUJNBUF +PPT

5PEBZ WFSZGFXTQFBLFSTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIFWFSVTFUIFGSP[FO
TUZMFFYDFQUQFSIBQTPDDBTJPOBMMZJOGPSNBMXSJUJOH5IFBTTVNQUJPOUIBUUIF
FYBDUOVNCFSPGTQFFDITUZMFTDBOCFEFUFSNJOFEGPSBMBOHVBHFTFSWJOHNJM
MJPOTPGTQFBLFSTEPFTOPUTFFNUPCFXBSSBOUFE/PUXPOBUJWFTQFBLFSTPG
&OHMJTIUBMLBMJLF BOEKVTUFYBDUMZXIBUVTFFBDIQFSTPONBLFTPGUIFWBSJ
PVTTUZMJTUJDGFBUVSFT SBOHJOHBMMUIFXBZGSPNBQPNQPVTGPSNBMJUZUPBOJO
UJNBUFPSFWFOWVMHBSJOGPSNBMJUZ JTVQUPUIFJOEJWJEVBMTQFBLFS
Language Contact
-BOHVBHFTNVTUIBWFCFFOJODPOUBDUBTMPOHBTUIFSFIBWFCFFOIVNBOCFJOHT
'SPNXIBUDBOCFBTDFSUBJOFEGSPNUIFDVSSFOUBOEIJTUPSJDBMFUIOPHSBQIJD
SFDPSE QFPQMFIBWFBMTPPGUFOCFFOJODMPTFQSPYJNJUZXJUIUIPTFXIPTQPLF
MBOHVBHFTUIBUXFSFNVUVBMMZVOJOUFMMJHJCMF5SBEF USBWFM NJHSBUJPO XBS JO
UFSNBSSJBHF BOEPUIFSOPOMJOHVJTUJDDBVTFTIBWFGPSDFEEJGGFSFOUMBOHVBHFTUP
DPNFJOUPDPOUBDUDPVOUMFTTUJNFTUISPVHIPVUIJTUPSZ8IFOUIJTPDDVST TFW
FSBMUIJOHTDBOIBQQFOPWFSUJNFMBOHVBHFTDBOEJF OFXMBOHVBHFTDBOEF
WFMPQ PSMBOHVBHFTJODPOUBDUDBOCFDPNFNJYFEJOWBSJPVTXBZT8FXJMMOPX
FYQMPSFTPNFPGUIFDPOTFRVFODFTPGNJYJOHBOETFFIPXJUDBOTPNFUJNFT
MFBEUPUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGESBTUJDBMMZEJGGFSFOUMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFT
Language Contact 173
8IFOBOFXQIZTJDBMJUFNPSDPODFQUJTCPSSPXFEGSPNBOPUIFSDVMUVSF
UIFOBNFGPSUIBUOFXJUFNJOUIFEPOPSMBOHVBHFJTPGUFOKVTUEJSFDUMZUBLFO
PWFS'PSFYBNQMF )BXBJJBOHBWF&OHMJTIVLVMFMF#BOUV HVNCP$[FDI
QPMLB $BOUPOFTF XPL "SBCJD BMHFCSB (FSNBO QSFU[FM BOE .BMBZ SJDF
QBEEZ0GDPVSTF &OHMJTIIBTDPOUSJCVUFEIVOESFETPGXPSETUPPUIFSMBO
HVBHFTBTXFMM BTXFFLFOE UP'SFODI CPZGSJFOE UP3VTTJBO BFSPCJDDMBTTFT UP
(FSNBO BOECFFGTUFBL UPNBOZMBOHVBHFT
5IJTFYDIBOHFDBOHPCPUIXBZT"TNPTUOBUJWF&OHMJTITQFBLFSTLOPX
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UVSOGPSMFXFFLFOE &OHMJTISFDFJWFESFOEF[WPVT BOEMJOHFSJF 0OFPGUIFSFB
TPOT GPS UIJT XBT UIF JOUSPEVDUJPO PG 0ME 'SFODI EVSJOH UIF /PSNBO
DPORVFTUPG&OHMBOEJO XIJDISFQMBDFE0ME&OHMJTIBTUIFMBOHVBHFPG
UIFSVMJOHDMBTTFTJO&OHMBOE BOEXIJDIIFMEQSPNJOFODFVOUJMXFMMJOUPUIF
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FYBNQMF DPOTJEFSUIFXPSETJOUIJTUBCMF
.PEFSO 0ME .PEFSO .PEFSO 0ME .PEFSO

&OHMJTI &OHMJTI (FSNBO &OHMJTI 'SFODI 'SFODI
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BOEUIFNPSFQSFTUJHJPVT'SFODIUFSNTXFSFBQQMJFEUPUIFDPPLFEBOEQSF
QBSFEBOJNBMCSPVHIUJOTJEFUIFIPVTF +BDLTPOBOE"NWFMB

Pidgins
"DPNNPOXBZJOXIJDIJOEJWJEVBMTBOEHSPVQTJOUFSBDUBDSPTTMBOHVBHF
CPVOEBSJFTJTCZNFBOTPGBQJEHJO5ZQJDBMMZ BQJEHJOPSJHJOBUFTXIFO
TQFBLFSTPGUXPPSNPSFNVUVBMMZVOJOUFMMJHJCMFMBOHVBHFTEFWFMPQBOFFEUP
DPNNVOJDBUFXJUIFBDIPUIFSGPSDFSUBJOMJNJUFEPSTQFDJBMJ[FEQVSQPTFT
FTQFDJBMMZUSBEF#FDBVTFQJEHJOTIBWFBNVDIOBSSPXFSSBOHFPGGVODUJPOT
UIBOUIFMBOHVBHFTGPSXIJDIUIFZTVCTUJUVUF UIFZQPTTFTTBMJNJUFEWPDBCV
MBSZ BOECFDBVTFUIFZOFFEUPCFMFBSOFESBQJEMZGPSUIFTBLFPGFGGJDJFODZ
UIFZIBWFBTVCTUBOUJBMMZSFEVDFEHSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF'SPNBTPDJPDVM
UVSBMQFSTQFDUJWF BOJNQPSUBOUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGBQJEHJOJTUIBUJUEPFTOPU
TFSWFBTUIFOBUJWF PSGJSTU MBOHVBHFPGBOZQBSUJDVMBSHSPVQ
"QJEHJOJTOPUUIFSFTVMUPGUIFTBNFLJOEPGEFWFMPQNFOUUSVFMBOHVBHFT
BSFTVCKFDUUP*UUFOETUPDPNFBCPVUTVEEFOMZ BTUIFOFFEBSJTFT BOEDFBTFT
UPFYJTUXIFOOPMPOHFSDBMMFEVQPOUPQFSGPSNJUTPSJHJOBMGVODUJPO*UNBZ
MBTUBTMJUUMFBTBEP[FOPSTPZFBSTPOMZJOGSFRVFOUMZEPFTJUPVUMBTUBDFO
UVSZ*OJUTQIPOPMPHZBOENPSQIPMPHZ BQJEHJOJTJOWBSJBCMZTJNQMFSUIBO
UIFGJSTUMBOHVBHFTPGUIPTFXIPVTFJU BOEUIFCVMLPGJUTMFYJDPOJTCBTFE
PO PSEFSJWFEGSPN POFPGUIFMBOHVBHFTJODPOUBDU
"MUIPVHIDVTUPNBSJMZBTTPDJBUFEXJUI&VSPQFBODPMPOJBMJTN QJEHJOTIBWF
EFWFMPQFEXIFOFWFSTQFBLFSTPGEJGGFSFOUMBOHVBHFTIBWFCFFOJOSFHVMBSCVU
MJNJUFEDPOUBDU"NPOHUIFFYBNQMFTUIBUBCPVOEBSFUIF&OHMJTICBTFE$IJOB
$PBTU1JEHJOUIBUNBZIBWFPSJHJOBUFEBTFBSMZBTUIFTFWFOUFFOUIDFOUVSZCVU
CFDBNFFTQFDJBMMZXJEFTQSFBEEVSJOHUIFDPVSTFPGUIFOJOFUFFOUIUIF&OHMJTI
CBTFE.BPSJ1JEHJODVSSFOUEVSJOHUIFFBSMZZFBSTPG#SJUJTIDPMPOJ[BUJPOPG
/FX;FBMBOE5SBEFS/BWBKP UIF/BWBKPCBTFEQJEHJOVTFECZUSBEFSTJOUIF
4PVUIXFTUBOEUIFWBSJPVT$POHPQJEHJOTUIBUGBDJMJUBUFDPOUBDUTBNPOHUIF
TQFBLFSTPGBWBSJFUZPG"GSJDBOMBOHVBHFTVTFEJOUIF$POHP3JWFSCBTJO3F
GMFDUJOHUIFJNQBDUPG&VSPQFBODPMPOJBMJTNEVSJOHUIFFJHIUFFOUIBOEOJOF
UFFOUIDFOUVSJFT NBOZPGUIFGPSNFSQJEHJOTBTXFMMBTUIPTFTUJMMJOFYJTUFODF
BSF&OHMJTI 'SFODI 4QBOJTI 1PSUVHVFTF PS%VUDICBTFE
"HPPEJMMVTUSBUJPOPGUIFPSJHJO TVDDFTTJPO BOEEFNJTFPGQJEHJOTDBOCF
ESBXOGSPNSFDFOU7JFUOBNFTFIJTUPSZ8IFO7JFUOBNXBTSVMFECZUIF'SFODI
BTQBSUPG*OEPDIJOB B'SFODICBTFEQJEHJOXBTVTFECZUIPTF'SFODIBOE7JFU
OBNFTFXIPMBDLFEDPNNBOEPGUIFPUIFSTMBOHVBHF"GUFSUIFEFGFBUPGUIF
'SFODIBU%JFO#JFO1IVJO BOEUIFFWBDVBUJPOPG'SFODIGPSDFTGSPN
7JFUOBNUXPZFBSTMBUFS UIFQJEHJOXBTOPMPOHFSOFFEFEBOECFDBNFBMNPTU
Pidgins 175
FYUJODU8JUIUIFJOUSPEVDUJPOPG64DPNCBUGPSDFTJOUPUIF3FQVCMJDPG7JFU
OBNJOUIFFBSMZT BO&OHMJTICBTFEQJEHJOSBQJEMZEFWFMPQFEUPBTTVNF
UIFSPMFPGJUT'SFODICBTFEQSFEFDFTTPS"GUFSUIF64TPMEJFSTXFSFXJUIESBXO
JO BOEQPMJUJDBMFWFOUTJOCSPVHIUUIFJOGMVFODFPGUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT
JO7JFUOBNUPBOBCSVQUFOE UIFOFXQJEHJO UPP BMMCVUEJTBQQFBSFE
"MUIPVHIJUJTUSVFUIBUQJEHJOTDBOCFTJNQMJGJFEWFSTJPOTPGBOZMBOHVBHF
UIFNPTUDPNNPOBSFUIPTFCBTFEPO&OHMJTI5IFSFBTPOGPSUIJTJTUIFXJEF
TQSFBEDPOUBDUUIBU&OHMJTITQFBLJOHQFPQMFIBWFIBEXJUIOPO8FTUFSOOB
UJPOT5IF#SJUJTI&NQJSFOPUPOMZTQSFBEUIF6OJPO+BDL CVUBMTPJUTMBOHVBHF
PWFSNVDIPGUIFXPSME5IVT &OHMJTICBTFEQJEHJOTXFSFGPVOEGSPNUIF
DPBTUTPG"GSJDBUPUIF/FX8PSMEUPUIF4PVUI1BDJGJD'PSFYBNQMF IFSFJT
BOFYBNQMFPGUIFGJSTUMJOFTPG4IBLFTQFBSFT+VMJVT$BFTBS "DU 4DFOF
JO
.FMBOFTJBO5PL1JTJODPNQBSFEUPUIFPSJHJOBM&OHMJTI .VSQIZ

1SFO NBOCPMPOH3PN 8BOUPL IBSJNOBV

.JLBNUBTPMMPOHQMBOUJN,BFTBS.JOPLFOCFJUFOMPOHFO
'SJFOET 3PNBOT DPVOUSZNFO MFOENFZPVSFBST

*DPNFUPCVSZ$BFTBS OPUUPQSBJTFIJN
8FDBOTFFIFSFNBOZPGUIFUZQJDBMEFWJDFTQJEHJOT BOEMBUFSDSFPMFT
VTFUIBUBMMPXUIFNUPDPNNVOJDBUFFGGFDUJWFMZXJUIBMJNJUFETFUPGHSBN
NBUJDBMBOEMFYJDBMSFTPVSDFT8PSETTVDIBTQSFO NJ BOELBN BSFTJNQMZ
OBUJWJ[FEGPSNTPG&OHMJTIiGSJFOE wiNF wBOEiDPNFwi3PNBOTwDPNFTPVU
BTNBOCPMPOH3PN MJU iNBONFOCFMPOH JOH
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$PVOUSZNFOJT
8BOUPLUIPTFPGVTXIPBMMTQFBLiPOFUBMLw5IPVHIiMFOENFZPVSFBSTw
MPTFTTPNFPGJUTQPXFSXIFOSFOEFSFEBTIBSJNOBV iIFBSFNOPXw
JUTUJMM
NBLFTJUTQPJOUCVUQMBOUJN iQMBOUFNw
NFBOJOHiCVSZwJTBMNPTUBQPFUJD
NFUBQIPS5IFQJEHJOUBTPM iUIBUTBMMw
BDUTBTBDPOKVODUJPO TVDIBTiCVUw
PSBEWFSC TVDIBTiPOMZw
5IFXPSEOPLFO iOPDBOw
JTBWFSCBMOFHBUJWF
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From Pidgins to Creoles

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From Pidgins to Creoles 177
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From Pidgins to Creoles 179
B O X 9 . 1 C R E O L I Z AT I O N O F T O K P I S I N
World War II greatly accelerated the spread of Tok Pisin within New
Guinea. New Guinean males who were pressed into service by the various
foreign armies had only Tok Pisin as a common language. In addition, there
were extensive movements of indigenous populations during the war and
Tok Pisin spread with them. Following the war, the traditional state of war-
fare or hostility between indigenous groups in Papua New Guinea was al-
most completely eliminated as a result of the continuous efforts of
missionaries and the pacification programs of various foreign governments.
This has enabled people to leave their native groups without the fear of
being killed. Mobility is increasing considerably as transportation improves,
and many people are leaving their home villages to seek employment and
excitement in urban areas. When groups mix in this way, Tok Pisin is usu-
ally the only means of communication, except where Hiri Motu or English
is spoken, and thus Tok Pisin is commonly used in public urban life in New
Guinea. There are an increasing number of marriages between men and
women from different linguistic groups. When such couples live in towns
away from the home group of either partner they generally speak only Tok
Pisin in the home, and their children acquire Tok Pisin as a native language.
Such young native speakers now number in the thousands.
from Ellen B. Woolford, Aspects of Tok Pisin Grammar (1979), 3
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Language Contact in the Contemporary World

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Language Contact in the Contemporary World 181
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The World of Languages

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10
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UIFTVCKFDt. wPSi#ZUIFXBZ IBWFZPVIFBSEUIBt...w6OEFSTQFDJBMDJS
DVNTUBODFT BTQFFDIBDUNBZCFDPNFBTQFFDIFWFOU BTXIFOTPNFPOF
TIPVUTi'JSFwJOBDSPXEFENPWJFUIFBUFS
Components of Communication 189
"OBMVNOJSFVOJPODBOCFVTFEUPJMMVTUSBUFUIFUISFFVOJUTPGTQFFDICF
IBWJPS5IFHBUIFSJOHJUTFMGJTBOFYBNQMFPGBTQFFDITJUVBUJPO*UIBTBCF
HJOOJOHBOEBOFOEBOEMBTUTVTVBMMZPOMZQBSUPGPOFEBZUIFQBSUJDJQBOUT
BSFSFTUSJDUFEUPGPSNFSNFNCFSTPGBDMBTTBOEUIFJSTQPVTFTPSQBSUOFST
8JUIJOTVDIBTQFFDITJUVBUJPO BOVNCFSPGTQFFDIFWFOUTJOWBSJBCMZUBLF
QMBDF'PSFYBNQMF POFHSPVQNBZCFSFNJOJTDJOHBCPVUGBWPSJUFUFBDIFST
BOEDMBTTSPPNBOUJDTUIPTFJOBOPUIFSHSPVQNBZCFHJWJOHCSJFGBDDPVOUTPG
XIBUUIFZIBWFCFFOEPJOHTJODFHSBEVBUJPOPSUIFMBTUSFVOJPOBOETUJMMPUI
FSTNBZCFTJNQMZTXBQQJOHKPLFTBOETUPSJFT8JUIJOUIFTFTQFFDIFWFOUT
UIFUFMMJOHPGBTJOHMFKPLFPSQFSTPOBMFYQFSJFODFJTBTQFFDIBDU
+VTUBTOBUJWFTQFBLFSTPGBOZMBOHVBHFBSFFYQFDUFEUPQSPEVDFTFOUFODFT
UIBUBSFHSBNNBUJDBMMZBDDFQUBCMFBOENFBOJOHGVM TQFFDIBDUTBSFKVEHFEBD
DPSEJOHUPIPXBQQSPQSJBUFUIFZBSFUPBOZTQFDJGJDTQFFDITJUVBUJPOPSTQFFDI
FWFOU*UXPVMECFDPOTJEFSFEPEEJGPOFXFSFUPTBZUPBTUSBOHFSJOUIFTUSFFU
i.ZOBNFJT+PIO4NJUIXIBUUJNFEPZPVIBWF w4JNJMBSMZ BUBCBCZTIPXFS
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Components of Communication
Participants and Setting
%FTDSJCJOHBMBOHVBHFXJUIFNQIBTJTPOJUTGVODUJPOBTUIFQSJNBSZNFBOT
PGDPNNVOJDBUJPOSFRVJSFTNPSFUIBOTJNQMZEFTDSJCJOHJUTTPVOET QIPOPM
PHZ
BOEHSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF NPSQIPMPHZBOETZOUBY
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VOEFSEJGGFSJOHDJSDVNTUBODFTUPTBUJTGZUIFHPBMTUIFZTFUGPSUIFNTFMWFT
5SBEJUJPOBMMZ TQFFDICFIBWJPSXBTTBJEUPJOWPMWFBTQFBLFSBOEBIFBSFS
BOEJODMVEFUIFNFTTBHFUSBOTNJUUFECFUXFFOUIFN.PEFSOFUIOPHSBQIJD
EFTDSJQUJPOTBOEBOBMZTFTIBWFTIPXOUIBUNBOZNPSFDPNQPOFOUTOFFEUP
CFUBLFOJOUPBDDPVOUJGBOZQBSUJDVMBSJOTUBODFPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPS
JTUPCFGVMMZVOEFSTUPPE8IJDIPGUIFTFDPNQPOFOUTBTTVNFBDSVDJBMSPMF
EFQFOETPOBHJWFOTQFFDITJUVBUJPOBOEUIFQBSUJDVMBSDPNNVOJUZJOXIJDI
JUUBLFTQMBDF
5IFDPNQPOFOUUFSNFEQBSUJDJQBOUTJODMVEFTOPUPOMZUIFTFOEFSPGBNFT
TBHF BMTPSFGFSSFEUPBTUIFTQFBLFSPSBEESFTTFS
BOEUIFJOUFOEFESFDFJWFS
IFBSFS BEESFTTFF
CVUBOZPOFXIPNBZCFJOUFSFTUFEJOPSIBQQFOTUPQFS
DFJWF IFBS TFF
UIFNFTTBHFUIFBVEJFODF5IFOVNCFSPGQBSUJDJQBOUTDBO
WBSZGSPNPOMZPOFUPNBOZUIPVTBOET'PSFYBNQMF BQFSTPOXIPIBTBKPC
JOUFSWJFXTDIFEVMFENBZQSBDUJDFGPSJUCZQPTJOHQPUFOUJBMRVFTUJPOTBOE
UIFOBOTXFSJOHUIFN UIVTBTTVNJOHUIFSPMFPGCPUITFOEFSBOESFDFJWFS
#VUBUBOPVUEPPSQPMJUJDBMSBMMZPOFPSNPSFDIBSJTNBUJDMFBEFSTNBZOPU
POMZBEESFTTTFWFSBMIVOESFEUIPVTBOEGPMMPXFSTCVUBMTPTVDDFFEJONPCJ
MJ[JOHUIFN
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PSEJOBSZIVNBOT"NPOHUIF"TIBOUJ B8FTU"GSJDBOQFPQMFPOUIF(VMGPG
(VJOFB BNJEXJGFNBZEJSFDUBRVFTUJPOUPBGFUVTDPODFSOJOHJUTGBUIFST
JEFOUJUZ BOESFDFOUMZEFDFBTFEQFSTPOTBSFCFMJFWFEUPCFBCMFUPJOGPSNUIFJS
TVSWJWJOHSFMBUJWFTBTUPXIPPSXIBUXBTSFTQPOTJCMFGPSUIFJSEFBUIT5IF
"TIBOUJBMTPCFMJFWFUIBUGPSFTUGBJSJFTBOENPOTUFSTBSFBCMFUPJOTUSVDUZPVOH
NFOJONFEJDJOFUIFTFCFJOHTBSFTBJEUPDPNNVOJDBUFJOBXIJTUMFMBOHVBHF
CVUBSFBCMFUPVOEFSTUBOE5XJ UIFMBOHVBHFJOXIJDIIVNBOTQSBZUPUIFN
"TJOEJDBUFEFBSMJFSJOUIFEJTDVTTJPOPGMBOHVBHFJOJUTTPDJBMDPOUFYU B
UIPSPVHIFUIOPHSBQIJDBDDPVOUPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSNVTUDBSFGVMMZ
OPUFUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFQBSUJDJQBOUT"HF HFOEFS FUIOJDBGGJMJBUJPO
SFMBUJPOTIJQ LJOTIJQ
BNPOHQBSUJDJQBOUT UIFJSSFMBUJWFTPDJBMTUBUVT UIF
EFHSFFUPXIJDIUIFZBSFBDRVBJOUFE BOEPUIFSGBDUPSTDBOJOGMVFODFIPX
DPNNVOJDBUJPOQSPDFFET8IPUBMLTUPXIPNBOEJOXIPTFQSFTFODFUFOET
UP EFUFSNJOF OPU POMZ IPX POF UBMLT DBTVBMMZ PS SFTQFDUGVMMZ
CVU BMTP
XIFUIFSPSOPUPOFDBOJOUFSSVQUUIFPUIFSQBSUJDJQBOU IPXMPOHTQFFDI
BDUTTIPVMECF XIBUBEEJUJPOBMDIBOOFMTPOFTIPVMEVTFUPFOIBODFUIF
QSFTFOUBUJPO BOETPPO
"OZDPNNVOJDBUJWFBDUPSFWFOUIBQQFOTBUBQBSUJDVMBSUJNFBOEQMBDF
BOEVOEFSQBSUJDVMBSQIZTJDBMDJSDVNTUBODFTUIBUJT JUJTDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZ
BQBSUJDVMBSTFUUJOH4FUUJOHTBSFMJLFMZUPWBSZTPNFXIBUGSPNPOFJOTUBODFUP
UIFOFYUFWFOJGUIFFWFOUTBSFPGUIFTBNFLJOE CVUUIFWBSJBUJPOIBTDVM
UVSBMMZSFDPHOJ[FEMJNJUT4NBMMDPMMFHFDMBTTFTOPSNBMMZNFFUJODMBTTSPPNT
CVUPOXBSNTQSJOHPSBVUVNOEBZTUIFZNBZCFDPOEVDUFEJOUIFTIBEFPG
BUSFFPVUTJEFUIFDMBTTSPPNCVJMEJOHUPNFFUJOBOFBSCZUBWFSOPSUIFMPCCZ
PGUIFBENJOJTUSBUJWFCVJMEJOHXPVMECFDPOTJEFSFEJOBQQSPQSJBUF0O"QSJM
'PPMT%BZ QSBDUJDBMKPLFTBSFBDDFQUFECZQFPQMFXIPXPVMEDPOTJEFSUIFN
QSFTVNQUVPVTPOBOZPUIFSEBZ)ZNFTEJTUJOHVJTIFECFUXFFOTFUUJOHBOE
TDFOF UIFMBUUFSEFTJHOBUJOHUIFiQTZDIPMPHJDBMTFUUJOHw*UJTUSVFUIBUUIF
NPPEQFSWBEJOHBHJWFOTFUUJOHNBZJOWJUFPSJOIJCJUDFSUBJODPNNVOJDB
UJWFBDUTPSFWFOUT BOEJOUIJTTFOTFUIFTDFOFDPOUSJCVUFTUPUIFEFGJOJUJPOPG
TFUUJOH0OFDBOFBTJMZJNBHJOFUIFJEFOUJDBMTFUUJOHBOEQBSUJDJQBOUTCVU
DPNQMFUFMZEJGGFSFOUTDFOFT$PNQBSF GPSFYBNQMF UIFBUNPTQIFSFTVS
SPVOEJOHUIFBOOPVODFNFOUPGBDSPTTUIFCPBSEXBHFJODSFBTFTXJUIUIF
BOOPVODFNFOUPGUIFDPNQBOZTHPJOHPVUPGCVTJOFTT
Purpose, Channels, Codes, and Message Content and Form

