Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Cavitation simulation on horizontal axis marine current turbines

D. Usar*, S. Bal
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, the occurrence of cavitation on horizontal axis marine current turbine blades has been
Received 21 October 2014 investigated by numerical methods. To implicate the effects of cavitation on turbine performance, a
Accepted 23 January 2015 momentum blade element method was used in conjunction with a boundary element method which
Available online 14 February 2015
adopts the section cavity lengths as inputs and computes the lift and drag coefcients of cavitating blade
sections. Distribution of cavitation along the blades of marine current turbines was also modelled using a
Keywords:
vortex lattice method. In order to assess the capability of the methods, marine current turbines tested
Marine current turbines
previously under certain conditions were analyzed and the results were compared with the experimental
Cavitation
Blade element method
data available in literature. Satisfactory agreement validated that the distribution of cavitation along the
Boundary element method blade and the length of cavity at each blade section can be predicted adequately for a cavitating marine
Vortex lattice method current turbine. Using the methods presented in this study, up to 30% theoretical loss in generated power
is predicted for the particular case of a model turbine subjected to cavitation under specic test
conditions.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction performance of a marine current turbine either experimentally or

A horizontal axis marine current turbine is considerably similar
to a wind turbine in particular term of operating principle which
relies mainly on converting a directional ow of energy into useful
mechanical energy. However, a marine current turbine (MCT) dif-
fers signicantly from a wind turbine due to the environmental
conditions it is operating in. Differences in operating conditions,
such as sea water being approximately 830 times denser than air
and free stream velocities being much slower, give rise to changes
in Reynolds number, different stall characteristics and the possible
occurrence of cavitation [10,13]. Furthermore, the range of tip speed
ratios over which an MCT operates being lower than those of wind
turbines makes MCT blades more prone to cavitation. Cavitation is
dened as the formation of vapour regions due to a decrease in
local pressure inside a liquid and develops at any point on the
turbine blade where the pressure level reduces to or below the level
of saturated vapour pressure of the ambient water. Depending on
the blade geometry, water quality and operating conditions,
different types of cavitation (e.g. tip vortex, sheet, bubble, cloud
etc.) may develop individually or in any combination. The ability to
predict the effect of such formations on hydrodynamic
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: usar@itu.edu.tr (D. Usar), sbal@itu.edu.tr (S. Bal).
theoretically is crucial for the design and analysis of such systems.
The performance of a wind turbine or a marine current turbine
without cavitation may well be assessed adequately by using blade
element momentum model in design or analysis of such systems.
Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory is a widely used analytical
modelling tool that describes the hydrodynamic performance of
MCTs by combining one-dimensional momentum theory with
blade element theory. By discretizing each blade into sufcient
number of sections along the span, the dynamic effect of angular
and axial force on each element is determined individually. BEM
theory can be used successfully to predict the span-wise loading on
narrow blades of wind and marine current turbines, but does not
provide information on cavitation [10]. A methodology is presented
in Ref. [7] where the turbine was modelled using BEM theory. It was
noted that suitable section performance data, which also include
the cavitation characteristics, were required for the detailed design
of the MCT blades. This investigation demonstrated how the blade
pitch angle or section camber altered the stall performance and
delayed the possibility of cavitation for MCTs. However, the levels of
acceptance of cavitation are still not yet clear [7]. On the other hand,
in Ref. [8], the BEM theory was further developed for the design of
MCTs. The theory included routines for interpolation of 2-D section
data and extrapolation for stall delay. Experimental verications of
numerical predictions for hydrodynamic performance of MCTs
were also presented in [2]. It was indicated that two developed

