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Hyperleukocytosis (HL) per se is a labora- chronic leukemias, and particularly leuko- lactate dehydrogenase as an indicator for
tory abnormality, commonly defined by stasis occurs more often in acute myeloid high proliferation are part of prognostic
a white blood cell count >100 000/mL, leukemia (AML) for several reasons. Only scores guiding risk-adapted consolidation
caused by leukemic cell proliferation. Not a small proportion of AML patients present strategies, HL at initial diagnosis must be
the high blood count itself, but complica- with HL, but these patients have a partic- considered a hematologic emergency and
tions such as leukostasis, tumor lysis syn- ularly dismal prognosis because of (1) a requires rapid action of the admitting
drome, and disseminated intravascular higher risk of early death resulting from physician in order to prevent early death.
coagulation put the patient at risk and HL complications; and (2) a higher proba- (Blood. 2015;125(21):3246-3252)
require therapeutic intervention. The risk bility of relapse and death in the long run.
of complications is higher in acute than in Whereas initial high blood counts and high
Submitted October 1, 2014; accepted February 2, 2015. Prepublished online 2015 by The American Society of Hematology
as Blood First Edition paper, March 16, 2015; DOI 10.1182/blood-2014-10-
551507.
BLOOD, 21 MAY 2015 x VOLUME 125, NUMBER 21 HOW I TREAT HYPERLEUKOCYTOSIS IN AML 3247
DIC
DIC is a coagulopathy induced by the formation of small clots con-
suming coagulation proteins and platelets, resulting in disruption of
normal coagulation and severe bleeding tendency.43 Acute DIC is char-
acterized by a decrease in platelet count and brinogen, an elevation of
D-dimers, and prolongation of prothrombin time and activated partial
thromboplastin time and occurs in 30% to 40% of HL-AML.24 Platelet
transfusions and standard measures to restore normal coagulation such
as substitution of fresh frozen plasma or brinogen44 should be initiated
immediately in these patients because not only the deranged coagu-
lation itself but also HL and the associated endothelial damage put the
patient at a considerable risk for severe and sometimes fatal bleeding
events. In patients without central nervous manifestations and no anti-
coagulation, platelet counts should be ;20 000 to 30 000/mL; in
patients with full heparin anticoagulation, ;50 000/mL. In the sub-
Figure 1. Clinical case 1. A 42-year-old woman presented to her general group of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), induction of differen-
practitioner with general weakness and tooth pain. Laboratory assessment showed tiation by administration of all-trans retinoid acid (ATRA) is the causal
a WBC count of 80 000/mL, hemoglobin of 6.4 mg/dL, and platelet count of 21 000/mL,
which led her physician to make an immediate referral to the local hospital, where and most important treatment of DIC and should be started in all
a differential blood count revealed 56% myeloid blasts. By that time, the patient suspicious cases even before cytological and cytogenetic or molecular
was in stable clinical condition with a minimally elevated C-reactive protein of proof.45
20 mg/L. She was put on 4 g hydroxyurea (HU) and planned for transferal to our
hospital the next morning. During the night, she developed dyspnea requiring oxygen
supply. We diagnosed an AML M4eo with inv(16) and started induction treatment
with cytarabine plus daunorubicin (7 1 3) at a WBC count of 70 000/mL. Immediate
leukapheresis was not possible because of the progressive dyspnea and the
increasingly deranged coagulation status. By the next day, the WBC count had gone TLS
down to 19 000/mL, but the patient developed respiratory failure requiring mechanical
ventilation. The computed tomography (CT) scan result was highly suggestive for Although TLS is more common in lymphoid malignancies and ALL, it
leukostasis of the lungs (A), and cranial CT showed multiple focal supratentorial
hemorrhages (B). During the next few days, respiratory indices improved, and the
can also occur in AML. In patients with leukostasis, TLS occurs in up to
patient could be extubated. Early bone marrow response assessment showed 10% of cases.21 There is no evidence that low-dose cytostatic treatment
a good response with leukemia-free hypoplastic marrow, and after regeneration with a slow and gradual leukocyte reduction decreases the risk of tumor
of peripheral counts, a complete remission (CR) was diagnosed. The patient
has currently completed consolidation chemotherapy and is in ongoing CR. The
remarkable aspects of this case are (1) the fact that leukostasis developed rapidly
even at a WBC count below 100 000/mL, possibly because of the monocytic nature of Figure 1 (continued) pleural effusions. Respiratory failure required mechanical
blasts11; (2) cytarabine alone led to a profound and rapid WBC reduction; and (3) the ventilation support as indicated by the endotracheal tube. A central venous catheter
patient recovered from mechanical ventilation because the underlying leuko- in the right brachiocephalic vein and nasogastric tube in the esophagus can be seen.