5IFQVSQPTFPGTQFBLJOHJTOPUBMXBZTUPUSBOTNJUJOGPSNBUJPOPSUPFYDIBOHF
JEFBT4PNFUJNFTJUJTUPFTUBCMJTIBOBUNPTQIFSFPGTPDJBCJMJUZBOEJTUIF
FRVJWBMFOUPGBIVHPSBIFBSUZIBOETIBLF4QFFDICFIBWJPSXJUIUIFHPBMPG
CSJOHJOHBCPVUTVDIBOFNPUJPOBMFGGFDUJTSFGFSSFEUPBTQIBUJDDPNNVOJPO
5IFNPUJWBUJPOGPSDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSWBSJFTGSPNPOFPDDBTJPOUP
UIFOFYU"OJOEJWJEVBMNBZNBLFBOPGGFSPSBSFRVFTU UISFBUFOPSQMFBE
QSBJTFPSCMBNF JOWJUFPSQSPIJCJUTPNFBDUJPO SFWFBMPSUSZUPDPODFBMTPNF
UIJOH BOETPPO0OFTHPBMPSQVSQPTFRVJUFGSFRVFOUMZEFUFSNJOFTUIFNBO
OFS JO XIJDI POF TQFBLT PS BDUT &WFO BO BHHSFTTJWF QFSTPO NBZ TQFBL
NFFLMZBOEEFGFSFOUJBMMZXIFOTUPQQFEGPSTQFFEJOHCZBQPMJDFPGGJDFS IPQ
JOHUIBUQPMJUFBOEBQPMPHFUJDTQFFDICFIBWJPSXJMMJOGMVFODFUIFPGGJDFSUP
JTTVFBXBSOJOHJOTUFBEPGBUJDLFU
"MUIPVHIUIFBDPVTUJDDIBOOFM CFTUFYFNQMJGJFECZTQPLFOXPSET JTUIF
POFNPTUDPNNPOMZFNQMPZFE PUIFSDIBOOFMTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTIPVME
OPUCFPWFSMPPLFE5PEPTPXPVMECFUPJHOPSFUIBUDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBW
JPSUIBUNBLFTQSJNBSZVTFPGPOFDIBOOFMGSFRVFOUMZEFQFOETPOPUIFS
DIBOOFMTGPSSFJOGPSDFNFOU5PIFBSBQMBZSFBEBMPVEPSUPTFFJUQSPGFT
TJPOBMMZQFSGPSNFEDBONFBOUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOFYQFSJFODJOHCPSFEPN
PSFOKPZNFOU2VJUFDPNNPOMZ UPP POFDIBOOFMPGGFSTBOFGGFDUJWFTVCTUJ
UVUFGPSBOPUIFS5IFNJMJUBSZTBMVUF VTJOHUIFPQUJDBMDIBOOFM TVCTUJUVUFTB
WJTVBMFYQSFTTJPOPGSFTQFDUPSIPOPSGPSXIBUDPVMEPUIFSXJTFCFPSBMMZSF
DJUFE BOEQIPUPKPVSOBMJTUTTUSJWFUPQSFTFOUOFXTFWFOUTQJDUPSJBMMZCFDBVTF
iBQJDUVSFJTXPSUIBUIPVTBOEXPSETw
5IFNPTUDPNNPOGPSNPGUIFBDPVTUJDDIBOOFMJTPSBM BTJOTJOHJOH
XIJTUMJOH BOEPGDPVSTFTQFBLJOH*GIVNBOMBOHVBHFJTUPCFDPOTJEFSFEBTB
HFOFSBM MBOHVBHF DPEF UIFO JU JT NBOJGFTUFE JO TFWFSBM UIPVTBOE TQFDJGJD
DPEFT PGXIJDI&OHMJTI 3VTTJBO /BWBKP BOE+BQBOFTFBSFFYBNQMFT&BDIPG
UIFTFDPEFTTVCTVNFTBOVNCFSPGTVCDPEFT&OHMJTIIBTOPUPOMZTFWFSBMOB
UJPOBMWBSJFUJFT TVDIBT"NFSJDBO #SJUJTI BOE"VTUSBMJBO CVUBMTPSFHJPOBM
EJBMFDUTTVDIBTUIPTFPG/FX&OHMBOE UIF&OHMJTI.JEMBOET BOE4PVUI"VT

USBMJB BOEBOVNCFSPGTMBOHTQFDVMJBSUPQBSUJDVMBSHSPVQT
"NPOHUIF"TIBOUJ UIFBDPVTUJDDIBOOFMJTRVJUFEJWFSTJGJFE5IFQSJODJ
QBMWFSCBMDPEFJT5XJ BMBOHVBHFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZGJWFEJTUJODUJWFUPOFT5IF
DFSFNPOJBMMBOHVBHFQSJFTUTBOEQSJFTUFTTFTVTFJTBTVCDPEFJUJTJEFOUJGJFEBT
BOFBSMJFSGPSNPG5XJUIBU"TIBOUJMBZQFPQMFBQQBSFOUMZDBOOPUVOEFSTUBOE
5IFTPDBMMFEMBOHVBHFPGUIFHIPTUT DPOTJTUJOHPGDPPJOHOPJTFTBOETBJEUP
CFJOUFMMJHJCMFPOMZUPVOCPSOCBCJFTBOEUPPUIMFTTJOGBOUT JTBOFYBNQMFPGBO
PSBMCVUOPOWFSCBMGPSNPGUIFBDPVTUJDDIBOOFM0UIFSOPOWFSCBMDPEFTPG
UIF"TIBOUJJODMVEFUIFESVNDPEFUPDPOWFZNFTTBHFTBOETJHOBMTUIFIPSO
DPEF VTFEGPSTJNJMBSQVSQPTFTUIFHPOHDPEF FNQMPZFEGPSQVCMJDTVN
NPOTFTBOEXIJTUMJOH VTFEOPUCZUIF"TIBOUJUIFNTFMWFTCVUCZUIFGPSFTU
GBJSJFTBOENPOTUFSTXIPJOTUSVDUUIFJSNFEJDJOFNFO4PNFQBSUTPGUIFDFS
FNPOZBUXIJDIBODFTUSBMTQJSJUTBSFQSPQJUJBUFEBSFDPOEVDUFEJODPNQMFUF
TJMFODFPUIFSQBSUTQFSNJUUIFDIJFGUPDPNNVOJDBUFPOMZCZHFTUVSFT
.FTTBHF GPSN BOE NFTTBHF DPOUFOU BSF DMPTFMZ SFMBUFE PS BT )ZNFT

QVUJU i*UJTBUSuism..UIBUIPX TPNFUIJOHJTTBJEJTQBSUPGXIBU
JTTBJEw"QBSBQISBTFNBZCFTVGGJDJFOUUPJOEJDBUFUIFNFTTBHFDPOUFOU CVU
POMZUIFRVPUJOHPGUIFFYBDUXPSETDBOSFQSFTFOUBEFRVBUFMZUIFNFTTBHF
GPSNPGBTQFFDIBDU5PQBSBQISBTFUIFTUBUFNFOUi-JLFIFMM*NLJEEJOH*WF
XBSOFEZPVOPXHFUPVU GBTUwBTi*UPMEIJNJOOPVODFSUBJOUFSNTUIBU
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UIFDIBOHFEGPSNOPMPOHFSIBTNVDIJODPNNPOXJUIUIFPSJHJOBMDPOUFOU
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PGMBOHVBHFUIBUTFSWFTBQBSUJDVMBSTPDJBMTJUVBUJPO*O"NFSJDBOMJOHVJTUJDT
UIFUFSNJTVTFEUPEJGGFSFOUJBUFCFUXFFOCSPBEWBSJFUJFTPGBMBOHVBHFGPS
FYBNQMF CFUXFFOUIFWFSOBDVMBS FWFSZEBZ DBTVBMTQPLFOGPSN
BOEUIF
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JO&OHMJTI*O(SFBU#SJUBJOSFHJTUFS JTVTFEGPSBOZ
PGBOVNCFSPGTQFDJGJDBMMZEFGJOFEWBSJFUJFT TVDIBTMFHBM TDJFOUJGJD SFMJ
HJPVT JOUJNBUF BOETPPO
Genres, Key, Rules of Interaction, and Norms of Interpretation

5IFUFSNHFOSF SFGFSTUPTQFFDIBDUTPSFWFOUTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBQBSUJDVMBS
DPNNVOJDBUJWFTJUVBUJPOBOEDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZBQBSUJDVMBSTUZMF GPSN BOE
DPOUFOU3JUVBMPSSFMJHJPVTPDDBTJPOT GPSFYBNQMF SFHVMBSMZDBMMGPSTVDI
TQFDJBMHFOSFTBTQSBZFSTBOETFSNPOT#PUITFSNPOTBOEQSBZFSTNBLFVTF
PGBDFSFNPOJBMTUZMFPGTQFFDIXJUITQFDJBMBUUFOUJPOUPGPSN5IJTJTXIZ
UIPV UIFF UIZ BOEUIJOF GPSAZPV AZPVS BOEAZPVSTIBWFTVSWJWFEUPUIF

QSFTFOUJOQSBZFSTBOEUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIF'SJFOET 2VBLFST

"HPPETUPSZUFMMFSPG0ME8PSMEGBJSZPSXPOEFSUBMFTXPVMEDVTUPNBSJMZ
CFHJOUIFUFMMJOHCZTPNFTVDIQISBTFBTi0ODFVQPOBUJNFwBOETJHOBMUIF
FOEPGUIFUBMFCZUIFGPSNVMBi"OEUIFZMJWFEIBQQJMZFWFSBGUFSwPS NPSF
FMBCPSBUFMZ i5IFGFTUJWJUJFTMBTUFEOJOFEBZTBOEOJOFOJHIUT5IFSFXFSF
GJEEMFST GMVUFST BOEQJQFST BOEUIFMBTUEBZBOEOJHIUPGUIFXFE
EJOHXFSFCFUUFSUIBOUIFGJSTUw*NQPSUBOUJODJEFOUTJO0ME8PSMEUBMFTVTV
BMMZUBLFQMBDFUISFFUJNFT UIBUJT UIFGPSNVMBJDPSNBHJDOVNCFSJTUISFF

XIFSFBTJO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOUBMFTUIJOHTIBQQFOGPVSUJNFT
.ZUITSFQSFTFOUBOPUIFSHFOSF POFGPVOEJOUIFUSBEJUJPOTPGBMMPGUIF
XPSMETTPDJFUJFT"SBQBIPTUPSJFTDPODFSOJOHOJIPP A8IJUFNBO BQPQ
VMBSDIBSBDUFSPG"SBQBIPUSJDLTUFSUBMFT BMNPTUJOWBSJBCMZIBWFIJNXBMLJOH
EPXO PSVQ
UIFSJWFSJOUIFJOJUJBMTFOUFODFPGUIFTUPSZ5IFFOEJTTJHOBMFE
CZUIFGPSNVMBi5IJTJTUIFFOEPGUIFTUPSZw*O6QQFS$IJOPPL B/BUJWF
"NFSJDBOMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJO0SFHPO NZUITBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZGFBUVSFT
OPUGPVOEFMTFXIFSFJOUIFMBOHVBHF )ZNFT
5IFEJBHOPTUJDGFBUVSFT
PG6QQFS$IJOPPLNZUITBSFQIPOPMPHJDBM GPSFYBNQMF UIFEPVCMJOHPGB
DPOTPOBOUXPSEGJOBMMZUPJOEJDBUFTUVUUFSJOHGSPNGSJHIUPSFYDJUFNFOU

NPSQIPMPHJDBM MJNJUJOHUIFVTFPGDFSUBJOOPVOQSFGJYFTUPUIFTQFFDIPG
DIBSBDUFSTBQQFBSJOHJONZUIT
MFYJDBM SFTFSWJOHUIFVTFPGDFSUBJOOBNFT
GPSNZUITPOMZ
BOETZOUBDUJD0UIFSMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFTPG6QQFS$IJOPPL
BSFMJNJUFEUPDBTVBMTQFFDI
"iXBSUBMLwHFOSFXBTFNQMPZFEBNPOHUIF/BWBKP )JMM
BOEPUIFS
/BUJWF"NFSJDBOT6QPOFOUFSJOHFOFNZUFSSJUPSZ UIFMFBEFSPGB/BWBKP
XBSQBSUZXPVMEJOTUSVDUUIFHSPVQUPVTFXPSETEJGGFSFOUGSPNUIFPOFT
DPNNPOMZVTFEUPSFGFSUPUIFMJWFTUPDL DBQUJWFT BOEXIBUFWFSFMTFUIFZ
IPQFEUPCSJOHCBDLNFNCFSTPGUIFXBSQBSUZTQPLFUIJTXBSQBUIMBOHVBHF
VOUJMUIFZUVSOFEUPXBSEIPNF
1FSIBQTNPSFUIBOHFOSFPSPUIFSDPNQPOFOUT LFZWBSJFTXJEFMZBNPOH
DVMUVSFT#ZUIFUFSNLFZ )ZNFTSFGFSSFEUPUIFiUPOF NBOOFS PSTQJSJUJO
XIJDIBOBDUJTEPOFwBOEBEEFEUIBUiBDUTPUIFSXJTFUIFTBNFBTSFHBSETTFU
UJOH QBSUJDJQBOUT NFTTBHFGPSN BOEUIFMJLFNBZEJGGFSJOLFZ BT FH CF
UXFFONPDL <BOE>TFSJPVT PSQFSGVODUPSZ <BOE>QBJOTUBLJOHw )ZNFT

,FZNBZFWFOPWFSSJEFBOPUIFSDPNQPOFOU BTXIFOBTQFBLFSXIPJTQSF
TVNBCMZQSBJTJOHTPNFPOFCFDPNFTTMPXMZCVUJODSFBTJOHMZTPTBSDBTUJDUIBU
UIFQFSTPOTQPLFOPGGFFMTIVSUPSSJEJDVMFE"QBSUJDVMBSLFZNBZCFVTFETP
GSFRVFOUMZCZNFNCFSTPGBHSPVQUIBUJUMPTFTNVDIPGJUTFGGFDU XIFSFBT
BOPUIFSLFZNBZCFTPSBSFMZFNQMPZFEUIBUJUNBZSFRVJSFTPNFFGGPSUPO
UIFQBSUPGIFBSFSTUPJEFOUJGZJUBOEDPNQSFIFOEJUTTPDJBMNFBOJOH
$PNNVOJDBUJWFBDUJWJUZJTHVJEFECZSVMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPO 6OEFSOPSNBM
DJSDVNTUBODFT NFNCFSTPGBTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZLOPXXIBUJTBOEXIBUJT
OPUBQQSPQSJBUF"NPOHNFNCFSTPGUIFNJEEMFDMBTTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT
GPSFYBNQMF JOUFSSVQUJPOTBSFOPUDPOTJEFSFEBQQSPQSJBUFFYDFQUBNPOH
DMPTFGSJFOETPSGBNJMZNFNCFST CVUJGTPNFPOFNPOPQPMJ[FTBDPOWFSTB
UJPO UIFSFBSFBDDFQUBCMFXBZTPGCSFBLJOHJO"DPNQMJNFOUBEESFTTFEUP
BOPUIFSQFSTPOJTVTVBMMZHSBUFGVMMZBDLOPXMFEHFEPSTPNFSFNBSLJTNBEF
UPUIFFGGFDUUIBUUIFDPNQMJNFOUNBZOPUCFGVMMZEFTFSWFE8IFOSVMFTPG
JOUFSBDUJPOBSFCSPLFOPSDPNQMFUFMZOFHMFDUFE FNCBSSBTTNFOUSFTVMUT BOE
VOMFTTBOBQPMPHZJTPGGFSFE GVUVSFDPOUBDUTCFUXFFOUIFQBSUJFTNBZCF
TUSBJOFEPSFWFOBWPJEFE
5IFKVEHNFOUBTUPXIBUDPOTUJUVUFTQSPQFSJOUFSBDUJPOJTPGDPVSTFTVC
KFDUUPJOUFSQSFUBUJPO5IFOPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO KVTUBTUIFSVMFTPGJO
UFSBDUJPO
WBSZGSPNDVMUVSFUPDVMUVSF TPNFUJNFTPOMZTVCUMZCVUVTVBMMZ
RVJUFEJTUJODUMZPSFWFOQSPGPVOEMZ"OEXJUIJOBTJOHMFTPDJFUZ JGUIBUTPDJ
FUZJTTPDJBMMZPSFUIOJDBMMZEJWFSTJGJFE OPUBMMNFNCFSTBSFMJLFMZUPVTFUIF
TBNFSVMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPOBOEUIFTBNFOPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO
*GUIFOPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPOBSFTIBSFECZUIFJOUFSMPDVUPST UIFJSSFMB
UJPOTBSFMJLFMZUPCFNBSLFECZVOEFSTUBOEJOHBOEIBSNPOZ%FCPSBI5BO
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Subanun Drinking Talk 197
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Subanun Drinking Talk

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B OX 1 0 . 1 F E S T I V E D R I N K I N G A N D
TA L K I N G A M O N G T H E S U B A N U N
As the size and role-structure of the gathering becomes defined, discourse

changes in topic to removed referents, usually beginning with relatively
trivial gossip, proceeding to more important subjects of current interest,
and, finally, in many cases arriving at litigation. . . . Success in effecting
legal decisions depends on achieving a commanding role in the en-
counter and on debating effectively from that position. Since there are no
sanctions of force legally applicable to back up a decision, the payment
of a fine in compliance with a decision is final testimony to the prowess
in verbal combat of the person who made the decision.
. . . If drinking continues long enough, the focus of messages shifts
from their topics to play with message forms themselves, following styl-
ized patterns of song and verse composition. Songs and verses are com-
posed on the spot to carry on discussions in an operetta-like setting. Even
unsettled litigation may be continued in this manner, the basis for decision
being shifted from cogent argument to verbal artistry. The most prestigious
kinds of drinking songs require the mastery of an esoteric vocabulary by
means of which each line is repeated with a semantically equivalent but
formally different line. Game drinking is a frequent accompaniment to
these displays of verbal art. Together they help assure that the festivity will
end with good feelings among all participants, a goal which is explicitly
stated by the Subanun. Participants who had displayed marked hostility
toward each other during the course of drinking talk may be singled out
for special ritual treatment designed to restore good feelings.
from Charles O. Frake, How to Ask for a Drink in Subanun (1964), 130131
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Attitudes Toward the Use of Speech

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Attitudes Toward the Use of Speech 199
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Attitudes Toward the Use of Speech 201
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Recent Trends in the Ethnography of Speaking

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11
Culture as Cognition, Culture

as Categorization: Meaning and
Language in the Conceptual World
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205
206 Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization 207
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B OX 1 1 . 1 A N E X A M P L E O F H OW M E A N I N G I S D I S COV E R E D
It is still not definitively clear how we as children learn what words mean.
For the most part, words are never explicitly defined for us, even though
many times specific examples are pointed out (Look, theres a puppy
coming!). Still, this process is often equally mysterious, even to adults,
when things are explained to them and they have the intellectual matu-
rity to know what to look for and the tools to do so. A case in point is
when one of the authors (Stanlaw) was studying Japanese. The first week
of language class he learned two important survival words: eat (taberu)
and drink (nomu). When Japanese people would consume tea, beer, or
water they would nomu; when they would consume sushi, hamburgers,
or pizza they would taberu. There were a few oddities, however (as seen
below). Japanese people would nomu chicken soup or aspirin, while
Americans would eat the soup or take the aspirin. If something was
dropped on the floor, a dog could eat itor taberu itin both lan-
guages (even if it was an aspirin). Stanlaw chalked this up to just some of
the inevitable exceptions to the rules in learning a foreign language and
never thought much more about these peculiarities, as about 90% of the
time he ate and drank in Japanese just fine.
ENGLISH JAPANESE
water, beer drink nomu
hamburger, sushi eat taberu
chicken soup eat nomu
aspirin take nomu
dogs stuff on the floor eat taberu
(continues)
(continued)
On his first trip to Japan, Stanlaw went to the zoo one day to people-
watch and noticed a grade school class on one of their ubiquitous field
trips getting a guided tour in the reptile house. After being shown a num-
ber of snakes, someone asked the zookeeper What do pythons nomu?
Assuming he was smarter than a Japanese fifth grader, Stanlaw thought
the answer would be obvious. Even snakes sometime probably had to
drink water. He was surprised at the zookeepers reply, Pythons nomu
mice and rats. Pondering how pythons could drink mice, it finally
dawned on him what nomu really meant: to ingest something without
chewing. Pythons, of course, swallow their prey whole, so they dont
ingest by moving the jaws, which is what taberu refers to. This is why
Japanese can nomu soups or aspirins, as these are generally not chewed.
A dog, however, will chew something he picks up off the floor, even an
aspirin, so the right verb is taberu in this case.
Stanlaw went to his Japanese teachers with his new insights: First, in
English the world of consumables is divided into liquids (which are
drunk) and solids (which are eaten). Second, the Japanese divide the
world into actionswhether or not something is chewed (taberu) or not
chewed (nomu). His teachers looked at him as if he had just discovered
that the sky is blue or dogs have tails. This fact about the cultural universe
was so self-evident to the Japanese teachers that they were at a loss to
even know that it had to be pointed out (and in fact, at the time, most
Japanese-English dictionaries didnt).
Stanlaw also realized a third thing: In the English world, speakers take
medicines, regardless of whether they are solids or liquids. So there is an-
other distinction English makesthat between consumables and medi-
cines. It is the intent behind the ingestion that is as significant as either the
act itself or the item ingested. Dogs snatching up the dropped aspirin are
not really taking it, they are just eating it as they would any stray scrap of
food they find. But if a dog were sick and went to the vet, he might be given
some baby aspirins that the owner would be instructed to have him take
at certain times. These were aspects about the meaning of the English words
eat, drink, and take that Stanlaw had never been explicitly taught.
Nor had he really noticed their usage before, even though he had been
using these wordspresumably correctlyfor decades.
Jim Stanlaw
Concepts, Words, and Categories 209
Concepts, Words, and Categories

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The Lexical Nature of Concepts 211
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The Lexical Nature of Concepts

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The Lexical Nature of Concepts 213
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The Rise and (Relative) Fall of Ethnoscience 215
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The Rise and (Relative) Fall of Ethnoscience

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Studies of Discourse
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Studies of Discourse 223
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12
Language, Culture, and Thought
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225
226 Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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The Stimulus of Sapirs Writings

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The Stimulus of Sapirs Writings 227
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The Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity

and Linguistic Determinism
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The Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity and Linguisitc Determinism 229
B O X 1 2 . 1 H O W W O R D S A F F E C T B E H AV I O R
It was in the course of my professional work for a fire insurance com-

pany, in which I undertook the task of analyzing many hundreds of re-
ports of circumstances surrounding the start of fires, and in some cases,
of explosions. My analysis was directed toward purely physical condi-
tions, such as defective wiring, presence or lack of air spaces between
metal flues and woodwork, etc., and the results were presented in these
terms. . . . But in due course it became evident that not only a physical
situation qua physics, but the meaning of that situation to people, was
sometimes a factor, through the behavior of the people, in the start of the
fire. And this factor of meaning was clearest when it was a LINGUISTIC
MEANING, residing in the name or the linguistic description commonly
applied to the situation. Thus, around a storage of what are called gaso-
line drums, behavior will tend to a certain type, that is, great care will be
exercised; while around a storage of what are called empty gasoline
drums, it will tend to be differentcareless, with little repression of
smoking or of tossing cigarette stubs about. Yet the empty drums are
perhaps the more dangerous, since they contain explosive vapor. Physi-
cally the situation is hazardous, but the linguistic analysis according to
regular analogy must employ the word empty, which inevitably sug-
gests lack of hazard.
from Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (1956), 135
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DPODFOUSBUFEJOUPBWFSZTIPSUQFSJPEPGUJNF
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NBUJDBMEFWJDF*O8IPSG TXPSET UIFFYBNQMFJMMVTUSBUFTiIPXUIF)PQJMBO
The Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity and Linguisitc Determinism 231
HVBHFNBQTPVUBDFSUBJOUFSSBJOPGXIBUNJHIUCFUFSNFEQSJNJUJWFQIysics...
XJUIWFSZUIPSPVHIDPOTJTUFODZBOEOPUBMJUUMFUSVFTDJFOUJGJDQSFDJTJPOwBOE
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UIF"QBDIFFRVJWBMFOUPGUIF&OHMJTIVUUFSBODFi*UJTBESJQQJOHTQSJOHw SF
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CPUIAXBUFSBOEATQSJOH JTQSFGJYFE5IFSFTVMUDPSSFTQPOETUPPVSAESJQQJOH
TQSJOH CVUTZOUIFUJDBMMZJUJTABTXBUFS PSTQSJOHT XIJUFOFTTNPWFTEPXO
XBSE)PXVUUFSMZVOMJLFPVSXBZPGUIJOLJOHw 8IPSGB

