What is WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave

Access)?
by Dinesh Thakur
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is the result of an
initiative launched in 2001 by the WiMAX Alliance. Its aim was to promote the
IEEE 802.16 standard by proposing to verify compliance and equipment
interoperability. As we shall see, many options have been proposed to achieve
communication.

What is IEEE 802.11e?

by Dinesh Thakur
The quality of service is essential to ensure the transfer of real time data such as
voice or video. Such services require isochronous transfers, that is to say data
transfers that enable to vary the time between the different frames of the same
transmission. In the case of a video application, for example, over this period, the
greater the quality deteriorates, whether audible or visual. To minimize this
delay, priority mechanisms were introduced by an extension to the 802.11
standard, called 802.11e.

What is IEEE 802.11n?

by Dinesh Thakur
With pre-IEEE 802.11n products, the maximum speed reached in late 2007 is
108 Mbit / s, that is to say double the IEEE 802.11a and 802.11g standards. This
flow rate is achieved by increasing the density of transmitted bits. Technological
advances are such in the field of radio transmission it is now possible to improve
greatly this flow. 802.11n networks offer a potential gross rate of 540 Mbit / s. In
fact, the actual flow rate is much lower and is of the order of 100 Mbit/s in the
best case.

What is 802.15 (WPAN) ?

by Dinesh Thakur
The IEEE 802.15 group was set up in March 1999 to reflect on wireless networks
with a range of ten meters, or WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network), with the
aim of making connections between different portable one user or multiple users.
This type of network can connect a laptop, cell phone, PDA or any other device of
this type. Three service groups were defined, A, B and C.
Ethernet networks at 10 Mbit/s
by Dinesh Thakur
Ethernet networks at 10 Mbit/s were the first to be introduced in the market.
They still represent a significant proportion, although standards to 100 Mbit/s
tend to supplant them. This section reviews the various products of the Ethernet
shared working at a speed of 10 Mbit/s.

Cable networks (CATV)

by Dinesh Thakur
Another solution to obtain a broadband distribution network is to use the wiring
of cable operators, when it exists. This wiring has long been made of CATV (cable
TV), whose bandwidth exceeds 800MHz easily. Today, this infrastructure is
slightly modified by the introduction of systems HFC (Hybrid Fiber/Coax),
combining a fiber portion between the head end and the beginning of the service
by the CATV. This topology is illustrated in Figure.

Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON)

by Dinesh Thakur
When the frames transmitted on the PON are Ethernet, EPON talking. The
features of this network are identical to those of the other PON: distribution
throughout the network, where only the station specified in the Ethernet frame
can retrieve the information conveyed. The standardization of EPON technology
is performed by the IEEE 802.3ah group. This group has several objectives,
including that of introducing Ethernet in the local loop under the name of EFM
(Ethernet in the First Mile). The objective was to replace the ATM technology,
very expensive to implement on a multipoint technology, the Ethernet
technology.

Passive Optical Network

by Dinesh Thakur
On the Passive Optical Network (PON), it is possible to transit ATM cells
according to the technique developed by the working group FSAN (Full Service
Access Network). This solution was then standardized in G.983 recommendation
ITU-T. Both ends of the optical shaft are called OLT (Optical Line Termination)
and ONU (optical network unit). For reasons of energy loss, it is not possible to
exceed fifty branches on the trunk. The figure illustrates the architecture of a
passive optical network.
Features of the package level or network layer
by Dinesh Thakur
The package level or network layer is located on the third level of the hierarchy
architecture reference model as shown in Figure.

What is Ethernet Frame?

by Dinesh Thakur
The Ethernet frame is designed to transport packets in enterprise networks by
an original method for broadcasting on a local network. This solution gave birth
shared Ethernet, in which the broadcast frame is transmitted and where only the
station that recognizes the right to copy the information. To this solution
dissemination has added Ethernet switching.

The Digitization of Signals

by Dinesh Thakur
How to encode the digital signal is an important function of coupler
communication. This main function is to adapt the signals transmission channel.
In the case of local networks, the transmission rate is tens or hundreds of
megabits per second. Therefore, the choice of representation Physical data is
important. To perform the synchronization bit, that is to say, to ensure that each
bit is read at the right time, you need a minimum of transitions are made to
extract the clock signal.

what is network transmission?

by Dinesh Thakur
Before transmitting information on a transmission medium, it must be encoded
of adequately. Networks must allow very high speeds over distances more or
shorter. In this context, three approaches are possible for coding bits from
applications:

ISO Architecture
by Dinesh Thakur
ISO (International Standardization Organization) standard has its own
architecture as the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection). The architecture ISO is
the first to be defined, and so relatively parallel to the Internet. The distinction
between the two is that the ISO formally defines the different layers architecture,
while the Internet architecture is applied to achieve a practical environment.

