Chapter 1.

2
The Real Number
System
Uses of Number
1. Naming

2. Ordering

3. Counting

4. Measuring

Note: The counting numbers are not

sufficient for measuring.
The Set of Real
Numbers
Numbers that will be used for counting
and measuring will be collectively called
real numbers.

And, the set of real numbers will be

denoted by .
Equality Axioms
Reflexive Property of Equality
For any a , a a.

Symmetric Property of Equality

For a,b , if a b then b a.

Transitive Property of Equality

For a,b, c , if a b and b c
then a c.
Basic Operations

Addition

Multiplication
a b ab
2 3 23
Closure Axioms
Closure Property for Addition
For any a,b , a b

Closure Property for Multiplication

For any a,b , a b

Remark : is closed under addition

and multiplication.
Example 1.2.1

Determine whether or not each of the

following sets is closed under addition
and multiplication.
1. 4. P
2. E 5. C
3. O
Associativity Axioms
Associative Property for Addition
For a,b, c , a b c a b c

Associative Property for Multiplication

For a,b, c , a b c a b c
Commutativity Axioms

Commutative Property for Addition

For a,b , a b b a.
Commutative Property for Multiplication
For a,b , a b b a.

Remark: and are commutative

on any subset of .
Distributivity
Distributive Property for Multiplication
over Addition
For a,b, c ,
a b c a b a c
a b c a c b c
Multiplicative Identity
Existence of Multiplicative Identity

There is a unique real number 1

such that
a1a
1aa
for any real number a
Remark:
It is worth noting that the system
of counting numbers satisfies all the
axioms that we have discussed so far.
Equality Axioms
Addition Property of Equality APE
For a,b, c , if a b then a c b c

Multiplication Property of Equality MPE

For a,b, c , if a b then a c b c
Substitution
If two real numbers are equal, then one
may be substituted for the other in any
algebraic expression.

If x 5 y, then 2x 3 y 2 5 y 3 y.
x 5 y .
3 3
Also,
Example 1.2.2

Tell which of the axioms of the real

numbers justifies each of the following
statements.
1. 2 3 2 5 2 3 5
2. 4 10 10 4 10 10
3. 10 4 10 4 10 10
Solvable Equation
Consider 3 x 5.
x 2 is a solution and 2 .
The equation is solvable in .

Now consider 3 x 0.

This equation is not solvable in .

Remark: N is not large enough to contain
the solutions even for such simple linear
equations that we have seen.
Something must be done!
Additive Identity
Existence of the Additive Identity
There is a unique real number 0
such that
a0 a
0a a
for any a .
Identity Elements
Additive Identity: 0
Multiplicative Identity: 1

Remarks:
0 1 and
0
W 0
Solvable Equation

Is 3 x 3 solvable in W ?

Is 3 x 2 solvable in ? in W ?
Additive Inverses

Existence of the Additive Inverses

For every real number a, there

is a number a such that
a a 0
Example 1.2.3

1. What is the additive inverse of 0?

00 0 by Existence of
Additive Identity
0 0

2. What is the additive inverse of a ?

a a a a by Commutativity
0 by Existence of
Multiplicative
Inverses
Theorems
Theorem 1.
The Cancellation Law for Addition
For a,b, c R, if a c b c, then a b.

The proof of the first theorom will be

provided in the next slide.
The proofs for the other theorems are left
as exercises. Try proving them at home!
 If a c b c, then a b.
Proof of Theorem 1.
ac bc Given
a c c b c c APE
a c c b c c Associativity

a0 b0 Existence of + inverses
a b Existence of + identity
Theorems
Theorem 2. Zero Property
For a , a 0 0.
Theorem 3.
For any a,b R, a b a b

Corollary 4.
For any a R, 1 a a
Theorems
Corollary 5. 1 1 1
Theorem 6.
For any a,b R, a b a b

Theorem 7.
For any a,b R, a b a b
Theorems
Theorem 8.
For any a,b R, there is a unique
solution to the equation a x b.

Remark: The unique solution for a x b

is x b a .
Subtraction
Definition.
For any a,b R, a b a b

3 2 3 2 1
5 5 5 5 0
Set of Integers
W . . . ,-3 ,-2 ,-1
. . . ,-3, - 2, -1, 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 , . . .

Remark:
is the smallest subset of that
satisfies all of the previous axioms.
Subsets of Z

: Set of positive integers

: Set of negative integers

: Set of non-negative integers
: Set of non-positive integers
Set of Integers
Consider the mathematical system Z , .

