RICE UNIVERSITY

A STUDY OP THE STUD-WELDED

VIBRATING WIRE STRAIN GAGE

by

WILLIAM PAUL DAWKINS

A THESIS SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE

Houston, Texas

April, 1962
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Investigation was to determine

the variables which affect the stability of a stud-welded

vibrating wire strain gage. The lack of previously

published information and the nature of the instrument

required an origonal design. When undesirable condi

tions were noted, an attempt has been made to eliminate

such conditions through a change in design of gage com

ponents or installation techniques.

Two basic configurations have been studied, differ

ing in the manner in which wire tension is maintained.

Both types were subjected to zero drift observations

and calibration tests. The results of these tests indicate

that the classic method of wire attachment, that of squeez

ing the wire ends between a pair of anvils or pins, aggra

vates the natural tendency of the wire to relax under

tension and introduces a drift error which is difficult

to predict. The second configuration, developed during

the investigation, is similar to that utilized in tuning

a piano or violin. Eliminating the deformation of the

wire cross section greatly reduces relaxation and hence

the error introduced by drift.

Both configurations proved to be very accurate and

dependable for short term tests.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i

LIST OF FIGURES ii

LIST OF TABLES i ii

INTRODUCTION 1

THEORY OF THE GAGE 3

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 13

DESIGN, INSTALLATION, AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . 20

SUGGESTED AREAS OF FUTURE WORK 65

CONCLUSIONS 67

APPENDICES
Appendix A - Notation 69

Appendix B - Observed Data 70

Appendix C - Bibliography 128

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer is deeply indebted to the following

organizations and individuals: The Ideal Cement Com

pany, whose financial support in the form of a Fellow

ship made this study possible; The American Society

for Testing Materials, whose Grant-in-Aid provided

funds for material procurement and specimen fabrication

Mosher Steel Company, for their generous donation of

the structural steel shapes used as test specimens;

Johnston Steel and Wire Company, for their gift of the

piano wire which served as one of the most important

components of the gagej The Rice University, for the

privilege and honor of studying at so fine an insti

tution; Dr. J. R. Sims, as thesis advisor, for his

interest in the project, invaluable assistance and
encouragement; and Mr. R. Guidry, whose technical

skills greatly aided in the construction of the test

specimens.
 LIST OP FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1 Typical Instrument Arrangement for 4

Vibrating Wire Strain Gages

2 Ratio of Vibrating Wire Frequency to 8

Vibrating Bar Frequency

3 End Post Cross Sections 21

4 End Post Details 22

5 Welding Gun and Template 25

6 Schematic of Series 1 Gages 27

7 Wire Straining Device for Series 1 28

Gages

8 Zero Drift of Series 1 Tension Gages 31

9 Zero Drift of Series 1 Bending Gages 32

10 Zero Drift of Series 1 Compression 33

Gages

11 Strain Gage and Loading Arrangements 39

12 Compression Loading Arrangement 40

13 Bending Loading Arrangement 4l

14 End Post Details for Series 2 Gages 51

15 Schematic of Series 2 Gages 52

16 Zero Drift of Series 2 Preliminary 54

Gages

17 Zero Drift of Series 2 Preliminary 55

Gages

18 Zero Drift of Series 2 Undisturbed 6l

Gages

ii
Zero Drift of Series 2 Calibrated
Compression Gages

Frequency-Dial Setting Curve for

Maihak Strain Recorder

Calibration Curve for Wire Tensioning

Device for Series 1 Gages
 LIST OP TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

1 Zero Drift Observations for Series 1 34

Gages
2 Gage Factors for Series 1 Compression 44
Gages

3 Gage Factors for Series 1 Bending 45,46

Gages

4 Gage Factors for Series 2 56,57

Preliminary Gages

5 Gage Factors for Series 2 Gages 64

ill
 INTRODUCTION

Correlation of the theoretical and actual strains or

deformations in many structures is virtually impossible due

to lack of a device which is capable of measuring these

quantities over long periods of time* To be suitable for this

purpose such a device must meet the following general require

ments: l) It must be rugged and capable of being rigidly

attached to the test member; 2) It must be capable of being

rapidly and easily installed; 3) It must be relatively

Inexpensive since in a majority of cases it will be rendered

irretrievable; 4) It must be capable of transmitting the

measured quantities to a remote receiver; 5) It must be

stable and accurate.