Functions of the MAC Layer

by Dinesh Thakur
The MAC layer is the "Brain" of WiFi. The first version of 802.11 (the 802.11
legacy published in 1997), defined the MAC layer by incorporating a number of
features crucial, such as sharing of speech among users, the terms of network
connection, error control or security.

Infrared and Laser Transmission

by Dinesh Thakur
Short communication
The infrared light is used for many years for the communication directly between
nearby devices to each other, such as remote control and your television, for
example.

Applications of Wifi
by Dinesh Thakur
The extension of the corporate network
Although there are a multitude of applications in WiFi technology, it is clear as its
primary target is the corporate network. As we have seen, the WiFi was designed
for a wireless version of Ethernet and the latter is found in almost all businesses.
In most cases, a company that decides be equipped with a WiFi network already
has a wired Ethernet network. It is therefore generally build a wireless extension
to an existing wired network.

What is Transfer rate?

by Dinesh Thakur
The transfer rate, or "data rate" refers to the speed with which data is
transferred from its source to its destination, such as from one computer to
another over a network, or from the computer to the disk drive. It's measured like
we would measure any rate of speed-in units of information per the unit of time,
like miles per hour. On a computer you may hear transfer rates expressed in
terms like bits per second, megabytes per second, or characters per second.

What is Parity bit?

by Dinesh Thakur
Parity is a form of "error checking" where the computer checks to see if all the
data it was supposed to get really did come through. You will most likely be
confronted with parity when you use a telecommunications package to
communicate through your modem. In fact, that's probably why you're reading
this. The dialog box where you can set the serial port settings always wants to
know the parity. The default setting is probably the safest thing to use if you don't
know a reason to change it.

What is half duplex?

by Dinesh Thakur
Half duplex means data can be relayed in only one direction at a time. Two-way
transmission is possible, but the transmissions must be alternate. A walkie-talkie
is half duplex-when one person is speaking, she cannot also listen A telephone is
full duplex-information can go both ways simultaneously; both ends can talk and
hear all the time-so does a modem.

What is EtherTalk?
by Dinesh Thakur
EtherTalk is Apple Computer software that allows the Macintosh to hook into
Ethernet networks. To use EtherTalk and Ethernet, the Mac must have the
Ethernet interface card installed inside the computer.

What is Ethernet?
by Dinesh Thakur
Ethernet(pronounced "eether net") is a local area network, connecting
computers together with cables so the computers can share information. Within
each main branch of the network, Ethernet can connect up to 1,024 personal
computers and workstations. In effect:

What is Communications?
by Dinesh Thakur
From the early 1900s until now, long distance communication has primarily been
in the form of the telephone line. Now telephone lines are being used for more
than the transmission of voice; they are also used for the transmission of
computer data. There are many reasons why someone might want to transfer
data between one PC and another using phone lines.

What is Broadband ISDN?

by Dinesh Thakur
Broadband ISDN (BISON) The next-generation of ISDN technology, with
promised bandwidths from 150 megabits per second upward, sufficient to carry
video-phone calls and movies. BISON will be carried over FIBRE-OPTIC cabling
rather than wire, and the underlying transport protocol will be
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE. Different implementations are planned
in the USA, which will employ YNCHRONOUS OPTICAL NETWORK and
Europe, which will use SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY.

What is Bit Error?

by Dinesh Thakur
Bit Error: An error in a single BIT within a BYTE or WORD of data transmitted
over a noisy channel: for example if the byte sent was 11111111 then a received
value of 11111101 would represent a bit error in the second bit. There are well-
known ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION algorithms that can correct
one or more such bit errors, given some extra, redundant information, and these
techniques are widely applied in the mechanisms of HARDDISK and CD-ROM
drives, as well as in telecommunication systems.

What is transmission Baseband?

by Dinesh Thakur
Let us examine the transmission technique that is to say how a transmitter can
send a signal that the receiver will recognize as a 1 or a 0.

What is Asynchronous?
by Dinesh Thakur
1 Literally, not synchronized; that is, proceeding at its own pace.
2 In electronics, it describes circuits that do not operate in step with other devices
controlled by a shared CLOCK SIGNAL.
What is AppleTalk?
by Dinesh Thakur
AppleTalk: A proprietary LAN protocol that is built into Apple's MACINTOSH
computers. AppleTalk is independent of the underlying network transport, and is
currently able to run over serial cable (LocalTalk) or over an ETHERNET
network (EtherTalk). An AppleTalk port is built in to all Macs.

