Quantum Dot Based Solar Cells

Turan lhan*
*Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey

22 January 2017

Abstract

Limited efficiency and high production cost of 1st and 2nd generation solar cells cause to
seek for cheaper and more efficient solar cells. One of the most important candidate for high
efficiency 3rd generation solar cells is quantum dot based solar cells. Tunable band gap and
other properties of quantum dots attract attention. In this study, basis, types and fabrication
techniques of quantum dot solar cells wil be analyzed basically. Colloidal quantum dots are
studied predominantly due to their easy and cheap processability. Due to the this reason,
this study also will focus on colloidal quantum dot based solar cells mainly.

Keywords: Quantum dots, quantum dot based solar cells, multiple exciton generation, 3rd
generation solar cells.

1. Introduction

To understand how Q-Dots are applied to
solar cells, it is vital to know working
principles of a typical solar cell. In a
traditional solar cell, incident light is
absorbed by a semiconductor and photo-
excited electrons create currents. In silicon
based solar cells, usually more than one p-n
jucntion are atteched to imrove efficiency. It
can be easily understood that the most
important challenge for solar energy is
efficiency. Schockley and Queisser stated
that maximum efficiency which can be
obtained by a single junction silicon based
solar cell is limited by 32%.3 Maximum
achieved power conversion efficiency (PCE)
is 25% in first generation solar cells.4 To
obtain more efficiency and to create really
functional renewable energy tehcnology,
many different tehnologies are proposed.
One of them is usage of quantum dots in
solar cells. Actually quantum dots can be
used in solar cells as both sensitizer and main
absorber. In this study, quantum dot
sensitized solar cells are not considered.
It is necessity to give basic information
about quantum dots before solar cell
discussion. Basically, they are nano size
semiconductors. Their band gap can be
adjusted by changing their size thanks to
quantum confinement effect. When Bohr
radius of an exciton (electron-hole pair) is
smaller than particle size, quantum
confinement effect is observed. In this
condition, particles can take only discrete
energy states, not a continous energy band
diagram. In conclusion, it can be said that
quantum dots have electronic properties
between individual atom and bulk
semiconductors.5 Additionaly, as particle size
increases Egap of a quantum dot decreases.
1.1 Why Quantum Dots?
Two important characteristic properties of
quantum dots make them favourite material
for solar cells applications. One of these
properties is tunability of band gap. In silicon
based solar cells, 19% of energy of the
incident light can not be absorbed8 because
their enegry (red side of the visible light
spectrum) is not enough to excite electrons.
Thus, if energy gap of the absorber
semiconductors is reduced so that it can
absorb the low energy light, efficiency of the
solar cell increases significantly. Many
scientists tries to absorb red side of the
visible light spectrum by using Q-Dots with
proper sizes. Quantum dots enable to
prevent significant amount of energy (19% of
incident light) from going to waste.
In traditional solar cells (1st and 2nd
generation), 33% of the energy of the
incident light is lost due to thermalization.8
Thermalization loss can be explained by this
way: the electromagnetic radiation which
have energy higher than the Egap is absorbed
but excess energy goes to waste as heat and
this loss is called as thermalization loss. In Q-
Dot solar cells, thermalization loss is
minimized by a mechanism which is called as
Multiple Exciton Generation (MEG).5 MEG
means that an incident photon can excite
electrons more than one time. In this
mechanism, excess energy is used to excite
other electrons; it is not dissipated as heat.
Easy and cheap processability of colloidal
quantum6 dots must be also considered in a
discussion related to solar energy. Although
silicon based solar cell technology has
become a mature technology, it is still
expensive. Quantum dots may also help to
produce cheap and easily accessible
renewable energy.
To classify a solar cell as 3rd generation;
followings must be satisfied: PCE must be
higher than 32% (Schockley-Queisser limit)
and cost of per watt must be lower than
0.2$.3 In todays technology there are two
possibilites which are accepted as candidate
for 3rd generation solar cells; Q-Dot based
solar cells and perovskite solar cells which is
one of the recent technologies. Perovskite
solar cells will be mentioned briefly in
following parts of this paper.
2. Types of Q-Dot Solar Cells and Basic
Working Principles
All over the world, many scientist tries to
produe Q-Dot solar cells with different
configuration and geometry but 4 of them