Since its first appearance In Russia about 1928 (l)*

the vibrating wire or "acoustic strain gage has been used

in a variety of forms throughout Europe, notably In Prance (2),

England (3)> (4), (5), (6) and Germany (7) where It is manu
factured commercially. As a, result of this fairly extensive

use, the gage has acquired a reputation for meeting those

requirements mentioned above, although a search of pertinent

literature revealed only one instance of any experimental

verification of the stability of the gage. An article by

R. J. Mainstone appearing,in "Engineering" in 1953 (6)

Numbers in parentheses refer to Bibliography of Appendix C.

-1 -
describes the gage and cites the results of observations made
on four gages over a period of a year. While the results

obtained appear to have been very satisfactory so far as stab

ility was concerned, certain of the components proved

extremely difficult to manufacture and install, hence, Mainstone

was forced to redesign these parts. At the present time there

exists no further evidence of any study of this sort. The

lack of experimentation with the gage components probably

accounts for the wide variation in the design of the gages

which have been used.

At the beginning of this investigation it was the

writer*s intention to select a typical gage and study the

factors affecting its stability and accuracy. However, as the

search of the literature progressed it became apparent that

no design could be considered as typical and of necessity,

the investigation was expanded to include the design of a

gage which would meet those requirements mentioned in the

opening paragraph of this section.

-2-
 THEORY OP THE GAGE

The acoustic strain gage makes use of the fact that the

fundamental frequency of vibration of a stretched wire Is a

function of the tension in the wire. A representative arrange

ment of the necessary equipment for use with the gage is shown

in Figure 1. An Impulse from the pulsator momentarily ener

gizes the electromagnet coil of the transducer and sets the

wire in vibration. The wire vibrating in a permanent magnetic

field sets up a varying E.M.P. in the electromagnet coil.

After this signal is amplified, its natural frequency may be

determined with a cathode ray oscilloscope and a variable

audio oscillator. The wire is rigidly attached to the test

specimen in such a manner that any change in strain in the

specimen causes a change in tension in the wirej hence, the

resulting frequency change is a measure of that change in

strain. The relation between the wire tension.and its fun

damental frequency depends on the physical characteristics of

the wire and the method of attaching the wire to the test

member.

If the wire is sufficiently long such that its bending

stiffness is negligible then this relationship is given by the

well known expression

40
* u/lr

-3 -
 >4
o
p
o cd CQ
fH t)
*d rH to
P H cd
< O O
03
O fi
cd
p
CO
)
a

P
cd

>
u
<2
c
I
4)
tf
cd

!
P

*P

8
H

cd
o

e
EH

Pd

4
where 60 is the angular velocity of the wire
1^ is the free vibrating length of the wire

T is the wire tension

M is the mass per unit length of the wire

Although this expression is quoted in the literature for anal

ysis of the frequency-strain relationship, it was of interest

to ascertain the error involved in neglecting the bending

stiffness.

Since in most cases the ends of the wire are clamped

between a pair of pins or anvils, the wire is essentially a

bar with its ends elastically restrained against rotation.