Is Z closed under +?
Is + associative in Z ?
Is there an additive identity in Z ?
Is there an additive inverse for
each element of Z ?
Properties of [Z,+]
1. Z is closed under +.
2. + is associative in Z .
3. There is an additive identity in Z .
4. Every element of Z has additive
inverse
Group
A mathematical system a non-empty set
together with an operation satisfying the
four properties is a group.
Group
Given a non-empty set G and an operation
on G , the mathematical system G ,
is a group if

1. G is closed under .
2. is associative in G.
3. There is an identity element under in G.
4. Every element of G has an inverse under .
Example 1.2.4
Which of the following mathematical
systems are groups?

1. N ,
Is N closed under +?
Is + associative in N ?
What is the identity element?

Therefore, N , is not a group.

Example 1.2.4
2. Z ,
Is Z closed under ?
Is associative in Z ?
Counterexample
1 2 3 1 1 2
1 2 3 1 3 4
1 2 3 1 2 3

Therefore, Z , is not a group.

Example 1.2.4

3. ,

4. ,

5. ,
Abelian Group

A group is an abelian group if its

operation is commutative.
Example 1.2.5

Z , is a group.

Is commutative on Z ?

Therefore, Z , is an abelian group.

Ring
Given a non-empty set S and two operation,
say + and on S , the mathematical system
S , , is a ring if

1. S , is an abelian group.
2. S is closed under .
3. is associative in S.
4. a b c a c b c , for any a,b, c S.
Commutative Ring

If the second operation, is a commutative

in the set S , then S , , is called a
commutative ring.

Verify that , , is a commutative ring.

Solvable Equation

Is 3 x 6 solvable in Z ?

Is 3 x 1 solvable in Z ?
Multiplicative Inverses
Existence of Multiplicative Inverses
For any real number a 0, there is a
1 1
unique real number such that a 1.
a a

The multiplicative inverse of a is 1

a
and the multiplicative inverse of 1 is a.
a
Theorems
Theorem 9. The Cancellation Law
for Multiplication
For any a,b R and any nonzero number c,
if a c b c, then a c.

Try to prove this theorem at home!

Theorems
Theorem 10.
If a,b R such that a b 0, then
either a 0 or b 0.

Remark:
This theorem can be used when solving
equations of the form x a x b 0.
Theorems
Theorem 11.
If a,b are nonzero real numbers,
1 1 1
b
a b a
Theorem 12.
For any number b and any nonzero
number a, there is a unique solution
to the equation a x b.
Remark:
The solution for the equation a x b ?

1
x b
a
Division
Definition. For any a,b R and a 0,
b 1
b
a a

Remark:
Division by 0 is undefined.
Theorems
b
Theorem 13. For any number b, b.
1

Theorem 14. If c is any nonzero real

c
number then 1.
c
b d bd
Theorem 15. c ac , a 0, c 0.
a
Theorems
Theorem 16. If c is any nonzero real
ac a
number, .
bc b

b d
Theorem 17. If then b d and
a a
b d
if then b c a d,
a c
a 0, c 0.
Theorems
b 1 a
Theorem 18. If 0, then .
a b b
a

d
b c da
Theorem 19. If 0, then .
a b cb
a
Theorems

b b b b b
Theorem 20. and , a 0.
a a a a a

b d b ca d
Theorem 21. , a 0, c 0
a c ac
Example 1.2.7
Perform the indicated operations.
2 5 25 10 52 5
1.
3 12 3 12 36 18 2 18
4
5 4 25 100
2. 1
20 20 5 100
25
2 3 23 5
3. 1
5 5 5 5
2 4 2 5 3 4 22 7
4. or 1
3 5 35 15 15
Rational Numbers
Definition
A real number x which can be written
as a quotient of an integer p by a
nonzero integer q is called a rational
number.

p
Q x x , p , q is a nonzero integer
q
Example 1.2.8
Is the mathematical system Q, ,
a commutative ring?
Is Q closed in +?
Is + associative in Q ?
What is the identity element under +?
Are there additive inverses?
Is + commutative in Q ?

Hence, Q, is an Abelian group.

Example 1.2.8

Q , is an Abelian group.

Is Q closed under ?
Is associative in Q ?
Is distributive over +?
Is commutative in Q ?

Thus, Q, , is a commutative ring.

Properties of [Q,+,]

Is there a multiplicative identity in Q ?

Is there a multiplicative inverse for each

nonzero element of Q ?
Properties of [Q,+,]
Q , , is a commutative ring.

There is a multiplicative identity in Q.