come to the front. Note that, different from
these four types Q-Dot based solar cell, Q-
Dot sensitized solar cells also exist but they
are not in the scope of this study.
2.1 Schottky Solar Cells Based On Quantum
Dots
It is the most basic type of quantum dot
based solar cells. Typical structure of such
solar cells is shown in Figure 1. Usually P-
Type quantum dot layer is placed between
ITO (Indium Tin Oxide, which is a conductive
glass) and metal electrode. Incoming electro-
magnetic radiation is absorbed by Q-Dot
layer and photo-excited electrons move
towards metal while holes towards ITO. ITO
act as contact layer for excited electrons and
the metal should have low work function to
increase efficiency.
In these solar cells, Schottky barrier is
formed between thin Q-Dot layer and metal
electrode due to band bending on the
interface. This Schottky barrier act as a
barrier for withdrawal of holes.
Figure 1: Schottky solar cells based on
Q-Dots7
Schottky solar cells have two major
disadvantages. The first one is recombination
of charge carriers. During operation of cell,
before reaching metal electrode, charge
carriers should travel whole layer. This
situation causes recombination of charge
carriers. The other disadvantege is low
voltage value. Open-circiut potential is
limited in these solar cells; this limitation is
related to Fermi level pinning and this
mechanism beyond scope of this study.
2.2 Depleted Heterojunction Solar Cells Based
On Quantum Dots
In this type of solar cell, following layers
exist from outer surface to inner: protective
glass, indium tin oxide, electron transporting
layer (it is usually titania), PbS Q-Dot film and
metal. Depleted heterojunction solar cell
(DHSCQD) can be seen in Figure 2
schematically. Unlike Schottky solar cells,
holes move towards to metal and photo-
excited electrons progress to TiO2 layer. In
Figure 2, one can see electron motion in the
presence of external load.
Figure 2: Depleted heterojunction
solar cells in the presence of external
load.5
By comparing Schottky Cells and DHSCBQD,
it can be said that photocurrent in Schottky
cells is higher than that of DHSCBQD. In
addition, open circiut voltage is higher in
DHSCBQDQ-Dot.7 These advantages caused
by depleted region in DHSCBQD. In recent
studies, scientists usually use Q-Dots which
have band gaps closer to infra-red side of the
electro-magnetic spectrum. This increases
absorption of the light; thus, efficiency of the
solar cell.
2.3 ETA/P-I-N Structure Solar Cells
This type is the one of the long-studied
quantum dot solar cells. In this type, intrinsic
layer is placed between extrinsic p-type and
n-type layers of Q-Dots. Electrons are excited
from the intrinsic layer. N-Type and P-Type
layer act as transforming layer for photo-
generated carriers. This type of solar cells are
also called as extremely thin absorber solar
cell due to very low thickness of absorber
layer, which is intrinsic layer.
In ETA Solar cells, electrons move through
ntype region; and holes to p-type region.
Electron and hole flow in the presence of
incoming light can be seen from Figure 3-b,
and figure 3-a shows the electron flow in the
presence of external load.5
 Figure 3: Extremely thin absorber
solar cells.5
2.4 Inorganic Organic Heterojunction Solar
Cells
Their working principles are similar to P-I-N
solar cells. Major differences caused by
binding between conductor oxide and Q-dot
layer. It is found that, usage of organic hole
conductor gives better efficiency with
respect to P-I-N solar cells. According to a
study5, maximum efficiency is reached by
using Sb2S3 quantum dots. In Figure 4, a
schematic drawing of this type solar cells can
be seen.
Although maximum achieved efficiency is
low, it is tought that performance of hole
conductor (that is efficiency) can be
increased by changing size of the TiO2
particles5 which is host matrix of quantum
dots. But, how TiO2 particle size affects
efficiency of inorganic-organic
heterojunction solar cell is beyond the scope
of this study.
In another study5, CdSe Q-Dots are used
instead of Sb2S3 and MEH-PPV was used
instead of P3HT.
Figure 4: A schematic drawing of organic-
inorganic heterojunction Q-dot based
solar cell.5
3. Production Techniques of Q-Dot Solar
Cells
There are many different types of quantum
dot solar cells. In addition, there is no
industrial scale production of Q-Dot solar
cell. Taking into consideration these two
factors, it can be said that there is no mature
or most appropriate fabrication technique
for Q-Dot solar cell production. Many
scientist all over the world try to produce
higher efficiency Q-Dot solar cell and they
use different types fabrication techniques.
Sometimes they try untried methods.
Nevertheless, some techniques become
prominent with respect to others.
Before explaining common fabrication
techniques used in Q-Dot solar cell, it must
