SIPUNCULA (SIPOU)

SIPUNCULA (Xenosiphon branchiatus)

Sipuncula dideskripsikan sepintas sebagai hewanlaut mirip cacing
tapitanpa segmen, tubuhnyaterbagi menjadi badanutama (trunk) danbelalai (introvert)
yangbisa ditarik ke dalam atau belakang, perbandingan panjang kedua bagian itu
bervariasi untuk tiap-tiap jenis (Cutler 1994).Sipuncula merupakan filum minor dalam
kelompok besar hewan bilateria, yaitu kelompok hewan yang bersifat tripoblastik,
tubuhnya simetris bilateral dan terbentuk dari tiga macam lapisanbenih
(endodermis, mesodermis dan ektodermis).

Filum ini secara khusus belum dipelajari dengan baik, dilaporkanbaru sekitar 300 jenis
yang telah dideskripsi secara formal,semua di laut dan umumnya
perairan dangkal (Kozloff 1990). Ada yang meliang semipermanen dalam pasir
dan lumpur, adayang di celah karang, dalam kerang kosong, bahkanmengebor
ke dalam karang. Merekapun tidak meninggalkanlubang di permukaan pasir atau
lumpur untuk menunjukkan kehadiran mereka, sehingga relatif sulit untuk ditemu
kan dan ditangkap (Romimohtarto dan Juwana 2001).

Umumnya sipuncula (sipou) berumah dua, cuma sejenis diketahui hermafrodit

yaitu Nephasoma minutum. Themiste lageniformes bersifat partenogenesis
fakultatif. Aspidosiphon elegans dilaporkan bereproduksi aseksual dengan tunas.
Selainitu pada sipuncula tidak diketahui ada dimorfisme seksual. Gonad cuma
lazim selama periode reproduktif. Gametdilepaskan ke dalam coelom tempat
pematangan berlangsung. Gamet matang diambil nefridia dan dilepaskan ke air melalui
nefridiofor (Rice 1993).
Pada Masyarakat Bungku Sipuncula dikenal juga dengan "Sipou". Bila di kaji dari aspek pemanfatannya
Sipou dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan pangan (produk kering/awetan dan basah/segar) yang
telah terbukti bergizi, halal dan sampai sejauh ini masih aman untuk dikonsumsi,
tidak kalah dengan bahan pangan sejenis (hasil perikanan lainnya).
Mitos konsumsinya terkait seksualitas priaterbukti ada benarnya, juga terkait khasiat u
ntuk kulit dari kandungan kolagennya, meski perlu diteliti lebih lanjut.
Sipuncula basah pun bisa dikonsumsi segar apalagi diolah,
kemanisannya melebihi kerang-kerangan karena kadarkarbohidrat yang tinggi;
ditambah kandungan asam glutamatnya sebagai penguat manis dan gurihnya; apalagi
jika digoreng dan dipanggang sebagai bentuk olahannya yang unik. Semua itu dari sisi
ekonomis bisa dijadikan faktor pendorong optimalisasi pemanfaatannya. Jika tidak
terkendali, dari sisi ekologis itu semua
berpotensi mendorong eksploitasi biota ini berlebih-lebihan, yang bisa berakibat
pemanfaatannya tidak bisaberkelanjutan atau risiko yang lebih berat, mengingat
biotanya amat rentan dan belum bisa dibudidaya apalagi secara intensif.
Pemanfaatan sipou sebagai bahan pangan juga masih memiliki keterbatasan.
Pertama: skala produksi terbatas, karena merupakan produk musiman setiap tahun,
sentra produksinya tidak banyak, begitupun jumlah penangkapnya.
Kedua: skala konsumsi terbatas, cuma pada sejumlah komunitas
tertentu (meskipun/alpalagi tidak lazim
terkait bentukasli/fisiknya) terutama sipou basah/segar (hasil m e k a h u a ). Hal itu me
mbuatnya eksklusif, apalagi sudah dianggappangan bernilai khusus sehingga mahal
di pasar.