The differential equation for this condition is:

Elj pk
dx*
- T 4-^ -M 0)^*0
dx*- ^ <D
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the wire

I is the moment of inertia of the wire cross section

y is the transverse displacement of the wire at any

distance x from one end

M, U), T are as defined above

The general solution of the differential equation is

A SIM H -
where A, B, C and D are four arbitrary constants

are given by the equations

-5 -
 I

In order to evaluate the four constants the following boundary

conditions must be Imposed on equation (5) .

y * G at x - 0 and x *

er ^
2 dt X* o and x =
dx - dx
where KdJi is a measure of the amount of elastic restraint of
dx
of the ends

It is convenient to investigate the solution of the problem

for the two limiting conditions of end restraint, namely;

Case 1) K * 0 or total absence of restraint? and Case 2)
dw
-ri =0 at x = 0 , x s w
LM or total restraint,
dx
For Case 1 the boundary conditions are
y = 0 at x * 0 and x =. I^T

and s r\
El9- at x = 0 and x = L,.,
dx
and the solution of equation (^) yields f-MlT from which

Returning to Case 2 a similar procedure yields the equation

qj> |*2COSH 7 COS f 2.J + S/K/H *7, = o

-6 -
which requires a trial and error solution.
It can he shown that the value of f in equation (^)
must lie in the range 7r<f<2 and by manipulation of equation (l)
the following expression can be obtained

oj 0.
where is the angular velocity obtained from equation
GO is the angular velocity for the condition which
leads to equation (^)
A similar manipulation of equation (2) leads to the expression

_ PTI^ET
^ L TT^ -j-'i

A plot of equations () and (j) for various value of

is shown in Figure 2. For the work under discussion the value
TL-w
of was greater than 3000 in all cases and it can be seen
EE
U)o
that for this condition the value of the ratio GO from either
of equations or (J) is very nearly one. Since the true
GJo and
value of lies between those obtained from
GO
little error is introduced if the ratio is taken as one, in
which case equation (l) can be used to establish the strain-
tension or strain-frequency relationship for the gage.
Deriving this relationships Let f^ and fg be the natura
frequencies before and after a change in strain occurs in the
test member. By equation
Figure 2. Ratio of Vibrating Wire Frequency to Vibrating Bar Frequency
But by Hookes Law

X -AE6

where A is the cross sectional area of the wire

E is the modulus of elasticity of the wire
6 is the strain in the wire due to T
Substituting (^) into () yields

2
r -U>
t, 4-w M

Now due to a change in strain in the test member let the

wire strain be increased to NJg . This change in wire strain
causes a corresponding change in given by

LW2 OLWO+CN-O*)
<s>
and in A given by
/.CM-Of)*
but since is small compared to one then

A, AO-2AL
C n'^) _
fi?)

Now by equation
p2 NIA^ C\-2/u('N/-l)6
+2= 2
4i^lM 4L"M (XI+CN-OO - J__
again Q + (W-l)e]^ l+2(N-0&

-9-
hence equation (l|) becomes

Z _ KJAE6 f. l-2/x^N-l^ ]
" 4L* M L lJ
But by (^)

and using the arguments given above

r2 k, r2. f 1-2/MfN-Qfc 1
+i*N+i L 1 + 2-CN-Oe j
Only for very large values of will the term in brackets
have any effect, hence

The total change in length of wire is

4<-w LwfN-Oe .(l?)

or substituting and (14), equation 1 can be written

as
2\ 4LwtA
dLw = (ft AE U

If the wire is mounted in such a way that AL^occurs

over a length "L" of the test membesj then the change in

strain in the test member is given by
3
AL-VV /r2 4LW M
cz\
2
L " (17)

-10-
 In order for the gage to be truly effective it is desir
able that changes in strain be read directly, thus eliminat

ing the precise determination of frequencies and gage char

acteristics involved in the use of equation (Ij) . This is

accomplished by balancing the frequency of the measuring gage

with that of a second adjustable gage which has a cali

brated control* The theory and instrumentation of the equip

ment required in this operation have been discussed fully by

Gibson (4) and will be described only briefly here.