be noted that a typical quantum dot solar cell
fabrication consists of multiple steps which
are necessary to produce different layers of
solar cell. Production of each layer will be
examined seperately.
3.1 Fabrication of Quantum Dot Films
In the production of quantum dots,
generally two major techniques are used:
colloidal technique and molecular beam
epitaxy. A great majority of Q-Dot solar cell
research are based on colloidal quantum
dots. Thus, it will be more practival to focus
on colloidal Q-Dots in the discussion of
production of Q-Dot layer.
The heart of the Q-Dot solar cells, which
is quantum dot layer, is usually produced by
dip coating or spin coating. In dip coating,
substrate (which is usually ITO or FTO) is
dipped in to a solution which contains pre-
synthesized Q-Dots. Dipping process usually
repeated many times until reaching desired
thickness. Likewise dip coating, spin coating
is also applied repeatedly. Dip coating is
slower process than spin coating but in spin
coating, some material is lost due to spin off.
After coating, the material is dried.2
3.2 Deposition of TiO2 layer on Q-Dot Solar
Cell
One of the most common studied Q-Dot solar
cell s depleted heterojunction solar cells. In
this type solar cells, a conductive TiO2 layer
exists. TiO2 is attached to the solar cell
usually via spin casting. Befor spin casting,
sol-gel precursor of titania is prepared and
this precursor is applied to the substrate.
In some studies, researchers may preffer to
use ZnO instead of TiO2. In a study, in the case
of ZnO usage, some compoitional changes
during sol-gel processing are advised.2
3.3 Fabrication of Metal Parts
Almost all types of Q-Dot based solar cells
contains metal parts. Metals are attached to
the solar cell by thermal evaporation.
Thermal evaporation must be done under
vacuum to prevent air bubble formation or
other undesired compund deposition.3
3.4 Fabrication of Extremely Thin Absorber
In addition to above mentioned fabrication
techniques, it is necessary to give some
information about fabrication of Extremely
Thin Absorber Q-Dot based solar cell. Since
absorber layer in these type solar cells is very
thin, fabrication of it requires another
techiniques rather than dip coating and spin
coating. Some of the techniques to fabricate
thin absorber layer are followings: atomic
layer deposition, plasma assisted chemical
vapor deposition, successive ion-layer
adsorption and reaction (SILAR), electro-
deposition.5
4. Challenges and Recent Studies
Although their several advantages,
maximum accured efficiency in Q-Dot solar
cells is not more than 10%. This low efficiency
caused by mainly two reasons which are
problems related to charge carrier mobilities
and charge carrier recombination. To solve
these and other problems and to produce
more efficient solar cells, scientists use
mainly surface engineering concept.
In addition, MEG mechanism does not
make as good as expected contribution to
efficiency. Many scientists study to fully
understand carrier relaxation and MEG
mechanism to create multiple excitation with
single photon.1
Toxicity is another problem of Q-Dot solar
cells. Most of the highest efficient solar cells
are based on quantum dots which contain
lead and/or cadmium. These quantum dots
must be replaced with non toxic ones.
Another threat for Q-Dot solar cells is
perovskite solar cells which is one of the
most recent technologies in renewable
energy. Perovskite solar cells was produced
in 2009 firstly. In a short while (a few years),
their efficiency exceeded 20%. Perovskite
solar cells has potential to change destiny of
all other types of solar cells including q-dot
based solar cells.4
5. Conclusion
One of the most crucial threat for mankind
is global warming which is caused by usage of
fossil fuels. Renewable energy has an
important role to solve global warming but
both industry and academy reach a
consensus that traditional solar cells cannot
supply enough and cheap energy. Therefore,
a new generation of solar cell must be
developed which is cheap and it must supply
enough energy. Q-Dot based solar cells is one
of the most important candidate for such a
solar cell but there are some problems must
be solved. Many scientist from different
countries tries to solve these problems but
industrial application of Q-Dot solar cells
does not appears to be imminent.
Perovskite solar cells is another candidate
for 3rd generation solar energy technology. It
begin to attract attention day by day. High
PCE promise of perovskite solar cells may
block studies Q-Dot based solar cells. Instead
of main absorber materials in solar cells,
quantum dots can also be used as sensitizer
for other solar cells. Some scientists think
that Q-Dots have tendency to be used as
sensitezer in future, rather than main
absorber.
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