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DISPOPMPHy..BOOBMT IJTUPSies..<BOE>CVEHFUTw C

5IFJNQMJDBUJPOTPG8IPSG TJEFBTDPODFSOJOHMJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZBOEEF
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TJHOJGJDBOUMZBGGFDUFECZUIFTUSVDUVSFPGUIFMBOHVBHFUIFZTQFBL BOEJGMBO
HVBHFTEJGGFSJOTUSVDUVSF UIFODSPTTDVMUVSBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOEVOEFS
TUBOEJOHBSFMJLFMZUPCFOPUJDFBCMZJNQBJSFE JGOPUJNQPTTJCMFUPBDIJFWF
5IJTJTXIZ8IPSG TJEFBTSFDFJWFEBHSFBUEFBMPGBUUFOUJPOBOETUJNVMBUFE
NVDIEJTDVTTJPOGPSBOVNCFSPGZFBSTBGUFS8PSME8BS**
Whorfs Hypothesis Reconsidered

'SPNBDPOUFNQPSBSZTUBOEQPJOU IPXFWFS JUBQQFBSTUIBU8IPSGPWFSTUBUFE
IJTDBTF"DDPSEJOHUPBTUSPOHWFSTJPOPGUIJTQSPQPTJUJPO MFYJDBMBOEHSBN
NBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFTPGBMBOHVBHFDPNQMFUFMZEFUFSNJOFIPXJUTTQFBLFSTQFS
DFJWFUIFXPSMEBSPVOEUIFN5IJTJTVOEPVCUFEMZOPUUSVF5IBUXFDBO
USBOTMBUFGSPNPOFMBOHVBHFUPBOPUIFSCFMJFTUIFDPSSFDUOFTTPGUIFIZQPUI
FTJTJOJUTTUSPOHFTUGPSN)VNBOTEPOPU MJWFJOJODPNQBSBCMFMJOHVJTUJD
XPSMET#VUBDDPSEJOHUPBXFBLFSWFSTJPO UIFSFJTTPNFTPSUPGDPSSFMBUJPO
CFUXFFOBMBOHVBHFBOEJUTTQFBLFSTXPSMEWJFX UIFQIJMPTPQIJDBMEJNFO
TJPOPGBTPDJFUZTDVMUVSF

8IPSG T7JFXTPG-FYJDBM%JGGFSFODFTJO-BOHVBHF5IFSFJTOPRVFTUJPO
UIBUUIFMFYJDPOPGBOZMBOHVBHFNJSSPSTXIBUFWFSUIFOPOWFSCBMDVMUVSF
FNQIBTJ[FT UIBU JT UIPTF BTQFDUT PG DVMUVSF UIBU BSF JNQPSUBOU GPS UIF
NFNCFSTPGBTPDJFUZBSFDPSSFTQPOEJOHMZIJHIMJHIUFEJOUIFWPDBCVMBSZ
'PSFYBNQMF XPSETDPOWFZJOHUIFWBSJPVTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGDBNFMT BHF
CSFFE HFOEFS GVODUJPO DPOEJUJPO BOETPPO
BSFVOEPVCUFEMZNPSFQMFO
UJGVMJOBMBOHVBHFTQPLFOCZ#FEPVJOTXIPEFQFOEPODBNFMTUIBOUIFZ
BSFJO&OHMJTIUIFWPDBCVMBSZPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI GPSJUTQBSU JTSFQMFUF
XJUIUIFOBNFTPGNBLFTBOENPEFMTPGBVUPNPCJMFT XJUIOFXOBNFTPG
NPEFMTPGUIFWBSJPVTNBLFTCFJOHBEEFEFWFSZZFBS*O1JOUVQJ POFPGUIF
BCPSJHJOBMMBOHVBHFTPG"VTUSBMJB UIFSFBSFBUMFBTUUFOXPSETEFTJHOBUJOH
WBSJPVTLJOETPGIPMFTGPVOEJOOBUVSFPSJONBOVGBDUVSFEPCKFDUTNVUBSB
JTBTQFDJBMIPMFJOBTQFBS QVMQB JTBSBCCJUCVSSPX NBLBSOQB JTBCVSSPX
PGBNPOJUPSMJ[BSE LBUBSUB JTUIFIPMFMFGUCZBNPOJUPSMJ[BSEBGUFSJUIBT
CSPLFOUIFTVSGBDFBGUFSIJCFSOBUJPO BOETPPO5IJTFYBNQMFBMTPTIPXT
UIBUFWFOUIPVHIBMBOHVBHFNBZOPUIBWFBPOFXPSEFRVJWBMFOUGPSB
XPSEPGBOPUIFSMBOHVBHF JUJTQPTTJCMFUPQSPWJEFBOBEFRVBUFUSBOTMBUJPO
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MJTIXPSET
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HVBHFT DPJO OFX XPSET 4PNF ZFBST BHP BO "NFSJDBO BOUISPQPMPHJTU
Whorfs Hypothesis Reconsidered 233
UIPVHIUBLJOTIJQUFSNXBTOFFEFEUPJODMVEFUIFNFBOJOHTPGOFQIFX BOE
OJFDF BOEDPJOFEUIFXPSEOJCMJOH VTJOHUIFXPSETJCMJOH CSPUIFSPSTJTUFS
BTBNPEFM)PXFWFS UPDPODMVEFUIBUUIFBCTFODFPGFRVJWBMFOUUFSNTCF
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DFQUJPOPGUIFXPSMEXPVMECFGBSGFUDIFE
8IPSG T FYBNQMFT GSPN )PQJ BMTP DBMM GPS DPNNFOU "DDPSEJOH UP
7PFHFMJO 7PFHFMJO BOE+FBOOF
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'PSFYBNQMF OPUBMMOPOSFEVQMJDBUFE OPUEPVCMFE
TUFNTXJUIPVUUIFFOE
JOHUB DBOCFTBJEUPFYQSFTTUIFQVODUVBMBTQFDU'VSUIFSNPSF BMUIPVHI
TQFBLFSTPG)PQJNBLFMJUUMFPGUIFEJWJTJPOCFUXFFOGVUVSFBOEOPOGVUVSF
UIFZEPJOEJDBUFUFOTFCZUFNQPSBMBEWFSCT UIFTVGGJYOJ GVUVSF
BOEUIF
HOPNJDTVGGJY- NFBOJOHUIBUTPNFUIJOHJTHFOFSBMMZUSVF

8IPSGDMBJNFEUIBUUIF"QBDIFXBZPGUIJOLJOHJTiVUUFSMZVOMJLFwUIBUPG
TQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTICFDBVTFUIFVUUFSBODFi*UJTBESJQQJOHTQSJOHwUSBOTMBUFT
MJUFSBMMZGSPN"QBDIFJOUP&OHMJTIBTi"TXBUFS PSTQSJOHT XIJUFOFTTNPWFT
EPXOXBSEw#VUTVQQPTFUIBUTQFBLFSTPGBGPSFJHOMBOHVBHFXFSFUPJOUFSQSFU
MJUFSBMMZCSFBLGBTU BTiCSFBLJOHUIFGBTU BCTUJOFODFGSPNGPPE
wCPOGJSF BTiB
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UIJOLJOHBOEUIBUPG&OHMJTITQFBLJOHQFPQMF#VUTPNFMFYJDBMEJGGFSFODFT
CFUXFFOMBOHVBHFTNBZIBWFTPNFDPOTFRVFODFTBTUPIPXTQFBLFSTWJFX
UIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHQBSUTPGUIFJSFOWJSPONFOU1SPOPNJOBMVTBHFBOELJO
TIJQXJMMTFSWFBTFYBNQMFT
1SPOPVOT4QFBLFSTPG&OHMJTIVTFUIFQFSTPOBMQSPOPVOZPV XIFUIFSUIFZ
BSFBEESFTTJOHPOFPSTFWFSBMDIJMESFO BEVMUT PMEQFSTPOT TVCPSEJOBUFT PS
JOEJWJEVBMTNVDITVQFSJPSUPUIFNTFMWFTJOSBOL0OMZXIFOBEESFTTJOH(PE
JOQSBZFSPSJODFSUBJOWFSZMJNJUFEDPOUFYUTGPSFYBNQMF JOUIFMBOHVBHFPG
UIF 'SJFOET UIF 2VBLFST
PS JO QPFUSZEPFT POF VTF UIF QSPOPVO UIPV
XIJDIJTTJOHVMBSPOMZ
5IFUZQJDBMTJUVBUJPOJOPUIFSMBOHVBHFT JODMVEJOH
NPTUPGUIPTFTQPLFOJO&VSPQF JTNPSFDPNQMFY8IFOBEESFTTJOHTPNF
POF TQFBLFSTPG%VUDI 'SFODI (FSNBO *UBMJBO 3VTTJBO 4QBOJTI BOEPUIFS
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BOEPSUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHWFSCGPSN
5IFTZNCPMT5BOE7BSFEFSJWFEGSPNUIF'SFODIUV BOEWPVT UIFGBNJMJBS
BOEQPMJUFTFDPOEQFSTPOQSPOPVOT SFTQFDUJWFMZ
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BEESFTTBOJOEJWJEVBMXIPJTDMPTFMZSFMBUFE TPNFPOFTPDJBMMZDMPTFBOEPGMPOH
BDRVBJOUBODF PSBDIJMECFMPXUIFBHFPGQVCFSUZ POFDPNNPOMZVTFTUIFQFS

TPOBMQSPOPVOUZ #VUJOBEESFTTJOHBDBTVBMBDRVBJOUBODF BTUSBOHFS PSBQFS
TPOEFTFSWJOHSFTQFDU POFVTFTUIFQSPOPVOWZ XIJDIBMTPTFSWFTBTUIFQMVSBM
PGUZ "TQFBLFSNBZPDDBTJPOBMMZXPOEFS GPSFYBNQMF XIJDIPGUIFUXPGPSNT
UPVTFXIFOBEESFTTJOHBOBEVMUXIPNUIFTQFBLFSLOFXBTBDIJMEBOESF
GFSSFEUPSFQFBUFEMZBTUZ "USBOTMBUJPOGSPN$[FDIJOUP&OHMJTI PSWJDFWFSTB
UIBUJOWPMWFTUIFTFQSPOPVOT BOEPSUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHWFSCGPSNT
JTUIFSF
GPSFOPUFRVJWBMFOU5IF$[FDIQISBTFTiUZBKw BOEiWZBKw CPUIUSBOTMBUF
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NBM GBNJMJBSFWFOJOUJNBUFQSPOPVOBOEXPVMEOPUCFVTFEJOTJUVBUJPOTJO
XIJDIUIFGPSNBM QPMJUFQSPOPVOPGUIFTFDPOEQISBTFXPVMECFBQQSPQSJBUF
5IF&OHMJTIUSBOTMBUJPO UIFO DBOPOMZCFBQQSPYJNBUF BTJUDBOOPUGVMMZDPO
WFZUIFOBUVSFPGUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOUIFTQFBLFSBOEUIFBEESFTTFF
1SPOPVOVTBHFJO+BQBOFTFJTNPSFDPNQMFYUIBOJOUIF*OEP&VSPQFBO
MBOHVBHFT BTPUIFSEJNFOTJPOTCFTJEFGBNJMJBSJUZNVTUCFDPOTJEFSFE1SP
OPVOTNVTUCFTFMFDUFEEFQFOEJOHPOEJGGFSJOHMFWFMTPGJOUFOEFEGPSNBMJUZ
BOEUIFHFOEFSPGUIFTQFBLFS'PSFYBNQMF DPOTJEFSTPNFPGUIFWBSJPVT
XBZTPGTBZJOHiXFwJO+BQBOFTF
GPSGFNBMFTQFBLFST GPSNBMFTQFBLFST
XBUBLVTIJEPNP XBUBLVTIJEPNP
XBUBLVTIJUBDIJ XBUBLVTIJUBDIJ
XBUBTIJUBDIJ XBUBTIJUBDIJ
XBUBTIJSB XBUBTIJSB
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PGUIFGBDUPSTBGGFDUJOHMFWFMTPGQPMJUFOFTTBOEVTFPG IPOPSJGJDT JODMVEF
t GBNJMJBSJUZ FH TUSBOHFS GBNJMZNFNCFS GSJFOE
t BHF PMEFSPSZPVOHFSUIBOTQFBLFS
Whorfs Hypothesis Reconsidered 235
t QSPGFTTJPOBMSFMBUJPOT FH CPTT TBMFTQFSTPO DVTUPNFS
t HFOEFS TBNFPSEJGGFSFOUGSPNTQFBLFS
t JOHSPVQPVUHSPVQ FH TBNFGBNJMZ TDIPPM EFQBSUNFOU DPNQBOZ
t DPOUFYU FH SFRVFTU DPNNBOE HSFFUJOH
0UIFS-FYJDBM%JGGFSFODFT,JOTIJQ5FSNJOPMPHZ5IF+BQBOFTFLJOTIJQBOE
QSPOPNJOBM TZTUFNT SFGMFDU GJOF OVBODFT PG NFBOJOH PS TPDJBM EJTUBODF
+BQBOFTFTPDJBMTUSVDUVSFBMFBTUMJOHVJTUJDBMMZGPMMPXTXIBUBOUISPQPMP
HJTUTDBMMBOi&TLJNPwLJOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ8IBUUIJTNFBOTJTUIBUUIFLJO
TIJQTZTUFNJO+BQBOFTFJTTJNJMBSJONBOZXBZTUPUIF"NFSJDBOPOF CVU
XJUIUISFFJNQPSUBOUFYDFQUJPOT
t UFSNTPGBEESFTTBSFEJGGFSFOUGSPNUFSNTPGSFGFSFODF
t PMEFSTJCMJOHTBSFEJTUJOHVJTIFEGSPNZPVOHFSTJCMJOHT
t UFSNTGPSSFMBUJWFTPGUIFTQFBLFSBSFEJGGFSFOUGSPNUFSNTGPSPUIFST
SFMBUJWFT
'PSFYBNQMF JG*XFSFUBMLJOHUPNZPMEFSCSPUIFS *XPVMEDBMMIJNCZUIF

LJOTIJQUFSNPOJJTBO iFMEFSCSPUIFSwXJUIUIFIPOPSJGJDTBO TVGGJYBU
UBDIFE
SBUIFS UIBO VTJOH IJT OBNF *G * XFSF UBMLJOH BCPVU NZ PMEFS
CSPUIFS *XPVMEVTFUIFUFSNBOJ*G*XFSFBEESFTTJOHTPNFPOFFMTFTPMEFS
CSPUIFS *XPVMEVTFUIFGBNJMZOBNF XJUIUIFTBO TVGGJYCFJOHPCMJHBUPSZ
PSBUJUMF5PUBMLBCPVUIJN *XPVMEVTF POJJTBO8IFOUBMLJOHUPNZ

ZPVOHFSCSPUIFS *XPVMEVTFIJTGJSTUOBNF XJUIPVUUIFTBO TVGGJY PSQPT
TJCMZBEEJOHUIFEJNJOVUJWFTVGGJYDIBO
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8IFOJOUSPEVDJOHNZXJGF*XPVMEVTFUIFUFSNUTVNB OFVUSBM
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Color Nomenclature and Other Challenges to Linguistic Relativity 239
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/FXUPOJBO QIZTJDT XJUI UIF UIFPSZ PG SFMBUJWJUZ PDDVS 0S EJE UIF
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PSSFGVUFJU6OUJMSFDFOUMZ UIFQPTTJCJMJUZPGGJOEJOHFYQFSJNFOUBMFWJ
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DFQUJPOBSFCFZPOEUIFSFBDIPGMBOHVBHFJOGMVFODFPSJOUFSQSFUBUJPO
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TVDIBTQVSFiGJSFFOHJOFwSFEBSFFBTJFSUPSFNFNCFSBOESFDBMMUIBO
PUIFSDPMPST FWFOJGBMBOHVBHFIBTOPOBNFGPSUIFN*UJTOPUZFUDMFBS
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PHZ
PSPUIFSGBDUPST8IBUFWFSUIFDBVTF JUTFFNTUIBUBUMFBTUTPNF
Theoretical Alternatives to Linguistic Relativity 247
DPODFQUTBSFOPUQFSDFQUVBMMZBSCJUSBSZ BOETPNFDBUFHPSJFTGPSFY
BNQMF DFSUBJOWPXFMTBOEDPOTPOBOUTBSFNPSFiOBUVSBMwUIBOPUIFST
-BOHVBHFVOJWFSTBMT4JODFUIFTMJOHVJTUTIBWFXJUIHSFBUTVD
DFTTCFDPNFJODSFBTJOHMZBCTPSCFEJOUIFTFBSDIGPSUIPTFBTQFDUTBMM
MBOHVBHFTIBWFJODPNNPO'PSFYBNQMF BMMMBOHVBHFTBSFTQPLFOJO
TFOUFODFT BOETFFNUPIBWFTPNFOPUJPOPGTVCKFDUWFSTVTQSFEJDBUF
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MJOHVJTUJD VOJWFSTBMT TFFNT UP TVHHFTU UIBU MBOHVBHFT BOE UIF DPO
TUSVDUJPOPGMJOHVJTUJDDBUFHPSJFT NBZOPUCFBTUPUBMMZBSCJUSBSZBT4BQJS
BOE8IPSGIBWFJNQMJFE*OGBDU JUXBTUIFTUSFOHUIPGUIFVOJWFSTBMJTU
BSHVNFOUTCZMJOHVJTUTTVDIBT/PBN$IPNTLZUIBUMFEUPBHSBEVBM
EFDMJOFJOJOUFSFTUJOMJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ
Theoretical Alternatives to Linguistic Relativity

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GPSN JTGBDJOHTPNFTFSJPVTDIBMMFOHFT*OUIJTTFDUJPOXFXJMMMPPLBUUXP
UIFPSFUJDBMBMUFSOBUJWFTUPMJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZUIFDPNNPOMZBDDFQUFEVOJ
WFSTBMJTNPG/PBN$IPNTLZ BOEUIFBQQSPBDIPGDVMUVSBMEFUFSNJOJTN
TVDIBTQSPQPTFECZ(BSZ8JUIFSTQPPOBOE%BOJFM&WFSFUU

$IPNTLZBOE6OJWFSTBMJTN*OUIFNJEUXFOUJFUIDFOUVSZUIFJOUFMMFDUVBM
DMJNBUFVOEFSXFOUBTVCTUBOUJBMDIBOHFJOBUUJUVEFUPXBSETMBOHVBHFTBOE
UIFJSTUSVDUVSFT6OUJMUIFT TDIPMBSTXFSFSFMBUJWJTUT5IFZXFSFNPTU
GBTDJOBUFE CZ UIF USFNFOEPVT MJOHVJTUJD EJWFSTJUZ GPVOE UISPVHIPVU UIF
XPSME/PO8FTUFSOMBOHVBHFTIBETPNFGFBUVSFTUIBUUIF*OEP&VSPQFBO
MBOHVBHFTEJEOPUUJNFXBTDPVOUFEJOEJGGFSFOUXBZT BOEXPSETXFSFGPVOE
GPSDPODFQUTUIBU&VSPQFBOTIBEOUBOJOLMJOHPG"OEJONBOZXBZTUIJTXBT
BIPMEPWFSGSPNUIFEBZTPG'SBO[#PBT XIPNBEFQBTTJPOBUFBSHVNFOUT
GPSSFMBUJWJTN NPTUMZJOBWBMJBOUBUUFNQUUPVOEFSNJOFTPNFPGUIFSBDJTU
DMBJNTQPQVMBSFWFOVOUJM8PSME8BS**5P#PBT BCFMJFGJOVOJWFSTBMJTN
VTVBMMZMFEUPDPNQBSJTPOTUIBUMFGUUIFOPO8FTUFSOXPSMEXBOUJOH"OE
TVDICFMJFGTXFSFPOMZPOFTNBMMTUFQBXBZGSPNEBOHFSPVTCJPMPHJDBMSF
EVDUJPOJTNQFPQMFTBOEUIFJSMBOHVBHFTBSFUIFXBZUIFZBSFEVFUPUIFJSCJ
PMPHZ UIBUJT UIFJSSBDF

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PGCPPLTBOENPOPHSBQITTIPXJOHUIBUHSBNNBSBDSPTTBMMUIFXPSMETMBO
HVBHFTJTWFSZNVDIUIFTBNFJGZPVFYBNJOFUIFNUIPSPVHIMZ$IPNTLZ
IBTNBEFBDPNQFMMJOHDBTFUIBUUIFSFJTNVDINPSFMJOHVJTUJDTJNJMBSJUZJO
UIFXPSMEUIBOQSFWJPVTMZUIPVHIU#VU NPSFJNQPSUBOU IJTTPDBMMFEUSBOT
GPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBSNPWFNFOUIBTTXBZFEUIFDPVSUPGTDIPMBSMZPQJOJPO
UPBSFKFDUJPOPGSFMBUJWJTNJOGBWPSPGVOJWFSTBMJTN4JNQMZQVU VOJWFSTBM
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5IFEPNJOBOUWJFXBNPOHDPOUFNQPSBSZMJOHVJTUTJTUIBUMBOHVBHFJTQSJ
NBSJMZBOJOTUJODUJOPUIFSXPSET UIBUUIFGVOEBNFOUBMTPGMBOHVBHFBSF
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TLZIBTGBNPVTMZBSHVFEUIBUB.BSUJBOTDJFOUJTUXPVMEDPODMVEFUIBUBMM
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TIBSFUIFTBNFVOJWFSTBMHSBNNBS UIFTBNFVOEFSMZJOHDPODFQts...5IF
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JOWFTUJHBUJOH BSF UIPTF UIBU SFWFBM MBOHVBHF BT BO FYQSFTTJPO PG JOOBUF
IVNBOOBUVSF %FVUTDIFS

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UVSBMMJOHVJTUT*OTUFBEPGUSZJOHUPEFTDSJQUJWFMZBOBMZ[FTFOUFODFTUIBUBO
JOGPSNBOUIBEVUUFSFE $IPNTLZBSHVFEUIBUXFOFFEFEUPGJOEUIFNFOUBM
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$IPNTLZTGPSNBMBQQSPBDIFTIBWFHPOFUISPVHITFWFSBMSFWJTJPOT FBDISF
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DIJMETCSBJOUPFOBCMFJUUPNBLFTFOTFPGXIBUJUJTFYQPTFEUP$IJMESFO
BGUFSBMM BSFOFWFSSFBMMZUBVHIU UIFJSOBUJWFMBOHVBHF
5IF$MBJNTPG$VMUVSBM%FUFSNJOJTN5IFSFBSFTFWFSBMXBZTUPWJFXUIFSF
MBUJPOTIJQTCFUXFFOMBOHVBHF UIPVHIU BOEDVMUVSF"TXFIBWFTFFO MJO
HVJTUJDSFMBUJWJTUTTVDIBT8IPSGBOE4BQJSDMBJNUIBUMBOHVBHFTJOGMVFODF
DVMUVSF UIPVHIU BOEQFSDFQUJPO6OJWFSTBMJTUTTVDIBT$IPNTLZBSHVFUIBU
MBOHVBHF JT BO JOOBUF IVNBO QSPQFSUZ BOE UIBU MBOHVBHF DVMUVSF BOE
UIPVHIUIBWFOPDPOOFDUJPOT FYDFQUJOTPGBSBTEJDUBUFECZUIFMJNJUBUJPOT
BOEQTZDIPCJPMPHJDBMTUSVDUVSFPGUIFIVNBONJOE
8FNJHIUBTLJGUIFSF
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BMBSHFEFHSFFHSBNNBUJDBMQBUUFSOTBOENPEFTPGUIJOLJOH4VDIDMBJNTIBWF
Theoretical Alternatives to Linguistic Relativity 249
CFFONBEF BOEXFXJMMFYBNJOFUXPDBTFT UIF/BWBKPJOUIFTPVUIXFTUFSO