Proses penangkapan sipou untuk masyarakat Bungku dilakukan dengan cara

tradisional pada waktu air laut surut yang dikenal dengan mekahua, yaitu dengan
menggunaakan sepotong kayu besi (dalam bahasa bungku : kahua) untuk menggali
rumah (sarang) sipou tersebut sedalam kurang lebih 15 cm. Tidak semua masyarakat
Bungku ahli dalam mekahua, untuk pekerjaan yang satu ini memerlukan keahlian
khusus serta pengalaman dalam melihat dan menemukan rumah (sarang)sipou. Alat
lain yang dibutuhkan dalam mekahua adalah busur(dui-dui) yang akan digunakan
untuk mebalikkan tubuh hewan ini. Artinya tubuh bagian luar akan berada di dalam
sedangkan tubuh bagian dalam berada diluar dengan menggunakan dui-dui. Dalam
bahasa bungku dikenal dengan mobusu sipou.
Cara yang lazim untuk pengolahan sipou adalah dengan cara digoreng lalu dihidangkan bersama Dunui
(makanan khas suku bungku). serta kuah sayur kuning akan menambah rasa gurih dan enak dilidah
penikmatnya.

sobrylabinta.blogspot.com/2012/12/sipuncula-xenosiphon-branchiatus.html
1. http://epublishing.ekt.gr/sites/ektpublishing/files/ebooks/Monograph_02_The_Phylum_Sipuncula.pdf.

2. http://cfcc.edu/faculty/rogers/courses/msc174/Lectures/Phylum%20Sipuncula.pdf

3.
http://www.stri.si.edu/english/research/facilities/marine/bocas_del_toro/PDFs/brs_special_issue/41_5
23-527.pdf

4. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/6123/7.pdf?sequence=15
(Sipuncula Peanut Worms)

5. http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/17/m017p001.pdf (ekologi sipuncula)

 Chaetognathaarrow worms
(http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chaetognatha/ )

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By Jeremy Wright

Diversity
Geographic Range
Habitat
Physical Description
Development
Reproduction

Lifespan/Longevity
 Behavior
Communication and Perception
Food Habits
Predation
Ecosystem Roles

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Conservation Status
Other Comments
Contributors
References
Diversity
The phylum Chaetognatha, also known as arrow worms, contains nearly 200 species of
mostly planktonic, bilaterally symmetrical, coelomate, worm-like organisms. The phy-
lum contains two orders, Phragmophora and Aphragmophora. The main difference be-
tween the two is the presence of ventral transverse muscle bands in Phragmophora,
which are absent in Aphragmophora. Chaetognaths may be found in marine and some
estuarine environments throughout the world. About a fifth of the total species are ben-
thic, some living just above the deep ocean floor; these are often attached to the sub-
strate by adhesive secretions. Chaetognaths may range from 1 mm to 12 cm in length
and are typically transparent, although some deep-water species may be orange in
color, and phragmophorids may be opaque, due to their musculature. The common
name, arrow worms is derived from their streamlined appearance, with paired lateral
fins and a single caudal (tail) fin, while their scientific name comes from the hooked set
of jaws that protrude lateral to the mouth. These structures are used in prey capture,
with chaetognaths feeding on a number of crustacean (mainly copepods) and fish
(mainly larvae) species, which they track through daily vertical migrations in the water
column (these migrations may also protect them from predators). Chaetognaths are
hermaphroditic, and may undergo reciprocal, nonreciprocal, or self-fertiliza-
tion. ("Chaetognatha", 2012; Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Goto and Yoshida, 1985; Mar-
gulis and Chapman, 2010; Shapiro, 2012; Zhang, 2011)

Geographic Range
Chaetognaths may be found in marine and some estuarine environments throughout
the world, including polar and tropical regions. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Margulis and
Chapman, 2010; Shapiro, 2012)

Biogeographic Regions
nearctic

native
 palearctic

native

oriental

native

ethiopian

native

neotropical

native

australian

native

antarctica

native

arctic ocean

native

indian ocean

native

atlantic ocean
 native

pacific ocean

native

mediterranean sea

native
Other Geographic Terms
holarctic
cosmopolitan
Habitat
Chaetognaths are mainly planktonic organisms in marine and estuarine environments.
About a fifth of the total species are benthic, some living just above the deep ocean
floor. They are often found in great numbers, particularly in mid-water and neritic wa-
ters, and may be found in rock pools or associated with certain oceanic currents. (Br-
usca and Brusca, 2003; Margulis and Chapman, 2010; Ramel, 2012)