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.01.060
0960-1481/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
16 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25
Nomenclature
a axial induction factor
0
a tangential induction factor
B number of blades
c chord length (m)
CD drag coefcient
CL lift coefcient
CN normal force coefcient CL cos a CD sin a
CP power coefcient
CT thrust coefcient
CTr local thrust coefcient
D drag (N)
F loss correction in momentum theory
Fa axial force (N)
FN normal force (N)
L lift (N)
p undisturbed far upstream pressure (Pa)
pV sea water vapour pressure (1200 Pa)
codes demonstrated similar trends in the results and provided a
satisfactory representation of the experimental turbine perfor-
mance. In addition, a study on cavitation inception and simulation
in blade element momentum theory introduced a compatible
cavitation detection model to indicate any cavitating blade ele-
ments in blade element momentum theory for modelling tidal
stream turbines [24]. The results of the study were validated using
the cavitation experiment observations, in a similar vain to the
work presented in this paper.
Considered basically as a propeller operating in a reverse rota-
tional direction, most of the theories and methods originally
developed for marine propellers can also be applied to marine
current turbines. Introduced originally for the analysis of fully
wetted marine propeller ows, vortex-lattice method [12] is one of
the most widely used numerical method to analyze the perfor-
mance of cavitating marine current turbines by employing a robust
arrangement of singularities and control point spacing to produce
accurate results [16]. The method was extended to analyze the
super-cavitating propellers subject to steady ow and the ability of
searching for the mid-chord cavitation was implemented [25]. The
effect of hub and wake alignment, including the effect of shaft
inclination as well as the unsteady wake alignment was developed
in order to determine the accurate location of the wake [26]. The
method was further developed for the prediction and investigation
of performance characteristics of podded propellers [5]. The
method was also utilized for the analysis of optimum cavitating
ship propellers [3] and to improve open water propeller perfor-
mance [4].
The present study includes the details of a method in which a
boundary element method is used in conjunction with blade
element momentum theory to include the hydrodynamic effects of
cavitation on blade sections, therefore the turbine performance
[20]. In order to assess the capability of the method, marine current
turbines tested previously under certain conditions were analyzed
and the results were compared with the experimental data avail-
able in literature. In order to assess the accuracy of the numerical
method for non-cavitating turbine case, a full-scale wind turbine
rotor was modelled and calculation results were compared with
measurements over a tip speed ratio (TSR) range. The method was
then applied to a marine current turbine tested in a cavitation
tunnel for cavitation-free conditions [7]. The same turbine was
further investigated to form an opinion about the effects of
R radius (m)
r radial position (m)
T thrust (N)
t section thickness (m)
TSR tip speed ratio
Q torque (N m)
U upstream undisturbed ow velocity (m s1)
Urel relative velocity (m s1)
Urp ow velocity at rotor plane (m s1)
V free stream water speed (m/s)
a section incidence, relative to the noseetail line ( )
lr local tip speed ratio
r water density (kg/m3)
s cavitation number
0
s local solidity
f incident ow angle on the aerofoil section ( )
U rotational velocity of rotor (rad s1)
u rotational velocity of wake (rad s1)
cavitation on turbine performance. An ideally constant distribution
of cavitation over the blades was presumed in order to achieve a full
set of CP values within the dened TSR range.
Another horizontal axis marine current turbine studied
comprehensively in Ref. [2] was rst modelled using blade element
momentum method to assess the turbine performance. Then, vor-
tex lattice method was used to simulate the distribution of cavi-
tation over the turbine blades for a specied test condition at which
the turbine operates in a cavitating state. For the same particular
test condition, the effect of cavitation on power extraction ef-
ciency of the turbine was assessed theoretically using the method
presented in this study. Finally, distribution of cavitation along the
blades of the model turbine investigated in Refs. [18,19] was
modelled using a vortex lattice method and the results were
compared with the experimental data.
2. Mathematical theories and numerical models
2.1. Momentum blade element theory
A marine current turbine rotor is comprised of hydrofoils that
produce lift with regard to the pressure difference between the top
and bottom of the turbine blade, giving rise to a similar pressure
jump seen in the momentum theory analysis. Momentum theory
uses an axisymmetric ow approach to balance the inow and
outow momentum across the rotor disk, Fig. 1. The ow is
assumed to be inviscid, irrotational, and incompressible, and the
turbine is modelled as an innitesimally thin disk with a negative
pressure jump across the disk. The theory is extended for the case
where the rotor generates angular momentum, which can be
related to rotor torque [17].
Blade element theory, on the other hand, denes the forces on
the blades of a marine turbine as a function of lift and drag co-
efcients and the angle of attack. The blade is divided into sufcient
number of elements along the span, as shown in Fig. 2, to obtain a
converged solution. Hydrodynamic interaction between elements
is neglected and the forces on the blades are assumed to be
determined only by the lift and drag characteristics of the sections
of the blades.
The equations derived from momentum and blade element
theories can be combined to predict the performance of a turbine.
Blade element momentum theory analysis includes wake rotation
 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25 17

Fig. 1. Stream tube approach for rotor analysis.