The instrument utilized was a Malhak Strain Recorder,

which consists of a tensioned reference wire to which meas

urable changes in strain may be applied, a series of ampli

fiers, and an oscilloscope. The reference wire is kept in

constant vibration and the resulting frequency is fed to the

XX plates of the oscilloscope. The signal from the meas

uring gage is fed to the YY plantes and the tension in the

reference wire is adjusted until an elliptical Lissajou

figure appears. At this point the frequencies of the two

wires are equal and a measure of the strain in the refer

ence wire is given by reading the linearly graduated dial

on the instrument.
As shown in the previous discussion, a change in strain

in the measuring gage, to>& , causes a corresponding

change in frequency H . If the strain in the refer

ence wire, / , is adjusted such that -f] a^i and-f^**^ , it

-11-
can be shown that ' goes to MG' . Since the instrument
is so constructed that there is a linear relationship between

changes in the instrument dial setting and corresponding

changes in the reference wire strain, then this same linear

relationship exists between changes in the dial setting and

changes in the strain of the measuring gage. Hence a change

in strain in the test member will be given by the relation

ship
4eTM = C(aR)
where C is a calibration factor for the measuring gage.

(Determination of C will be discussed later.)

4R is the change in dial reading.

-12 -
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Any acoustic strain gage has three basic components:

l) a tensioned wire which is free to vibrate; 2) a device

for rigidly attaching the wire to the member under test; and,

3) an electromagnet and permanent magnet combination which

acts alternately as an exciter and transmitter.

For best results, attachment of the gage must be adap

ted to the particular material to be tested. For use with

concrete the wire is attached through a lever system to a

pair of parallel steel plates. With a protective case

surrounding the wire, levers, and magnet, the entire assem

bly is submerged in the fresh concrete which bonds directly

to the steel plates. When other materials are to be tested,

the wire is attached to end posts secured to the test member

in a variety of ways. The commercially built Maihak gage

and those designed by Jerrett (3) and Gibson (4) utilize

hardened steel knife edges clamped to the test member.

Finally, when the gage is intended for testing metals, the

end posts may either be screwed into tapped holes (6) or

welded (5). At the outset, this study was limited to a gage

of the welded type which could be used with the Maihak

measuring instrument.

-13 -
 The selection of the welded stud introduces two factors

which have a considerable effect on any experimental work

performed. This type connection will most likely be used in

testing such structures as building frames or bridges during

the construction phase. Under these circumstances a large

number of gages must be installed in a relatively short time

and, consequently, individual calibration of each gage is

impossible. Secondly, a certain loss in definition of gage

length occurs due to modification of the properties of the

test member around the weld. The effect of these factors is

to require an experimental calibration of a limited number

of gages and the results taken as representative of all gages

installed. Therefore one of the items to be investigated is

if the dimensions of the gage can be controlled to the extent

that the calibration factor, or gage factor, for all gages

will be the same. As shown in the previous section, the

gage factor relates changes in test member strain to changes

in the measuring instrument dial setting. Since this relat

ionship is linear over the limited range of frequencies

represented by the instrument scale, the gage factor is

dependent only on the physical dimensions; vibrating wire

length and gage length. Aside from the above considerations,

other variables affecting the gage will be the same for all
methods of gage attachment.

Recalling the conditions under which the gage is to be

-14 -
used, it is essential that any variation in the initial, or

zero reading, established in the unstrained condition, be

the same for all gages and be completerly predictable. Such

variations, henceforth referred to as "zero drift", will be

produced by any change in the initial wire tension due to

causes other than test member strain and may occur from the

natural tendency of the wire material to relax under tension.

In which case, the magnitude of the zero drift at any time

will depend on the initial wire stress, method of mounting

the wire and to a lesser extent on the length of the wire.

The accuracy with which either zero drift or gage factor

may be determined will be affected by a number of influences

which are not directly contributive to their true values.

Variable excitation or damping of the wire by the magnets,

and any increase of vibrating mass due to corrosion or the

adherence of foreigh matter will have a marked effect on the

indicated frequency and hence the indicated strain. These

effects can be successfully eliminated by careful installat

ion techniques or by adequate protective covering of the gage.