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NBEFUIF/BWBKPDPVOUSZIJTIPNFGPSNPSFUIBOUFOZFBST1SJPSUPIJTBD
BEFNJDDBSFFS IFXPSLFEGPS/BWBKPDPNNVOJUJFTBOEMPDBMCPBSETPGFEV
DBUJPOBOECFDBNFBOJOUFSFTUFEBOEDPODFSOFEQBSUJDJQBOUJOUIFMJGFPGUIF
MPDBMDPNNVOJUJFT)FMFBSOFEUIF/BWBKPMBOHVBHFCZMJTUFOJOHUP/BWBKPT
BOEUBMLJOHXJUIUIFN
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8JUIFSTQPPOTIBSFE
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DVMUVSFi*OUIF/BWBKPWJFXPGUIFXPSME wOPUFE8JUIFSTQPPO

iMBOHVBHFJTOPUBNJSSPSPGSFBMJUZSFBMJUZJTBNJSSPSPGMBOHVBHFw3JUVBM
MBOHVBHFJO/BWBKPDVMUVSFJTQPXFSGVM JUTQSJNBSZQVSQPTFCFJOHUPNBJO
UBJOPSSFTUPSFhzho:> UIFTZNCPM<}>NBSLTIJHIUPOFo: JTOBTBMJ[FEP
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UIPVHI UIJT XPSE SFGFST UP UIF DFOUSBM UIFNF PG /BWBKP XPSMEWJFX BOE
SFMJHJPVTUIJOLJOH JUTVTFJTOPUSFTUSJDUFEUPSJUVBMDPOUFYUTUIFXPSEJT
IFBSEGSFRVFOUMZJOFWFSZEBZTQFFDI8IBUJThzho:> 5IFTUFNzho:> SFGFSTUP
B TUBUF DIBSBDUFSJ[FE CZ HPPEOFTT QFBDF PSEFS IBQQJOFTT CMFTTFEOFTT
IFBMUI CFBVUZ PGUIFOBUVSBMTVSSPVOEJOHT
TBUJTGBDUJPO QFSGFDUJPO XFMM
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Future Tests of Linguistic Relativity and Linguistic Determinism 253
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B O X 1 2 . 2 C A R R O L L O N L I N G U I S T I C R E L AT I V I T Y
The speakers of one language . . . may tend to ignore differences which are
regularly noticed by the speakers of another language. This is not to say that
they always ignore them, for these differences can indeed be recognized
and talked about in any language, but they are differences which are not al-
ways salient in their experiences. The effect of any one language category
is to lead language users to assume, perhaps mistakenly, that there is uni-
formity of some sort within the category. . . . For example, historians have
pointed out that the use of the term the Middle Ages may lead to the false
impression that the period between the fall of Rome and the Italian Ren-
aissance was in truth a distinct historical period which had uniform char-
acteristics, throughout its length, which set it apart from other periods. . . .
Let us now analyze a simple cross-linguistic example. In English, it is
possible to report about someone, He went to town. Nothing is said
about his mode of travel: he might have walked, run, rode a horse, driven
a car, or taken a bus or even a boat or a helicopter. It is well known that
in German one would have to specify at least a minimum of information
about the mode of travel. Use of the verb gehen (as a cognate of go, ap-
parently the most direct translation) would imply walking or some other
form of self-propelled movement; use of fahren would imply going in a
vehicle; of reiten, going on horseback; etc. Russian, and, it so happens,
Navaho, could use an even longer list of verbs to distinguish modes of
transportation. Thus, in English, it is possible to focus attention on the
mere fact of someones having departed in the direction of town, even
though the speaker of English can be more specific if he wants to: walked,
ran, drove, rode, flew, bicycled, rowed, helicoptered could be substituted
for went in the sentence indicated. . . . As compared with German speak-
ers, English speakers are sometimes benefited, sometimes disadvantaged
by the possible lack of specificity in the meaning of the English term go.
from John B. Carroll, Linguistic Relativity,
Contrastive Linguistics, and Language Learning (1963), 1213
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13
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258 Chapter 13: Language and Ideology
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B O X 1 3 . 1 TA L K I N G L I K E A L A D Y
Aside from specific lexical items like color names, we find differences be-
tween the speech of women and that of men in the use of particles that
grammarians often describe as meaningless. There may be no referent
for them, but they are far from meaningless: they define the social context
of an utterance, indicate the relationship the speaker feels between him-
self and his addressee, between himself and what he is talking about.
As an experiment, one might present native speakers of standard Amer-
ican English with pairs of sentences, identical syntactically and in terms
of referential lexical items, and differing merely in the choice of mean-
ingless particle, and ask them which was spoken by a man, which a
woman. Consider:
(a) Oh dear, youve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
(b) Shit, youve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
It is safe to predict that people would classify the first sentence as part
of womens language, the second as mens language. It is true that
many self-respecting women are becoming able to use sentences like (b)
publicly without flinching, but this is a relatively recent development, and
while perhaps the majority of Middle America might condone the use of
(b) for men, they would still disapprove of its use by women. (It is of in-
terest, by the way, to note that mens language is increasingly being used
by women, but womens language is not being adopted by men, apart
from those who reject the American masculine image [for example, ho-
mosexuals]. This is analogous to the fact that mens jobs are being sought
by women, but few men are rushing to become housewives or secretaries.
The language of the favored group, the group that holds the power, along
with its nonlinguistic behavior, is generally adopted by the other group,
not vice versa. In any event, it is a truism to state that the stronger ex-
pletives are reserved for men, and the weaker ones for women.
from Robin Lakoff, Language and Womans Place (1975), 910
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B O X 1 3 . 2 W H AT D O E S T H E W O R D M A N M E A N ?
It has been argued that the word man, as in man is a primate, is inde-
pendent of sex, that it refers to all members of the species, and that it is just
an etymological coincidence that the form for the species is the same as
that for the male members of the species. Certainly, using the same form
for the entire species and for half the species creates the possibility of con-
fusion, as those colonial women discovered who rashly thought that the
word man in the sentence All men are created equal included them.
More confusion may come about when we use phrases like early man. Al-
though this presumably refers to the species, notice how easy it is to use
expressions like early man and his wife and how hard it is to say things
like man is the only animal that menstruates or even early woman and her
husband. . . . The common theme running through these last examples is
that the male is taken as the normal, that masculine forms refer both to the
sex and the species, while women are the exception, usually absorbed by
the masculine, but needing special terms when they become noticeable.
If the above examples have not convinced you that man as a generic is
at best ambiguous, consider the following quote from Alma Graham . . . :
If a woman is swept off a ship into the water, the cry is Man over-
board! If she is killed by a hit-and-run driver, the charge is manslaughter.
If she is injured on the job, the coverage is workmens compensation. But
if she arrives at a threshold marked Men Only, she knows the admoni-
tion is not intended to bar animals or plants or inanimate objects. It is
meant for her.
from Francine Frank and Frank Anshen,
Language and the Sexes (1983), 7172
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Language, Race, and Ethnicity 273
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Language, Race, and Ethnicity

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B OX 1 3 . 3 A F R I C A N - A M E R I C A N E N G L I S H I N AC T I O N :
A F I F T E E N -Y E A R - O L D S P E A K S
INTERVIEWER: What happens to you after you die? Do you know?

LARRY: Yeah, I know.
I: What?
LARRY: After they put you in the ground, your body turns intoahbones,
an shit.
I: What happens to your spirit?
LARRY: Your spiritsoon as you die, your spirit leaves you.
I: And where does the spirit go?
LARRY: Well, it all depends . . .
I: On what?
LARRY: You know, like some people say if youre good an shit, your spirit
goin theaven . . . n if you bad, your spirit goin to hell. Well, bullshit!
Your spirit goin to hell anyway, good or bad.
I: Why?
LARRY: Why? Ill tell you why. Cause, you see, doesn nobody really know
that its a God, yknow, cause I mean I have seen black gods, pink gods,
white gods, all color gods, and dont nobody know its really a God. An
when they be sayin if you good, you goin theaven, thas bullshit, cause
you aint goin to no heaven, cause it aint no heaven for you to go to.
I: Well, if theres no heaven, how could there be a hell?
LARRY: I meanye-eah. Well, let me tell you, it aint no hell, cause this is
hell right here, yknow!
I: This is hell?
LARRY: Yeah, this is hell right here!
I: . . . But, just say that there is a God, what color is he? White or black?
LARRY: Well, if it is a God . . . I wouldn know what color, I couldn say,
couldn nobody say what color he is or really would be.
I: But now, jus suppose there was a God
LARRY: Unlessn they say . . .
I: No, I was jus sayin jus suppose there is a God, would he be white or
black?
LARRY: . . . Hed be white, man.
I: Why?
LARRY: Why? Ill tell you why. Cause the average whitey out here got every-
thing, you dig? And the nigger aint got shit, yknow? Yunderstan? So
umforin order for that to happen, you know it aint no black God
thats doin that bullshit.
from William Labov, The Logic of Nonstandard English (1970), 1215
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14
Linguistic Anthropology in
a Globalized World
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291
292 Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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Language Planning 293
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Literacy, Writing, and Education

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Literacy, Writing, and Education 295
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The Life and Death of Languages 297
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The Life and Death of Languages

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Intercultural Communication and Translation

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Intercultural Communication and Translation 303
B O X 1 4 . 1 P L A N S F O R T H E R E V I TA L I Z AT I O N O F K E R E S ,
THE DIALECT OF RIO GRANDE KERESAN, SPOKEN IN
T H E P U E B LO O F CO C H I T I , N E W M E X I CO
As of this writing, the plans for the fall [2000] include (1) an all-Keres room where
Head Start and preschool children can spend from half an hour to two hours daily,
depending on their parents preferences; (2) Keres language classes for tribal em-
ployees, to be given three times a week; (3) after-school arts and crafts and recre-
ational activities for school-age children; and (4) arts and crafts and Keres classes
for adults in the evenings. In addition, CIEC [Cochiti Indian Education Committee]
and CETF [Cochiti Education Task Force] committee members have committed
themselves to providing mentoring to less fluent speakers and to revitalizing the
practice of visiting each other and maintaining Keres during these visits. Several
community projects such as ditch cleaning, weeding, and painting are planned in
which fluent adults are matched with learning adolescents.
All of these efforts will be undertaken either with volunteers or with tribal
funds. This allows the tribe to maintain control and to remain faithful to its own
values. Moreover, drawing in the different segments of the communityfor ex-
ample, the elders, the tribal council, tribal employees, parents, and children
underscores the fact that the language revitalization project belongs to everyone
and therefore all have a responsibility to its continuation.
Future plans include a language nest, where babies and very young children
can be cared for by fluent Keres-speaking grandmothers; an all-Keres pre-
school program; a healthy after-school recreational program; more community
projects; adolescent-elder pairings; and consistent Keres class offerings after
school and in the evenings for adults. These plans for the future will necessarily
mean that more fluent speakers will be needed to teach and to lead in the var-
ious initiatives that are to come.
The CIEC, the task force, and the leaders of the community understand the
commitment required to make all of this a reality. However, they also under-
stand the power of these initiatives for the language learning of their future lead-
ers. Much of the success that the Pueblo de Cochiti has enjoyed is owed to the
fact that the leaders have moved slowly and planned carefully. Above all, they
have made certain that every step taken has been consonant with Cochiti tradi-
tional culture and values.
from Regis Pecos and Rebecca Blum-Martinez,
The Key to Cultural Survival (2001), 8182
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B O X 1 4 . 2 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O B L E M S B E T W E E N
E N G L I S H S P E A K E R S A N D AT H A B A S K A N S
Whats Confusing to English Whats Confusing to Athabaskan

Speakers About Athabaskans Speakers About English Speakers
They do not speak. They talk too much.
They keep silent. They always talk first.
They avoid situations of talking. They talk to strangers or people
they dont know.
They only want to talk to close They think they can predict
acquaintances. the future.
They play down their own abilities. They brag about themselves.
They act as if they expect things They dont help people even
to be given to them. when they can.
They deny planning. They always talk about whats
going to happen later.
They avoid direct questions. They ask too many questions.
They never start a conversation. They always interrupt.
They talk off the topic. They only talk about what they are
interested in.
They never say anything about They dont give others a chance
themselves. to talk.
They are slow to take a turn in They are always getting excited
talking. when they talk.
They ask questions in unusual They arent careful when they talk
places. about things or people.
They talk with a flat tone of voice.
They are too indirect, inexplicit.
They dont make sense.
They just leave without saying
anything.
from Ronald Scollon and Suzanne Wong-Scollon,
Athabaskan-English Interethnic Communication (1990), 284
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English as an International Language

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B OX 1 4 . 3 I337 5P34K: 4N 31337 I3350N F0R 4N O1D F4RT
In a class on Japanese linguistics I was teaching, I was describing some of

the new orthographic games Japanese teenage girls play on their cell
phones when they text-message using symbols, emoticons, and scripts
from various foreign languages. Oh, thats just like leet! said a student.
Seeing the puzzled look on my face, he went to the board and wrote
31337 sp34k, as if this explained everything. It didnt. After a pregnant
pause, with me unsuccessfully finding a way to appear both knowledge-
able and cool, he said, You really are a newba newbiearent you?
while writing n00b in big letters. It dawned on me that this was some kind
of code. 0 replaced the letter o, 7 replaced t, 1 replaced l, 4 replaced A,
5 replaced S, and so on. So, 31337 was supposed to be elitespelled
eleet, and shortened to leet, in this strange argot. But this was not what
cryptologists call a transposition cipher, where numbers simply encoded
letters. Instead, what was going on was a kind orthographic running joke.
For example, ph was often used for any f-sounds, and words could be
transcribed in several ways: fear might be rendered ph34r, ph33r, or
phear. Phonetic and orthographic puns saturate leet-speek, and some-
times the uninitiated might miss the joke. I never would have guessed
that b7 is banned, and the logic, such as it is, is something like this:
The ampersand (&) is pronounced and, and the number 7 and the
character & share the same key on the keyboard. Thus, b and 7 (i.e.,
and) make banned. Surely, even you . . . you who are . . . he wrote
4n o1d F4rt on the board, as the class broke out into gigglescan see
this, right? But of course, I lied, trying to keep my composure. Later
on, after class, I figured it out. I could console myself, however, that at
least I was not an ber g33k like my student.
Jim Stanlaw
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Ethical Questions and Standards of Conduct

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Ethical Questions and Standards of Conduct 323
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B O X 1 4 . 4 . W H AT L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S
HELPED ACCOMPLISH
It is the policy of the United States to

1) preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedom of Native Amer-
icans to use, practice, and develop Native American languages; . . .
(3) encourage and support the use of Native American languages as a
medium of instruction in order to encourage and support
(A) Native American language survival,
(B) educational opportunity,
(C) increased student success and performance,
(D) increased student awareness and knowledge of their culture
and history, and
(E) increased student and community pride;
(4) encourage State and local education programs to work with Native
American parents, educators, Indian tribes, and other Native Ameri-
can governing bodies in the implementation of programs to put this
policy into effect;
(5) recognize the right of Indian tribes and other Native American gov-
erning bodies to use the Native American languages as a medium of
instruction in all schools funded by the Secretary of the Interior; . . .
(7) support the granting of comparable proficiency achieved through
course work in a Native American language the same academic
credit as comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a
foreign language . . .
Public Law 101-477 Title INative American Languages Act [1990]
RESOURCE MANUAL AND
S T U DY G U I D E
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Chapter 1
Key Terms
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CJPMPHJDBMBOUISPQPMPHZ
DVMUVSBMBOUISPQPMPHZ
IPMJTUJD
MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ
MBOHVBHFNZUIT
Questions for Discussion

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327
328 R E S O U R C E M A N U A L A N D S T U DY G U I D E
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OPUPOFPGUIPTFiBVUIFOUJDwGJMNTUIBUVTFTVCUJUMFT
8IZEPZPVTVQQPTFUIFEJSFD
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TQPLFiOPSNBMw&OHMJTIUPFBDIPUIFSBOEZPVXFSFUPME PSTVQQPTFEUPBTTVNF UIBU
UIFZXFSFTQFBLJOHJO(FSNBO 8PVMEJUCFBNPSF PSMFTT FGGFDUJWFDJOFNBUJDUFDI
OJRVF 8IBUJGZPVXFSFUPMEUIBUUIJTJTKVTUB)PMMZXPPEDPOWFOUJPO UIBUJT JO(FS
NBOXBSNPWJFTUIFBDUPSTEPOPUQPSUSBZ"NFSJDBOTCZVTJOHGBLF&OHMJTIBDDFOUT
"QSPGFTTPSDPMMFBHVFPGPVSTXIPTFGJSTUMBOHVBHFJTOPU&OHMJTITPNFUJNFTVTFT
TFOUFODFTMJLFi0I ZPVWFMPTUZPVSXFJHIU5IBUFYFSDJTFQSPHSBNNVTUCFXPSL
JOHXFMMwPSi5IFWFUTBZT*IBWFUPQVUNZEPHPOBEJFU.BYOFFETUPMPTFIJT
XFJHIUBTIFJTKVTUUPPGBUw1SPCBCMZZPVDPVMEVOEFSTUBOEUIFTFTFOUFODFT BOE
UIPVHIZPVNBZOPUIBWFQISBTFEUIFNJOFYBDUMZUIBUXBZ ZPVNJHIUOPUUIJOLPG
UIFNBTUFDIOJDBMMZiJODPSSFDUw)PXFWFS BDDPSEJOHUPBCPPLPO&OHMJTIHSBNNBS
GPSOPOOBUJWFTQFBLFST TVDITFOUFODFTBSFXSPOH8IBUSFBTPOTEPZPVUIJOLUIF
CPPLNJHIUIBWFHJWFOGPSUIFTFTFOUFODFTCFJOHXSPOH )PXXPVMEZPVDIBOHF
UIFN BOE JGTP
XIZ
0OFPGUIFBVUIPSTPGUIJTCPPLIBTKVTUCFFONBEF,JOHPG"NFSJDB BOEUIFGJSTUEF
DSFFJTUIBUFWFSZPOFNVTUTUVEZBGPSFJHOMBOHVBHFJOTDIPPMGPSBUMFBTUTJYZFBST
TUBSUJOHJOUIFGJSTUHSBEF8JMMUIJTBDUTUBSUBSFWPMVUJPO 8PVMEZPVCFPOFPGUIF
SFCFMT *TUIJTVO"NFSJDBO 8IBUEPZPVUIJOLUIF,JOHIBTJONJOEXJUIUIJTEF
DSFF BOEEPFTJUNBLFBOZTFOTF 8IBUJGXFUPMEZPVUIBUUIJTBDUVBMMZIBQQFOTJOOV
NFSPVTDPVOUSJFTJOUIFXPSME
&OSPMMNFOUTOBUJPOXJEFGPS"SBCJDMBOHVBHFDMBTTFTJOJOTUJUVUJPOTPGIJHIFSFEVDBUJPO
SPTFXFMMPWFSQFSDFOUJOSFDFOUZFBST BOEUIFOVNCFSPGDPMMFHFTPGGFSJOH"SB
CJDJOTUSVDUJPOOFBSMZEPVCMFE8IZEPZPVUIJOLUIBUJT
"UUIFUJNFPGUIF*SBOIPTUBHFDSJTJTJO *MMJOPJTTFOBUPS1BVM4JNPOTBJEUIFSF
XFSFPOMZBGFXTQFBLFSTPG'BSTJ PS1FSTJBO UIFNBKPSJUZMBOHVBHFPG*SBO
PO
TUBGGBUUIFFNCBTTZJO5FIFSBO8IBUEPFTUIJTTBZBCPVUUIFDPOEVDUPG"NFSJDBO
EJQMPNBDZ 8IBUEPFTUIJTTBZBCPVU"NFSJDBOTBUUJUVEFTUPXBSEGPSFJHOMBO
HVBHFTBOEGPSFJHOMBOHVBHFMFBSOJOH 4PNFIBWFTBJEUIBUCFDBVTFPGPVSMJO
HVJTUJDQPWFSUZJO*SBO XFLOFXPOMZUIF4IBITiQBSUZMJOFwBOEIBEOPJEFBPG
IPX UIF BWFSBHF *SBOJBO GFMU BCPVU UIF HPWFSONFOU UIF OFX MFBEFS "ZBUPMMBI
,IPNFJOJ PSUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT8IBUFGGFDU JGBOZ
EPZPVUIJOLUIJTMJOHVJTUJD
TJUVBUJPOIBEPOUIFIPTUBHFDSJTJTBOESFWPMVUJPOJO*SBO
Objective Study Questions

5SVF'BMTF5FTU
5 ' 'PSUIFNPTUQBSU UIFUFSNTiMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZwBOEiBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJO
HVJTUJDTwNFBOFYBDUMZUIFTBNFUIJOH BOEOFJUIFSJTUPCFQSFGFSSFEPWFSUIF
PUIFS
5 ' /BUVSBMMBOHVBHFJUTFMGJTOPUBNCJHVPVTJUJTQFPQMFXIPNJTJOUFSQSFUUIJOHTUIBU
DBVTFQSPCMFNT
5 ' "DDPSEJOHUP#PBT UIFSFJTOPJOUSJOTJDDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFOSBDF MBOHVBHF BOE
DVMUVSF
5 ' "MNPTUFWFSZXIFSFJOUIFXPSMEFWFSZPOFJTNPOPMJOHVBMPSNPOPEJBMFDUBM KVTU
BTJO"NFSJDB
R E S O U R C E M A N U A L A N D S T U DY G U I D E 329
5 ' /PMBOHVBHFJTSFBMMZNPSFDPNQMFYPSTJNQMFSPSFBTJFSUIBOBOZPUIFSOPMBO
HVBHFJTIBSEFSPSFBTJFSUPMFBSOUIBOBOZPUIFS
5 ' 8IJMF MJOHVJTUT BSFQSJNBSJMZJOUFSFTUFEJOUIFTUSVDUVSFPGMBOHVBHFT MJOHVJTUJD
BOUISPQPMPHJTUTTUVEZUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOMBOHVBHFPOUIFPOFIBOEBOEDVM
UVSFBOETPDJFUZPOUIFPUIFS
.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT
____ 5IFQFSTPOXIPJTTBJEUPCFUIFiGPVOEJOHGBUIFSwPG"NFSJDBOBOUISPQPMPHZJT
"
&EXBSE4BQJS #
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DBO*OEJBOTIBTCFFOTUFBEJMZEFDMJOJOHJOGBWPSPG4QBOJTICZBCPVUXIBUQFSDFOU
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____ -FYJDBMTQFDJBMJ[BUJPO UIBUJT BMBSHFJOWFOUPSZPGXPSETQFSUBJOJOHUPBQBSUJDVMBS
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MPDBMWBSJFUJFTPGCFFS $
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BOEQSFTFOU UISFFXPSET

4BQJSTEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFNPSQIPMPHZPGUIF@@@@@@@@@@MBOHVBHFEFNPOTUSBUFEUIBU
OPO8FTUFSOMBOHVBHFTDBOCFBTDPNQMFYBTBOZGPVOEJO&VSPQF
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PGIVNBOLJOE POFXPSE
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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading

5IFSFBSFBOVNCFSPGCPPLTPOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZGPSCFHJOOJOHTUVEFOUT JODMVEJOH
0UUFOIFJNFSBOE#POWJMMBJO%VSBOUJBOE)BOLTBSFNPSFBEWBODFE
%VSBOUJJTBDPOWFOJFOUFODZDMPQFEJDEJDUJPOBSZPGLFZUFSNTGPSTUVEZJOHMBOHVBHF
BOEDVMUVSFBOE%VSBOUJJTBOFEJUFEPWFSWJFXPGBSUJDMFTPOUPQJDTDPWFSJOHUIFXIPMF
GJFMEPGMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ&EXBSE4BQJST-BOHVBHF IBTCFFOJOQSJOUJOWBSJPVTFEJ
UJPOTTJODFJUGJSTUBQQFBSFEJOGPSHPPESFBTPO5IFHSFBUFTUFYQFSUJO/BUJWF"NFSJ
DBOMBOHVBHFTCFGPSF8PSME8BS** 4BQJSDPVMEBMTPXSJUFJOBOFOUFSUBJOJOHNBOOFS5IF
NPTUBDDFTTJCMFPG'SBO[#PBTTMJOHVJTUJDXPSLJTIJTi*OUSPEVDUJPOwUPUIF )BOECPPLPG
"NFSJDBO*OEJBO-BOHVBHFT

Chapter 2
Key Terms
DPOTVMUBOU
DPSQVT
FMJDJUBUJPO
GJFMEXPSL
JOGPSNBOU
MJOHVJTUJDT
QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO

1FPQMFXIPBSFOPUXFMMJOGPSNFETPNFUJNFTIBWFTUSBOHFJEFBTBCPVUUIFMBOHVBHFT
TQPLFOCZNFNCFSTPGTNBMMUSJCBMTPDJFUJFT"OBMZ[FUIFGPMMPXJOHTUBUFNFOUDSJUJ
DBMMZQPJOUCZQPJOU6OXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFT TVDIBTUIPTFTQPLFOCZ"NFSJDBO*OEJ
BOT MBDLXFMMEFGJOFETPVOET PSEFSMZHSBNNBST BOEFYUFOTJWFWPDBCVMBSJFT/PU
IBWJOHCFFOTVCKFDUFEUPUIFVOSFMFOUJOHEFNBOETPGDPNQMFYJOEVTUSJBMDJWJMJ[BUJPOT
UIFTFMBOHVBHFTBSFJOIFSFOUMZJODBQBCMFPGBTTVNJOHUIFGVODUJPOTPGXFMMFTUBCMJTIFE
MBOHVBHFT
4VQQPTFZPVXFSFUPFOHBHFJOZPVSGJSTUGJFMEXPSLFYQFSJFODFJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISP
QPMPHZ)PXXPVMEZPVTFMFDUZPVSJOGPSNBOU T
BOEXIZXPVMEZPVDIPPTFDFSUBJO
UZQFTPGJOEJWJEVBMTPWFSPUIFST
4VQQPTFBGJFMEXPSLFSEJTDPWFSFEBOEUIFOXBTNBLJOHBTUVEZPGBMBOHVBHFTQPLFO
CZUIFNFNCFSTPGBWJMMBHFTPDJFUZJOUIFKVOHMFPGUIF"NB[POCBTJO8IBUXPVME
CFUIFCFOFGJUTPGIBWJOHTUVEJFEDVMUVSBMBOUISPQPMPHZ