stasis could be treated successfully. (A) Contrast-enhanced CT image (lung (B) Horizontal plane of native cranial CT scan demonstrating multiple hyperdense
window) through the upper fields of the lungs demonstrates parenchymal lesions in both brain hemispheres indicating hemorrhagic lesions. Accompanying
infiltrates as well as diffuse ground-glass opacities suggestive for leukostasis cerebral edema is characterized by loss of gray-white matter differentiation, com-
and myeloblast infiltration. There is sparing of the lung periphery. Note also bilateral pression of lateral ventricles, and effacement of sulcal spaces.
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3248 ROLLIG and EHNINGER BLOOD, 21 MAY 2015 x VOLUME 125, NUMBER 21
Figure 2. Clinical case 2. A 68-year-old man sought medical help at the emergency unit of his local hospital because of weakness, bone pain, and night sweats over several
weeks. He was admitted because of HL of ;170 000/mL, anemia, and thrombocytopenia. After the diagnosis of AML M4 was made, HU and cytarabine were started, and the
patient was transferred to our hospital, presenting with a WBC count 70 000/mL and central neurologic deficits with speech impairment. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan
showed several meningeal lesions, but the cerebrospinal fluid cell count was normal, and infection parameters were negative. In order to avoid cerebrospinal fluid contamination
with leukemic blasts, lumbar puncture was postponed until peripheral blast clearance. We continued cytarabine induction and added daunorubicin for 3 days. WBC counts
declined rapidly after initiation of cytarabine; the patients ability to speak improved gradually, and a control MRI 7 days after admission showed multiple hemorrhagic lesions, most
pronounced in the hemispheres, with no signs of extramedullary leukemic lesions or meningeosis (A). In the consecutive aplasia, our patient developed Escherichia coli
septicemia and Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) requiring epinephrin support. Early response assessment revealed persisting AML in the bone marrow. After
having recovered from the sepsis, he developed a rapid relapse with WBCs rising up to 150 000/mL within 1 week (B,C). Intermediate-dose cytarabine plus mitoxantrone was
administered as salvage treatment. In the consecutive aplasia, our patient received allogeneic stem cell transplantation from a matched unrelated donor after reduced-intensity
conditioning with busulfan and fludarabin, leading to a rapid engraftment and the establishment of a stable donor chimerism. This case is highly suggestive for cerebral
manifestations of leukostasis, possibly associated with extravasation and extramedullary infiltration of myeloid blasts. Primary refractory disease could be overcome by higher-
dose cytarabine salvage treatment, and sustained response of this high-risk disease could be achieved by allogeneic stem cell transplantation. (A) T2-weighted axial plane of
cranial MRI scan showing multiple brain hemorrhages (in correlation with other sequences) at the stage of extracellular methemoglobin with marked perifocal edema. (B)
Peripheral-blood sample from patient 2 at hyperleukocytotic relapse (containing EDTA for anticoagulation). Cell settlement revealed a pronounced buffy coat containing excessive
numbers of leukemic cells (left tube) as opposed to blood from an age-matched healthy man (right tube). (C) Peripheral-blood smear of patient 2 at hyperleukocytotic relapse
(May-Grunwald and Giemsa stain, 3400) showing numerous myeloid blasts with wide cytoplasm and large euchromatin-containing nuclei with 1 or more nucleoli.