Error Control in Communication Networks

by Dinesh Thakur
The purpose of error control is to ensure that the information received by the receiver is
exactly the information transmitted by the sender. As the communication channel is highly
unreliable, the receiver must be able to deal with the received data, if it contains error. The
term error control is defined as the process of identification or correction of error occurred in
the transmitted data. There are two types of error control mechanisms. They are:

Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission Modes

by Dinesh Thakur
Data is transmitted between communication devices in multiples of fixed-length
units, typically 8-bits. For example, if the computer is transferring a source
program, the data will be made up of a block of 8-bit binary-encoded characters.
On the other hand, if the data is in the form of a compiled object code of the
program, the data will be made up of a block of 8-bit bytes. At the receiving end,
the following parameters are determined to decode and interpret the message
correctly.

Optical Connectors
by Dinesh Thakur
This is very simple optical fiber communication system. In this particular
scenario, the optical fiber requires one connection to the transmitter side and
another connection at the receiver side. In another scenario when it is required to
communicate over long distances where more than one length of fiber cable and
other supporting equipment are placed in the system.
Optical Source
by Dinesh Thakur
Like other communication system, fiber optic communication has also a
transmitter at one end of the system, which injects information on to the fiber
cables. The transmitter processes and translates coded electronic pulse
information coming from copper wire into equivalently coded light pulses. The
basic concept behind the optical transmitter is that it converts electrical input
signals into modulated light for transmission over an optical fiber. The input
signal determines the characteristics of the resulting modulated light, which may
be turned on and off or may be linearly varied in intensity between two
predetermined levels.

Optical Fiber - Optical Transmission Modes Advantages and

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
by Dinesh Thakur
In case of coaxial cables and twisted cable the maximum signal frequency, and
hence the information rate that can be transmitted using a solid conductor is
limited. Optical fiber differs from both these transmission media in that it carries
the transmitted information in the' form of a fluctuating beam of light in a glass
fiber rather than as an electrical signal on a wire. This type of transmission has
become strong support for digital network owing to its high capacity and other
factors favorable for digital communication.

Layering The Communications Process

by Dinesh Thakur
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was set up as an international standard for
network architecture. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
took the initiative in setting up OSI. OSI has two meanings. It 'refers to:

Network Architectures
by Dinesh Thakur
Network Architecture defines the communications products and services,
which ensure that the various components can work together. In the early days of
data communication systems, the majority of communications were between the
DTE and the host computer. Therefore, transmission control procedures were
alone enough as communication protocols. However, recent computer systems
link with other systems to form a network which result in a situation where
different protocols serving different purposes are required. Hence, the network
architecture represents a systemization of the various kinds of protocols needed
to build a network.

Virtual LAN (VLAN) What is Virtual LAN? Characteristics

of VLAN.
by Dinesh Thakur
VLANs have the primary role to enable easier configuration and management of
large corporate networks built around many bridges. There are several
implementation strategies for these virtual networks.

Switching Hubs What is Switching Hubs? Characteristics

of Switching Hub.
by Dinesh Thakur
A switch, which resembles a hub, is known as switching hub. But there is stark
difference between hub and switching hub or a switch. Hub acts as a LAN
concentrator, and repeater. It consists of a single box with multiple ports. Each
port is connected with a separate computer. A signal transmitted by a computer
travels to all ports like a bus topology.

Gateways What is Gateway? Characteristics of Gateways.

by Dinesh Thakur
This advises the routers are used to connect dissimilar LANs and perform all the
functions of bridges and routers. It operates at all seven layers of the OSI
Reference Model. These are actually predecessors of router nowadays and are
technology wise more expensive and highly functional. They in general consist of
software which resides in a host computer, such as mid-range or mainframe.

Routers What is Router? Characteristics of Routers.

Router Protocols
by Dinesh Thakur
Routers are used to connect both similar and dissimilar LANs. Router operates
on the network layer of OSI model using the physical layer, data link layer and
network layer to provide connectivity, addressing and switching. These are highly
intelligent devices. In case of TCP/IP network, Internet Protocol (IP) is used as
addresses for network; this is the router which interprets the IP address and
delivers the packet reliably.

Bridges What is Bridges? Bridge Protocols

by Dinesh Thakur
Like repeaters, bridges are used to connect similar LANs together, for example,
Ethernet-to-Ethernet and operate at the bottom two layers of the OSI model, i.e.
physical layer and data link layer. As it operates on second layer of the OSI
model,' it relays only necessary data to other signals. MAC addresses (physical
addresses) are used to determine whether data is necessary or not.