Habitat Regions
temperate
tropical
polar
saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes
pelagic
benthic
reef
temporary pools
coastal
abyssal
brackish water
Other Habitat Features
estuarine
Physical Description
Chaetognaths range from 1 mm to 12 cm in length and are typically transparent, al-
though some deep-water species may be orange in color (carotenoid pigmentation),
and phragmophorids may be opaque, due to their musculature. They are bilaterally
symmetrical and have long, streamlined bodies, which may be divided into head, trunk,
and tail regions. They have paired lateral fins and a single tail fin. The mouth is located
ventrally on the head, and is set into a vestibule; this structure is typically associated
 with grasping spines or hooks, located laterally to the mouth, as well as teeth, which
are in located at the front of the mouth. Some species have serrated hooks and/or cus-
pidate teeth. A hood (anterolateral body wall fold) may be pulled over the head to en-
close the vestibule. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Ghirardelli, 1968; Margulis and Chap-
man, 2010; Shapiro, 2012)

Chaetognaths are covered in a thin, flexible cuticle on top of the epidermis. Epidermal
cells are mainly squamous and have interlocking margins; they may be stratified. Epi-
dermal cells covering the fins are elongated and the cells lining the vestibule are colum-
nar rather than squamous. The cuticle is not continuous and, where it is not present,
there are many secretory cells in the epidermis. There is a basement membrane pre-
sent between the epidermis and body wall; the body wall is made up of four quadrants
of dorsolateral and ventrolateral longitudinal muscles. The body cavities are most likely
derived from enterocoelic cavities, which form during development. The body cavity has
a tripartite arrangement, with a head cavity (protocoel, reduced in space by the
cephalic musculature), and paired trunk and tail coeloms with dorsal and ventral longi-
tudinal mesenteries, which correspond to the mesocoel and matcoel, respectively.
Transverse septa separate the body regions. The body fluid has a variety of cells and
cell-like structures, although their functions are largely unknown. The fluid-filled
coeloms, body wall, basement membrane, and cuticle all provide support to the body.
They do not have circulatory, respiratory, or excretory organs; gases are diffused
across the body wall and fluid transport is via cilial action within the body cavities. (Br-
usca and Brusca, 2003; Margulis and Chapman, 2010; Shapiro, 2012)

A few species of deep sea chaetognaths, including Eukrohnia fowleri and Caecosagitta
macrocephala, are bioluminescent. (Thuesen, et al., 2010)

Other Physical Features

ectothermic
heterothermic
bilateral symmetry
venomous
Development
Chaetognaths are hermaphroditic. Cross-fertilization is most common, although some
species will self-fertilize. Fertilization is typically internal and eggs may be released into
the water, deposited on the sea floor or other substrate, or brooded in pouches near
the tail. Cleavage is radial, holoblastic, and equal, leading to a coeloblastula. Develop-
ment is direct and accomplished quickly, typically from zygote to juvenile within 48
hours. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Margulis and Chapman, 2010)

Reproduction
Chaetognaths may undergo reciprocal, nonreciprocal, or self-fertilization. Some benthic
species have been documented performing a mating "dance," with an individual de-
positing balls of sperm onto a mate. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Goto and Yoshida,
1985)

Mating System
polygynandrous (promiscuous)
 Chaetognaths have paired ovaries located in their trunks and paired testes located in
their tails. Sperm mature before eggs (which makes self-fertilization less likely), and
are stored in coelomic cavities within the tail until they are released in clusters outside
the body via a pair of seminal vesicles. Ovaries have oviducts, which lead to genital
pores located near the trunk-tail junction. In populations of at least a few species,
breeding occurs twice a year, and hatching occurs from April to June and late Septem-
ber to December (typically fewer hatchlings). (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Ghirardelli,
1968; Ramel, 2012; Zo, 1973)

Key Reproductive Features

iteroparous
seasonal breeding
simultaneous hermaphrodite
sexual
fertilization

internal

oviparous
Outside of a few species (such as members of genus Eukronhnia) that brood their
young until they are ready to swim, chaetognaths exhibit no parental investment be-
yond the production of gametes. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003)

