ECOLOGY

Ecology (from Greek: , "house", or "environment"; -, "study of) is

the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment.
It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science. Ecology
includes the study of interactions that organisms have with each other, other organisms,
and with abiotic components of their environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include
the diversity, distribution, amount (biomass), and number (population) of particular
organisms, as well as cooperation and competition between organisms, both within and
among ecosystems. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts
including organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of
their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production,
pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and various niche construction activities, regulate the flux
of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by
organisms with specific life history traits, and the variety of organisms is called
biodiversity. Biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems,
enhances certain ecosystem services.

Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history,

or environmental science. It is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics,
and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how
biodiversity affects ecological function. Ecologists seek to explain:

Life processes, interactions, and adaptations

The movement of materials and energy through living communities

The successional development of ecosystems

The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of

the environment.

There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland

management, natural resource management (agroecology, agriculture, forestry,
agroforestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics,
basic and applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology). For example,
the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment 'out
there'. It is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms (including humans)
and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback
mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and
produce natural capital like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the
regulation of climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion
control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical,
economic, or intrinsic value.

The word "ecology" ("kologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst
Haeckel (18341919). Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in
philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics.[1] Ancient Greek philosophers such
as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural
history. Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th
century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the
cornerstones of modern ecological theory.
 ENERGY FLOW AND MATERIAL
CYCLING OF ECOSYSTEM

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Energy is the most essential requirement of all living organisms. Solar energy is
the main source of an energy for any ecosystem. The plants are utilized a small
fraction of the total solar energy for photosynthesis process.
In photosynthesis process plants absorb solar energy, CO2 and H20 to prepare
carbohydrate and liberation of O2. In photosynthesis process solar energy is
transferred to the chemical energy.
The flow of energy is always one way that is unidirectional. The energy flow in as
ecosystem follows the two basic principles of thermodynamics.

- Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its interconversion.

First law of thermodynamics

-Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But one form of energy can be
converted into another form.

Second law of thermodynamics

-It's state that whenever energy is transferred from one to another, there is an increase
in entropy and a decrease in the amount of useful energy.

Energy flows through various levels in an ecosystem. This can be illustrated with the
help of the flow chart below:
 FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
Food chain
-In a food chain each organism eats the smaller organism and is eaten up by larger
one. All those organisms which are interlinked with each other through food together
constitute a food chain.
Different species in a food chain are called trophic levels. Each food chain has three
main trophic levels - Producers, Consumers and Decomposers.

Food Web
-Various food chains are often inter-linked at different trophic levels to form a complex
interaction between different species from the point of view of food. This network like
interaction is called the food web.
 BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Biogeochemical Cycle, any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of living
matter are circulated. The term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the
consideration of the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle. A cycle is
a series of change which comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated.
Water, for example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram.
The water undergoes evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth.
Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism
to another and from one part of the biosphere to another through biogeochemical cycles.
Elements within biogeochemical cycles flow in various forms from the nonliving (abiotic)
components of the biosphere to the living (biotic) components and back. In order for the
living components of a major ecosystem (e.g., a lake or a forest) to survive, all the
chemical elements that make up living cells must be recycled continuously.
Biogeochemical cycles can be classed as gaseous cycle, in which the reservoir is the
air or the oceans (via evaporation), and sedimentary cycle, in which the reservoir is
Earths crust. Gaseous cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and water;
sedimentary cycles include those of iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, and other more-
earthbound elements.
Gaseous Cycle

Sedimentary Cycle
 HUMAN INFLUENCE ON
ECOSYSTEMS
Humans interact with the world around us every day, but some of our actions are more
harmful than others. As our population approaches 7 billion people, the effects of human
activities on the ecosystem, including the water, air, land and the life that we share the
world with, are almost immeasurable.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

POLLUTION
Humans pollute the land, water and air with unwanted refuse. Almost 2.4 billion people
dont have access to clean water. The U.S. alone produces 147 metric tons of air pollution.
In some countries, the smog caused by air pollution is deadly and can block out the sun
in a dense haze. It is rare to find a beach in the world that doesnt have litter. Humans
produce about 300 million tons of plastic each year. More than 8 million tons of that plastic
are dumped into the oceans, and in 2017, an estimated 5 trillion pieces of plastic littered
the seas. The plastic in the oceans has devastating effects on wildlife. In 2017, for
example, a beached whale discovered off the coast of Scotland died because of the
amount of plastic it had consumed about nine pounds of plastic bags were found coiled
in its digestive tract.