Repeaters What is Repeaters? Classification of

Repeaters
by Dinesh Thakur
When an electrical signal travels along a medium it gets attenuated depending
upon the medium characteristics. That is why a LAN cannot send signal beyond a
certain limit imposed by the different types of LAN technologies. To increase the
length of the LAN, repeaters are frequently used. Repeaters in its simplest form
relay analog electric signal. It means that they transmit the physical layer signals
or data and therefore correspond to the bottom layer of OSI model.

100VG-Any LAN
by Dinesh Thakur
100VG-AnyLan (VG =Voice Grade) is a joint development of AT&T
Microelectronics, Hewlett-Packard, and IBM and is standardized by the newly
created IEEE 802.12 committee. 100VG-AnyLAN supports Ethernet, Token Ring,
and other LAN standards, incorporating a collision less polling technique. It is
not that simple as it appears. A router upgrade is required to connect 100VG
Ethernet and 100VG Token Ring.

100Base T - What is 100Base T (Fast Ethernet)? Type of

100Base T
by Dinesh Thakur
With the advancement of time and intensive use of LAN, more workstations and
more active users have resulted in more LAN traffic. Increased use of graphics
and other bandwidth-intensive applications have increased LAN traffic. Other
applications like video conferencing and multimedia have created a demand for
fast LANs. Bandwidth of 10 Mbps, 16 Mbps and even 20 Mbps are becoming
bottleneck. In response to this, Fast LANs have been developed, offering
bandwidth of 100 Mbps and soon to 1 Gbps. Fast LAN options currently include:

Implementation of LAN Using Wireless Technology

by Dinesh Thakur
Wireless LANs offer the obvious advantage of avoidance of cabling costs, which
can be especially important in a dynamic environment where there is frequent
reconfiguration of the workplace. Additionally, wireless LANs provides LAN
capabilities in temporary quarters where costly cabling would have to be
abandoned. Each workstation is fitted with a low power radio antenna.

Implementation of LAN Using Fiber-Optic Cable

by Dinesh Thakur
Due its outstanding performance characteristics, fiber-optic cable is also used in
LAN s. FDD I (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is the current LAN standard
(IEEE and ANSI) for such a network. FDDI can be extended to the desktop, either
directly or through the use of twisted pair in a CDDI application.

Ethernet Expansion
by Dinesh Thakur
The maximum allowable length of a segment for the 10Base5 is 500 meters. Up to
100 nodes can be connected to a segment. That is up to 100 transceivers can be
connected. Repeaters are used to connect terminals that are separated from one
another beyond the distance specified above, or to connect more than a limited
number of nodes. Each repeater has two ports so that it receives signals through
one of these ports and sends them through the other port after amplification. An
example of the 10Base5 LAN, Up to 1024 nodes can be connected to a LAN
expanded by using repeaters.

CDDI (Cable Distributed Data Interface)

by Dinesh Thakur
CDDI is also known as TPDDI (Twisted-pair Distributed Data Interface).
CDDI employs Cat 5 UTP as an inexpensive means of connecting workstations
and peripherals to FDDI fiber optic backbone LANs. A transmission rates up to
100 Mbps may be achieved in this scheme.

HUB - What is Hub?

by Dinesh Thakur
Hubs receive signals through one port and send them through all other ports.
That is, a LAN configures with hubs physically falls under the category of a star
type topology. However, logically, it falls under the category of a bus type
topology. Commercially available hubs normally have eight or sixteen ports.

10BASE T - What is 10BASET (Twisted Pair Ethernet) ?

by Dinesh Thakur
A pair of wires twisted together form a twisted pair. They have more noise
immunity than the two-wire open lines. Each wire is insulated and has thickness
in the order of 0.016 inches to 0.015 inches.

BNC/T-connector
by Dinesh Thakur
The Figure shows the BNC connector and T-connector. The BNC connector and
T-connector, these are simple connectors that cannot exchange data. An NIC and
T-connector must be directly connected.

10 Base 2 What is 10Base2 (Thin Net/Black Ethernet)

by Dinesh Thakur
This is also known as 10Base2, uses coaxial of thinner gauge of5 mm in diameter
and bus topology as in the case of 10Base5 so that multiple computers can be
connected to a single transmission line. Primarily it was used in office
environments. The thinner cable is less costly to acquire and deploy, although its
performance is less in terms of transmission distance. Because of its cost it is
sometimes called as cheapnet. 10Base2 signifies in the same manner as
10Bases5except 2 is signified here as 200 meters maximum segment length
(actually 185 meters).

