Chapter 2

General Compressor Theory

Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pres-

sure of air, gas or vapor and in the process move it from one location
to another. The inlet or suction pressure can range from low sub-
atmospheric pressure levels to any pressure level compatible with
piping and vessel strength limits. The ratio of absolute discharge
pressure to absolute suction pressure is the compressor pressure ratio
(CR-see Appendix B2, Glossary of Terms). Stage compression is lim-
ited to the mechanical capabilities of the compressor and, generally,
approaches a CR of 4. To achieve high pressures multiple stages must
be employed.
Compression theory is primarily defined by the Ideal Gas Laws
and the First & Second Laws of Thermodynamics. As originally con-
ceived the Ideal Gas Law is based on the behavior of pure substances
and takes the following form:

PV = RT (2-1)

Where
P = Absolute Pressure
v = Specific Volume
R = Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperature

This equation is based on the laws of Charles, Boyle, Gay-Lussac

and Avogadro (see Appendix B2 Glossary of Terms).
Note all properties should be defined in the same measuring
system (for example either the English system or the metric system).
Conversion factors listed in Appendix B3 can be used to assist in
obtaining consistent units. Table 2-1 sums up the two systems.

7
8 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

Table 2-1.
Pavametev Symbol English System Metvic System
Pressure P Absolute Pascals or
pressure (psia) Kilopascals

Temperature T Absolute Degrees

temperature (OR) Kelvin (OK)

Specific Volume v Cubic inches Cubic centimeters

per pound per gram or cubic
meters per kilogram
-
Universal Gas R 1545 ft-lbf/ 8.3144 kN m /
Constant lbm O R kmol OK

The ideal gas law can be manipulated to obtain several useful re-
lationships. By multiplying both sides of the equation by the mass m
of the gas the specific volume becomes total volume:

V = mv

PV = mRT (2-2)

Considering that the mass of any gas is defined as the number

of moles times its molecular weight than (see Avogadros Law in Ap-
pendix B2):

m=nxmw

and
PV = n x mw x RT
-
and R =mwxR

Where R is the universal gas constant

The specific gas constant may be obtained using the universal gas
General Compressor Theory 9

constant and equation 2-4 above. However, Table 2-2 list the specific gas
constant for some of the more common gases.

Table 2-2

Specific Gas
Gas Fovmula Moleculav Constant
Weight f t x lbf
x "R
lbm

Helium 4.003 386.2

Carbon Monoxide 28.01 55.18
Hydrogen 2.016 766.6
Nitrogen 28.02 55.16
Oxygen 32.00 48.29
Carbon Dioxide 44.01 35.12
Sulfur Dioxide 64.07 24.12
Water Vapor 18.02 85.78
Methane 16.04 96.35
Ethane 30.07 51.40
Iso-butane 58.12 26.59

Dividing both sides by "time" the total volume becomes volumetric

flow and the mass flow per unit time becomes the mass flow rate "W."

PQ = WRT (2-6)

Where
Q = Volumetric Flow Rate
W = Mass Flow Rate

A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and constant

chemical composition throughout all phases (solid, liquid and gas). For
most compressor applications a mixture of gases may be considered a
pure substance as long as there is no change of phase. The significance
of introducing this concept is that the state of a simple compressible
pure substance is defined by two independent properties.
An additional term may be considered at this time to correct for
deviations from the ideal gas laws. This term is the compressibility
10 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

factor "Z."
Therefore, the ideal gas equation becomes

PV = ZRT (2-7)

and

PQ = ZWRT (2-8)

Compressor performance is generally shown as pressure ratio plot-

ted against flow. (Note: it is more accurate to use head instead of pres-
sure ratio, because head takes into account the compressibility factor of
the gas, molecular weight, temperature, and the ratio of specific heat of
the gas-and corrected flow-all at constant speed). This is discussed
in more detail later in this chapter.
Other relationships that are also useful are:

Reduced Temperature and Pressure

T
T = - (2-9)
T
C

P
P, = - (2-10)
PC

Where
Tr = Reduced Temperature
Pr = Reduced Pressure
Tc = Critical Temperature
Pc = Critical Pressure
T = Observed Temperature
P = Observed Pressure

Partial Pressure
The total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures

P = PI + P, + P, + ... (2-11)
General Compressor Theory 11

This relationship is defined by Daltons Law (see Appendix B2).

If the total pressure of the mixture is known than the partial pres-
sure can be calculated from the mole fraction.

P = P, + P, + P, + ... (2-12)

The mole fraction x is

M, M2 M3
x, = -; x 2 = - ; x, =-; (2-13)
Mm Mm Mm

The partial pressure may then be calculated as follows

P, = x, x P; P, = x, x P; P, = x, x P (2-14)

x, + x, + x, + = 1.0 (2-15)

First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be cre-
ated or destroyed but it can be changed from one form to another.

Where
Qh = Heat into the system
-
W, = Work by the system
AE = Change in system energy

Note: the symbol w

is used to denote work, whereas the symbol W
indicates weight flow rate.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of the
universe always increases. This is the same law that indicates that per-
petual motion machines are not possible.

As 2 0 (2-17)
12 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

Horse Power Calculations

The brake horsepower (BHP) required to drive the compressor can
be determined by calculating the gas horsepower (GHP) and then cor-
recting for mechanical losses.

Hd wg
GHP = (2-18)
60 x 33,000 x E,

Where
BHP = Brake horsepower
Hd = Head (adiabatic) - ft-lb/lb

Wg = Weight flow of the gas - lbs/hr

E, = Adiabatic efficiency

and
SCFD x MW
w = (2-19)
g
24 x 379.5

If capacity is available GHP can be calculated directly.

CR--1
Q1 X P1 X (%)X k-1

(2-20)

Where
Q, = Inlet cubic feet/minute (ICFM)
PI = Suction pressure-psia

CR = Compression ratio

K = Specific heat ratio

Zav = Average gas compressibility factor

Z, = Gas compressibility factor at compressor inlet

Then brake horsepower is

BHP = GHP x (1 + % Mechanical Losses) (2-21)

General Compressor Theory 13

Each compressor type has its own unique characteristics that will
be covered in the section specific to that compressor type.

Note: The physical and thermodynamic properties of many gases are

provided in Appendix C, courtesy of the Gas Processors Suppliers
Association (GPSA).