U 2 1  a2
dFN s0 pr Cl cos f Cd sin fdr (5)
sin2 f

U 2 1  a2
dQ s0 pr Cl sin f  Cd cos fr 2 dr (6)
sin2 f
0
where s is the local solidity, dened as s0 Bc=2pr, with B being
the number of blades. The coefcient of power for a turbine, is
dened as:
.
CP P 0:5rAU 3 (7)

where r is the density of the uid, A is the area of the turbine and U
is the free stream velocity. Using BEM theory, the overall rotor
power coefcient can be calculated from the following
equation [22,23]:
Fig. 2. Representation of blade elements: c, airfoil chord length; dr, radial length of
element; r, radius; R, rotor radius; U, angular vclocity of rotor.
  Zl    
8 Cd
Cp l3r a0 1  a 1  cot f dlr (8)
effects, drag losses due to a nite number of blades and modelling l2 Cl
lh
for the turbulent wake state. The chord and twist distributions of
the blade are assumed to be known and derived equations can be where lh is the local speed ratio at the hub. The details of derivation
used to solve for the angle of attack and performance of the blade of and numerical solution of Equation (8) can be found in Ref. [17].
0
[17]. Dening the axial induction factor , a , as the fractional In order to achieve accurate and reliable results in BEM method, the
decrease in ow velocity between the free stream and the rotor implementation of corrections such as tip loss correction and the
plane, a U  Urp =U and the angular induction factor, as Glauert correction is essential. Tip loss is dened as the reduction of
a0 u=2U, where U and u are angular velocities of the rotor and the lift and hence power production due to the strong cross-ow ef-
ow at the rotor: fects near the blade tip. The most comprehensible method to use
From axial momentum: for including the effect of the tip loss is the one developed by
Prandtl, which introduces a correction factor, F, into the equations
dT rU 2 4a1  apr dr (1) previously presented [21]. F is a function of the number of blades,
angle of relative velocity and radial position on the blade, and
From angular momentum: dened as:
2 0 8  913
dQ 4a0 1  arUpr 3 U dr (2)   >
> B 1  r=R>
>
2 6 B < 2 =C7
F cos1 6
4 expB
@    C7
A5 (9)
From blade element theory: p >
> r sin f >
>
: R ;

1 2
dFN B rUrel Cl cos f Cd sin fc dr (3) This correction factor varies from 0 to 1 and characterizes the
2
reduction in forces along the blade. Applying the tip loss correction
factor to the forces derived from momentum theory, Equations (1)
1 2 and (2) become:
dQ B rUrel Cl sin f Cd cos fcr dr (4)
2
dT FrU 2 4a1  apr dr (10)
Equating the forces and moments derived from momentum
theory and blade element theory: From angular momentum:
18 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25

dQ 4Fa0 1  arUpr 3 U dr (11) i. The kinematic boundary condition: The ow should be

