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pressure force
viscous force
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notes
D p cos dA w sin dA
L p sin dA w cos dA
back
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Example
back
Example
top 90
bottom 270
notes
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Example
front 0
back 180
notes
Example
a) L=0 D = 0.0992 lb
b) L=0 D = 55.6 lb
c) L0 D0
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Example
a) L=0 D = 0.0992 lb
b) L=0 D = 55.6 lb
c) L0 D0
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Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow
past a flat plate
parallel to the
upstream velocity:
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Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow past
a circular cylinder:
Example
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notes
Boundary
Layer
Structure and
Thickness
on a Flat Plate
Large Reynolds number flow fields may be divided into viscous and inviscid regions
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notes
y where u 0.99U
notes
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notes
u
* 1 dy
0
U
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notes
u u
1 dy
0 U U
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Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
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u v
0
x y
u u 1 p 2u 2u
u v 2 2
x y x x y
v v 1 p 2v 2v
u v 2 2
x y y x y
1. v u and
x y
u v
0
x y
u u 1 p 2u 2u
u v 2 2
x y x x y
v v 1 p 2v 2v
u v 2 2
x y y x y
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u v
0
x y
u u 2u
u v 2
x y y
u v
0
x y
u u 2u
u v 2
x y y
Boundary conditions:
uv0 on y0
u U as y
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Further assumptions:
1. In dimensionless form boundary layer velocity profiles on a flat plate should
be similar regardless on the location along the plate
u y
g
U
x
U
vU
u Uf v f f
4x
2 f ff 0
Boundary conditions
f f 0 at 0
f 1 as
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U
y
x
Laminar, flat plate boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of the
distance from the leading edge
Also
* 1.721 0.664
and
x Re x x Re x
w 0.332 U 3
x
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Example
x 0.124
5 7.48 103 x m w 0.332 U 3
U x x
at x 3 m 0.013 m
w 0.0716 N m2
at x 6 m 0.0183 m
w 0.0506 N m2
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Consider uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
Assumptions:
Flow is steady within control volume
Pressure is constant throughout the flow field
Flow at section 1 is uniform
Velocity at section 2 varies from zero at the plate to upstream velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer
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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
Thus D = U 2bh b u 2 dy
0
From continuity equation Ubh b udy
0
Then D b u U u dy
0
notes
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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer
D b u U u dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases, increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer
D b u U u dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases, increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
The thickness of the boundary layer is necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous shear
stress on the plate (in contrary to horizontal fully developed pipe flow)
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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
D bU 2
Shear stress on a flat plate is proportional to the rate of boundary layer growth
d
w U 2
dx
Last equation is known as the momentum integral equation for the boundary layer flow on
a flat plate
notes
Even a rather crude guess at the velocity profile will allow us to obtain reasonable drag and
shear stress results
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Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .
The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/ for 0 y and
u = U for y as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using the
momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
notes
Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .
The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/ for 0 y and
u = U for y as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using the
momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
d
From momentum integral equation w U 2 (1)
dx
U
on the other hand w (2)
u u
Momentum thickness 1 dy (3)
U U
0 6
U U 2 d 6
From (1), (2) and (3) or d dx
6 dx U
Integrating from leading edge to arbitrary x we get
2 6 x
x or 3.46 (4)
2 U U
Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress w 0.289U 3 2
x
Blasuis value w 0.332U 3 2
x
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u y
g g Y for 0 Y 1
U
u
1 for Y 1
U
Boundary conditions
g 0 0 and g 1 1
dg
0
dY Y 1
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Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1 and C1C2 3 2
w U
x Re x 2 x
where
1 dg Ux
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY C2 Re x
0 dY Y 0
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2 w 2C1C2
Local friction coefficient cf
U 2 Re x
1
Friction drag Df C Df U 2bl
2
Re xcr 5 105
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Transition from
Laminar to
Turbulent Flow
Example
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 10 ft/s. At
approximately what location will the boundary layer become turbulent, and how
thick is the boundary layer at that point if the fluid is (a) water at 60F, (b)
standard air, or (c) glycerin at 68 F
Solution
x Re xcr
5 xcr 5 104 cr x xcr
354
U U
Results
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Example 9.6 Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate.
the boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/)1/7 = Y1/7 for
Y = y/ 1 and u = U for Y > 1. This is a reasonable approximation of
experimentally observed profiles, except very near the plate where this formula
gives u/y = at y = 0. Note the differences between the assumed turbulent
profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stress agrees with the
experimentally determined formula:
14
w 0.225 U 2
U
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Displacement thickness
u 1 u 1
* 1 dy 1 dY 1 Y 1 7 dY
0
U 0
U 0 8
15
45
* 0.0463 x
U
Momentum thickness
15
7
0.0360 x 4 5
72 U
Wall shear stress
14
0.228U 2
2
w 0.0225 U 15 45
U 0.370 U x Re1x 5
Friction drag
l bl
D f b w dx 0.0360 U 2
0 Re1l 5
Friction drag coefficient
Df 0.0720
Df 15
1
U A Rel
2
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Comments
x1 2 x4 5
w x 1 2 w x 1 5
The random character of the turbulent flow causes a different structure of the flow
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For flow past body other than flat plate the pressure is not uniform
Notes
0, Re , =0, U fs v s
Notes
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Notes
Notes
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Notes
d dU
w
dx
U fs *U fs dxfs
Notes
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Any object moving through fluid experience drag. Drag is due to pressure
(pressure drag) and shear forces (friction drag)
D p n i dA w i dA
A A
L p n j dA w j dA
A A
notes
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Drag
D
CD
1
U 2 A
2
CD is a function of shape of the body, Reynolds number, Mach number, Froude
number and relative roughness:
Friction Drag
D f w i dA
For blunt bodies and high Reynolds number flows friction drag is
small
For highly streamlined bodies and low Reynolds number flows most
of the drag is due to friction
notes
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Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
D f w i dA
or from
1
Df U 2blCDf
2
notes
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more
advanced theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the
separation location at 108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The shear
stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient for the
cylinder based on the friction drag only
notes
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Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more advanced
theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the separation location at
108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The shear stress on the cylinder in the wake
region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
D
Solution: D f w i dA 2 b w sin d
A
2 0
2Df 2
CDf 2
w sin d
U bD U 2 0
2 w 1 2 w Re
CDf sin d sin d
0 U 2 Re 0 U
2
notes
Example (cntd.)
1
CDf
Re
F sin d
0
Answer:
5.93
CDf
Re
notes
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Pressure Drag
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
notes
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Example (cntd.)
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
1 1 2 D 2
CDp C p cos dA C p cos b d C p cos d
A bD 0
2 0
C Dp 1.17
notes
Example (cntd.)
5.93
Drag coefficient CD CDf CDp 1.17
Re
Df C Df 5.93 Re 1
Friction drag to total drag ratio
D CD 5.93
Re 1.17 1 0.197 Re
For Re = 103, 104, and 105 ratio is 0.138, 0.0483, and 0.0158
notes
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notes
Two objects of considerably different size that gave the same drag force:
(a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12
notes
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notes
notes
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Example
A small grain of sand, diameter d = 0.10 mm and specific gravity SG = 2.3, settles to the bottom of a lake
after having been stirred up by a passing boat. Determine now fast it falls through the still water.
notes
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Example
A small grain of sand, diameter d = 0.10 mm and specific gravity SG = 2.3, settles to the bottom of a lake
after having been stirred up by a passing boat. Determine now fast it falls through the still water.
W D Fb W SG H 2O d3 FB H 2O d3
6 6
24
Assume
CD
Re
1 1 24
Then D H OU 2 d 2CD H 2OU 2 d 2
2 2 4 2 4 H 2OU d H 2O
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Drag coefficient is usually independent of Mach number for Ma < 0.5. For
larger Mach number, CD strongly depend on Ma, with secondary Reynolds
number effects. Figure
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For streamline bodies (flat plate parallel to flow) drag increases with
increasing surface roughness
For extremely blunt body (flat plate normal to flow) drag is independent of
surface roughness
Object moving on the surface produces waves that require the source of
energy.