lysis as opposed to standard-dose intensive induction.46 In patients with Leukostasis is empirically diagnosed when patients present with acute
a curative treatment concept, intensive chemotherapy should therefore leukemia, HL, and respiratory or neurologic symptoms. However, the
start immediately and without a prephase. Prevention strategies in- clinical and radiographic manifestations of leukostasis are difcult to
clude hydration and prophylactic allopurinol. Close monitoring during distinguish from those of common infections or hemorrhagic compli-
the rst days of treatment will reveal tumor lysis characterized by el- cations of acute leukemia.24 Novotny et al39 developed a score for the
evation of serum potassium, phosphorus, and uric acid levels and clinical probability of leukostasis, and Piccirillo et al40 showed a cor-
potentially by decline in calcium levels. Hyperuricemia can lead to relation between Novotnys score and early death in the case of a score
acute renal damage or even failure and should be treated with allo- of 3 indicating highly probable leukostasis. Approximately 44% to 50%
purinol or rasburicase depending on the uric acid levels. Established of AML patients with a WBC count .100 000/mL have a high prob-
TLS is managed similarly, with the addition of aggressive hydration ability of leukostasis based on clinical symptoms. Although less fre-
and diuresis, plus allopurinol or rasburicase for hyperuricemia. Addi- quently, typical symptoms can also occur in patients with leukocytosis
tionally, electrolyte imbalances should be corrected. Whereas allopu- below 100 000/mL.39,40 Organs most frequently affected are lung,
rinol is the less expensive therapy for hyperuricemia, it only prevents brain, and kidneys. In a study by Porcu et al, the proportions of patients
the synthesis of new uric acid. In cases with marked hyperuricemia with respective symptoms were 39%, 27%, and 14%.6 Similar fre-
and TLS, rasburicase (urate oxidase) effectively lowers uric acid quencies were reported by other investigators.9,29,52 CT scan or MRI of
levels by enzymatic degradation, even after a single and low-dose the head may reveal intracranial hemorrhage (Figures 1 and 2). A chest
application.47-51 radiograph or CT scan often will show bilateral interstitial or alveolar
inltrates (Figure 1).43,53 The typical clinical symptoms of leukostasis
are listed in Table 1. Apart from tissue damage caused by stasis and
leukocyte inltration, hemorrhage and thromboembolic events are fre-
Leukostasis quent and relevant complications of leukostasis. 9,19,43
Immediate initiation of cytoreductive treatment in this chemosen-
Leukostasis refers to clinical symptoms and complications caused sitive disease is mandatory and should not be delayed.43,54 In case a
by HL. Whereas pathologically, the denition of leukostasis is clear rapid diagnosis cannot be made, the patient should be transferred to a
(Figure 4), the clinical diagnosis is rarely made with high condence.43 specialized hospital on the same day. Whereas there are widely agreed
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BLOOD, 21 MAY 2015 x VOLUME 125, NUMBER 21 HOW I TREAT HYPERLEUKOCYTOSIS IN AML 3249
Cytoreduction
Leukapheresis
The term leukapheresis stems from the Greek to take away or to Figure 4. Histopathological finding in leukostasis. Specimen from the leptome-
remove.43 Leukapheresis in HL is based on the principle of rapidly re- ninges of an AML patient postmortem stained with hematoxylin and eosin (3200). (A)
Large numbers of immature WBCs in a leptomeningeal capillary artery presumably
moving excessive leukocytes by mechanical separation. The mechan-
leading to reduced blood flow and thrombus formation with strands of fibrin, red blood
ical removal of leukocytes by leukapheresis has become routinely cells (RBCs), and WBCs. (B) Numerous myeloid blasts and some RBCs are present in
available in many hematologic treatment centers. If apheresis equipment the extravascular space, infiltrating the leptomeningeal tissue.
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3250 ROLLIG and EHNINGER BLOOD, 21 MAY 2015 x VOLUME 125, NUMBER 21
BLOOD, 21 MAY 2015 x VOLUME 125, NUMBER 21 HOW I TREAT HYPERLEUKOCYTOSIS IN AML 3251
cytarabine will be used as consolidation. Whenever possible, treat- sections and their interpretation in Figure 4, and Christiane Kulper and
ment should be part of a clinical trial or registry in order to gain more Marika Erler (Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Universitatskli-
knowledge and to improve treatment options in the future. nikum TU Dresden) for technical assistance on cytological specimens
in Figure 2C.
Acknowledgments
Authorship
The authors thank Michael Laniado (Institut und Poliklinik fur Radio-
logische Diagnostik, Universitatsklinikum der Technischen Univer- Contribution: G.E. and C.R. wrote the manuscript.
sitat [TU] Dresden) and Rudiger von Kummer and Dirk Daubner Conict-of-interest disclosure: The authors declare no competing
(Abteilung Neuroradiologie, Universitatsklinikum TU Dresden) for nancial interests.
providing radiographic material for Figures 1 and 2A. The authors Correspondence: Christoph Rollig, Universitatsklinikum TU Dresden,
also thank Gustavo Baretton, Christian Zietz, and Friederike Kuithan Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; e-mail: christoph.roellig@
(Institut fur Pathologie, Universitatsklinikum TU Dresden) for tissue uniklinikum-dresden.de.
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