tangent to the surface of the hydrofoil and cavity.
Therefore, the power coefcient can be calculated from:
vf ! !
  Zl     V $ n (18)
8 Cd vn
Cp Fl3r a0 1  a 1  cot q dlr (12)
l2 Cl !
lh where n is the unit normal vector to the hydrofoil or cavity surface
directed into the uid domain.
The solution method is an iterative numerical approach that ii. The dynamic boundary condition on the cavity surface: The
0
starts with guesses for a and a . Than the angle of relative velocity pressure is constant and equal to pv on the cavity surface. By
and the angle of attack of the blade section are calculated. Corre- applying Bernoulli's equation, the total velocity on the cavity,
0
sponding values of Cl and Cd are determined. The values of a and a qc, can be given as [14]:
are updated using relevant equations. For design and optimization
purposes the steps are repeated until the difference between pre-
0
! ! p
viously and newly calculated values of a and a lie within the set qc V 1 s (19)
tolerance range. The process is shown in Fig. 3.
In the turbulent wake state, the equivalence of the thrust forces where s is the cavitation number, dened as:
determined from momentum theory becomes no longer valid. In
this case, an empirical relationship between the thrust coefcient p  pv
and the axial induction factor in conjunction with blade element s (20)
1=2rV 2
theory is used [17].
 h
1 pi
a 0:143 0:0203  0:64270:889  CT (13) iii. The Kutta condition: The velocity at the trailing edge of the
F
hydrofoil is nite.
This equation includes tip losses and is valid for a > 0.4 or,
equivalently for CT > 0.96.
Vf finite (21)
The relationship determines the overall thrust coefcient for a
rotor and applies equally to equivalent local thrust coefcients for
each blade section as well. For each annular rotor section, the local iv. Cavity closure condition: The cavity closes at its trailing edge.
thrust coefcient, CTr, can be dened as: The complicated physical phenomena occurring at the cavity
trailing edge are ignored and the region is represented by a
dFN
CTr 1 (14) termination model. Please refer to Refs. [14,3] for details. The
2 rU 2 2pr dr
cavity detachment point is assumed to be known and in this
study the leading edge of the hydrofoil is chosen as the cavity
The local thrust coefcient is dened using the equation for the detachment point [9]. By applying Green's third identity
normal force from blade element theory: to Equation (17) in the uid domain, the following integral
. equation for the perturbation potential on the hydrofoil
CTr s0 1  a2 Cl cos f Cd sin f sin2 f (15) surface and the cavity surface can be written as dened in
Ref. [6]:
For the cases where CTr > 0:96, the axial induction factor is
determined using the local thrust coefcient and Equation (13). Z   Z
vln r vf vln r
pf f  ln r dS DfW dS (22)
vn vn vn
SH SW
2.1.1. Theory of cavitating section
BEM theory was coupled with a section cavitiy model to include
where SH and SW are the boundaries of the hydrofoil (including the
the effects of cavitation by means of lift and drag coefcients of the
cavity surface) and the wake surface, respectively. r is the distance
blade sections. A cavitating 2-D hydrofoil (section) surface subject
between source point and eld point. DfW is the potential jump
to a uniform inow, as shown in Fig. 4, is considered.
across the wake surface, and n is the unit vector normal to the
The x axis is positive in the direction of uniform inow and the z
wake surface pointing upwards. After applying the kinematic
axis is positive upwards. Sc, Sh and Sw are the cavity, hydrofoil and
boundary condition to equation (22), the following integral equa-
wake surfaces, respectively. The uid is assumed to be inviscid,
tion can be written for the hydrofoil part, which includes the cavity
incompressible, and irrotational. Then the ow eld can be
surface, Sc:
expressed in terms of the total velocity potential, , or the
perturbation potential, f, as follows: Z   Z
vln r
! ! vln r
Fx; z fx; z Vx (16) pf f V $ n ln r dS DfW dS (23)
vn vn
SH SW
where V is the velocity of incoming ow. The perturbation poten-
tial, f, and the total potential, , should satisfy Laplace's equation in Here the hydrofoil and the cavity boundaries are discretized into
the uid domain: straight panels with piecewise constant source and dipole distri-
butions. The discretized integral equation provides a matrix of
V2 F V2 f 0 (17) equations with respect to the unknown potential values and can be
solved by any matrix solver. This is called a boundary element
In addition, the following boundary conditions should be satised method (panel method) for cavitating hydrofoils. Please refer to
by f. Refs. [14,6] for details.
 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25 19

Fig. 3. Flow diagram of the iterative process to dene axial and tangential induction factors in MBEM.