GLOBAL WARMING
Environmental scientists have been warning us for decades that the CO emissions that
come from burning fossil fuels are affecting the planets ecosystem. The increase of CO
in the atmosphere traps heat that would otherwise escape into space, increasing the
Earths overall temperature. This has caused Arctic ice and glaciers to melt and raise
ocean levels. The loss of reflective ice and increase in water, which absorbs heat, adds
to the rising temperatures in a cycle that is predicted to cause ocean levels to rise 1 to 4
feet by 2100.

GENETIC MODIFICATION
The use of genetic modified organisms, or GMOs, has played an important role in
increasing crop yields so we can feed our populations. In addition to providing better crop
yields, modified plants are better able to resist disease and parasites, tolerate more
extreme temperatures, or thrive with less water. However, modifying plants has not
always been intentional. For example, continued use of herbicides, like glyphosate, has
caused many weeds to become immune to their effects. In fact, 249 species of weeds
are now immune to all normally used herbicides. The only way to get rid of them is to till
the soil, which exposes the soil to sunlight and kills the organisms that help make the land
fertile.

DEFORESTATION
For every corn field you see, chances are good there was once a forest in its place. As
our population continues to increase, humans create more and larger farms, which means
removing the dwindling number of forests. Forests are also cleared for the lumber that we
use to build our houses and to make room for new houses. About 18 million acres of trees
are clear-cut every year for wood. This has devastating effects for the wildlife that once
called those forests home.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Not all the ways that humans affect the ecosystem are negative. Every time you recycle
used paper, plastic or metal, or pick up a piece of trash from the sidewalk, you have a
positive impact on the environment. Others are committing their time and energy to large
projects to positively change the ecosystem. In 2011, for example, a 16-year old inventor
named Boyan Slat, created a device that can sweep the plastic from the ocean. He later
founded The Ocean Cleanup project to begin putting that technology to use. It could clean
up half the plastic currently in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in five years.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
An ecosystem benefits from humans through environmental management, which aims to
restore balance and minimize disturbances within an ecosystem.

PRESERVATION
With the creation of the National Park Service, National Wildlife Refuge System, and
state-managed wilderness areas, unique ecosystems have been preserved so that future
generations may experience the grandeur of the American landscape, despite
environmental pressures such as increased tourist traffic.

PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIPS
Humans help ecosystems by assuming the role of predators such as wolves, which were
nearly eradicated early in the 20th century, and help prevent prey species such as deer
from depleting food resources.

POLLUTION CONTROL
Through clean air, clean water, and other regulatory measures, humans have reduced
the amount of pollution they create, allowing ecosystems to recover from past impacts
such as acid rain.

FEWER GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS

Greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide are thought to be a significant
contributing factor to global warming. For example, the U.S. Department of Energy
estimates that cars produce approximately 1.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) each
year. By reducing the amount of time you drive, maintaining your vehicle or driving a
green car such as a hybrid, you can help to lower your contribution to the global warming
problem.

LESS WASTE
Going green encourages people to reduce their consumption, recycle as often as possible
and reuse items in an effort to reduce waste. Reducing waste helps the environment by
decreasing the amount of material that ends up in landfills, where they can biodegrade
and release carbon dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse gas effect. The
Environmental Protection Agency also encourages recycling in lieu of incinerating waste,
which can release smoke or other potentially harmful pollutants into the air.

WILDLIFE PRESERVATION
Going green also helps to preserve the habitats of certain species of wild animals.
According to Planet Green, approximately 137 plant, animal and insect species become
extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation. By reducing your consumption of paper
products, buying recycled and recycling whenever possible, you can help to slow the rate
of extinction for species that live in wooded areas. Going green also reduces the threat
to marine wildlife that dies each year as a result of encountering pollutants or trash in the
water supply.