Parental Investment
female parental care
pre-fertilization

provisioning

pre-hatching/birth

protecting
female
Lifespan/Longevity
Most cold water chaetognaths have a longer life expectancy than those in tropical wa-
ters, two years versus six weeks, respectively. ("Arrow Worms Phylum Chaetog-
natha", 2002)

Behavior
Many species within this phylum are known to undergo daily vertical migrations, rising
to the surface at night to follow prey and sinking during the day, which provides protec-
tion from predators. These worms have ammonia-filled vacuolated cells in their trunks,
which help them to regulate their depth in the water column. Pelagic chaetognaths
 move by contracting the longitudinal muscles of their right and left sides alternately,
creating forward, darting motions. Fins do not appear to aid in locomotion, instead act-
ing as stabilizers. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Margulis and Chapman, 2010)

Key Behaviors
natatorial
diurnal
nocturnal
crepuscular
motile
sedentary
solitary
Communication and Perception
Chaetognaths have a central nervous system with a large cerebral ganglion, dorsal to
the pharynx. Additional ganglia, which serve muscles and sensory organs of the head,
arise from this structure. They also have a pair of circumenteric connective nerves,
emerging from the rear of the cerebral ganglion and extending (posterioventrally) to
meet in a ventral ganglion in the epidermis of the trunk. This ganglion controls swim-
ming motion and also gives rise to many pairs of nerves, which create a subepidermal
nerve plexus. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003)

Chaetognaths have a pair of compound eyes below the epidermis, on the head. They
are made up of five inverted pigment-cup ocelli, one large ocellus directed laterally and
four smaller ones directed medially; this gives these worms a nearly uninterrupted field
of vision. Their eyes do not typically have lenses and likely do not form images, but are
used for light reception and body orientation. The ocelli also contain ciliated receptor
cells. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Ghirardelli, 1968; Ramel, 2012)

Chaetognaths have a ciliary loop (corona ciliata) on the dorsal surface of the head-
trunk juncture, made up of two rings of cilial cells that may be chemoreceptive and/or
aid in sperm transfer. They are covered in patches of ciliary fans, which enhance the
detection of vibrations in the water. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003; Ghirardelli, 1968)

Communication Channels
visual
tactile
chemical
Other Communication Modes
photic/bioluminescent
Perception Channels
visual
tactile
vibrations
chemical
Food Habits
Chaetognaths are carnivorous predators, particularly of copepods. They are also known
to feed on other crustaceans and small fishes. Benthic species are typically ambush
 predators. They use adhesive secretions to affix themselves to substrate and extend
their mouths and vestibules, as well as their associated hooks. When prey is detected
by a worm (by the cilia on the body), the head darts forward and prey is captured,
using the hooks. Prey is swallowed whole. Panktonic species dart forward in the water
column to catch prey within reach, using their grasping spines to pull prey in. The ma-
jority of these worms inject their prey with a neurotoxin (tetrodotoxin); it has been hy-
pothesized that chaetognaths have a commensal relationship with bacteria (from
genus Vibro) in their heads or guts, which actually produce the toxin. (Brusca and Br-
usca, 2003; Margulis and Chapman, 2010; Ramel, 2012; Shapiro, 2012)

Primary Diet
carnivore

piscivore
eats non-insect arthropods

planktivore
Predation
Chaetognaths are prey to many larger organisms including fishes, whales, other marine
invertebrates, and molluscs. (Shapiro, 2012)

Known Predators
Alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus)

Atlantic herrings (Clupea harengus)

anchovies (Engraulidae sp.)
sea ravens (Hemitripterus americanus)
anglerfishes (Lophius americanus)
silver hakes (Merluccius bilinearis)
pollack (Pollachius pollachius)
mackerels (Scomber sp.)
window panes (Scophthalmus aquosus)
red hakes (Urophycis chuss)
spotted codlings (Urophycis regia)
white hakes (Urophycis tenuis)
thorny skates (Amblyraja radiata)
little skates (Leucoraja erinacea)
winter skates (Leucoraja ocellata)
toothed whales (Odontoceti species)
 arrow worms (Chaetognatha species)
comb jellies (Ctenophora species)
mussels (Actinonaias ellipsiformis)
Arctic astartes (Astarte arctica)
Ecosystem Roles
A number of tetrodotoxin producing bacteria have been isolated from the guts of
chaetognaths; these are likely responsible for the production of the toxin used by the
worms in prey capture. They may be hosts to parasitic digeneans, nematodes, and
metacestodes; infections may be the result of the worm ingesting infested copepods,
which serve as intermediate hosts. In turn, they may pass these parasites on to their
predators (particularly fishes). They may also serve as hosts to ectoparasites such
as copepods and dinoflagellates. (DaPonte, et al., 2008; McLean and Nielsen,
1989; Thuesen and Kogure, 1989; resland, 1986)