2.1.2. Coupling with BEM theory

Fig. 4. A partially cavitating 2-D hydrofoil.
The coupling between BEM method and the cavity model, which
is solved by a boundary element method, is carried out by the
following methodology. First, the cavitation numbers at different
blade angles are calculated using Equation (20) for each section
(strip) and then the above cavity model is applied to determine the
length of cavity at each cavitating section. The geometry and hy-
drodynamic lift and drag coefcients of the combined section,
comprised of foil and cavity geometry as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, are
calculated using the cavitiy model dened above. The computed lift
coefcients and drag coefcients (viscous drag (from [1]) cavity
drag) are now the input values for BEM method. After applying BEM
method (integrating the 2-D sectional characteristics), the thrust
and power values versus current speed is found.
20 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25
Fig. 5. Boundary element method model of a partially cavitating 2-D hydrofoil.
Fig. 6. Boundary element method model of a super-cavitating 2-D hydrofoil.
2.2. Vortex lattice method
Vortex Lattice Method (VLM) is used to solve the potential ow
around a rotor by placing sources and vortices on a lattice
describing the mean camber surface of the rotor blades and the
wake. The singularities distributed on the meanlines of the turbine
blade sections are divided into two parts; bound and trailing
vortices. To simulate the load distribution on the turbine blade, the
bound vortices are located in radial direction. The trailing vortices
are obtained from the different intensities of adjacent bound vortex
elements and placed in direction of the ow. To simulate the
thickness of the blade, a number of source elements are taken at
adjacent bound vortex. Applying the ow tangency condition at
blade control points, the vortex strengths are calculated by solving
a set of simultaneous equations. Induced velocities due to vortex
elements of the lifting surface are calculated using BioteSavart Law
expressed in Equation (24). Induced velocities due to sources/sinks
are computed on the basis of given source/sink intensity [5].
! !
vortex and free shed vortex. QB and QC are the magnitude of line
sources representing blade and cavity thickness.
It should be noted that the tip vortex model is not included in
the vortex lattice method. More details of the unsteady wake
alignment method can be found in Ref. [15].
3. Numerical results
3.1. Performance predictions
To test the accuracy of the BEM method, performance assess-
ments of a full scale wind turbine [11] and a mathematically
modelled marine current turbine [7] have been made using the
available data. In order to assess the capability of vortex lattice
method in simulation of cavitation on marine current turbine
blades, both the turbine model tested in Ref. [18] and a model
turbine tested under certain conditions in Ref. [2] were analyzed
and the results were compared with the experimental data
The Nordtank NTK 500/41 wind turbine is stall regulated (xed
pitch) and the main parameters of the turbine are listed below:
Rotational speed: 27.1 rpm
Air density: 1.225 kg/m3
Rotor radius: 20.5 m
Number of blades: 3
Hub height: 35.0 m
Cut-in wind speed: 4 m/s
Cut-out wind speed: 25 m/s
The blade is divided into 17 elements and force coefcient data
of NACA 63-415 is applied along the span. The air density was taken
as r 1.225 kg/m3. The description of the NTK 500/41 turbine
blades is given in Table 1. The actual geometry and aerofoil data of
the Nordtank NTK 500/41 blades can be found in Ref. [11].
Comparison between computed power curve and power curve
measured [11] is shown in the form of mechanical shaft power as a
function of wind speed to illustrate the accuracy of the BEM model,
Fig. 7. Power curves are shown in non-dimensional form by
! G LxR
VG $ 3 (24) drawing Power coefcient CP as a function of tip speed ratio l, Fig. 8.
4p ! Figs. 7 and 8 show that, apart from at very high free stream
R
! !
where VG is the induced velocity, G is the circulation, L is the
!
vortex length element, R is the distance between the element and
the eld point. After the solution of bound vortex elements in-
tensity, the velocity induced by the turbine at any point in space can
be computed, using ve angular position of the turbine blade.
Finally, induced velocity at the corresponding point is the arith-
metic average of these ve values.
The trailing wake sheet travelling downstream of a turbine
blade experiences expansion and roll-up at the tip region. The
vortex lattice method can accurately predict the wake geometry for
turbines by aligning the wake surface with the local velocities, i.e.
by applying force free condition on the wake surface. The unknown
vortices and sources are rst solved based on the unaligned wake
geometry without any modelling of expansion and roll-up at the
blade tip. Then the induced velocities are determined by summing
up the velocities induced by each blade and wake element, and are
evaluated on each edge point of the wake panels.
X X X X
vwi GB vG QB vQ QC vQ GW vG
GB QB QC GW
where vwi is the induced velocity on a particular wake point, vG and
vQ are velocity vectors induced by each unit strength of line source
and vortex loop, GB and GW are the constant strength of bound
velocities, the present BEM method results agree well with the
measured values.
BEM method was also applied to analyze the performance of a
marine current turbine with regard to the results of a previous
theoretical study [7]. The blade was divided into 17 elements. The
blade chord radius ratio of the turbine, c/R, was varied linearly from
0.125 at x 0.2e0.05 at the tip and the thickness variation assumed
constant. NACA 63-2xx series aerofoil was chosen as blade sections,
description of the turbine blades is given in Table 2.
Lift and drag coefcients were predicted using Xfoil to use in the
BEM calculations. Rotor was assumed to have a diameter of 15 m
and operate at 10.9 rpm in a free stream velocity of 2 m/s, corre-
sponding to a tip speed ratio of (TSR) 4.3. Detailed data on speci-
cations of the turbine and different simulation conditions can be
found in Ref. [7]. The comparison of BEM calculations and results of
the previous study for power coefcient of the turbine is presented
in Fig. 9 for 0 pitch angle. No cavity has been occurred for this
particular condition.
(25) 3.2. Simulation of cavitation over MCT blades
The classical BEM theory and the boundary element method
explained in Section 2.2 were coupled to analyze a three bladed
MCT given in Ref. [7] to compare the results of present methodol-
ogy [20]. The chord radius ratio (c/R) is changing linearly from 0.125
 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25 21