Transceiver - What is Transceiver?

by Dinesh Thakur
The transceiver exchanges data signals handled by the NIC and electric signals
sent over a transmission line. A I5-pin D-SUB connector is used to connect
transceivers and transceiver cables. Multiport transceiver supports more than
one NIC.

10 Base 5 - What is 10Base5 (Thick Net/Yellow Ethernet)?

by Dinesh Thakur
This uses traditional thick baseband coaxial cable in bus topology to connect
multiple computers as shown. This single transmission line is called a segment. A
coaxial cable 10mm in diameter, known as a thick coaxial cable is used as a
transmission line. A terminator is connected at each end of the cable. Note that
proper data communication cannot be assured even if one of these terminators is
missing or not properly connected.

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL

by Dinesh Thakur
Media Access Control (MAC) describes the process that is employed to
control the basis on which devices can access the shared network. Some level of
control is required to ensure the ability of all devices to access the network within
a reasonable period of time, thereby resulting in acceptable access and response
times.

Broadband versus Baseband

by Dinesh Thakur
Broadband A communications medium that can carry a wide range of signal
frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. In telecommunications
the significance of a broadband system is that it can carry television and
videoconferencing data as well as voice calls. A broadband medium can be made
to carry many signals at once by apportioning its total bandwidth into many
independent channels, each of which carries only a specific range of frequencies.
In contrast, a BASEBAND can carry only a single channel. ATM, ADSL and Cable
TV are all broadband media, while standard ISDN barely qualifies.

Encoding Techniques and Codec

by Dinesh Thakur
It is required that information must be encoded into signals before it can be
transported across communication media. In more precise words we may say that
the waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a
digital signal on a transmission link is called digital to digital line encoding. There
are different encoding schemes available:

Infrared Transmission What is a Infrared Transmission?

by Dinesh Thakur
Infrared light transmissions have existed for many years and their use having
been limited to TV remote controls and wireless slide projector remote controls.
However, they now are assuming a position of some, if still limited, importance.
Infrared systems use the infrared light spectrum to send a focused light beam to a
receiver, much, as would a microwave system, although no reflective dish is used.
Rather, pair of lenses is used, with a focused lens employed in the transmitting
device and a collective lens in the receiving device as shown in Figure. Infrared is
an airwave, rather that a conducted transmission system. Although generally
used in short-haul transmission, they do offer substantial bandwidth, but with
risks of interference.
Satellite Communication What is a Satellite
Communication?
by Dinesh Thakur
Satellite radio, quite simply, is a non-terrestrial microwave transmission system
utilizing a space relay station. Satellites have proved invaluable in extending the
reach of voice, data, and video communications around the globe and into the
most remote regions of the world. Exotic applications such as the Global
Positioning System (GPS) would have been unthinkable without the benefit of
satellites.

Microwave Transmission What is a Microwave

Transmission?
by Dinesh Thakur
Microwave radio, a form of radio transmission that use. Ultra-high frequencies
developed out of experiments with radar (radio detecting and ranging) during the
period preceding World War II. There are several frequency ranges assigned to
microwave systems, all of which are in the Giga Hertz (GHz) range and the
wavelength in the millimeter range. This very short wavelength gives rise to the
term microwave. Such high frequency signals are especially susceptible to
attenuation and, therefore must be amplified or repeated after a particular
distance.

Radio Wave What is a Radio Wave Transmission?

by Dinesh Thakur
Radio waves, also called radio waves as they were discovered by German physicist
Heinrich Hertz in 1888, are electromagnetic waves, that is to say the combined
oscillation of an electric field and a magnetic field. Radio waves, infrared, visible
light, ultraviolet, X-rays or gamma rays are all examples of electromagnetic
waves.

Transmission System What is an Transmission System?

by Dinesh Thakur
Data transmission can be divided into parallel and serial data transmission.

Data Communication Software

by Dinesh Thakur
Now, in wider sense we may understand that a transmitter or sender may be a
terminal (computer) responsible for with communication and application
software controls the terminal and processes data. There may be more than one
terminal connected to the sender.

ARPANET - What is ARPANET?

by Dinesh Thakur
This may be considered as the breakthrough for many of current ideas,
algorithms and Internet technologies. It started in 1960s funded by Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA), an organization of the US Defense
Department and, therefore, named as ARPANET.