5SVF'BMTF5FTU
5 ' 5IFSFBTPOBMMBOUISPQPMPHJTUTFOKPZGJFMEXPSLJTUIBUMJWJOHJOUIFGJFMEQMBDFTOP
EFNBOETPOUIFNUIBUUIFZNVTUBEKVTUUP
5 ' 5IFOBUJWFTQFBLFSGSPNXIPNUIFSFTFBSDIFSDPMMFDUTMJOHVJTUJD PSDVMUVSBM
EBUB
JTSFGFSSFEUPBTBOJOGPSNFS
5 ' 0OFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDUIBUTFUTBOUISPQPMPHZBQBSUGSPNPUIFSTPDJBMTDJFODFTJTB
TUSPOHGJFMEXPSLDPNQPOFOU
5 ' *OUIFJOJUJBMQIBTFTPGGJFMEXPSL UIFBOUISPQPMPHJTUQSFGFSTUPVTFQFPQMFXIP
IBWFIBEFYUFOEFEFYQFSJFODFJOUIFBOUISPQPMPHJTUTPXOTPDJFUZ
5 ' *OUIFJOJUJBMQIBTFTPGMJOHVJTUJDGJFMEXPSL BOUISPQPMPHJTUTFOEFBWPSUPVTFJO
GPSNBOUTXIPTQFBLEJGGFSFOUEJBMFDUTPGUIFMBOHVBHFTUVEJFE
5 ' 6OXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTPGTNBMMUSJCBMTPDJFUJFTBSFQSJNJUJWFCFDBVTFUIFTFMBO
HVBHFTIBWFMJUUMFPSOPHSBNNBS
5 ' 7PDBCVMBSJFTPGUIFMBOHVBHFTPGTPNFTNBMMUSJCBMTPDJFUJFTNBZOPUCFBTFYUFO
TJWFBTUIFWPDBCVMBSZPG TBZ &OHMJTI CVUBSFTVGGJDJFOUUPTFSWFUIFOFFETPGUIF
HSPVQTVTJOHUIFN
@@@@ 5IFSFBSFTUJMMIVOESFETPGMBOHVBHFTBCPVUXIJDIMJOHVJTUTBOEBOUISPQPMPHJTUT
LOPXSFMBUJWFMZMJUUMFPSOPUIJOHBUBMM'PSUIFNPTUQBSUTVDIMBOHVBHFTBSFGPVOE
JO "
*SJBO+BZB #
1BQVB/FX(VJOFB $
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%
POMZUXPPGUIFBSFBTNFOUJPOFE &
BMMUISFFPGUIFBSFBTNFOUJPOFE
@@@@ 'PSJOJUJBMGJFMEXPSLJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZDPODFSOJOH GPSFYBNQMF /BUJWF
"NFSJDBOMBOHVBHFT FYQFSJFODFEBOUISPQPMPHJTUTUFOEUPDIPPTFBOBUJWFJOGPSN
BOU DPOTVMUBOU
XIP "
JTPGUIFPQQPTJUFTFY #
IBTIBEHPPEFYQPTVSFUPUIF
MBSHFSTPDJFUZTVSSPVOEJOHUIFUSJCBMTPDJFUZCFJOHTUVEJFE $
JTZPVOHBOEFBTJMZ
BQQSPBDIBCMF %
/POFPGUIFQSFDFEJOHUISFFDIPJDFTJTGVMMZTBUJTGBDUPSZ
@@@@ 5IFJNNFSTJPOPGBOUISPQPMPHJDBMGJFMEXPSLFSTGPSBOFYUFOEFEQFSJPEPGUJNFJO
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HPJOHOBUJWF
#
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LOPXOMBOHVBHFJTMFBTU BDDFQUBCMF "
5IFJOGPSNBOUTIPVMECFBOPMEFSQFSTPO
XIPJTBOBDUJWFQBSUJDJQBOUJOIJTPSIFSDVMUVSF #
3FDPSEJOHBTQPOUBOFPVTDPO
WFSTBUJPOCFUXFFOUXPOBUJWFTQFBLFSTZJFMETHPPENBUFSJBMEVSJOHUIFJOJUJBMTUBHFT
PGGJFMEXPSL $
5BQFSFDPSEJOHTPGMJOHVJTUJDEBUB XJUIUIFQFSNJTTJPOPGUIFJO
GPSNBOU
BSFFYUSFNFMZIFMQGVM %
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GPSNBOUTPGTFWFSBMBHFHSPVQTBOECPUIHFOEFSTJTIJHIMZBEWJTBCMF
$PNQMFUJPOT
"DPMMFDUJPOPGMBOHVBHFEBUBVTFEBTBCBTJTGPSBOBOBMZTJTPSEFTDSJQUJPOJTSFGFSSFE
UPBTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE
JTUIFESBXJOHPVUPGJOGPSNBUJPOPSSFTQPOTF
GSPNJOGPSNBOUT
5PFNQIBTJ[FUIFJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFODVMUVSFBOETPDJFUZ BOUISPQPMPHJTUTVTF
UIFDPNQPVOEBEKFDUJWF@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE


'PSBCPPLTJ[FEHVJEFUPMJOHVJTUJDGJFMEXPSL TFF4BNBSJO2VJUFQPTTJCMZUIFFBSMJ
FTUBSUJDMFEJTDVTTJOHUIFUSBJOJOHPGMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTJT7PFHFMJOBOE)BSSJT
6TFGVMBMUIPVHITPNFXIBUEBUFEDPNNFOUTPOPCUBJOJOHBMJOHVJTUJDTBNQMFBOEBHVJEFGPS
USBOTDSJCJOHVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTNBZCFGPVOEJO7PFHFMJOBOE7PFHFMJOBOE
&MJDJUJOHBOESFDPSEJOHUFDIOJRVFTBSFEJTDVTTFEJO)BZFTBOE:FHFSMFIOFS'PS
BQSBDUJDBMHVJEFUPIPXUPMFBSOBGJFMEMBOHVBHF DPOTVMU#VSMJOH
'PSDPOUSJCVUJPOTUPUIFIJTUPSZPGMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ TFF)ZNFT TPNFXIBUSF
WJTFEJO)ZNFT)BMMPXFMMBOE%BSOFMM3FBEFSTPOMBOHVBHFJODVMUVSFBOE
TPDJFUZBOEPOMBOHVBHFJOUIFTPDJBMDPOUFYUBSF)ZNFTBOE(JHMJPMJ'PSBEF
UBJMFEBDDPVOUPG1VFSUP3JDBOFYQFSJFODFTXJUIMBOHVBHF SBDF BOEDMBTTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT
TFF6SDJVPMJ%VSBOUJ MBSHFMZCBTFEPO7PMVNFPGUIF+PVSOBMPG-JOHVJTUJD"O
UISPQPMPHZ
DPOUBJOTTFWFOUZGJWFFTTBZTPGUXPUPGPVSQBHFTCZTQFDJBMJTUTPOiMBOHVBHFNBU
UFSTJOBOUISPQPMPHZw5IFUPQJDTSBOHFGSPNBDRVJTJUJPOPGMBOHVBHFUPXSJUJOH"OZSFBEFS
XJMMGJOETPNFUIJOHPGJOUFSFTUBTXFMMBTTIPSUCJCMJPHSBQIJFTPGUIFNPTUTBMJFOUXPSLTPO
FBDIUPQJD'PSBSFBEFSJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ TFF%VSBOUJUIFUXFOUZPOFDPOUSJ
CVUJPOTUPUIJTXPSLJODMVEFBSUJDMFTPOTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZBOEDPNNVOJDBUJWFDPNQFUFODF
VUUFSBODFTBTBDUT MBOHVBHFTPDJBMJ[BUJPOBOEMJUFSBDZQSBDUJDFT BOEUIFQPXFSPGMBOHVBHF
Chapter 3
Key Terms
BDDFOU
BMMPNPUJG
BMMPQIPOF
DPOTPOBOU
FNJD T
FUJD T
NPUJG
NPUJGFNF
QIPOF
QIPOFNF
QIPOFNJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
QIPOFUJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
QIPOPMPHZ
QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFT
TQFFDIBQQBSBUVT
TZMMBCMF
WPJDFETPVOE
WPJDFMFTTTPVOE
WPXFM

&NJD BOEFUJD BQQSPBDIFTIBWFUIFJSPSJHJOJOMJOHVJTUJDTCVUFWFOUVBMMZIBWFCFFOBQ
QMJFEJOTFWFSBMCSBODIFTPGBOUISPQPMPHZ JODMVEJOHPSBMGPMLMPSF*ODVMUVSBM TPDJBM
BOUISPQPMPHZUIFWBMVFPGUIFTFUXPBQQSPBDIFTIBTOPXCFFOHFOFSBMMZSFDPHOJ[FE
%JTDVTTGJSTUUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFUXPBQQSPBDIFT QIPOFUJDWFSTVTQIPOFNJD
JOMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTBOEEFTDSJQUJPO BOEUIFOIPXUIFZDPNQMFNFOUFBDIPUIFSJO
FUIOPHSBQIZ EFTDSJQUJPOPGBDVMUVSF

5IF&OHMJTIXPSETCZ IJHI UIJHI XIZ SZF BOEMJF BOEPOFDPVMEMJTUPUIFSTUIBU
SIZNF
CFMPOHUPUIFTBNFNJOJNBMTFU&YQMBJOXIBUJTNFBOUCZUIJTTUBUFNFOUBOE
DPNNFOU PO UIF SFMBUJPO CFUXFFO UIF QSPOVODJBUJPO PG &OHMJTI XPSET BOE UIFJS
TQFMMJOH
.PSSJT)BMMFXSPUFUIBUiUIFTPundsXFFNJUXIFOTQFBLJOHBSFQSPEVDFECZDPN
QMFYHZNOBTUJDTw$POTJEFSJOHUIBUQFPQMFTQFBLFGGPSUMFTTMZBOETPNFUJNFTUPPGBTU
XIZEJE)BMMFNBLFUIBUTUBUFNFOU
$POTJEFSUFOPSTPTPVOETPG&OHMJTIBOEBUUFNQUUPEFTDSJCF BUMFBTUSPVHIMZ
XIFSF
JOUIFWPDBMUSBDU UIBUJT CFUXFFOUIFMJQTBOEUIFMBSZOY NBSLFEJOUIFOFDLCZUIF
TPDBMMFE"EBNTBQQMF
FBDITPVOEJTQSPEVDFEBOECZXIBUNFBOT

5SVF'BMTF5FTU
5 ' "NFSJDBO&OHMJTIIBTNPSFWPXFMQIPOFNFTUIBODPOTPOBOUQIPOFNFT
5 ' &OHMJTITQFMMJOHBOETQPLFO&OHMJTIBSFXFMMDPSSFMBUFEUIFXSJUJOHTZTUFNPG
&OHMJTIJTUIFSFGPSFQBSUJDVMBSMZTVJUBCMFGPSDBSFGVMMJOHVJTUJDXPSLXJUIVOXSJU
UFOMBOHVBHFT
5 ' *OUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGWPXFMT UIFBJSUIBUFTDBQFTUISPVHIUIFNPVUI BOEUIFOPTF
JOUIFDBTFPGOBTBMJ[FEWPXFMT
JTSFMBUJWFMZVOJNQFEFE
5 ' 1JUDIJOBWBSJFUZPGJOUPOBUJPOBMQBUUFSOTJTVTFEJO&OHMJTIGPSFYBNQMF JO
RVFTUJPOT
5 ' 5IFTZMMBCMFXSJUUFOBTNB IBTGPVSEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHTJO.BOEBSJO$IJOFTFEF
QFOEJOHPOUIFUZQFPGQJUDIDPOUPVSUIFTQFBLFSFNQMPZT
5 ' 5IF&OHMJTIXPSETHVZ BOEUIJHI SFQSFTFOUBNJOJNBMQBJS UIBUJT UIFZWBSZGSPN
FBDIPUIFSJOPOFTPVOEPOMZ
5 ' 5IFUFSNFNJD SFGFSTUPBOBOBMZUJDBMBQQSPBDICBTFEPOEBUBSFDFJWFEGSPNOB
UJWFJOGPSNBOUT UIBUJT JUJTBDVMUVSFTQFDJGJD MBOHVBHFTQFDJGJD
BQQSPBDI
5 ' &OHMJTIBTTQPLFOJO(SFBU#SJUBJO UIF6OJUFE4UBUFT BOE$BOBEBEJGGFSTTPNF
XIBUGSPNPOFEJBMFDUUPUIFOFYUXJUISFHBSEUPWPXFMQSPOVODJBUJPO
5 ' "SUJDVMBUJPOPGBMMUIFTPVOETJOUIFMBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSMEUBLFTQMBDFCFUXFFO
UIFHMPUUJT UIFFMPOHBUFETQBDFCFUXFFOUIFWPDBMDPSET
BOEUIFMJQT
5 ' *OBOBOBMZTJTPGBOVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHF QIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOQSFDFEFTQIP
OFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO
@@@@ 8IFOUIFWPDBMDPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFSBOENBEFUPWJCSBUF UIFZQSPEVDF "
WPJDFETPVOET #
WPJDFMFTTTPVOET $
UIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<>
@@@@ 5IFQTPVOETJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSETQFBL BOETQFBL BSF "
UXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOF
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JODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO %
0G
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0GUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBCPWF
POMZPOFJTBDDFQUBCMF
@@@@ 5IFDPOUSBTUCFUXFFOUIFFNJDBOEFUJDQFSTQFDUJWFTJOMJOHVJTUJDTBOEMJOHVJTUJD
BOUISPQPMPHZIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEBMTPUP "
GPMLMPSF #
BSDIBFPMPHZ $
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BOUISPQPMPHZ %
5IJTBQQSPBDIIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEUPBMMUISFFTVCGJFMETMJTUFE
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@@@@ 5IFTPVOEXSJUUFOBT<C>JT "
VWVMBS #
EFOUBM $
CJMBCJBM %
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&BDIMBOHVBHFIBTB
DIBSBDUFSJTUJDQIPOFNJDTZTUFN #
5IFHSBNNBSTPGVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTPGTNBMM
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MJTIFETPDJFUJFT $
5IFQSPEVDUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOETJTBOFYDFFEJOHMZDPNQMFY
QSPDFTTJOWPMWJOHTPNFPOFIVOESFENVTDMFTBTXFMMBTPUIFSUJTTVFT %
/BUJWF
TQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHFVTFJUFGGJDJFOUMZFWFOUIPVHIUIFZNBZLOPXOPUIJOHBCPVU
JUTTUSVDUVSF
$PNQMFUJPOT
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BSFSFGFSSFEUPBT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@MBOHVBHFT POFXPSE

5IFTNBMMFTUQFSDFQUJCMFEJTDSFUFTFHNFOUPGTQFFDIJTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE

UIFDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEVOJUTPGBMBOHVBHFBSF@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE

BOEUIFWBSJFUJFTPGBDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEBSFJUT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE

Problems
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO8POEFSMZBBOEC UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN;PRVF BMBOHVBHFTQPLFO
JOTPVUIFSO.FYJDPUIBUCFMPOHTUPUIF.JYF;PRVFHSPVQPGMBOHVBHFT"NPOHUIFTPVOET
PG;PRVFBSF<D> BWPJDFMFTTBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF TJNJMBSUPUIFDPOTPOBOUTJOUIFXPSEUTFUTF
<GMZ>
BOE<> BWPJDFEBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF'SPNUIFEBUBHJWFOIFSFUPCFUBLFOBTSFQSF
TFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHFBSF<D>BOE<>BMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF UIBUJT BSFUIFZJO
DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO
PSBSFUIFZBTTJHOBCMFUPUXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT UIBUJT EP
UIFZDPOUSBTU
4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO
1. akahk- to be round 7. nhku I did it
2. aou he answered 8. nima my calabash
3. camamnayu he chatted 9. nin my pine
4. cap sky 10. pac skunk
5. ca stone 11. puci trash
6. cima calabash 12. wanyu he quit singing
1SPCMFN
$[FDIJTB8FTU4MBWJDMBOHVBHFPGUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ TQPLFOJOUIF$[FDI
3FQVCMJD*O$[FDI BNPOHUIFWBSJPVTTUPQT QMPTJWFT
BSFUXPBMWFPEFOUBMTUPQT BOE
<E> BSUJDVMBUFECZUIFUPOHVFUJQBHBJOTUUIFCPVOEBSZCFUXFFOUIFVQQFSJODJTPSTBOEUIF
BMWFPMBSSJEHFCFIJOEUIFN BOEUXPQBMBUBMTUPQT <UZ>BOE<EZ>5PIPXNBOZQIPOFNFTBSF
UIFTFGPVSTPVOETBTTJHOBCMF $POTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBOETVQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO
1. dej give! 9. tyelo body
2. dyedyit to inherit 10. teta aunt
3. dyej action 11. tikat to be on a rst-name basis
4. dyelo cannon 12. titul title
5. kotel kettle 13. tyikat to tick (clock)
6. kotye kitten 14. vada aw
7. tedi hence 15. vana bathtub
8. tele calf (animal) 16. vata absorbent cotton
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO&DIFWFSSBBOE$POUSFSBT UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN"SBVDBOJBO BMBO
HVBHFTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPG"SHFOUJOBBOE$IJMF*TUIFNBJOTUSFTT NBSLFECZ
<}> EJTUJODUJWF PSJTJUQSFEJDUBCMFCZSVMF 4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO
1. elmuyu give us! 4. nawl tiger
2. kimfaluwulay he pretended not 5. putn to drink
to know 6. ulan I do not speak
3. kurm egg 7. wuy yesterday
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO1PTUBM UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN.PIBXL UIF*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFPGB/BUJWF
"NFSJDBOQFPQMFXIPMJWFNBJOMZJOTPVUIFSO0OUBSJPBOEFYUSFNFOPSUIFSO/FX:PSL0O
UIFCBTJTPGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFTUBUVTPGWPXFMMFOHUIJTJUQSFEJDUBCMFPSJTJU
EJTUJODUJWF -FOHUIJTJOEJDBUFECZEPVCMJOHBTZNCPMUIBUJT JTBMPOHF<>JTUIFHMPU
UBMTUPQ<}>NBSLTTUSFTT<>JTBOVOSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM BTJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSE
CVEBOE<>JTBSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM
1. ranahzs he trusts her 7. wahrehyrane he remembered
2. ragdas he scrapes 8. wadunizashege it will be ripening
3. ray}thos he plants repeatedly
4. wahgede he scraped 9. ykreks I push it
5. wsk ve 10. royde he works
6. rehyras he remembers
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN,PSFBO BMBOHVBHFXIPTFBG
GJMJBUJPOJTEJTQVUFE5IFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>BSFJODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO0OUIFCBTJT
PGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFTVGGJYNFBOJOHAPG UIF
8IBUDIBOHFEP
OPVOTUFNTVOEFSHPXIFOUIFTVGGJYJTBUUBDIFE BOEVOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFTEPFTUIF
DIBOHFPDDVS 8IBUBSFUIFUXPNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFFOWJSPONFOUT DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJ
CVUJPO
JOXIJDIUIFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>PDDVS
1. pal foot 5. rupi ruby 9. saram person
2. paruy of the foot 6. ratio radio 10. saramuy of the person
3. kul oyster 7. mul water 11. multok water jug
4. il day 8. muruy of the water 12. ipalsa barber
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPNB#BOUVMBOHVBHFTQP
LFOJO"OHPMB "GSJDB5IJTMBOHVBHFJTBNFNCFSPGUIF/JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
5IFBMWFPMBSTFHNFOUTJODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPOXJUIUIFJSQBMBUBMDPVOUFS
QBSUT<O >BSFBTTJHOBCMFUPUISFFQIPOFNFT8IBUJTUIFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGFBDIPGUIFDPS
SFTQPOEJOHQBJSTPGBMMPQIPOFT UIBUJT BOE<O> <T>BOE<> BOE<[>BOE<> 8IJDIPG
UIF QIPOFUJD TZNCPMT GSPN UIF GJSTU QBJS XPVME ZPV DIPPTF UP SFQSFTFOU UIF
QIPOFNF BOEXIZ
1. tobola to bore a hole 8. nselele termite
2. tanu ve 9. Oina to cut
3. kesoka to be cut 10. Oiba banana
4. kasu emaciation 11. nkoi lion
5. kunezulu heaven 12. aimola alms
6. zevo then 13. loloni to wash the house
7. zenga to cut 14. ima to stretch
1SPCMFN
%FTQFSBOUPJTTQPLFOJOBOBTZFUVOFYQMPSFEUSPQJDBMGPSFTU"NPOHUIF%FTQFSBOUPXPSET
BSFUIFGPMMPXJOHOPVOTBOEOPVOQISBTFT MPOHWPXFMTBSFSFQSFTFOUFECZEPVCMFMFUUFST
TIPSUWPXFMTCZTJOHMFMFUUFST

1. muumu home fried potatoes 4. kakaa used bicycle
2. kaka scrambled eggs 5. mumu garlic ice cream
3. wowo bikini swimsuit 6. woowoo banana split
Is vowel length phonemic? yes no.
In your answer (one sentence should sufce), justify your choice:

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
1SPCMFN
"NPOHUIFTPVOETPG$[FDIBSF<L>BOE<Y> <Y>JTUIFTPVOEXSJUUFODI JOUIFOBNFPGUIF
DPNQPTFS+4#BDI
0OUIFCBTJTPGUIF$[FDIXPSETMJTUFECFMPX BSFUIFTFUXPTPVOETUXP
TFQBSBUFQIPOFNFTPSUXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF
1. [prak] slingshot 5. [prax] dust
2. [puk] puck 6. [xroust] June bug
3. [xrxel] spittle 7. [kras] limestone region with caverns
4. [krkoun] cheapskate 8. [pux] stench
2 separate phonemes 2 allophones of one phoneme. Justify your decision:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5FYUCPPLTPGMJOHVJTUJDTBSFOVNFSPVT BOENPTUDBSSZTPNFFYQMBOBUJPOTPGQIPOPMPHZ
BOEQIPOFNJDT PGUFOBMPOHXJUIFYFSDJTFT5IFUXPDMBTTJDTBSF4BQJSBOE#MPPN
GJFME5XPFYDFMMFOUQPTUXBSCVUQSF$IPNTLZBOJOUSPEVDUJPOTUPMJOHVJTUJDTBSF
)PDLFUUBOE(MFBTPO4PNFSFQSFTFOUBUJWFDPOUFNQPSBSZTUBOEBSEUFYUTBSF
"LNBKJBO %FNFST 'BSNFS BOE)BSOJTI BOE0(SBEZ "SDIJCBME "SPOPGG BOE
3FFT.JMMFS"OFDMFDUJDTFUPGQSPCMFNTDBOCFGPVOEJO#FSHNBOO )BMM BOE3PTT
'PSHFOFSBMSFGFSFODF POFNBZXJTIUPDPOTVMU$SZTUBMBOEFTQFDJBMMZUIFFY
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OFUJDT )BZFTPOQIPOPMPHZ BOE$IPNTLZBOE)BMMFPO UIFQIPOPMPHZPG
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JTBOFYDFMMFOUBOESFMJBCMFTPVSDFPOBMM
BTQFDUTPGMJOHVJTUJDT
4PNFMJOHVJTUTEJTUJOHVJTICFUXFFOWPDPJETBOEWPXFMTPOUIFPOFIBOEBOEDPOUPJET
BOEDPOTPOBOUTPOUIFPUIFS8IFOUIJTEJTUJODUJPOJTNBEF WPDPJETBOEDPOUPJETSFGFSUP
TQFFDITPVOETEFGJOFEJOQIPOFUJDUFSNTBOEDPOTJEFSFEBTQIPOFUJDFOUJUJFT XIFSFBTWPX
FMTBOEDPOTPOBOUTSFGFSUPTFHNFOUTEFGJOFEJOUFSNTPGUIFTPVOETUSVDUVSFPGBQBSUJDV
MBSMBOHVBHF UIBUJT DPOTJEFSFEBTQIPOPMPHJDBMFOUJUJFT
#ZOPNFBOTJTUIFSFBHSFFNFOUBTUPIPXCFTUUPBOBMZ[FUIFTZTUFNPG&OHMJTIWPXFM
QIPOFNFT*OPOFXJEFMZBDDFQUFEBOBMZTJT GPSFYBNQMF UIFWPXFMTPGQJU BOEQFBU BSF
QIPOFNJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEBTJBOEJZ SFTQFDUJWFMZJOBOPUIFS UIFZBSFJOUFSQSFUFEBT*
BOEJBOEJOTUJMMBOPUIFSBTJBOEBMPOHJ'PSPVSQVSQPTFT IPXFWFS JUJTFOPVHIUP
OPUFUIBUBMUFSOBUJWFJOUFSQSFUBUJPOTFYJTU
Chapter 4
Key Terms
BGGJY
BMMPNPSQI
BTQFDU
CPVOENPSQIFNF
DBTF
EFSJWBUJPO
EJTDPVSTF
GSFFNPSQIFNF
HFOEFS
HFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS
JOGJY
JOGMFDUJPO
NPSQIFNF
NPSQIPMPHZ
NPSQIPQIPOFNJDT
QSFGJY
QSPDFTTNPSQIFNF
SFEVQMJDBUJPO
TUFN
TVGGJY
TVQQMFUJPO
TZOUBY
USBOTGPSNBUJPO
USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBS
USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF
WPXFMIBSNPOZ
XPSEPSEFS

5IFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOQIPOFNFTBOENPSQIFNFTPGBMBOHVBHFDPVMECFMJLFOFE
UPUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOUIFBUPNTPGOBUVSBMMZPDDVSSJOHFMFNFOUTBOEUIFNPMF
DVMFTPGDPNQPVOETGPSNFECZUIFJSDIFNJDBMVOJPO&YQMBJOUIFOBUVSFPGUIFTJNJ
MBSJUZ
&OHMJTIIBTCFDPNFUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIFXPSMEOPUPOMZCFDBVTFJUJTUIFOBUJWFPSPG
GJDJBMMBOHVBHFPGNBOZNJMMJPOTPGQFPQMF CVUGPSTUSVDUVSBMSFBTPOTBTXFMM&YQMBJO
UIJTBTTFSUJPO
*ODPNQBSJTPOXJUI&OHMJTI XIZGPSFYBNQMFBSF3VTTJBO 'SFODI (FSNBO BOE4QBO
JTIEJGGJDVMUUPMFBSOGPSNPTUOBUJWFTQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTI .BLFSFGFSFODFTUPHSBN
NBUJDBMGFBUVSFTOPUGPVOEJO&OHMJTICVUDIBSBDUFSJ[JOHBOZPGUIFTFGPVSMBOHVBHFT
UIBUZPVIBQQFOUPLOPX
&YQMBJOUIFCBTJDEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOUIFEFTDSJQUJWFBOEHFOFSBUJWFBQQSPBDIFTUP
BOBMZ[JOHMBOHVBHFT

5SVF'BMTF5FTU
5 ' /BUJWFTQFBLFSTXIPEPOPUPCTFSWFUIFQSPQFSHSBNNBUJDBMSVMFT UIFZNBZTBZ
GPSFYBNQMF i*BJOUwPSiIFEPOULOPXOPUIJOHw
BSFOPUVTFEBTJOGPSNBOUTCZ
MJOHVJTUTBOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT
5 ' 5IFTUVEZPGQIPOFNJDEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOWBSJPVTGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNFJT
UFSNFENPSQIPQIPOFNJDT
5 ' .PSQIPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZPGUIFPSJHJOPGXPSET
5 ' -JOHVJTUJDVOJUTUIBUIBWFBNFBOJOHCVUDPOUBJOOPTNBMMFSNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTBSF
DBMMFENPSQIFNFT
5 ' 5IFSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUWPXFMTXJUIJOBXPSEIBWFBDFSUBJOTJNJMBSJUZSFTVMUTJO
XIBUJTUFSNFEWPXFMIBSNPOZ
@@@@ )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOUNPSQIFNFT OPUIPXNBOZ NPSQIFNFT
BSFUIFSFJOUIFGPM
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#
$
%

@@@@ 8IBUJTUIFUPUBM OVNCFSPGNPSQIFNFTJOUIFQSFDFEJOHTFOUFODF "
#
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@@@@ 5IF&OHMJTIXPSEVOEFTJSBCMF DPOUBJOT "
POFQSFGJY #
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5XPPGUIFBCPWFDIPJDFTBQQMZ '
5ISFFPGUIFBCPWF
DIPJDFT "o% BQQMZ
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QIFNF "
TZMMBCVT #
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PY %
TIFFQ &
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UISFF GSFF NPSQIFNFT #
POF
CPVOENPSQIFNF $
UXPCPVOENPSQIFNFT %
0OMZPOFPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFT
BCPWFBQQMJFT &
5XPPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBCPWF "o$ BQQMZ
$PNQMFUJPOT
8IBULJOEPGNPSQIFNF BMMPNPSQI
JTFYFNQMJGJFECZBDIBOHFSBUIFSUIBOBO
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POFXPSE

*O-BUJO UIFBSSBOHFNFOUPGXPSETJOBTFOUFODFEPFTOPUJOEJDBUFXIJDIOPVO
JTUIFTVCKFDUBOEXIJDIJTUIFPCKFDU CVUSBUIFSJTVTFEUPTIPX@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Problems
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO-BOHBDLFS UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN-VJTFP B6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHF
TQPLFOJOTPVUIXFTUFSO$BMJGPSOJB<>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<R>JTBQPTUWFMBSWPJDFMFTTTUPQ
TJNJMBSUP<L>CVUBSUJDVMBUFEGBSUIFSCBDLJOUIFNPVUI
MPOHWPXFMTBSFXSJUUFOBTBTF
RVFODFPGUXPWPXFMTZNCPMTUIFTUSFTT <}> JTNBSLFEPOMZPOUIFGJSTUPGUXPBEKBDFOU
WPXFMT'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUBUPCFUBLFOBTSFQSFTFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHFJTPMBUF
-VJTFPNPSQIFNFTBOEQSPWJEFFBDIXJUIBO&OHMJTIHMPTT BCSJFGUSBOTMBUJPOUPJOEJDBUF
NFBOJOH

1. no wuklaq I am walking
2. no paiq I am drinking
3. no pain I will drink
4. temt Oami paiviOunin The sun will make us want to drink
5. no py wuklaviOuniq I am making him want to walk
6. no paiviOuq I want to drink
7. temt py wuklaviOuniq The sun is making him want to walk
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO;FQFEB UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN5PIPOP0PEIBN GPSNFSMZSFGFSSFEUPBT1B
QBHP
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JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQBOE<>JTQSPOPVODFEMJLFUIFJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSEQJPO BMTPTQFMMFE
QJOZPO0OUIFCBTJTPGUIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBSWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO"BOEUIFQMVSBM
GPSNTJO$PMVNO# IPXXPVMEZPVEFTDSJCFJOHFOFSBMUFSNTUIFQSPDFTTPGQMVSBMJ[BUJPO
PGUIFWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO"
A B
1. eok speaks eeok
2. ul sticks out uul
3. helwuin is sliding hehelwuin
4. him walks hihim
5. dagkon wipes dadagkon
1SPCMFN
5IFSFHVMBS&OHMJTIQBTUUFOTFNPSQIFNFIBTUISFFBMMPNPSQITEBTJOCFHHFE UBTJO
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NPSQIT[BTJOHPFT PSCFHT TBTJODIJSQT BOE-zBTJOIPVTFT %FTDSJCFUIFFOWJ
SPONFOUTJOXIJDIUIFBMMPNPSQITPGFBDIPGUIFUXPNPSQIFNFTPDDVS
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO.FSSJGJFMEBOEPUIFST UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4JFSSB1PQPMVDB B.JYF
;PRVFMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJOBCPVUUXPEP[FOWJMMBHFTBOETFUUMFNFOUTJOUIFTUBUFPG7FS
BDSV[ .FYJDP 5IF SBJTFE EPU <> BGUFS B WPXFM NBSLT WPXFM MFOHUI <> JT B DFOUSBM
VOSPVOEFEWPXFM<>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<>JTBWFMBSOBTBM TJNJMBSUPOH JOTJOH PSLJOH

BOE<UZ> <O> <> <> BOE<Z>BSFQBMBUPBMWFPMBSTBWPJDFMFTTTUPQ BOBGGSJDBUF BGSJDBUJWF
BOBTBM BOEBTFNJWPXFM SFTQFDUJWFMZ'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB MJTUUIFBMMPNPSQITPGUIF
NPSQIFNFNBSLJOHXIBUDPSSFTQPOETUPUIF&OHMJTIHMPTTiNZwBOEUIFOTUBUFUIFSVMFT
UIBUHPWFSOUIFNPSQIPQIPOFNJDTPGUIJTQSFGJY
1. cogoy liver 21. ancogoy my liver
2. Oiki itch 22. aOiki my itch
3. haya husband 23. anhaya my husband
4. hepe cup 24. anhepe my cup
5. kawah horse 25. akawah my horse
6. k pi rewood 26. ak pi my rewood
7. meme buttery 27. ammeme my buttery
8. mesah table 28. ammesah my table
9. nc armadillo 29. annc my armadillo
10. nyi name 30. annyi my name
11. petkuy broom 31. ampetkuy my broom
12. piyu hen 32. ampiyu my hen
13. suskuy whistle 33. ansuskuy my whistle
14. suu cooking pot 34. ansuu my cooking pot
15. apun soap 35. aapun my soap
16. impa bamboo 36. aimpa my bamboo
17. tk house 37. antk my house
18. tyaka chick 38. atyaka my chick
19. wOomo wife 39. awOomo my wife
20. yemkuy fan 40. ayemkuy my fan
1SPCMFN
#BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4BNPBO4BNPBOJTB
NFNCFSPGUIF"VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
1. manao he wishes 8. mananao they wish
2. matua he is old 9. matutua they are old
3. malosi he is strong 10. malolosi they are strong
4. punou he bends 11. punonou they bend
5. atamaki he is wise 12. atamamaki they are wise
6. savali he travels 13. pepese they sing
7. laga he weaves
Given the preceding data, what Samoan words would you expect for the following:
he sings __________ , they weave ________________ , they travel ________________?
1SPCMFN
5IFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBSFGSPNUIF"[UFDEJBMFDUIFBSEJO7FSBDSV[ .FYJDP
1. niOoka I cry 5. timayana you (sing.) are hungry
2. niOoka I cried 6. nimayanas I will be hungry
3. nimayana I am hungry 7. tiOoka you (sing.) cry
4. nimayana I was hungry 8. niOokas I will cry
$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFGJSTUQFSTPOTJOHVMBS*TJUBQSFGJY @@@@@@PSBTVG
GJY @@@@@@8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFQSFT
FOUUFOTF @@@@@@@UIFQBTUUFOTF @@@@@@@@@UIFGVUVSFUFOTF @@@@@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSN
PGUIFTUFNNFBOJOHADSZ @@@@@@@@@$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFTFDPOEQFSTPO
TJOHVMBS8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
1SPCMFN
)FSFBSFUFO&OHMJTIXPSETXSJUUFOJOUSBEJUJPOBMPSUIPHSBQIZ
1. rewriting 3. tasteless 5. illegally 7. carefully 9. immobile
2. fearfully 4. carelessly 6. hopelessly 8. irretrievable 10. immorally
)PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU OPUIPXNBOZ
QSFGJYFTEPUIFTFUFOXPSETEJTQMBZ @@@ HJWFUIF
OVNCFS
)PXNBOZBMMPNPSQITPGPOFQBSUJDVMBSQSFGJYBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVN
CFS
)PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU TVGGJYFTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS
)PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU
TUFNTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS

3FGFSFODFTUPUFYUCPPLTPGMJOHVJTUJDTNBZCFGPVOEJOUIF/PUFTUP$IBQUFS"OFYDFMMFOU
TBNQMFPGQSPCMFNTBOEFYFSDJTFTJTGPVOEJO.FSSJGJFME /BJTI 3FOTDI BOE4UPSZ
5IF$IPOUBMFYBNQMFTBSFGSPN8BUFSIPVTF UIF*TUINVT/BIVBUFYBNQMFTGSPN
-BX UIF4BNPBOFYBNQMFTGSPN'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO BOEUIFTVNNBSZPG
UIFSVMFTPG5VSLJTIWPXFMIBSNPOZGSPN(MFBTPO
5IFQVCMJDBUJPOCZ$IPNTLZUIBUQSPWFEUPCFBUVSOJOHQPJOUJONPEFSOMJOHVJTUJDTJT
4ZOUBDUJD4USVDUVSFT
0UIFSXSJUJOHTCZ$IPNTLZJODMVEF"TQFDUTPGUIF5IFPSZPG
4ZOUBY
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Chapter 7
Key Terms
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Chapter 8
Key Terms
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Problems
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English Latin Ancient Greek
father pater pat[r
foot p[s pous
for per peri
at plGnus platos
fathom pat[re patan[
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Cahuilla Cupeo Luiseo

haal hal hal look for
kiyul qyul kiyuul sh
lala ll lala goose
qasily qily qaail sagebrush
puul puul puula doctor
mukily mukily muukil sore
silyi silyi iili pour
1SPUP$VQBO<M>DPSSFTQPOETUP@@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ @@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ BOE@@@JO
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Old Modern
Sundanese Javanese Javanese Malay Madurese
manis manis mans manes manes lovely
taman taman taman taman taman garden
kura kura kura kura kra reduction
damar damar damar damar dhmar lamp
bantal bantal bantal bantal bhntal pillow
tanju tanju tanj tanjo tanjhu ower
qupah qupah upah opah pa reward
Example: Proto-Austronesian word for lovely is reconstructible as *manis.
1SPCMFN
According to Watkins 1992, among the reconstructible Proto-Indo-European words are the
following: *gr-no- grain, *bhar(e)s- barley, *yewo- grain, *mel()- to grind, *s[- to sow,
*yeug- to join, to yoke, *gwou- cow, ox, *weik- village, *owi- ewe, sheep, *ekwo- horse,
*dem- house(hold), and *dhwer- door(way). What conclusions can one draw from these
Proto-Indo-European words about the livelihood of members of old Indo-European society?

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o
Chapter 9
Key Terms
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baby carriage dry streambed
cottage cheese earthworm (shermens term)
doughnut pancake
dragony trough along the eaves to catch and carry off rainwater
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aunt half soot

bird house third
caught laugh which
cot marry witch
envelope Mary with
greasy merry
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Chapter 10
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Chapter 11
Key Terms
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Chapter 12
Key Terms
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Chapter 13
Key Terms
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Chapter 14
Key Terms
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Chapter 14
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HVBHFUIBUJTTQPLFOUPUIFN
382 GLOSSARY
*OOBUJTUUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO 5IFUIFPSZUIBUDIJMESFOBSFCPSOXJUIBDBQBD
JUZGPSSBQJEMBOHVBHFEFWFMPQNFOU
*OUFSDVMUVSBMDPNNVOJDBUJPO "OJOTUBODFPGJOEJWJEVBMTGSPNUXPPSNPSFTPDJFUJFTXJUI
EJGGFSJOHDVMUVSFTBUUFNQUJOHUPDPNNVOJDBUFXJUIFBDIPUIFS TVDIDPNNVOJDBUJPO
NBZSFTVMUJONJTVOEFSTUBOEJOHT

*OUPOBUJPOBMDPOUPVS 5IFWBSZJOHQJUDIFTTVQFSJNQPTFEPOBOVUUFSBODFUPJOEJDBUFRVFT
UJPOPSTUBUFNFOU
*TPMBUJOHMBOHVBHFT -BOHVBHFTJOXIJDISFMBUJPOTIJQTBNPOHXPSETBSFTIPXOQSJNBSJMZ
CZXPSEPSEFS DPNQBSFUIFTFOUFODFT 4IBSLTFBUQFPQMF BOE1FPQMFFBUTIBSLT

,FZ 5IFUPOFPSNBOOFSJOXIJDIDPNNVOJDBUJPOUBLFTQMBDF GPSFYBNQMF BNPDLJOH TF
SJPVT PSQFSGVODUPSZLFZ

,JOFNF "TVHHFTUFEUFSNGPSUIFTNBMMFTUEJTDSJNJOBCMFDPOUSBTUJWFVOJUPGCPEZNPUJPO
,JOFTJDT 5IFTUVEZPGCPEZNPUJPOTVTFEJODPNNVOJDBUJPO GPSFYBNQMF TISVHT GBDJBM
FYQSFTTJPO XJOLJOH SBJTJOHPGFZFCSPXT QPJOUJOH BOEUIFMJLF

,JOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ 5IFUFSNTVTFEUPEFTJHOBUFQFPQMFSFMBUFEUPFHPCZCMPPEPS
NBSSJBHF
-BOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOEFWJDF "O JOCPSO DBQBDJUZ PG DIJMESFO UP BDRVJSF UIFJS NPUIFS
UPOHVFXJUIPVUBOZGPSNBMBUUFNQUUPUFBDIJUUPUIFN
-BOHVBHFDPOUBDU "TJUVBUJPOPGDMPTFQSPYJNJUZBOENVUVBMJOGMVFODFCFUXFFOMBOHVBHFT
-BOHVBHFGBNJMZ "MMUIPTFMBOHVBHFTUIBUBSFSFMBUFECZWJSUVFPGIBWJOHEFTDFOEFEGSPN
BTJOHMFBODFTUSBMMBOHVBHF
-BOHVBHFJEFPMPHZ #FMJFGTBCPVUBMBOHVBHFIFMECZJUTVTFSTBTSBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOGPSUIFJS
DPODFQUJPOPGUIFOBUVSFBOEGVODUJPOPGMBOHVBHF
-BOHVBHFJTPMBUF "MBOHVBHFVOSFMBUFEUPBOZPUIFSMBOHVBHF
-BOHVBHFNBJOUFOBODF 5IFBQQMJDBUJPOPGBQQSPQSJBUFNFUIPETUPQSFWFOUBOFOEBOHFSFE
MBOHVBHFGSPNCFDPNJOHFYUJODU
-BOHVBHFNZUIT 6OGPVOEFEPSGBMTFOPUJPOTDPODFSOJOHMBOHVBHF T

-BOHVBHFQMBOOJOH "EFMJCFSBUFBUUFNQUCZBOJOTUJUVUJPOUPBGGFDUMBOHVBHFVTFJOPSEFS
UPQSFWFOUPSUPTPMWFTPNFQSPCMFNPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO
-BUFSBMJ[BUJPO 5IFMPDBMJ[BUJPOPGDFSUBJOGVODUJPOT GPSFYBNQMF MBOHVBHFDPNQSFIFO
TJPO
POPOFTJEFPGUIFCSBJOSBUIFSUIBOUIFPUIFS
-FOHUI PGBTQFFDITPVOE
5IFSFMBUJWFEVSBUJPOPGBTQFFDITPVOEGPSFYBNQMF JOTPNF
MBOHVBHFTTIPSUWPXFMTDPOUSBTUXJUIMPOHPOFT BOEUIFEJGGFSFODFJOMFOHUIDBOEJTUJO
HVJTIUIFNFBOJOHPGPUIFSXJTFJEFOUJDBMXPSET
-FYFNF "WPDBCVMBSZJUFNPGBMBOHVBHF
-FYJDBMEJGGVTJPO 5IFTQSFBEJOHPGTPVOEDIBOHFTUISPVHIPVUUIFXPSET UIFMFYJDPO
PG
BMBOHVBHF
-FYJDBMJUFN MFYFNF
"OPUIFSUFSNGPSXPSE
-FYJDPO BEKMFYJDBM
5IFXPSETUPDLPGBMBOHVBHF BTPDJBMHSPVQ PSBOJOEJWJEVBMTQFBLFS
-FYJDPTUBUJTUJDT "NFUIPEPGFTUBCMJTIJOHUIFMJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJPOTIJQPOUIFCBTJTPGBRVBO
UJUBUJWFTUVEZPGMFYJDBMJUFNT
-JOHVBGSBODB "MBOHVBHFVTFEBTBDPNNPONFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOCFUXFFOQFPQMF
TQFBLJOHEJGGFSFOUOBUJWFMBOHVBHFT
-JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ 5IFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFJOCPUIJUTCJPMPHJDBMBOETPDJPDVMUVSBM
DPOUFYUT
-JOHVJTUJDDPNQFUFODF 5IFLOPXMFEHFPGUIFHSBNNBUJDBMSVMFTPGPOFTNPUIFSUPOHVF
-JOHVJTUJDEFUFSNJOJTN 5IFBTTVNQUJPOUIBUUIFXBZJOEJWJEVBMTUIJOLJTEFUFSNJOFEUP
BTJHOJGJDBOUEFHSFFCZUIFMBOHVBHFUIFZTQFBL
GLOSSARY 383
-JOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ 5IFWJFXUIBUTUSVDUVSBMEJGGFSFODFTBNPOHMBOHVBHFTBSFSFGMFDUFEJO
UIFXPSMEWJFXTIFMECZUIFJSTQFBLFST
-JOHVJTUJDUZQPMPHZ 5IFTUVEZBOEDMBTTJGJDBUJPOPGMBOHVBHFTBDDPSEJOHUPTUSVDUVSBMTJN
JMBSJUJFTSFHBSEMFTTPGHFOFUJDSFMBUJPOTIJQ
-JOHVJTUJDT 5IFTDJFOUJGJDTUVEZPGUIFWBSJPVTBTQFDUTPGIVNBOTQFFDI JODMVEJOHJUTOB
UVSF TUSVDUVSF BOEDIBOHFTPWFSUJNF
-PBOXPSE "XPSECPSSPXFEGSPNBOPUIFSMBOHVBHFBOEBUMFBTUQBSUMZOBUVSBMJ[FECZUIF
CPSSPXJOHMBOHVBHF GPSFYBNQMFJO&OHMJTI LJOEFSHBSUFO TQBHIFUUJ BOE SPVHF GSPN
(FSNBO *UBMJBO BOE'SFODI SFTQFDUJWFMZ

.FTPMJUIJDQFSJPE "SFMBUJWFMZTIPSUUSBOTJUJPOBMUFDIOPMPHJDBMBOEDVMUVSBMQFSJPECFUXFFO
UIF1BMFPMJUIJDBOE/FPMJUIJD
.FUBUIFTJT "MUFSBUJPOJOUIFOPSNBMTFRVFODFPGMJOHVJTUJDFMFNFOUT GPSFYBNQMF XIFO
TPNFPOFTBZTBLTGPS BTL

.POPHFOFTJT PGMBOHVBHF
5IFUIFPSZUIBUUSBJUTSFRVJTJUFGPSUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBO
HVBHFDBNFJOUPCFJOHKVTUPODF
.PSQIFNF 5IFTNBMMFTUNFBOJOHGVMVOJUPGTQFFDI GPSFYBNQMF UIFXPSEVOSFTUGVM DPO
TJTUTPGUISFFNPSQIFNFT<JODPOWFOUJPOBMTQFMMJOH> VO SFTU BOEGVM

.PSQIPMPHZ 5IFTUVEZBOEEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFJOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSFPGXPSETBOEPGUIFJO
UFSSFMBUJPOTIJQTPGNPSQIFNFT
.PSQIPQIPOFNJDT 5IFTUVEZBOEEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFQIPOFNJDEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOUIF
WBSJPVTGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNF
.PUJG JOPSBMGPMLMPSF
*OBUBMF UIFTNBMMFTUFMFNFOUUIBUIBTUIFQPXFSUPQFSTJTUJOUSB
EJUJPOCZWJSUVFPGIBWJOHTPNFUIJOHVOVTVBMBCPVUJU
.PUJGFNF "EJTUJODUJWFVOJUPGGPMLOBSSBUJWFT GPSFYBNQMF iUIFIFSPJTTVCKFDUFEUPBEJG
GJDVMUPSEBOHFSPVTUFTUw

.PUPSDPSUFY 5IFBSFBPGUIFCSBJOXIFSFJNQVMTFTGSPNUIFOFSWFDFOUFSTUPNVTDMFT
PSJHJOBUF
.VMUJMJOHVBMJTN (PPEDPNNBOEPGNPSFUIBOUXPMBOHVBHFT
/FBOEFSUIBMT )PNJOJETXIPMJWFEJOQBSUTPGUIF0ME8PSMECFUXFFOBCPVU BOE
ZFBSTBHP
/FPHSBNNBSJBO "GPMMPXFSPGBOJOFUFFOUIDFOUVSZTDIPPMPGDPNQBSBUJWFQIJMPMPHZ
DMBJNJOHUIBUTPVOEMBXTBENJUUFEOPFYDFQUJPO
/FPMJUIJDQFSJPE 5IFMBUFTUQFSJPEPGUIF4UPOF"HF XIJDITBXTPNFSFWPMVUJPOBSZEF
WFMPQNFOUTJOIVNBODVMUVSF EPNFTUJDBUJPOPGQMBOUTBOEBOJNBMT

/FVSPMJOHVJTUJDT 5IFCSBODIPGMJOHVJTUJDTUIBUEFBMTXJUIUIFSPMFUIFCSBJOQMBZTJOMBO
HVBHFBOETQFFDIQSPDFTTJOH
/FXFUIOPHSBQIZ 4FFFUIOPTDJFODF
/POWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPO 5SBOTNJTTJPOPGNFTTBHFTCZNFBOTPUIFSUIBOTQFFDIPSXSJU
JOH GPSFYBNQMF CZNFBOTPGQJDUPSJBMTJHOT

/PSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO 5IFBDDFQUBCMFCPVOEBSJFTXJUIJOXIJDIDPNNVOJDBUJWFBDUJW
JUZJTUPCFVOEFSTUPPEPSFYQMBJOFE
0MGBDUPSZDIBOOFM "NFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOVUJMJ[JOHUIFTFOTFPGTNFMM GPSFYBNQMF
CBLJOHDPPLJFTPSCSFBECFGPSFQFPQMFDPNFUPMPPLBUBIPVTFGPSQPTTJCMFQVSDIBTF

0QUJDBMDIBOOFM "NFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOVUJMJ[JOHUIFTFOTFPGWJTJPO GPSFYBNQMF
XSJUJOHPSSPBETJHOT