Table 1
Blade description of the Nordtank NTK 500/41.

r [m] 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.3
Twist [ ] 20 16.3 13 10.05 7.45 5.85 4.85 4 3.15 2.6 2.02 1.36 0.77 0.33 0.14 0.05 0.02
Chord [m] 1.63 1.597 1.54 1.481 1.42 1.356 1.294 1.229 1.163 1.095 1.026 0.955 0.881 0.806 0.705 0.545 0.265

Fig. 7. Comparison between computed and measured power curve, i.e. mechanical shaft power as a function of the wind speed for 27 rev. per min.

Fig. 8. Power coefcient as a function of the tip speed ratio l uR/V0  RPM 27.1.

at r 0.2R (at the hub) to 0.05 at r R (at the tip). The blade
sections (hydrofoils) are selected as NACA 0012 proles.
For this simulation, the distribution of cavitation over the blade
is assumed ideally constant to achieve a full set of CP values within
the dened TSR range. Cavity length is assumed to be 30% cor-
dlength at the blade tip and closes at r/R 0.75 after a linear
decrease in spanwise direction. Cavity shapes for each cavitating
strip are shown in Fig. 10.
In Fig. 11, the comparison of calculated power coefcient and
thrust coefcient values with and without blade cavitation versus
tip speed ratio is presented.
Although the differences between the power coefcient values
without cavitation and with cavitation are small for higher tip
speed ratios (TSR > 5), the power coefcient with cavitation is
lower than that of without cavitation up to 20% for small tip speed
ratios. The possible reason for this is that the cavitation induces
higher drag values for small tip speed ratios. Note also that thrust
coefcient values with cavitation are higher than those of without
cavitation, since the cavitation surface behaves like an added
camber which increases the drag coefcient of the section. The
calculated power coefcient values are compared with those of Ref.
[7] in Fig. 12. The reasonably large differences in CP values for this
particular case can probably arise from the assumptions of the BEM
method. The BEM method has an empirical correction for the tur-
bulent wake as well as an empirical tip loss correction factor.
The turbine model tested in Ref. [18] is also simulated for
operating conditions of 2.0 m/s free stream velocity, 342.9 rpm and
s 2.232 cavitation number, Fig. 13.
The comparison between simulation results and experimental
data showed a slight difference in terms of span-wise extent of the
cavitating region, Fig. 14. The cloud and tip vortex cavity observed
in experiments cannot be modelled due to the fact that the VLM
lacks the ability to predict such types of cavitation.
The model turbine investigated in Ref. [2] is 800 mm in diameter
and operating in 1.73 m/s free stream velocity. The standard ge-
ometry has a pitch angle at the blade root equal to 15 , corre-
sponding to 0 pitch setting at the tip. In the present work, the 20
pitch setting angle is considered. The blade was divided into 17
22 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25

elements. The detailed data of the turbine is given in Ref. [2]

0.0504
description of the turbine blades is given in Table 3.