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Drag on a complex body can be approximated as the sum of the drag on its
parts Example
Example
A high-speed car with m = 2000 kg, CD = 0.3, and A = 1 m2 deploys a 2-m parachute to slow
down from an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming constant CD, brakes free, and no rolling
resistance, calculate the distance and velocity of the car after 1, 10, 100, and 1000 s. For air
assume = 1.2 kg/m3, and neglect interference between the wake of the car and the
parachute.
notes
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Example
A high-speed car with m = 2000 kg, CD = 0.3, and A = 1 m2 deploys a 2-m parachute to slow
down from an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming constant CD, brakes free, and no rolling
resistance, calculate the distance and velocity of the car after 1, 10, 100, and 1000 s. For air
assume = 1.2 kg/m3, and neglect interference between the wake of the car and the
parachute.
V0
V
K
1 V0t
m m K
S ln 1 V0t
K m
CDc Ac CDp Ap
K
2
notes
Example
A high-speed car with m = 2000 kg, CD = 0.3, and A = 1 m2 deploys a 2-m parachute to slow
down from an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming constant CD, brakes free, and no rolling
resistance, calculate the distance and velocity of the car after 1, 10, 100, and 1000 s. For air
assume = 1.2 kg/m3, and neglect interference between the wake of the car and the
parachute.
t, s 1 10 100 1000
V, m/s 89 45 7.6 0.8
S, m 94 654 2110 3940
notes
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Lift
Lift
Do we need lift?
Lift coefficient
L
CL
1
U 2 A
2
Body shape is the most important parameter that effects the lift coefficient
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Lift
Lift
For creeping flows (Re<1) shear stress and pressure effects may be
comparable
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Airfoil
angle of attack
c chord length
A = bc planform area
= b/c if c is constant
Lift and drag coefficients for wings are functions of the angle of attack and aspect ratio Figure
At large angles of attack the boundary layer separates and the wing stalls Figures
Circulation
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Circulation
Circulation
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Circulation
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w 0.332 U 3
x
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
back
Navier-Stokes equations
u u u u p 2u 2u 2u
u v w gx 2 2 2
t x y z x x y z
v v v v p 2 v 2v 2v
u v w gy 2 2 2
t x y z y x y z
w w w w p 2w 2w 2w
u v w g z 2 2 2
t x y z z x y z
back
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back
back
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back to ex 1
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back
back
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back
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D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
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D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106
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D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106
Ds 3470 lb Dc 4840lb
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D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2C Ds Dc U 2bDcC Dc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106
Ds 3470 lb Dc 4840lb
Example: (cntd.)
back
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back
back
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Other objects
back
next
back
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Two representation of the same lift and drag data for a typical airfoil:
(a) lift-to-drag ratio as a function of angle of attack,
(b) the lift and drag polar diagram
back
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back
u u
Obtain equation for from 1 dy
0 U U
d
Calculate shear stress from w U 2
dx
Even crude guess at the velocity profile gives reasonable drag and shear stress
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Example
The water ski shown in figure moves through 70 F water with a velocity U.
Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress on the bottom of the ski for 0 < U < 30
ft/s
Solution
Assumptions: Ski is a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow
1
Df U 2blCDf 1.94U 2CDf
2
Ul
Re x 3.8 105U
For U 10 ft/s Rel =3.8 106 Df 0.598 lb
Total pressure is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary layer
p U 2fs 2 const
Pressure gradient
dp dU fs
U fs
dx dx
Momentum integral equation with pressure gradient:
d dU fs
w
dx
U 2fs *U fs
dx
This equation represents a balance between viscous forces, pressure forces and the fluid
momentum
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Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1 C1C2 3 2
and w U
x Re x 2 x
where
1 dg Ux
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY C2 Re x
0 dY Y 0
x U or Re x x const and w U 3 x
Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
D f w i dA
or from
1
Df U 2blCDf
2
Wall shear stress along the surface of a curved body is difficult to determine.
Approximate results may be obtained.
If shear stress is known, friction drag can be determined
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Thats all
But
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