It should be mentioned that differential heating of the wire

and test member will also give rise to spurious strain

indications. Since in the work under discussion both wire

and test member are steel, the gage is self-compensating

for gradual temperature changes, consequently adequate

protection again eliminates the effect of rapid thermal

-15 -
variations.
The gage selected for this study is basically the same

as that described by Chapman (5). The end posts are five-

eiigrths inch diameter by two inch prewelded length standard

Nelson studs. Centrally positioned between the end posts are

two one-quarter inch diameter by one inch prewelded length

threaded studs to which the magnet mounting bracket is

attached. In order to reduce the effect of the modifi

cation of the test member around the weld, the gage length
(center-to-center distance between end posts) was maintained

at approximately six inches.

Selection of the welded end post and the Maihak meas

uring instrument impose certain limitations on the size of

the wire and the method of attaching the wire. Due to the

limited range of the measuring instrument, the wire tension

must be such that after attachment the natural frequency

falls at a certain level in this range depending on the type

of strain to be determined. (For compressive strains the

wire frequency should be near the upper end of the rangej for

tensile strain, near the lower end.) Other factors to be

considered in the selection of the wire are that the mater

ial must be magnetic and the wire size such that in the
operating range, the previously derived strain-frequency
relationships remain valid. Tabulated below are the var

ious sizes and materials utilized in previous designs:

-l6-
DESIGNER (Ref.) DIAMETER MATERIAL

Jerrett (3) 32 SVG (0.0108") "Plated Steel"

Chapman (5) 0.017" "Stainless Steel"

Mainstone (6) 0.018" "Firth-Vickers F.I.20

Steel"*

Mainstone (6) 0.018" "Silver Plated Piano

Wire"

Maihak (7) 0.016"(Measured) (Not available)

For the purposes of this study the standard piano wire, of

0.016 inch and 0.020 inch diameters, was selected since it

was readily available, whereas periods of from six to ten

weeks were quoted by local suppliers for procurement of the

special stainless steel.

The characteristics of the exciter unit receive only

the briefest attention in the literature, ana consequently,

less emphasis was placed on its choice for the work under

discussion. Experimentation with a number of coil and mag

net units and the 0.016 inch diameter wire indicated that

a satisfactory signal could be obtained with the Trimm Acme

Number 25 earphone. The nominally 1000 ohm coil and per

manent magnet is fastened by a machine screw to an alum

inum bracket which fits over the previously mentioned

threaded studs. This arrangement provides a simple and

rapid means of adjusting and maintaining the clearance

between the magnet and wire.

- 17-
 The last item to be considered in the gage design is
the method of attaching the wire to the end posts. Because

of the tuning and dimensional consistency requirements, only

two of the previous designs are of interest for the problem

at hand.

In the Mainstone gage a large annular nut, screwed

over the end post, is slotted at right angles to the gage

centerline to receive a pair of grooved steel pins. A hole

along the centerline allows the wire to be inserted between

the pins which are clamped in position by a set screw. The

vibrating wire length then is fixed as the center-to-center

distance between the end posts. To further insure dimen

sional consistency the depthof the grooves limits the deform

ation of the wire cross section to "about one-third the wire

diameter". (5) In Chapman's stud welded gage (6) the wire

is squeezed between the bottom of a slot in the end post and

a clamping bar. With this arrangement the vibrating wire

length is defined by the edges of the stud and clamping bar,

with the deformation of the wire cross section governed by

the torque applied to the clamping screw. A nut screwed

over the end post prevents spreading of the slot, while

locking the bar and screw in position. Obviously this

method provides a less positive control of the amount of

deformation of the wire cross section although machining

of the studs is considerably less complicated than that

-18-
required by the Mainstone configuration. In each case the

wire is tensioned to the desired level before the clamp

ing operation.