0.99
4.25
BEM calculation results are compared with the experimental

12
data from Ref. [2]. Power coefcient curve is plotted as a function of
tip speed ratios as shown in Fig. 15. For this particular case, the BEM

0.05475
4.625
theory captures the experimental results satisfactorily, except for

0.95

12.75
tip speed ratios lower than 6 where the crossow effects could
become highly signicant.

0.0591
For the same turbine, the distribution of cavitation over the
turbine blades was modelled by VLM for the case where the cavi-
0.9

13.5
5
tation number is 0.64, free stream velocity is 1.4 m/s and rpm is 250.
The lifting surface analysis program was ran for the turbine under
0.06345

the above conditions. There were 20 vortex lattices (N 20) used

5.375
0.85

14.25

along the chordwise direction and 18 vortex lattices (M 18) used

along the radius of the blades as shown in Fig. 16.
The comparison of simulation results and the
0.0678
5.75

experimental observations showed a satisfactory agreement in

0.8

15

terms of both cavitation distribution and cavity lengths at as

shown in Fig. 17.
0.07215

The effect of cavitation on power extraction performance of this

0.75

15.75

turbine was numerically estimated for this particular test condi-

6.2

tions using the combined blade element momentum and boundary

element method along with vortex lattice method and observa-
0.0765

tional test data. Blade element theory is used to calculate the local
6.65
0.7

16.5

cavitation number and the angle of attack at each blade section. In

the case of the occurrence of cavitation, span-wise extent of cavi-
tating region over the blade and the length of cavity at each blade
0.08085

section is determined using VLM to simulate observational test

0.65
7.15

17.25

data.
Making use of simulation results, the lengths of supercavities at
sections from 0.85 to 0.95 and partial cavity at section r/R 0.8 and
0.0852
7.65
0.6

are measured. Calculated lift coefcient values of the blade section

18

prone to cavitation and the original values for non-cavitating case

are compared in Table 4.
0.08955

For this particular case, the occurrence of cavitation gave rise to

8.325
0.55

18.75

a signicant decrease in sectional lift coefcients causing a negative

effect on section's capability of generating lift force. Instead of the
original (cavitation free) values, calculated lift coefcients of the
0.0939

cavitating sections were used in blade element momentum method

0.5

19.5
9

to calculate the forces generated.

By applying the procedure, the estimated power coefcients
0.09825

for cavitating and cavitation free conditions are CPcav 0.32 and
0.45
9.95

20.25

CPnon-cav 0.47 respectively, corresponding to a theoretical loss as

high as 30% in generated power is predicted for this model tur-
bine. Therefore, the effects of cavitation on hydrodynamic per-
0.1026

formance of a marine current turbine are included in BEM

11.15
0.4

calculations by means of lift and drag coefcients of blade

21

sections.
The estimate of theoretical loss in power generated being as
0.10695
12.825

high as 30% due to cavitation was based on ideal presumptions. Due

0.35

21.75

to the fact that, the useful torque is generated mainly near the blade
tip in the case of a marine turbine, the occurrence of cavitation over
0.1113

the blade sections located at R > 0.7 (the ratio of cavity area to blade
14.95
0.3

22.5

surface area is approximately 15% for this particular case) can

greatly reduce the power generated. For the turbine given in Page
Blade description of the turbine [7].

13, a maximum of 20% theoretical loss in generated power (as

0.11565

shown in Fig. 11) seemed consistent, since the ratio of cavity area to
18.125
0.25

23.25

blade surface area for this turbine is approximately 5%. In uniform

ow, any cavitation is likely to occur at near top-dead-centre and on
the outer part of the blade, where the immersion is minimum. This
0.125
0.2

can be overcome, to a certain extent, by reducing the loading in the

22

24

outer part of the blade by decreasing the blade pitch. The meth-
odology described in the paper can also be used to optimize the
t/c (%)
Table 2

a ( )

pitch angles to minimize cavitation by implementing the procedure

c/R
r/R

given in Fig. 3.
 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25 23

Fig. 9. Comparison of BEM calculation results for coefcient of pressure.