Flooding What is flooding?

by Dinesh Thakur
Flooding is the static routing algorithm. In this algorithm, every incoming packet
is sent on all outgoing lines except the line on which it has arrived.
One major problem of this algorithm is that it generates a large number of
duplicate packets on the network.

Tunneling What is Tunneling?

by Dinesh Thakur
Tunneling is an internetworking strategy that is used when source and
destination networks of same type are connected through a network of different
type.
In such a case, the packet from one network reaches the other network via
different kind pf network that interconnects them.

Quality of Service (QOS)

by Dinesh Thakur
The notion of quality of service, or QoS, concerns certain characteristics of a
network connection under the sole of the network service provider liability.
A QoS value applies to the whole of a network connection. It must be identical at
both ends of the connection, even if it is supported by several interconnected
subnetworks each offering different services.

Bluetooth - What is Bluetooth?

by Dinesh Thakur
 Bluetooth is, with the infrared, one of the major wireless technologies developed
to achieve WPAN. Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices
of different functions such as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop),
notebooks, cameras, printers and so on.
Bluetooth project was started by SIG (Special Interest Group) formed by four
companies IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba for interconnecting computing and
communicating devices using short-range, lower-power, inexpensive wireless
radios.

IEEE 802.11: WIRELESS LAN

by Dinesh Thakur
We are talking of Wireless LAN (WLAN) that is to say, "Wireless LAN", not to be
confused with WAN course. Also referred Radio LAN (WLAN) if the
communication medium is the radio (not light infrared for example).The stations
of the wireless network can communicate directly with each other, we called Ad
Hoc network type, or via relay terminals called APs (Access Points, PA) then it is
an infrastructure network. the second type is by far the most common in
business.

Gigabit Ethernet: 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000Base-CX,

1000 Base-T
by Dinesh Thakur
Gigabit Ethernet or GbE, is the penultimate evolution of Ethernet standard.
Several improvements have been made for it to Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s.
The new interface is called modified GMII (Gigabit Media Independent
Interface). It includes a data path 8 bits, instead of 4 in the less powerful version.
The transceivers operate with a clock operating at 125 MHz.

Fast Ethernet : 100 Base-TX, 100 Base-FX, 100 Base-T4

by Dinesh Thakur
Fast Ethernet is the name of the extension to 100 Mbit/s Ethernet network to
10 Mbit/s. This is the IEEE 802.3u working group that is at the origin. Access
technique is the same as in the Ethernet Version 10 Mbit/s, but at a speed
multiplied by 10. transported frames are identical. This increase in speed may
conflict with the wiring system and the possibility or not there such important
transit flows.
What is Parity Check?
by Dinesh Thakur
The parity check method is used fro error detection. It is also known as VRC
method.
(a) In this method, a redundant bit called parity bit is added to each data.

What is piggybacking?
by Dinesh Thakur
In all practical situations, the transmission of data needs to be bi-directional.
This is called as full-duplex transmission.
We can achieve this full duplex transmission i.e. by having two separate
channels-one for forward data transfer and the other for separate transfer i.e. for
acknowledgements.

Sliding Window Protocol

by Dinesh Thakur
In sliding window method, multiple frames are sent by sender at a time before
needing an acknowledgment.
Multiple frames sent by source are acknowledged by receiver using a single ACK
frame.

Stop & Wait Protocol

by Dinesh Thakur
In this method of flow control, the sender sends a single frame to receiver &
waits for an acknowledgment.
The next frame is sent by sender only when acknowledgment of previous frame
is received.

Hamming Code
by Dinesh Thakur
Hamming code is technique developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction.
This method corrects the error by finding the state at which the error has
occurred.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

by Dinesh Thakur
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRe) An error detection mechanism in which a
special number is appended to a block of data in order to detect any changes
introduced during storage (or transmission). The CRe is recalculated on retrieval
(or reception) and compared to the value originally transmitted, which can reveal
certain types of error. For example, a single corrupted bit in the data results in a
one-bit change in the calculated CRC, but multiple corrupt bits may cancel each
other out.

How Does a Single Bit Error Differs From Burst Error.

by Dinesh Thakur
When data is being transmitted from one machine to another, it may be possible
that data become corrupted on its, way. Some of the bits may be altered, damaged
or lost during transmission. Such a condition is known as error.

Twisted-Pair : What is Twisted-Pair Cable?

by Dinesh Thakur
The pair of twisted is the simplest transmission medium. it consists of one or
more pairs of electrical son arranged spiral. This type of support is suitable for
transmission both analog and digital.