Mutualist Species

Vibrio species
Vibrio alginolyticus

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Hysterothylacium aduncum (Order Ascaridida, Phylum Nematoda)

Adolescaria progastrica (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Derogenes sp. (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Derogenes varicus (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Didymozoidae (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Ectenurus virgulus (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Hemiurus levinseni (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Lepocreadiid metacercariae (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Monascus filiformis (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Parahemiurus merus (Order Plagiorchiida, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Tetraphyllidea sp. (Class Cestoda, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Microsetella norwegica (Order Harpacticoida, Phylum Arthropoda)
Corycaeus amazonicus (Order Poecilostomatoida, Phylum Arthropoda)
Oodinium jordani (Order Blastodinida, Phylum Myzozoa)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Chaetognaths are important to humans not only in terms of scientific research possibili-
ties, but also as prey items for a variety of fish eaten by humans. (Shapiro, 2012)

Positive Impacts
 research and education
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Chaetognaths may negatively impact humans if they pass along parasites to fishes
eaten by humans.(Shapiro, 2012)

Conservation Status
Neither this phylum, nor its constituent species is considered at risk of becoming
threatened or endangered. (Shapiro, 2012)

IUCN Red List [Link]

Not Evaluated

Other Comments
In spite of being soft-bodied, chaetognaths are known in the fossil record, dating back
to the early Cambrian Period. (Chen and Huang, 2002; Szaniawski, 2005; Vannier, et
al., 2007)

Contributors
Jeremy Wright (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Leila Siciliano Martina (edi-
tor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.

Glossary
Antarctica

lives on Antarctica, the southernmost continent which sits astride the southern
pole.

Arctic Ocean

the body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America which occurs mostly
north of the Arctic circle.

Atlantic Ocean

the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60
degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest
ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean.
Australian

Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.

Ethiopian
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New
World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North
American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
 Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South
America.

Pacific Ocean
body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude),
Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean,
covering about 28% of the world's surface.

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and
northern Africa.
 abyssal

on or near the ocean floor in the deep ocean. Abyssal regions are characterized
by complete lack of light, extremely high water pressure, low nutrient
availability, and continuous cold (3 degrees C).

benthic

Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also
an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal
zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are
sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two
mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral
sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

brackish water

areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.

carnivore
an animal that mainly eats meat

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

coastal

the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.

cosmopolitan

having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe

Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans
(Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.

crepuscular

active at dawn and dusk

diurnal

1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.

ectothermic
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral
adaptations to regulate body temperature

estuarine

an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in
fluctuations in salinity.

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

heterothermic
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate
environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for
regulating internal body temperature.

holarctic

a distribution that more or less circles the Arctic, so occurring in both the
Nearctic and Palearctic biogeographic regions.

Found in northern North America and northern Europe or Asia.

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across
multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous
animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition
changes).

motile
having the capacity to move from one place to another.

natatorial

specialized for swimming

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

nocturnal

active during the night

oriental

found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast
Asia.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring

occurs outside the mother's body.

pelagic
An aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean, far from land, does not include
sea bottom (benthic zone).

photic/bioluminescent

generates and uses light to communicate

piscivore

an animal that mainly eats fish

planktivore

an animal that mainly eats plankton

polar

the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles, from the north
pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south.

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which
also pairs with several different females.

reef

structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps (Class

Anthozoa). Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient
availability. They form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates,
plants, fish, and protists. The polyps live only on the reef surface. Because they
depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where
light does not penetrate.

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sedentary
 remains in the same area

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals,

a male and a female

solitary

lives alone

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North
(between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees
South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic
Circle).