From these descriptions it may be concluded that the

arrangement adapted must provide the following features:

1. A closely defined vibrating wire length

2. A definite control of the amount of deform

ation of the wire cross section

3. Require minimum machining of the end posts

4. Be easily aligned for installation purposes

The lack of published information concerning the dimen

sions and physical characteristics of the wire clamping

components, coupled with the writer's inexperience, neces

sitated the study of several different configurations.

The majority of the experimental efforts in the investiga

tion under discussion have been directed toward observa

tion of zero drift and determination of the gage factor

for each gage. Where variations in these quantities existed

between gages, an attempt has been made to eliminate such

differences, or at least render them predictable, through

a change in component design or installation techniques. A

detailed description of each configuration and the results

of the above mentioned observations are presented in the

succeeding section.

-19 -
 DESIGN, INSTALLATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The lack of published information necessitated that

the study proceed on somewhat of a "trial and error" basis.

Two basic configurations of the end post were used; the

essential difference being in the manner in which the ends

of the wire are fastened. These configurations have been

labeled "Series 1" and "Series 2" and the succeeding para

graphs present a detailed description of the components and

installation techniques employed and the results of the

previously mentioned tests for each series and its var

iations.

In the initial design an attempt was made to combine

the best features of those mentioned in the preceding sec

tion. Obviously the advantage of the Mainstone connection

is the definite control of the deformation of the wire

cross section provided by the grooved pins, while the

Chapman method requires considerably less complicated

machining of the end posts. The resulting combination

of these features is shown In cross section in Figures 3

and 4.
A five-sixteenths inch diameter hole is bored long

itudinally in the top of the stud and is threaded in the

upper section to accomodate a three-eighths inch set screw.

-20 -
 -V1"'

c
o
<P
O
<D
W
IQ
IQ
O
&
%
o

CO
<L
u
g>

21
22
A one-eighth inch diameter hole drilled transversely through
the stud permits insertion of the wire between a pair of hard

ened steel anvils which are then clamped in position by the

set screw. Since the anvils, cut from standard five-six

teenths inch diameter hardenable drill rod, are round, the

problem of precise alignment of the end posts is eliminated.

A 0.012 inch deep by one-eighth inch wide groove in the low

er end of the upper anvil limits the deformation of the wire

to a fixed amount. While this is slightly less than suggested

by Mainstone, it was felt that with the higher wire stress in

the case at hand any further reduction in the cross sectional

area was undesirable. In order to prevent the upper anvil from

turning during tightening of the set screw, a small tapered pin

is inserted through a second one-eighth inch hole in the end

post into a second slot in the top of the upper anvil. The

length of vibrating wire is defined by the edges of the an

vils. Setting this dimension somewhat arbitrarily at six

inches fixes the center-to-center end post distance at six

and five-sixteenths inches.

Before the gage could be installed, it was necessary that

the writer became proficient in the use of the stud welding

gun. The stud is inserted into a spring loaded chuck in the

gun and is then pressed firmly against the member on which it

is to be welded. Depression of the gun trigger activates an

electromagnet which withdraws the stud, striking an arc bet-

-23-
ween the stud and surface. A timing mechanism, also acti
vated by the trigger, holds the arc the required length of

time and the de-energizes the electromagnet. On release, the

spring loaded chuck drives the stud into the molten area of

the surface which on cooling forms the weld. A ceramic ferrule

surrounding the weld area retains the displaced metal form

ing a fillet around the stud.

Proper alignment and spacing of the studs is provided
by a template. The stud is inserted in the chuck and the

wire hole aligned. A pair of specially constructed points

on the legs of the gun are placed into very carefully

positioned countersunk holes in the template thus correctly

aligning the stud along the specimen. Verticality of the

end post is assured by the tripod action of the two points

and a third leg. The gun and template are shown in Figure 5.

Due to the necessary clearances within the gun, a

slight variation in the desired dimension was introduced.