Fig. 10. Cavity shapes near tip of blade.

Fig. 12. Comparison of coefcient of power.

Fig. 11. Power and thrust coefcients with and without cavitation. Fig. 13. VLM model of the marine current turbine tested in Ref. [18].
 Fig. 14. For 2.0 m/s free stream velocity and sigma: 2.232, comparison of mathematical simulation and observational data of cavitation distribution over the turbine blade.

Table 3
Blade description of the turbine.

r/R 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Radius (mm) 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
c/R 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.1
Pitch ( ) 15 12.1 9.5 7.6 6.1 4.9 3.9 3.1 2.4 1.9 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
t/c (%) 24 22.5 20.7 19.5 18.7 18.1 17.6 17.1 16.6 16.1 15.6 15.1 14.6 14.1 13.6 13.1 13

Fig. 15. Comparison of calculated and experimental [2] results of power coefcients for 1.73 m/s free stream velocity and 20 pitch angle setting.

4. Conclusions

An outline of a method for implicating the effects of cavitation

on hydrodynamic performance of marine current turbines was
presented. Distribution of cavitation along the blades of the model
turbine given in Ref. [18] as well as a marine current turbine model
tested previously [2] were modelled using vortex lattice method.
Satisfactory agreement with the experimental data available vali-
dated that the distribution of sheet cavitation along the blade and
the length of cavity at each blade section can be predicted accu-
rately for a marine current turbine. The ability to predict the dis-
tribution of cavitation through mathematical methods provide
more accurate estimations of lift and drag coefcients of cavitating
blade sections. Therefore, the ability of BEM Theory for perfor-
mance assessment of a cavitating marine turbine is enhanced. The
effect of cavitation on turbine energy extraction performance was
taken into account in MBEM calculations by means of blade sec-
tions lift and drag coefcients. The results suggest that the occur-
rence of cavitation causes a signicant decrease in turbine
performance by reducing sectional lift coefcient therefore
decreasing section's capability of generating lift force. For a typical
three bladed horizontal axis marine current turbine [2] prone to
cavitation under the particular case of operation in 1.73 m/s free
stream velocity and at 20 pitch angle setting, 30% theoretical loss Fig. 16. VLM model of the turbine given in Ref. [2].
 D. Usar, S. Bal / Renewable Energy 80 (2015) 15e25 25

Fig. 17. Comparison of cavitation simulations and observation results for 1.4 m/s free stream velocity, cavitation number of 0.64 and TSR 7.5.

Table 4 [8] Batten WMJ, Bahaj AS, Molland AF, Chaplin JR. The prediction of hydrody-
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1085e96.
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dimensional partially cavitating hydrofoils. Ocean Eng 2014;78:22e34.
Non-cavitating Cavitating
[10] Goundar JN, Ahmed MR, Lee YH. Numerical and experimental studies on
0.8 1.284715 0.16257 hydrofoils for marine current turbines. Renew Energy 2012;42.
0.85 1.24232 0.14981 [11] Hansen MOL. Aerodynamics of wind turbines. 2nd ed. London, UK: Earthscan;
0.9 1.177341 0.1432 2008.
0.95 1.055486 0.125 [12] Kerwin JE, Lee CS. Prediction of steady and unsteady marine propeller per-
formance by numerical lifting-surface theory. SNAME Trans 1978;86(218):
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be validated. Detailed experimental studies are needed to dene propeller blades. Int J Rotating Mach 2003;9:263e77.
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[18] Usar D, Atlar M, Bal S. Performance prediction of a horizontal axis marine
current turbine by experimental and numerical studies. In: Trkiye offshore
This research was supported by the Istanbul Technical Univer- energy conference, Istanbul; 2013.
sity Scientic Research Projects Unit under Grant 34-442. The au- [19] Usar D, Atlar M, Bal S. Prediction of performance and cavitation behavior of
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naval architecture and maritime, Istanbul; 2014.
Newcastle upon Tyne for his contribution to this study. [20] Usar D, Bal S. Application of classical blade element momentum theory and a
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