Digital signal Transmission

by Dinesh Thakur
There are two different approaches for the transmission of digital signals:
baseband transmission and broadband transmission.
Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an analog signal.

What is a Digital Signal? Characteristics of Digital

Signal
by Dinesh Thakur
Computers are digital in nature. Computers process, store, and communicate
information in binary form, i.e. in the combination of 1s and 0s which has specific
meaning in computer language. A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or O.
Multiple bit streams are used in a computer network.

What is an Analog Signal? Characteristics of Analog

Signal.
by Dinesh Thakur
Analog is best explained by the transmission of signal such as sound or human
speech, over an electrified copper wire. In its native form, human speech is an
oscillatory disturbance in the air. Which varies in terms of its volume or power
(amplitude) and its pitch or tone (frequency)? Analogous variations in electrical
or radio waves are created in order to transmit the analog information signal for
video or audio or both over a network from a transmitter (TV station or CATV
source) to a receiver (TV set, computer connected with antenna). At the receiving
end an approximation (analog) of the original information is presented.

What is Data Transmission? Types of Data Transmission.

by Dinesh Thakur
Definition Data Transmission
When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is
encoded by the electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded
pattern, using one of the standard coding schemes that are used for the
interchange of information. To represent all characters of the keyboard, a unique
pattern of 7 or 8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different
elements can be represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar
procedure is followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern
into the corresponding character.

Data Communication - What is Data Communication?

by Dinesh Thakur
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a
receiver. Data communication is said to be local if communicating devices are in
the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model

by Dinesh Thakur
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, an ISO standard for worldwide
communication Networks that defines a networking framework for implementing
protocols in seven layers. Layering the communications process means breaking
down the communication process into Smaller and Easier to handle
interdependent categories. The convention and rules used in such
communications are collectively known as Layer protocol. Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model is developed by ISO (International organization for
standardization) in 1984. ISO is the organization dedicated to defining global
communication and standards.

What is transmission media ? Types of transmission media.

by Dinesh Thakur
Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to
receiver. We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is
transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.

Unbound transmission media - What is Unbound transmission

media. Type of Unbound transmission media
by Dinesh Thakur
Unbound transmission media extend beyond the limiting confines of cabling. They
provide an excellent Communication Networks alternative for WANS. The lack of
physical restrictions provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area capabilities. Unbound
media typically operate at very high frequencies. The three types of unbound
transmission media are: Radio wave, Micro wave, Infrared.

Bound transmission media - What is Bound transmission

media ? Type of bound transmission media Explain
by Dinesh Thakur
Bound Transmission Media in Communication Networks are the cables that are tangible
or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Also known as
Conducted systems, wired media generally employ a metallic or glass conductor
which serves to conduct, some form of electromagnetic energy.

Transmission Media
by Dinesh Thakur
The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks the OSI Seven layer model is
dedicated to the transmission media. Due to the variety of transmission media and
network wiring methods, selecting the most appropriate media can be confusing - what is
the optimal cost-effective solution.

What is Difference between UTP and STP Cable?

by Dinesh Thakur
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) : UTP is the copper media, inherited from telephony,
which is being used for increasingly higher data rates, and is rapidly becoming the de
facto standard for horizontal wiring, the connection between, and including, the outlet
and the termination in the communication closet.

Optical Fibers: What is a Optical Fibers?

by Dinesh Thakur
Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers or plastic that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consists of
a very narrow strand of glass called the core. Around the core is a concentric layer of
glass called the cladding?

Data Link Layer

by Dinesh Thakur
Data link layer is the second layer in OSI reference model and lies above the
physical layer. The data link layer performs the following functions.

1. Data link layer receives the data from the network layer & divide it into
manageable units called frames.

What is Hubs/Repeaters/Bridges/Router/Switches/
Transceivers/ Gateway
by Dinesh Thakur
Hubs/Repeaters are used to connect together two or more network segments of any media
type. In larger design, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segment exceeds their
maximum length. A hub provides the signal amplification required to allow a segment to
be extended a greater distance.

Transmission Modes - What are the different Transmission

Modes?
by Dinesh Thakur
The term Transmission Mode defines the direction of the flow of information
between two communication devices i.e. it tells the direction of signal flow
between the two devices.

There are three ways or modes of data transmission: Simplex, Half duplex (HDX),
Full duplex (FDX)
What is Congestion Control? Describe the Congestion
Control Algorithm commonly used
by Dinesh Thakur
Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet switched network.
Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in which too many packets
are present in a part of the subnet, performance degrades. Congestion in a
network may occur when the load on the network (i.e. the number of packets sent
to the network) is greater than the capacity of the network (i.e. the number of
packets a network can handle.)