1BSBMBOHVBHF 'FBUVSFTPGWPDBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOUIBUBSFDPOTJEFSFENBSHJOBMPSPQUJPOBM
TVDIBTWBSJBUJPOTJOUFNQP JOUFOTJUZ PSQJUDI
1BSBMJOHVJTUJDT 5IFTUVEZPGQBSBMBOHVBHF
384 GLOSSARY
1BSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO 5IFJNNFSTJPOPGBOUISPQPMPHJDBMGJFMEXPSLFSTJOUIFEBZUP
EBZBDUJWJUJFTPGUIFQFPQMFUIFZBSFTUVEZJOH VTVBMMZGPSBOFYUFOEFEQFSJPE
1BTTJWF SFDFQUJWF
CJMJOHVBM "QFSTPOXIPVOEFSTUBOETBTFDPOEMBOHVBHFCVUJTVOBCMF
UPTQFBLJU
1IBUJDDPNNVOJDBUJPO "TQFFDIVTFEGPSTPDJBMBOEFNPUJWFQVSQPTFTSBUIFSUIBOGPS
USBOTNJUUJOHJOGPSNBUJPO
1IFSPNPOF 4QFDJFTTQFDJGJDTVCTUBODFTFDSFUFECZBOJNBMTBOEVTFEBTBTUJNVMVTUPPUI
FSTPGUIFTBNFTQFDJFT
1IPOF 5IFTNBMMFTUQFSDFQUJCMFEJTDSFUFTFHNFOUPGTQFFDI DPOTJEFSFEBTBQIZTJDBMFWFOU
1IPOFNF 5IFTNBMMFTUEJTUJODUJWFTPVOEVOJUPGBMBOHVBHF GPSFYBNQMF UIFJOJUJBMDPO
TPOBOUTPGUIFXPSETCBU QBU WBU GBU BOETBU BSFGJWFEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFTPG&OHMJTI

1IPOFNJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
5IFSFQSFTFOUBUJPOPGEJTUJODUJWFTQFFDITPVOETCZNFBOTPG
QIPOFNJDTZNCPMT
1IPOFUJD 3FQSFTFOUJOHJOTPNFEFUBJMUIFOBUVSFPGTQFFDITPVOETCZUIFTQFDJBMTZNCPMT
PGBQIPOFUJDBMQIBCFU
1IPOFUJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
5IFEFUBJMFESFQSFTFOUBUJPOTPGTQFFDITPVOETCZVTFPGUIFTZN
CPMTPGBQIPOFUJDBMQIBCFU
1IPOPMPHZ 5IFTUVEZBOEEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFTPVOETZTUFNPGBMBOHVBHF
1IZMVN -BOHVBHFHSPVQTSFMBUFENPSFSFNPUFMZUIBOMBOHVBHFTDMBTTJGJFEBTCFMPOHJOHUP
BMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
1IZTJDBM PSCJPMPHJDBM
BOUISPQPMPHZ 5IFTVCGJFMEPGBOUISPQPMPHZDPODFSOFEXJUIUIF
TUVEZPGIVNBOFWPMVUJPOBOEQIZTJDBMWBSJBUJPO
1JEHJO "GPSNPGTQPLFODPNNVOJDBUJPOXJUIBHSFBUMZSFEVDFEHSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF
BOEMJNJUFEWPDBCVMBSZUIBUJTVTFECZTQFBLFSTPGNVUVBMMZVOJOUFMMJHJCMFMBOHVBHFTUP
DPNNVOJDBUFXJUIFBDIPUIFS BQJEHJOJTOPUUIFOBUJWFMBOHVBHFPGBOZTQFBLFS

1JEHJOJ[BUJPO 5IFQSPDFTTPGHSBNNBUJDBMBOEMFYJDBMSFEVDUJPOPGBMBOHVBHFUPBQJEHJO
1JUDI UPOF
5IFEJTUJODUJWFQJUDIMFWFM UPOBMIFJHIU
PGBTZMMBCMFJUJTBSFMBUJWFGFBUVSF
UPOFTPGXPNFOTWPJDFTBSFUZQJDBMMZIJHIFSUIBONFOT
1PMZHFOFTJT PGBMBOHVBHF
5IFUIFPSZUIBUUSBJUTSFRVJTJUFGPSUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBO
HVBHFPSJHJOBUFEJOTFQBSBUFQMBDFTBOEBUEJGGFSFOUUJNFT
1PMZHMPU "QFSTPOXIPTQFBLTTFWFSBMMBOHVBHFT
1PMZTFNZ 5IFSBOHFPGEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHTJOPOFXPSE GPSFYBNQMF UIFWBSJPVTNFBOJOHT
PGUIFXPSETFBU

1PMZTZOUIFUJDMBOHVBHFT -BOHVBHFTJOXIJDIXPSETBSFMPOHBOENPSQIPMPHJDBMMZDPNQMFY
GPSFYBNQMF JOUIFBCPSJHJOBM"VTUSBMJBOMBOHVBHF5JXJUIFTFOUFODFi*LFQUPOFBUJOHw
JTFYQSFTTFECZUIFXPSEOHJSSVVOUIJOHBQVLBOJ <UIFIZQIFOTJOEJDBUFNPSQIFNF
CPVOEBSJFT>

1SFGJY "OBGGJYUIBUJTBEEFEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHPGBSPPUPSTUFN GPSFYBNQMF UIFJOJUJBM
NPSQIFNFTJOUIFXPSETSFXSJUF VOEP BOEEJTBMMPX

1SFMBOHVBHF "OZPGUIFTUBHFTJOUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGTQFFDIUIBUQSFDFEFTGVMMGMFEHFE
MBOHVBHF
1SJNBSZTJHOMBOHVBHF "TJHOMBOHVBHFVTFEUPUIFFYDMVTJPOPGTQPLFOMBOHVBHF GPSFY
BNQMF CZQFPQMFCPSOEFBG
1SPDFTTNPSQIFNF "DIBOHFPGBTPVOEPSTPVOET GPSFYBNQMF GSPNHPPTF UPUIFQMVSBM
HFFTF
SBUIFSUIBOUIFBEEJUJPOPGBNPSQIFNF BTJOUIFQMVSBMDBUTGSPN DBU

1SPTPEJDGFBUVSFT 'FBUVSFTPUIFSUIBOWPXFMTBOEDPOTPOBOUTUIBUBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSBOVU
UFSBODFUPTPVOEOBUVSBMBOEUPCFGVMMZNFBOJOHGVM GPSFYBNQMF TUSFTTBOEJOUPOBUJPO

GLOSSARY 385
1SPUPDVMUVSF "OBTTVNFEPSSFDPOTUSVDUFEQSFIJTUPSJDDVMUVSFPGBQFPQMF
1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBO 5IFBTTVNFEPSSFDPOTUSVDUFEBODFTUSBMMBOHVBHFPGBMMUIFMBO
HVBHFTCFMPOHJOHUPUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
1SPUPMBOHVBHF "OBTTVNFEPSSFDPOTUSVDUFEBODFTUSBMGPSNPGBMBOHVBHFCSBODIPSMBO
HVBHFGBNJMZ
1SPUPXPSE "OBTTVNFEPSSFDPOTUSVDUFEBODFTUSBMXPSEPGDPHOBUFXPSETGPVOEJOUIF
MBOHVBHFTPGBMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
1SPYFNJDT 5IFTUVEZPGUIFDVMUVSBMQBUUFSOJOHPGUIFTQBUJBMTFQBSBUJPOJOEJWJEVBMTOBUV
SBMMZNBJOUBJOJOGBDFUPGBDFFODPVOUFST
1SPYFNJD[POF 5IFSFMBUJWFEJTUBODFPGJOUFSQFSTPOBMTQBDF SBOHJOHGSPNJOUJNBUFUPQVC
MJD UIBUNFNCFSTPGTPDJFUJFTUFOEUPPCTFSWFJOGBDFUPGBDFFODPVOUFST
1ZHNZDIJNQBO[FF PSCPOPCP
"OFOEBOHFSFETQFDJFTPGDIJNQBO[FFTUIBUBSFNPSF
JOUFMMJHFOUBOETPDJBCMFUIBOUIFTQFDJFTPGDPNNPODIJNQBO[FFT
3BDF TPDBMMFE
*ONPEFSOBOUISPQPMPHZBEJTDSFEJUFEUFSNSFGFSSJOHUPBQPQVMBUJPOUIBU
TIBSFTBOVNCFSPGQIZTJDBMUSBJUT
3FDPOTUSVDUJPO 5IFCVJMEJOHVQPSSFDSFBUJOHPGTPNFUIJOHPOUIFCBTJTPGBWBJMBCMFFW
JEFODF GPSFYBNQMF PGBOFYUJODUMBOHVBHFPSDVMUVSF

3FEVQMJDBUJPO 5IFSFQFUJUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOETNBSLJOHBHSBNNBUJDBMGVODUJPO GPSFY
BNQMF JOUIF5BHBMPHXPSE EBEBMBXAPOMZUXPGSPN EBMBX AUXP
&OHMJTIIBTPOMZ
TPNFSFEVQMJDBUJWFDPNQPVOEXPSET TVDIBTHPPEZHPPEZ BOEXJTIZXBTIZ

3FGFSFOU "OZUIJOHSFGFSSFEUPCZBXPSE
3FGMFYJWFOPJTFT #BTJDCJPMPHJDBMOPJTFTPGBOJOGBOU TVDIBTCVSQJOH DPVHIJOH BOEDSZJOH
3FTUSJDUFEDPEF "SFMBUJWFMZJOGPSNBMWBSJFUZPGMBOHVBHFXJUIBSFEVDFETUZMJTUJDBOEHSBN
NBUJDBMSBOHF
3PPU "CBTFGPSNPGBXPSEUIBUDBOOPUCFGVSUIFSTVCEJWJEFE PSBCBTJDNPSQIFNF GPS
FYBNQMF UFBDI USFF CMVF OBTU<JOOBTUZ> BOEDFJWF <JODPODFJWF SFDFJWF FUD>

3VMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPO 5IFLOPXMFEHFPGNFNCFSTPGBTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZBTUPXIBUJTBOE
XIBUJTOPUBQQSPQSJBUFJODPNNVOJDBUJPO
4BQJS8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT "UIFPSZPGUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOMBOHVBHFBOEUIPVHIUBMTP
LOPXOBTUIFIZQPUIFTJTPGMJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZUIFCFMJFGUIBUMBOHVBHFEFUFSNJOFTUIF
XBZTQFBLFSTQFSDFJWFUIFXPSMEBSPVOEUIFN
4FNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM "UFDIOJRVFUPNFBTVSFUIFBGGFDUJWFSFBDUJPOPGTQFBLFSTPGBMBO
HVBHFUPXPSET MFYJDBMJUFNT

4FNBOUJDT 5IFTUVEZPGNFBOJOHJOMBOHVBHF
4FNJPUJDT 5IFTUVEZPGUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGTJHOBMJOHTZTUFNT UIBUJT PGTJHOTBOEUIFJS
VTF

4FRVFOUJBMCJMJOHVBMJTN 5IFBCJMJUZUPTQFBLUXPMBOHVBHFT BDRVJSFEJOTVDDFTTJPO
4FYVBMCJBT JOMBOHVBHF
5IPTFVTBHFTJOBMBOHVBHFUIBUGBWPSPOFHFOEFSPWFSBOPUIFS
GPSFYBNQMF UPVTFUIFQPTTFTTJWFBEKFDUJWF IJT UPJODMVEFCPUINFOBOEXPNFOJOUIF
TFOUFODFi&BDIESJWFSPOQVCMJDSPBETNVTUDBSSZIJTESJWFSTMJDFOTFw

4JHOMBOHVBHF "TZTUFNPGIBOEHFTUVSFTVTFEBTBOBMUFSOBUJWFUPTQFFDI GPSFYBNQMF CZ
UIFEFBG

4JNVMUBOFPVTCJMJOHVBMJTN 5IFBCJMJUZUPTQFBLUXPMBOHVBHFT BDRVJSFEBUUIFTBNFUJNF
4PDJBMJOTFDUT 4QFDJFTPGJOTFDUTUIBUMJWFJODPMPOJFTXJUIPUIFSTPGUIFTBNFTQFDJFT
4PDJBMJ[BUJPO JOBOUISPQPMPHZ
5IFQSPDFTTCZXIJDIJOGBOUTBSFUBVHIUUIFBTQFDUTPG
UIFJSTPDJFUZTDVMUVSFUIFZOFFEUPLOPXUPGVODUJPOBTBEVMUT
4PDJBMOFUXPSL "MMUIPTFQFPQMFXJUIXIPNBOJOEJWJEVBMSFHVMBSMZJOUFSBDUT
386 GLOSSARY
4PDJBMQPXFSUIFPSZ DPODFSOJOHUIFMBOHVBHFBOEHFOEFSSFMBUJPOTIJQ
5IFWJFXUIBU
UIFEJGGFSFODFTGPVOECFUXFFONFOTBOEXPNFOTTQFFDISFGMFDUUIFEJGGFSFOUEFHSFFTPG
QPXFSPSTUBUVTFBDIHFOEFSIPMETJOTPDJFUZ
4PDJFUZ "DPPQFSBUJOHTPDJBMHSPVQ XJEFMZSBOHJOHJOTJ[F XIPTFNFNCFSTIBWFEFWFM
PQFEPWFSUJNFDPNNPOUSBEJUJPOT JOTUJUVUJPOT BOECSPBEJOUFSFTUT
4PDJPDVMUVSBM *OWPMWJOHBDPNCJOBUJPOPGDVMUVSBMBOETPDJBMGBDUPST
4PDJPMJOHVJTUJDDIBOHF -JOHVJTUJDDIBOHFWJFXFEJOUIFDPOUFYUPGUIFTPDJFUZPSDPNNV
OJUZJOXIJDIJUUBLFTQMBDF
4PDJPMJOHVJTUJDT 5IFCSBODIPGMJOHVJTUJDTDPODFSOFEXJUIUIFWBSJPVTBTQFDUTPGUIFSFMB
UJPOTIJQCFUXFFOTPDJFUZBOEMBOHVBHFUIFTUVEZPGXBZTJOXIJDIBOJOEJWJEVBMTTQFFDI
DPOWFZTTPDJBMJOGPSNBUJPO
4PVOEDIBOHF "DIBOHFJOUIFTPVOETZTUFNPGBMBOHVBHFPWFSBQFSJPEPGUJNF GPSFY
BNQMF UIFDIBOHFGSPN0ME&OHMJTI TUGO UP.PEFSO&OHMJTI TUPOF

4PVOEMBX 5IFEFTDSJQUJPOPGBSFHVMBSTFSJFTPGDIBOHFTJOBMBOHVBHFTTPVOETZTUFNPWFS
BQFSJPEPGUJNF
4PVOETZNCPMJTN "OBTTPDJBUJPOCFUXFFOGPSN TPVOE
BOENFBOJOHJOBMBOHVBHF
4QFFDIBDU 5IFNJOJNVNVOJUPGTQFFDI GPSFYBNQMF BHSFFUJOH BOBQPMPHZ PSBTFMG
JOUSPEVDUJPO

4QFFDIBQQBSBUVT 5IFWBSJPVTQBSUTPGUIFIVNBOCPEZCFUXFFOUIFMBSZOYBOEUIFMJQT
XIFSF TQFFDI TPVOET BSF QSPEVDFE BMTP SFGFSSFE UP BT WPDBM PSHBOT PS PSHBOT PG
TQFFDI
4QFFDIBSFB "OBSFBJOXIJDITQFBLFSTPGEJGGFSFOUMBOHVBHFTTIBSFTQFBLJOHSVMFT
4QFFDIDPNNVOJUZ "MMUIPTFXIPTIBSFBMBOHVBHFWBSJFUZBTXFMMBTTQFDJGJDSVMFTGPS
TQFBLJOHBOEJOUFSQSFUJOHTQFFDI
4QFFDIFWFOU "CBTJDVOJUPGWFSCBMJOUFSBDUJPO GPSFYBNQMF BOJOUFSWJFX BUFMFQIPOFJO
RVJSZ PSBOBSHVNFOUXJUIBTBMFTQFSTPO

4QFFDITJUVBUJPO 5IFDPOUFYUJOXIJDITQFBLJOHUBLFTQMBDF GPSFYBNQMF BGJTIJOHUSJQ
GBNJMZNFBM PSCFFSQBSUZ

4UBOEBSE 5IFQSFTUJHFWBSJFUZPGBMBOHVBHFVTFECZBTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZVOEFSVTVBMMZ
GPSNBMDJSDVNTUBODFTBWBSJFUZPGBMBOHVBHFVTFECZUIFFEVDBUFE
4UFN "TJOHMFSPPUNPSQIFNF CJSE
PSBDPNQPVOEXPSE CMBDLCJSE
UIFQBSUPGBOJO
GMFDUFEXPSEUIBUSFNBJOTBGUFSUIFBGGJYIBTCFFOSFNPWFE GPSFYBNQMF XJEUI JTUIF
TUFNPGXJEUIT

4USFTT 5IFEFHSFFPGGPSDF PSQSPNJOFODF BTTPDJBUFEXJUIBTZMMBCMFPGTQFFDI
4USVDUVSBM BQQSPBDI
*OMJOHVJTUJDT BOBQQSPBDIBUUFNQUJOHUPEFTDSJCFUIFVOJUTPGB
MBOHVBHFBOEUIFJSDPNCJOBUJPOTJOUFSNTPGTUSVDUVSFBOETZTUFN
4UZMF "TJUVBUJPOBMEJTUJODUJWFVTFPGMBOHVBHFJOXSJUJOHPSTQFFDI "OVNCFSPGTUZMFT
BSFEJTUJOHVJTIFE SBOHJOHGSPNQPNQPVTUPJOUJNBUF
4VCDVMUVSFUIFPSZ DPODFSOJOHUIFMBOHVBHFBOEHFOEFSSFMBUJPOTIJQ
5IFWJFXUIBU
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LANGUAGES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT
A N D T H E I R L O CAT I O N S
&VSPQF 9 French 18 Romanian

1 Albanian 10 German 19 Romansh
2 Basque 11 Greek 20 Russian
3 Catalan 12 Icelandic 21 Schwyzerttsch
4 Croatian 13 Italian (and Latin) 22 Serbian
5 Czech 14 Lapp (Sami) 23 Slovak
6 Dutch 15 Magyar (Hungarian) 24 Spanish
7 Estonian 16 Polish
8 Finnish 17 Portuguese
419
4PVUIXFTUFSO"TJBBOE 36 Kikuyu 49 Aztec
/PSUI"GSJDB 37 Kugbo 50 Caraya
25 Arabic 38 Luhya 51 Chontal
26 Armenian 39 Luo 52 Guarani
27 Persian 40 Nembe 53 Island Carib
28 Turkish 41 Odual 54 Isthmus Nahuat
42 Ogbia 55 Jamaican Creole
"GSJDB4PVUIPG 43 Swahili 56 Kuna
UIF4BIBSB 44 Twi 57 Mazateco
29 Abua 45 Vai 58 Nahuatl
30 Afrikaans 46 Yoruba 59 Otomi
31 Ashanti 60 Pirah
32 a Bantu language -BUJO"NFSJDBBOE 61 Sierra Popoluca
33 Ewe UIF$BSJCCFBO 62 (Tenejapa) Tzeltal
34 Kalabari 47 Aguaruna 63 Yucatec
35 Kamba 48 Araucanian 64 Zoque
&BTUBOE4PVUI"TJB 122 Malay "VTUSBMJBBOE0DFBOJB
107 Agta 123 Malayalam 137 Hawaiian Creole
108 Aklanon 124 Mandarin (Chinese) 138 Hiri Motu
109 Assamese 125 Marathi 139 Kaluli
110 Badaga 126 Mongolian 140 Kiriwinian
111 Bengali 127 Oriya 141 Maori
112 Bontok 128 Panjabi (Punjabi) 142 Neo-Melanesian
113 Cantonese 129 Subanun (Tok Pisin)
114 Gujarati 130 Sundanese 143 Ngandi
115 Hindi 131 Tagalog 144 Pintupi
116 Japanese 132 Tamil 145 Samoan
117 Javanese 133 Telugu 146 Tolai (Kuanua)
118 Kannada 134 Urdu
119 Kashmiri 135 Vietnamese
120 Korean 136 Yakan
121 Madurese (key continues)
/PSUI"NFSJDB/PSUI 73 Crow 85 Kwakiutl 97 Shoshone-
PG.FYJDP 74 Cupeo 86 Laguna Comanche
65 Acoma 75 Dakota 87 Luiseo 98 Takelma
66 Apache (and 76 Eskimo 88 Menomini 99 Tewa
Western Apache) 77 Fox 89 Mohawk 100 Tiwa
67 Arapaho 78 Gullah 90 Navajo 101 Tohono Oodham
68 Atsina (Gros 79 Hopi 91 Nootka (Papago)
Ventre) 80 Hupa 92 Ojibwa 102 Tunica
69 Blackfoot 81 Keres 93 Pawnee 103 Upper Chinook
70 Cahuilla 82 Kiowa 94 Penobscot-Abnaki 104 Wichita
71 Cheyenne 83 Kiowa Apache 95 Sarcee 105 Yana
72 Cree-Montagnais 84 Koasati 96 Shawnee 106 Zuni
Note: The locations are based on the map accompanying Comparative Studies of North American Indians by Harold
E. Driver and William C. Massey (1957).
INDEX
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"DPVTUJDQIPOFUJDT "NFSJOEMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
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i#MBDL&OHMJTIUSJBM wo "OHMP"NFSJDBOT
EFTDSJQUJPOPG o MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH o
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HSBNNBUJDBMEJGGFSFODFT o "OHVMBSHZSVT GJH
PSJHJOTPG o GJH "OPNJDBQIBTJB
QSPOVODJBUJPOPG o "OTIFO 'SBOL
TUJHNBUJ[BUJPOPG o "OUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT4FF MJOHVJTUJD
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DPNNVOJDBUJWFTUZMFPG o "OUISPQPMPHZ
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GJH EFGJOFE o
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MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ TJMFODFCFIBWJPSPG o
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o CPY GJH "SBCJD FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG
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423
424 INDEX
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o CPY #MVN.BSUJOF[ 3FCFDDB
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#BEBHBMBOHVBHF #SB[JM MBOHVBHFTPG
#BLIUJO .JLIBJM #SJHIU 8JMMJBN
#BOUVIJTUPSZ MJOHVJTUJDJOGFSFODFTBCPVU #SJUJTI4JHO-BOHVBHF #4-

CPY #SPDBTBQIBTJB
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BOE o $BOBEB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o
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#JDLFSUPO %FSFL o $BTUFFEBEF/KFSB 1FESPEF
#JMJOHVBMJTN $BUBMBOMBOHVBHF
EFGJOFE $BUFHPSJ[BUJPO o
NJTDPODFQUJPOTBCPVU $FSFCSVN
TUBHFTPG o $FUBDFBOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG
JO4XJU[FSMBOE $IBNCFSMBJO "MFYBOEFS'
4FFBMTP NVMUJMJOHVBMJTN $IBNCFST +,
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INDEX 425
$IFSFNF NFTTBHFGPSNBOEDPOUFOU

$IJNQBO[FFT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG OPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO o
o QIBUJD
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QMBOFGJHIUFSDPMMJTJPO o SVMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPO
$IJOFTF .BOEBSJO UBCMF TUZMFTPG o
$IJOFTFMBOHVBHFT GJH 4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOETQFFDI
$IJQFXZBOMBOHVBHF $PNNVOJDBUJPO OPOWFSCBM
$IPNTLZ /PBN o o DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o
o LJOFTJDT CPEZMBOHVBHF
o
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$MBTTF "OES TJHOMBOHVBHF o
$PEF HFOFSBMMBOHVBHF XIJTUMFTQFFDI o
$PEFNJYJOH o $PNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o
$PEFTXJUDIJOH o $PODFQU EFGJOFE o
$PFYUFOTJPO $POOPUBUJPO
$PHOBUF o $POTPOBOUQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO
$PHOJUJPO &OHMJTI UBCMF
DBUFHPSJ[BUJPOBOE o $POTPOBOUT BSUJDVMBUJPOPG UBCMF
EJHJUBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE o UBCMF
MBOHVBHFBOE o $POUFYUVBMJ[BUJPO
$PHOJUJWFBOUISPQPMPHZ $POUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFFWPMVUJPO
$PJOFEXPSET
$PMPS $PSQVT TJ[FPG o
5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS $PXBO (FPSHF.
7JSUVBM"OUISPQPMPHZ$PMPS-BC $SFPMF EFGJOFE
XFCTJUF $SFPMJ[BUJPO o CPY
$PMPSUFSNJOPMPHZ $SJUJDBMQFSJPEDSJUJDBMBHFIZQPUIFTJT
#FSMJO,BZTUVEZPG o $SP.BHOPOT o
-FOOFCFSH3PCFSUTTUVEZPG o $SVUUFOEFO "MBO
$PNNVOJDBUJPODPNNVOJDBUJWF $SZTUBM %BWJE
BNPOHOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT o $VMUVSBMEFUFSNJOJTN o
BNPOHOPOIVNBOWFSUFCSBUFT $VMUVSBMIJTUPSZ SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG
BNPOHTPDJBMJOTFDUT o o
CFUXFFO"UIBCBTLBOUSJCFTBOE $[FDIT
"NFSJDBOT$BOBEJBOT o BUUJUVEFUPXBSE$[FDIMBOHVBHF
CPY o
DIBOOFMTPG UBCMF o MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o
SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI4MPWBLT o
DPNQPOFOUTPG o
EJHJUBM o %FDSFPMJ[BUJPO
FUIOPHSBQIZPG o o %FFU[ +BNFT'
FWPMVUJPOPGJOUPMBOHVBHF o %FOF$BVDBTJBONBDSPGBNJMZ
GSBNFGSBNJOH o %FOPUBUJPO
HFOSF o %FQBSUNFOUTUPSFFNQMPZFFT TUVEZPGJO
LFZ o /FX:PSL$JUZ o
426 INDEX
%FSJWBUJPO EPVCUTBCPVU o