There is a multiplicative inverse for each

nonzero element of Q.
Field
A mathematical system F , , satisfying
the conditions is a field.

1. F , , is a commutative ring.
2. There is an identity element for .
3. Every nonzero elements of F has
an inverse under .
Field

Q , , is the smallest field contained in .

, , is a field.
Sovable Equations
Is 2x 3 0 solvable in Z ? in Q ? in R ?

Remark: ax b 0 is solvable in a field

but not in a ring.

2
Is x 2 solvable in Q ?
Irrational Numbers
Definition.
A real number which is not rational
is called an irrational number.

Q ' : set of irrational numbers

R Q Q'
Decimals
A real number can have a decimal
representation that is:
terminating or 1.45
non-terminating 1.4545...
A non-terminating decimal representation
can be
repeating 1.4545... 1.45
or non-repeating 3.1415...
Decimals
terminating, non-terminating
but repeating:
rational number

non-terminating and non-repeating:

irrational number
Irrational Numbers

Some irrational numbers:

2 e 1 5
Irrational Numbers
Some irrational numbers are of the
form n
p where p is an integer.

n
p : nth root of p. sometimes called radicals
p radicand
n index

p: square root of p, p 0.
nth Root
n
p is a solution to x n p

3
8 is a solution to x 3 8

2 8 so
3 3
8 2

4 is a solution to x 2 4
22 4 so 4 2

2
2
Question : 4 so 4 2?
Principal Root
Definitions.
If n is even and p is non-negative,
we define n
p as the positive nth
root of p. If p is negative, n
p is
undefined.
If n is odd and p is positive,
n
p n p
 Example 1.2.9
Determine the value of the following
radicals.

1. 9 3
2. 3
8 2
3. 3
27 27 3
3

4. 4
625 5
5. 4 is undefined
Example 1.2.10
Find the solution(s) to the following.
2
1. x 16 4, 4
3
2. x 125 5
5
3. x 4 5
4
4. x 2 9 no solutions
2
5. x 3 3, 3
Operations on Radicals
Addition: xn p y n p x y n p

Multiplication: n pn q n pq

p n p
Division: n
q n q

Root of a root: n m
p nm pq
Example 1.2.11
8 8
3 5 4 5 7 5 2
4 4

3
3
2 3 6
3 3 6
27 27 3

To perform these operations, sometimes

we need to simplify a radical first.
The next theorem will be helpful.
Theorem
Theorem 22.
n
n
p p, provided p is positive,
given n is even.

4 4
4
64 2 2

3
27 3 3
3 3

3
3
3
27 3
3
Example 1.2.12
Perform the following operations and
simplify:
1
1. 8 12 2 48
4
2. 2 3 2 3
2 2 3
3. 4.
3 3 3
Groups, Rings, Fields
Closed Under
Addition

Addition is
Associative
Group
Abelian Additive
Group Identity
Addition is
Commutative
Closed Under Additive
Multiplication Inverses
Commutative
Ring
Multiplication
is Associative
Multiplicative
Field
Identity
Distributivity
Multiplicative
Inverses
The Field of
Real Numbers
N
W
Z 0
Additive
Q
Inverses
Multiplicative
R
Inverses
Q
Less Than

Assume that a b means that

a is less than b
Trichotomy Axiom
For any a,b R, one and only
one of the following holds:
a b
a b
ba
Positive and Negative
Numbers
Definition
A real number a is said to be
positive if 0 a and negative if
a 0. The number 0 is neither
positive nor negative.
Transitivity Axiom of
Order

If a,b, c R and if a b and b c,

then a c.
Addition Property of
Inequality (API)

If a,b, c R and if a b then a c b c.

Multiplication Property of
Inequality (MPI)

If a,b, c R and if a b and 0 c

then a c b c.
Greater Than
Definition.
If a,b R we say a b if and
only if b a.

a b : a b or a b
a b : a b or a b
a x b : a x and x b
Example 1.2.13
Determine if the following statements
are ALWAYS TRUE or ALWAYS FALSE.
Justify your answers.
3
1. If 2x 3, then x TRUE
2
2
2. aa FALSE. Why?

3. If a and b are positive and a b

2 2
then a b . TRUE
Theorems
Theorem 23.
The set of positive real numbers
is closed under addition and
multiplication.
If a 0 and b 0, then a b 0
and a b 0.
Theorems
Theorem 24.
If a 0, then a 0 and
if a 0, then a 0

Theorem 25. If a b, then a b.