What are Transmission Errors?

by Dinesh Thakur
In Communication Networks External electromagnetic signals can cause incorrect
delivery of data. By this, data in the communication Networks can be received
incorrectly, data can be lost or unwanted Communication Networks data can be
generated. Any of these problems are called transmission errors in communication
networks.

What is Error Correction and Detection?

by Dinesh Thakur
Error detection and correction has great practical importance in maintaining data
(information) integrity across noisy Communication Networks channels and lessthan-
reliable storage media.

MAC Layer - What is MAC Layer Protocols?

by Dinesh Thakur
The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication Networks protocol sub-
layer, also known as the Medium Access Control, is a sub-layer of the data link
layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model. The medium access layer was made
necessary by systems that share a common communications medium. Typically
these are local area networks. The MAC layer is the "low" part of the second OSI
layer, the layer of the "data link". In fact, the IEEE divided this layer into two
layers "above" is the control layer the logical connection (Logical Link Control,
LLC) and "down" the control layer The medium access (MAC).
ALOHA - What is ALOHA?
by Dinesh Thakur
ALOHA: ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared
communication Networks channel. It was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson
and his colleagues at the University of Hawaii. The original system used for ground based
radio broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite communication
systems.

RS-232C - What is RS-232C?

by Dinesh Thakur
RS-232C is a long-established standard ("C" is the current version) that describes the
physical interface and protocol for relatively low-speed serial data communication
Networks between computers and related devices.

Data Communication
by Dinesh Thakur
Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communication Networks is the
electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage
and processing by computers) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication Networks channel.

IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

by Dinesh Thakur
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring: Token ring is the IEEE 802.5 standard for a token-
passing ring in Communication networks. A ring consists of a collection of ring
interfaces connected by point-to-point lines i.e. ring interface of one station is
connected to the ring interfaces of its left station as well as right station.
Internally, signals travel around the Communication network from one station to
the next in a ring.
ARCNet - What is ARCNet
BY DINESH THAKUR
Digital communication networks have become a core technology in advanced building
automation systems. Communication networks such as MS/TP, ARCNET, and Ethernet
can be categorized as discrete-event dynamic systems (DEDS) (Casandras and Lafortune
1999).

Types of Routers
BY DINESH THAKUR
Firstly we understand the concept of what is broadband connection in communication
networks. Broadband is a high-capacity high-speed Data transmission medium. This can
be done on a single cable by establishing different bandwidth channels. Broadband
technology can be used to transmit voice, data and video over long distances
simultaneously.

Coaxial Cable - Write Short Note on Coaxial Cable

BY DINESH THAKUR
Coaxial cables are the guided media that carnes the signal of higher frequency range
compared to twisted pair cable. Coaxial cables are also called coax. (short form). Two
types of coaxial cables are widely used: 50 ohm cable and 75 ohm cable. 50 ohm cable is
used for digital transmission and 75 ohm cable is used for analog transmission. Due to the
shield provided, this cable has excellent noise immunity. It has a large bandwidth and low
losses. Co-axial cables are easy to install. They are often installed either in a device to
device daisy chain (Ethernet) or a star (ARC net).

Wireless Communication - What is Wireless Communication?

BY DINESH THAKUR
The most and latest wireless communication use electromagnetic airwaves either infrared
or radio frequency to communicate information from one point wireless communication
networks to another wireless communication networks Point. Without relaying on a
physical connection. Radio waves are often referred to as radio carriers because they
simply perform the function of delivering energy to a remote receiver.

What is NICs (Network Adapter)

BY DINESH THAKUR
A high-speed network interface card (NIC) forcommunication networks is used.A
network interface controller (also known as a network interface card, network
adapter, LAN adapter) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to
a computer network.Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs are used to
connect a PC to a computer network.
Analog vs Digital - Difference and Comparison
BY DINESH THAKUR
Transmission is the method by which computer networks send electrical signals. Data
communication is concerned with the process of exchanging data electronically between
two communication devices. In a local area network, all communication functions are
performed through direct cables. Computers located far away are connected through a
special form of data communication link. The existing telephone or telegraphic network
may also be used for connecting computers located at remote locations.

Ethernet Cables - What Is an Ethernet Cable?

BY DINESH THAKUR
Generally, some people use the term "Ethernet" or ether refers to cable. Ethernet was the
original product designed by Xerox PARC based on Bob Metcalfe's idea. It was later
upgraded to 10 Mbps by Xerox, Intel and DEC.