%FTJHOGFBUVSFT o FMJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT
%JBDISPOJDIJTUPSJDMJOHVJTUJDT GPMLUBYPOPNJFT
%JBMFDUT o &UJDT o
%JHMPTTJB o &WFSFUU %BOJFM o
%JMMBSE +- &WPMVUJPO IVNBO GJH o
%JTDPOUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHF &YPHBNZ
FWPMVUJPO o
%JTDPVSTF 'BDUFNF GJH
%JTQMBZT o 'FSHVTPO $IBSMFT
%JTTJNJMBUJPO 'JFMEXPSL
%PMQIJOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG DIBMMFOHFTPG
%SBWJEJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH DIFDLMJTUGPS o
DPSQVT TJ[FPG o
%VBMJUZPGQBUUFSOJOH JOGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o
%VOEFT "MBO QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o CPY
%VUDIMBOHVBHF
UFDIOJRVFTGPS o
&CPOJDT 'JOOP6HSJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
&ISFU $ISJTUPQIFS 'JTDIFS +PIO-
&MBCPSBUFEDPEF 'PMLUBYPOPNJFT
&MJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT 'PSN JOBSDIBFPMPHZ

&MJDJUJOHEBUB o 'PSNFNF
&MMJOHUPO %VLF 'PVUT 3PHFS
&NFSHFODZSPPNDBTF BQQMJFEMJOHVJTUJDT 'SBLF $IBSMFT0
BOE o 'SBNFGSBNJOH o
&NJDT o 'SBOL 'SBODJOF
&OHMJTI 'SFODIMBOHVBHF
BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o JO$BOBEB o
CPY JOGMVFODFPO&OHMJTI
DPSSFTQPOEFODFCFUXFFODPHOJUJPOBOE JO/PSUI"GSJDB
HSBNNBUJDBMOVNCFSJO o BTPGGJDJBMTFNJPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHF GJH
FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG
GJH BTiVOJWFSTBMwMBOHVBHF o
BTJOUFSOBUJPOBMMBOHVBHF o JO7JFUOBN
o o 'SJFOET 4PDJFUZPG 2VBLFST
MBOHVBHFPG
MPBOXPSETJO o
QIPOFNFTPG o 'SJTDI ,BSMWPO
QPFNPOEJGGJDVMUZPG CPY
TFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFPG o (BM 4VTBO
&TLJNPMBOHVBHF (QFPQMF CJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOBOE
&TQFSBOUP o
&UIOPQPFUJDT o (FOEFS
&UIOPTDJFODF EFGJOFE
DPNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o JOMBOHVBHFT o
EFGJOFE o
INDEX 427
(FOEFS TQFFDIBOE )FBSJOHJNQBJSFEJOEJWJEVBMT VTFPGTJHO

JO"NFSJDBOTPDJFUZ o CPY MBOHVBHFCZ
)FBUI +FGGSFZ
DPNNVOJDBUJPOTUSBUFHJFTBOE )FEHFXPSET o
JO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJFUJFT )FMMFS .POJDB
o )FSPEPUVT
UIFPSJFTPG o )JMHFS *OF[
(FOEFSMFDU )JMM +BOF)
(FOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS CPY )JOEJ
(FOSF PGTQFFDI
o FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG
(FSNBOMBOHVBHF GJH
JO"VTUSJB BTPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHFPG*OEJB o
FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG )PDLFUU $IBSMFT'
GJH )PJKFS )BSSZ
HFOEFSJO o )PNJOJET )PNJOJEBF
o
JOGMVFODFPGPO&OHMJTI )PNJOJ[BUJPO
JO4XJU[FSMBOE )PNJOPJET )PNJOPJEFB

(JHMJPMJ 1JFS1BPMP )PNPFSFDUVT o
(JWO 5BMNZ
(MPUUPDISPOPMPHZ o UBCMF )PNPIBCJMJT
(PGGNBO &SWJOH )PNPTBQJFOT
(PPEFOPVHI 8BSE )PNPTBQJFOTOFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT
(PVME 4UFQIFO+BZ
(SBNNBS )PNPOZNZ
DIBOHFTJO )POFZCFF "QJTNFMMJGFSB
DPNNVOJDBUJWF
VOJWFSTBM o CFIBWJPSPG o GJH
WBSJBUJPOTJO o )POPSJGJDT o
(SBWFT 5IFPEPSF )PQJMBOHVBHF o
(SFFLT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSEUBMLJOH )VNBOT FWPMVUJPOPG GJH
(SFFOCFSH +PTFQI) o o
(SFZNPSOJOH 4UFQIFO o )VNCPMEU 8JMIFMNWPO
(VMMBIMBOHVBHF )VQBUSJCF
(VNQFS[ +PIO+ )ZNFT %FMM o
o
)BBT .BSZ3 )ZQFSDPSSFDUJPO
)BHF 1FS
)BMF $POTUBODF *DFMBOEJDMBOHVBHF MBDLPGMPBOXPSETJO
)BMF ,FOOFUI-
)BMM &EXBSE5 *EJPMFDU o
)BMMF .PSSJT *ODMVTJPO
)BOEFEOFTT *OEJB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO
)BQUJDCFIBWJPS o
)BSSJT .BSWJO *OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
)BVHFO &JOBS GJH
)BZFT $BUIFSJOF *OEP1BDJGJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
)BZFT ,FJUI+ *OEPOFTJB MBOHVBHFTPG
428 INDEX
*OGJY ,FMMFS +BOFU%JYPO

*OGMFDUJOHMBOHVBHFT ,FMTLZ ,BSFO
*OGMFDUJPO o ,FOZB OBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPG4XBIJMJJO
*OGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o o
*OOBUJTUUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOPG ,FOZBUUB +PNP
o ,FSFTMBOHVBHF SFWJUBMJ[BUJPOPG CPY
*OTUJUVUFGPS1SJNBUF4UVEJFTBU6OJWFSTJUZ
PG0LMBIPNB ,FZ o
*OUFSBDUJPO SVMFTPG ,IPJTBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
*OUFSMJOHVB ,JOFNF
*OUFSOBUJPOBM1IPOFUJD"MQIBCFU *1"
,JOFTJDT o
,JOTIJQTZTUFNT DPNQBSJTPOPG"NFSJDBO
*OUFSOFU MBOHVBHFPG o BOE"SBQBIP GJH
*OUFSQSFUBUJPO OPSNTPG o ,JOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ o
*OUPOBUJPO o ,JPXB*OEJBOT TJHOMBOHVBHFPG
,JPXB5BOPBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
*SJBO+BZB MBOHVBHFTPG ,JQBSTLZ 1BVM
*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ ,JSJXJOJBOMBOHVBHF
*TIJHBLJ :PLP ,PBTBUJMBOHVBHF
*TUINVT/BIVBUMBOHVBHF ,PLP HPSJMMB

,PSFBOMBOHVBHF GJH
+BLPCTPO 3PNBO ,SVT %BWJE
+BNBJDB DSFPMFPG ,VOBQFPQMF FUIOPQPFUJDEJTDPVSTF
+BQBO VTFPG&OHMJTICZXPNFOJO BNPOH o
o ,XBLJVUMMBOHVBHF
+BQBOFTFMBOHVBHF
FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG -B(VBSEJB 'JPSFMMP
GJH -BCPW 8JMMJBN
BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o
CPY -BJUNBO +FGGSFZ5 o
MPBOXPSETJO o -BLPGG 3PCJO o
+BWBOFTFMBOHVBHF -BOHVBHF
+FBOOF -B7FSOF.BTBZFTWB DIBOHFTJOIVNBODVMUVSFBOE
+FGGFSTPO 5IPNBT DPNQFUFODF
+FTQFSTPO 0UUP DVMUVSBMEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o
+POFT 8JMMJBN EFTJHOGFBUVSFTPG o
+PPT .BSUJO GBNJMJFT o
+VODUVSFT JOTQFFDI GJH
HSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF o
,BMVMJQFPQMF MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH JEFPMPHZ EFGJOFE
o *OUFSOFUBOE o
,BO[J DIJNQBO[FF
NPEFSONZUITBCPVU
,BSUWFMJBO 4PVUI$BVDBTJBO
MBOHVBHF OBUJPOBMJUZBOE o
GBNJMZ QFSGPSNBODF
,BZ 1BVM o QIPOFNJDBOBMZTJTPG o
,FMMFS $IBSMFT QIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO
INDEX 429
QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o -WJ4USBVTT $MBVEF

-FWJOTPO 4UFQIFO
BTQSPEVDUPGFWPMVUJPO o -FYJDBMEJGGVTJPO
QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFTPG o -FYJDPTUBUJTUJDT
BTSFGMFDUJPOPGDVMUVSF o -JFCFSNBO 1IJMJQ
BTSFGMFDUJPOPGJEFOUJUZ -JOHVBGSBODB o
SFHJTUFS -JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ
TUVEZPG o o CPY BDDPNQMJTINFOUTPG CPY
VOJWFSTBMT DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDT CPY
XSJUJOHTZTUFN EFWFMPQJOH o o
-BOHVBHF BDRVJTJUJPOPG EFGJOFE
CFIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZPG o FOEBOHFSFEMBOHVBHFTBOE o
JODIJMEIPPE o
JOOBUJTUUIFPSZPG o FUIJDBMRVFTUJPOTBOE o
/PBN$IPNTLZPO CPY JOUFSDVMUVSBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE
TPDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZPG o o
-BOHVBHF FTUJNBUJOHBHFPG MBOHVBHFQMBOOJOHBOE o
BOBUPNJDBMFWJEFODF o MFHBMMBOHVBHFBOE o o
MJOHVJTUJDDPOTJEFSBUJPOT o MJUFSBDZBOE o
QSFIJTUPSJDDMVFT o OFXDPNNVOJDBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFTBOE
-BOHVBHFGJFME o
-BOHVBHFJTPMBUFT TUBOEBSETPGDPOEVDU o
-BOHVBHFQIZMVN USBOTMBUJPOTBOE o
-BOHVBHFQMBOOJOH o XSJUJOHBOE o
-BOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF -JOHVJTUJDEFUFSNJOJTN
-BOHVBHF3FTFBSDI$FOUFSPGUIF:FSLFT DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o
3FHJPOBM1SJNBUF3FTFBSDI$FOUFS EFGJOFE
FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBCPVU o
-BOHVBHFT -JOHVJTUJDQSPGJMJOH
DIBOHFTJO o -JOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ
DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o BMUFSOBUJWFTUP o
JODPOUBDU o o DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZBOE o
EFBUIPG DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o
FOEBOHFSFE o EFGJOFE o
HFOEFSJO o FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBCPVU o
HFOEFSBOE o
NBJOUFOBODFPG o +PIO$BSSPMMPO CPY
SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o -JOHVJTUJDTFOTJUJ[BUJPO
XPSME OVNCFSTPG GJH -JOHVJTUJDT
DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ
-BUJOMBOHVBHF o o CPY o
-BUJOPT TUVEZPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTUZMFPG EFGJOFE o
-PBOXPSET o o o
-FOHUI PGTPVOE
-FOOFCFSH &SJD) -PVMJT DIJNQBO[FF

-FV %POBME -VDZ +PIO o
430 INDEX
-VDZ DIJNQBO[FF
.PUJG
-VDZ IPNJOJETQFDJNFO
.PUJGFNF o
.PUPSDPSUFY GJH
.BMBZMBOHVBHF GJH .VMUJMJOHVBMJTN
.BMJODIF7PMDBOPDPNNVOJUJFT JOGMVFODF DPEFTXJUDIJOHDPEFNJYJOH o
PG4QBOJTIPOUSBEJUJPOBMMBOHVBHF EJHMPTTJB o
o HMPCBM o
.BMJOPXTLJ #SPOJTMBX TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG o
.BO NFBOJOHPG CPY TPDJPQPMJUJDBMVOJUTBOE o
.BSUIBT7JOFZBSE .BTTBDIVTFUUT JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT o
MJOHVJTUJDDIBOHFJO o 4FFBMTP CJMJOHVBMJTN
.BUTVCBSB +VOLP 5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS
.B[BUFDPMBOHVBHF .ZFST4DPUUPO $BSPM
.D&MIJOOZ #POOJF .ZUIPMPHZ
.FBE .BSHBSFU
.FBOJOH /BUJPOBMJUZ MBOHVBHFBOE o
DBUFHPSJ[BUJPO o /BUJWF"NFSJDBOT
DPODFQU EFGJOFE o MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFTPG
FUIOPQPFUJDT TUVEZPG o TUVEZPG o
+BQBOFTFBOE&OHMJTI BTQFDUTPGXPSE /BWBKP
NFBOJOHJO oCPY BUUJUVEFUPXBSETQFBLJOH
PTUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO MBOHVBHF
TFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o JOTIBQF DPMPS BOETQBDFTUVEZ
TFNBOUJDSFMBUJPOTBNPOHXPSET o
o iXBSUBML w
TFNJPUJDUSJBOHMF /FBOEFSUIBMT )PNPTBQJFOT
TFOTF OFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT

TPVOETZNCPMJTN o
TZOFTUIFTJB /FP.FMBOFTJBO 5PL1JTJO
DSFPMJ[BUJPO
.FTPMJUIJDQFSJPE PG o CPY
.FTTBHF GPSNBOEDPOUFOUPG /FPHSBNNBSJBOIZQPUIFTJT
.FUBUIFTJT o /FPMJUIJDQFSJPE
.FYJDP JOEJHFOPVTMBOHVBHFTPG o /FVSPMJOHVJTUJDT o
.POHPMJBOT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSETQFBLJOH /FX:PSL$JUZ TUVEZPGEFQBSUNFOUTUPSF
FNQMPZFFT o
.POPHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG o GJH /HBOEJMBOHVBHF
/JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
.POUBHV "TIMFZ GJH
.PSQIFNF o /JHFS%FMUB TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG
.PSQIPMPHJDBMMBOHVBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT NVMUJMJOHVBMJTNJO o
o /JN DIJNQBO[FF

.PSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFT o /PPULBMBOHVBHF
.PSQIPMPHZ /PSUI"GSJDB 'SFODIEJBMFDUTJO
.PSQIPQIPOFNFT HFOEFSEJGGFSFODFTJO /PTUSBUJDNBDSPGBNJMZ
/VLVMBFMBF HFOEFSJOFRVBMJUZJOSFBEJOH
.PSQIPQIPOFNJDT o BOEXSJUJOHPG o
INDEX 431
0BLMBOE $BMJGPSOJB
4DIPPM#PBSE 1J4VOZFS 0SJPM
SFTPMVUJPOPO&CPOJDT 1JEHJOJ[BUJPO
0#BSS 8JMMJBN. 1JEHJOT o
0CFSXBSU "VTUSJB DIBOHJOHDIPJDFPG 1JLF ,FOOFUI-
MBOHVBHFJO 1JOLFS 4UFQIFO
0DIT &MJOPS 1JSBIMBOHVBHF o
0HEFO $, 1JUDI
0IBMB +PIO 1JUUTCVSHI1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU MBOHVBHF
0ME&OHMJTI o o TUVEZPG
1MBJOT*OEJBOT
0ME4UPOF"HF MBOHVBHFT GBNJMJFTPG
0MEVWBJ(PSHF TJHOMBOHVBHFPG o
0MGBDUPSZDIBOOFM 1MBUP POUBMLJOH
0OFIVOESFEXPSEDPSFWPDBCVMBSZ 1MVSBMGPSNT
4XBEFTI
UBCMF JO"GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS
0QUJDBMDIBOOFM &OHMJTI
0SUIPHSBQIZ DIBOHFTJO CPY JO$IPOUBM
JO&OHMJTI o CPY
0THPPE $IBSMFT o
0TUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO JO0ME&OHMJTI o
0UPNJMBOHVBHF JO-BUJO
JO5PL1JTJO
1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE JO:VDBUFD
1yJOJ 1PMZHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG
1BQVB/FX(VJOFB 1PMZHMPUT
MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO 1PMZTFNZ
MBOHVBHFTPG 1PMZTZOUIFUJDMBOHVBHFT
TQSFBEPG5PL1JTJOJO 1PSUVHVFTF FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFST
1BSBHVBZ TQFFDIDPNNVOJUZJO PG GJH
1BSBMBOHVBHF o 1PXFMM +PIO8FTMFZ
1BSBMJOHVJTUJDT 1SFGJY
1BSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o CPY 1SFMBOHVBHF
1BSUJDJQBOUT DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU
1SJNBUFT
o DPNNVOJDBUJPOBNPOHOPOIVNBO
1FDPT 3FHJT o
1IBUJDDPNNVOJDBUJPO FNFSHFODFPG GJH
1IBUJDDPNNVOJPO JOBCJMJUZUPTQFBL o
1IPOF EFGJOFE 1SPGJMJOH MJOHVJTUJD
1IPOFNFT 1SPOPVOT VTFPGJOWBSJPVTMBOHVBHFT
1IPOFNJDBOBMZTJT o o
1IPOFNJDDPOUSBTUT 1SPTPEJDGFBUVSFT o
1IPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO 1SPUP"MHPORVJBOQFPQMF o
1IPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o CPY GJH
1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBO
1IPOFUJDT BSUJDVMBUPSZ 1SPUPMBOHVBHFT SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG
1IPOPMPHZ o o
432 INDEX
1SPYFNJDT o UBCMF CPY 4DPUU )VHI-FOPY

4FNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o
1VFCMPQFPQMFT MBOHVBHFTPG 4FNBOUJDT
1VFSUP3JDBOT BOEMBOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF TUVEZPG o
4FFBMTP NFBOJOH
2VBLFST 4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET
MBOHVBHFPG 4FNJPUJDUSJBOHMF
4FNJPUJDT
2VBOUJUBUJWFNFUIPE TPDJPMJOHVJTUJDT
4FOUFODF BTVOJUPGBOBMZTJT o GJH

3BDF GBVMUZBTTPDJBUJPOPGXJUIMBOHVBHF 4FSCP$SPBUJBOMBOHVBHF
BOEDVMUVSF o o 4FUUJOH DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU

3FDPOTUSVDUJPO o
PGBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE o 4IBQFDPMPSTQBDF JOGMVFODFPOCFIBWJPS
PGDVMUVSBMIJTUPSZ o CZ o
PGQSPUPDVMUVSF o 4IFS[FS +PFM
PGQSPUPMBOHVBHFT 4JFCFSU 'SBOL5 +S o
PGQSPUPXPSET 4JHOMBOHVBHF o
3FEVQMJDBUJPO o 4JMCP
3FGFSFODF 4JOP5JCFUBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH
3FGMFYJWFOPJTFT 4JPVBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
3FGMFYJWFOFTT 4LJOOFS #'
3FHJTUFS 4MPWBLT SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI$[FDIT o
3FTUSJDUFEDPEF 4NJUI 8JMMJBN
3JDIBSET *" 4PDJBMDMBTT MBOHVBHFBOE o
3PCFSUT +PIO 4PDJBMOFUXPSL
3PNBOTIMBOHVBHF 4PDJBMQPXFS HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ
3VTTJBOMBOHVBHF GJH PG o
4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET 2VBLFST

4PDJPDVMUVSBM EFGJOJUJPOPG o
4BCJS NFEJFWBMQJEHJO
4PDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO
4BM[NBOO ;EFOFL BOE o
4BNPB 8FTUFSO MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO 4PDJPMJOHVJTUJDDIBOHF TUVEZPG
4PVOEDIBOHFT o o
4BOTLSJUMBOHVBHF o i4PVOEMBXT w
4BQJS &EXBSE CPY 4PVOETQFDUSPHSBQI
o 4PVOETZNCPMJTN o
4BQJS8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT o4FFBMTP 4QBJO MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO
8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT 4QBOESFM
4BSBI DIJNQBO[FF
4QBOJTI
4BWBHF3VNCBVHI &4 FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG
4BWJMMF5SPJLF .VSJFM GJH
4DBOMPO +FTTF JO.FYJDP o o
4DIJFGGFMJO #BNCJ# JOUIF64
4DIMFJDIFS "VHVTU 41&",*/( BTNOFNPOJDEFWJDF
4DPMMPO 3POBME o
4DPMMPO 4V[BOOF 4QFDUSPHSBN
INDEX 433
4QFFDI 5BLFMNBMBOHVBHF o

BDU 5BOOFO %FCPSBI
BQQBSBUVT GJH 5BZMPS %PVHMBT
BSFB 5BZMPS +PIO
BUUJUVEFTBCPVU o 5FFUFS ,BSM7
CFIBWJPS VOJUTPG o 5FOFKBQB5[FMUBM
DPNNVOJUZ o MBOHVBHFPG
FUIOPHSBQIZPG o TQFFDI UFSNJOPMPHZPG
FWFOU 5PL1JTJO /FP.FMBOFTJBO
DSFPMJ[BUJPO
GJFME PG o CPY
IVNBO CPY 5POFMBOHVBHFT o
OFUXPSL o 5PSSBMCB 4QBJO BSDIBFPMPHJDBMFYDBWBUJPOT
TJUVBUJPO BU
TUBOEBSE 5SBOTGPSNBUJPO
TUZMFT o 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS
4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOE o
4QFFDITPVOET 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBSNPWFNFOU
BOBMZTJTPG
BSUJDVMBUJPOPG o 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF
QSPEVDUJPOPG o 5TVEB :VLJP
4UBOMBX +BNFT. o 5VOJDBMBOHVBHF o
4UJNVMVTSFTQPOTFSFXBSEGPSNVMB 5VSLJTIMBOHVBHF
o NPEFSOJ[BUJPOPG o
4UPLPF 8JMMJBN$ +S WPXFMIBSNPOZJO
4USFTT JOTQFFDI 5XJMBOHVBHF
4USPTT #SJBO
4UVSUFWBOU &EHBS) 6OJWFSTBMJTN o
4VCBOVOQFPQMF 6QQFS$IJOPPLMBOHVBHF
EJTFBTFEJBHOPTJTCZ o 6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE
ESJOLJOHUBMLPG o CPY 6SBMJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
4VCDVMUVSF HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ 6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ
PG
4VGGJY 7BJQFPQMF MJUFSBDZBNPOH
4VNFSJBOMBOHVBHF 7FSUFCSBUFT OPOIVNBO DPNNVOJDBUJPO
4VQFSPSEJOBUFUFSN BNPOH
4VQQMFUJPO o 7JLJ DIJNQBO[FF

4VQQMFUJWFGPSN 7PDBMBQQBSBUVT FWPMVUJPOPG o
4XBEFTI .PSSJT 7PDBMBVEJUPSZDIBOOFM
4XBIJMJMBOHVBHF o 7PDBMQMBZ
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Language,

1 Introducing Linguistic Anthropology 1

2 Methods of Linguistic Anthropology 17

3 Language Is Sound: Phonology 31

4 Structure of Words and Sentences 53

6 The Development and Evolution of Language 87

7 Acquiring Language(s): Life with First Languages,

8 Language Through Time 141

9 Languages in Variation and Languages in Contact 169

10 Ethnography of Communication 185

11 Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization:

12 Language, Culture, and Thought 225

13 Language and Ideology: Variations in Class, Gender, 257

14 Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World 291

Resource Manual and Study Guide 327

Why Should We Study Language? Language in Daily Life

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Modern Myths Concerning Languages

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All attempts to connect particular types of linguistic morphology with cer-

Brief History of Anthropology

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Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology

Unlike linguists, [linguistic] anthropologists have never considered lan-

Summary and Conclusions

Contrasting Linguistics with Linguistic Anthropology

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The Fieldwork Component

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A Checklist for Research in the Field

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Summary and Conclusions

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The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech

Articulation of Speech Sounds

From Phones to Phonemes

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TA B L E 3 . 4 Typical Vowel Phonemes in American English

TA B L E 3 . 5 Consonant Phonemes in American English

TA B L E 3 . 6 The Four Distinctive Tones of Mandarin Chinese

ma 3 falling, 214 horse

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Etics and Emics

F I G U R E 3 . 2 Deetzs Facteme and Allofacts Illustrated

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Summary and Conclusions

Morphemes and Allomorphs

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We speak of a brother and also of brethren,

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