2
Theorem 26. If a R, either a 0
2
or a 0.
Theorems
Theorem 27. 1 0.

Theorem 28. If a,b, c R and a b

and c 0, then ac bc.
Theorem 29.
1
If a 0, then 0
a
Example 1.2.12
Solve the following inequalities.
1. 3x 6
1 1
3x 6
3 3
1 1
3 3 x 3 6

1
1 x 6
3
1
x 6
3
x 2
Example 1.2.14
Solve the following inequalities.
2. 8 5 3x 11

2
3. x 0

2
4. x 0

2
5. x 1
There is a one-to-one correspondence
between the set of real numbers and the set
of points on the line.

We choose an arbitrary point to correspond

to the number 0.

To the right of 0, we place the positive real

numbers while the negative real numbers
are placed to the left of 0.
 Example
Locate the following numbers on the
real number line :
1
1.
2
2 1 0 1 2 3
3
2.
2
3. 2
4.
Definition. If x1 and x2 are points on the
real number line, the distance d(x1, x2)
between them, is given by
d(x1, x2) ( x2 x1 ) 2
Example
If the points A and B have the given
coordinates respectively, find the distance
between them :

1. 3, 7
2 4
2. ,
3 5
3. - 2, 5
Definition. Absolute Value of a Number
The absolute value of a number x is defined as

x , if x > 0
if x < 0
| x | x x ,
2
if x = 0
0,

With this definition, it follows that that the distance

d(x1, x2) = |x2 x1| and it is always non-negative
as expected.
Theorem 30. For any a R,
-|a| a |a|.

Theorem 31. For any a, b R,

|ab| = |a||b| and |a/b| = |a|/|b|, b 0

Theorem 32. The Triangle Inequality

For any a, b R, |a + b| |a| + |b|.
Example
Give a geometric interpretation of the
following statements and find the solution :

1. x 5 Solution : 5,5
2. x 2 3 1,5
3. x 3 3,3
4. x 3 ,3 3,
5. x 1 2 1,3
Open Intervals
The solution set to the inequality
will be written as

This is the open interval from a to b.

Closed Intervals
The solution set to the inequality
will be denoted as

This is the closed interval from a to b.

Example
Write the solution set to the following
inequalities as intervals and identify
them on a number line.
1. a x b 5. x
2. a x b 6. x 2 or x 2
3. x b 7. x 1, 2 2, 1
4. x a 8. x 0, 3 1, 4.5
Since the set of real
numbers can be ordered,
that is, the order axioms
are satisfied, then we say
R is an ordered field.
Upper Bound

Definition
The number u is called an upper
bound of a set S if x u, for all
x S.
Example 1.2.15
Give upper bounds for the following sets.
1. 7,3,1,2,9,0
Upper bounds: 10,11,12.5,9
Numbers 9.

1 1
2. 1, , ,...
2 3
Upper bounds: Numbers 1
Example 1.2.15
1 5
3. x x
2 2
5
Upper bounds: Numbers
2
4. x x 1 or x 1
Upper bounds: No upper bound

1 9
5. y y N, y
2 2
Upper bounds: Numbers 4
Lower Bound

Definition
The number v is called a lower
bound of a set S if x v, for all
x S.
Example 1.2.16
Give lower bounds for the following sets.

1. 7,3,1,2,9,0
Lower bounds: 1,0, 0.5, 100
Numbers 0.
1 1
2. 1, , ,...
2 3
Lower bounds: No lower bound
Example 1.2.16
1 5
3. x x
2 2
1
Lower bounds: Numbers
2
4. x x 1 or x 1
Lower bounds: No lower bound

1 9
5. y y N, y
2 2
Lower bounds: Numbers 1
Least Upper Bound
(lub)
Definition
An upper bound b of a set S is the
least upper bound if no upper bound
is less than b.
Greatest Lower Bound
(glb)

Definition
A lower bound a of a set S is the
greatest lower bound if no lower
bound is greater than a.
Example 1.2.17
Identify the lub and glb of the following.

1. 7,3,1,2,9,0
lub : 9 glb : 0

1 1
2. 1, , ,...
2 3
lub : 1 glb : none
Example 1.2.17
1 5
3. x x
2 2
5 1
lub: glb :
2 2

4. x x 1 or x 1
lub: none glb : none

1 9
5. y y N, y
2 2
lub: 4 glb : 1
Completeness Axiom
Every subset S of R that has an
upper bound has an lub in R.

Similarly, every subset S of R that

has a lower bound has a glb in R.
Complete Ordered Field

R, , is a complete ordered field.