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to
23.5 degrees south.

venomous

an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a

wound (for example, scorpions, jellyfish, and rattlesnakes).

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

visual

uses sight to communicate

References
2002. "Arrow Worms Phylum Chaetognatha" (On-line). Canada's Polar Life. Accessed
April 01, 2013 athttp://www.polarlife.ca/organisms/inverts/marine_inverts/
chaetognaths.htm.
2012. "Chaetognatha" (On-line). World Register of Marine Species. Accessed April 01,
2013 at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=2081.

Brands, S. 2009. "Classification: Phylum Chaetognatha" (On-line). Systema Naturae

2000. Accessed April 01, 2013 at http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl.

Brusca, R., G. Brusca. 2003. Invertebrates (2nd Edition). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer As-
sociates.

Chen, J., D. Huang. 2002. A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath (arrow worm). Sci-
ence, 298: 187.

DaPonte, M., A. Gil de Pertierra, M. Palmieri, M. Ostrowski de Nunez. 2008. Monthly oc-
currence of parasites of the chaetognath Parasagitta friderici off Mar del Plata, Ar-
gentina. Journal of Plankton Research, 30/5: 567-576. Accessed April 02, 2013
at http://plankt.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/5/567.full.pdf.

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The Phylum Chaetognatha

(http://www.earthlife.net/inverts/chaetognatha.html )

Etymology:- From the Greek Chaite for long hair and gnathos for jaw.

Characteristics of Chaetognatha:-
1)Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform.
2)Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
3)Body cavity a pseudocoelomic.
4)Body possesses a through gut with a non-terminal anus.
5)Body divided into three sections, a head, a trunk and a tail.
6)Nervous system is a circum-pharangeal ganglionated ring.
7)Has a no circulatory system or gaseous exchange organs.
8)Possesses no excretory system .
9)Reproduction normally sexual and hermaphroditic.
10)Feeds on fine particules in the water.
11)All live marine environments.
The Chaetognatha are a small (just over 100 species have been named) though
unusual group of animals, which appear not to be to closely related to any other phyla.
They are small, long, thin and possess side fins and and tail fins. They swim by means
of their tail fins, the side fins being used only for stabilization. They are an old group
of animals with fossils known from over 300 million years ago.

They are all marine, and most species are planktonic living in the open ocean, a few
species are benthic preferring the sea bottom and Spadella cephaloptera can be found
in rock pools on many European coastlines. Many species are associated with
particular water currents in the oceans, for instance the edges of the Florida Current
on the continental shelf of North Carolina can be detected by the presence of absence
of Sagitta bipunctata. Like many other members of the planktonic world some
chaetognaths migrate up and down in the water column. They come to the surface to
feed at night then retire to deeper waters as the sun rises. Unlike other planktonic
organisms some chaetognaths migrate annually, living in the surface waters during the
winter but retiring to deeper waters in summer.

The planktonic species occur in large numbers in warmer oceans where they are
voracious predators on other species of plankton such as copepods. They may in fact
be the primary predator in many planktonic environments. Larger species may reach
10cm (4 inches)or more in length and are known to attack small fish. They have a
series of movable spines on their head which they use to grasp and hold their prey
while it is eaten. They have a strange hood, part of their body wall, which they can
drag over the the spines and the rest of their head, when they are not eating.
Chaetognaths have two compound eyes, each made up of 5 ocelli, it is doubtful if they
can see very much, but they can certainly detect changes in light intensity.

All known Chaetognaths are hermaphrodites, meaning they possess both male and
female sex organs, the female organs, the ovaries, are just behind the mid-body mark
while the male sexual organs, the testis, are in the tail. The sperm mature before the
ova (eggs) which may help avoid self fertilisation to some extent. However self
fertilisation is known to occur. In Spadella cephaloptera pairs of Chaetognaths may lie
beside each other head to tail such that they fertilise each other.
1. http://www.niobioinformatics.in/pdf/cheatognaths/General-
Characters_Chaetognaths.pdf
2. http://cfcc.edu/faculty/rogers/courses/msc174/Lectures/Phylum%20Nemertea%20&%2
0Chaetognatha.pdf
3. http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/tr15.pdf
4. http://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/175381/1/fia0125_335.pdf.