This variation amounted to less than one percent of the

total distance between studs and was therefore considered n

negligible.* It was possible, however, to adjust the

dimension which defined the vibrating wire length to 6.000

- 0.005 inches.

The exciter unit was next installed, approximately

* See page 82, Appendix B.

-24-
CD
c3
cl
a
0
fH
T3

0
tr>
rH

I-H

LO

0
?H
3
LP
Ii

ftH

25
positioned, and the anvils and retaining pins inserted in
to the end posts. The gage was then ready for mounting

the wire.

Due to the limited range of the measuring instrument,

tuning of the wire proved to he the most difficult part of

the entire installation process. For the shorter test mem

bers, tensioning of the wire was accomplished by dead

weight. With the test member in a vertical position, the

wire was threaded through the end posts, clamped to a

block bearing against the upper end post, and the neces

sary weights, calculated from Equation for the desired

grequency, suspended from the lower end. Clamping first

the upper anvils, and then the lower, trimming the wire

ends and final positioning of the exciter unit completed

the gage assembly. Because the clamping action changes

the wire tension in a manner which is virtually impossible

to predict, it was necessary that the mounting procedure

be repeated for each gage until the desired frequency

was attained. After numerous attempts it was found that

increasing the dead weight slightly above that calculated

by Equation reduced the number of repititions required.

The gage is shown schematically in Figure 6.

For gages mounted on long specimens, the wire strain

ing device shown in Figure 7 was constructed. Referring

to the figure, the wire is clamped at the right end to a

-26-
-27-
U)
0

o
m
0
pH

0
co
!H
O
0
O
rH
>
0
Q
SUP
cti
H->
co
0
u

tr>
pH

-28 -
half inch diameter pulley on the bearing-mounted axle,
threaded through the end posts and clamped at the left

end to the vertical post on the straining frame. With

the claw end of the loading lever fitted into ratchets on

the axle, the position of the wire is adjusted until the

lever is as nearly horizontal as possible. The wire is

then clamped at the end posts, first at the left end, then

at the right. The movable weight and a scale on the lever

permit wire tensions ranging from ten to thirty-five pounds.

(See page 127, Appendix B.)

A total of eighteen gages of this description were assem

bled. Zero drift observations were made on all eighteen

gages with nine being left undisturbed after installation.

As mentioned before, the wire must be tuned to a certain

level depending on the type strain to be measured. The

Maihak Instruction Booklet (7) suggests tuning the wire

to an instrument dial setting of: hOO for compressive

strains; 100 for tensile strains; or 250 where the strain

may alternate or the type is uncertain.* In the case of

tensile and compressive strains, the settings provide a

usable range of eighty percent of the full scale. Of the

nine undisturbed gages, mounted on one foot lengths of

6112.5, three gages were assembled for each of the three

* Instrument dial settings, reported in "Maihak Units", are

indicative of the strain in the reference wire, however, they
may be converted to frequencies by use of Figure 21 ,Appendix B.

-29-
ranges. The initial setting of the three compression gages
fell considerably below that mentioned above? however, these

setting were accepted. It was after assembly of these gages

that the decision was made to increase the wire loading be

yond that calculated by the equation. The remaining nine

gages, to be used for gage factor determination, were again

separated into the three groupings mentioned above. In this

case the compression gages were mounted on thirty inch lengths

of 6112.5? the mid-range or "bending" gages on seventy-two inch

lengths of 6I12.5J and the tension gages on three sides of a

forty-eight inch length of two inch by one and one-half inch

cross section standard key stock.

The results of the zero drift observations for the first

1000 hours are presented in Figures 8,9> and 10 and in Table 1.

It is immediately apparent that a sizeable drift occurs in

each gage with little noticeable relation to the wire stress.

This in itself would be only an inconvenience since it could

be easily corrected for if the magnitude of the drift at any

time had been the same for all gages.

The shape of the curve represented by the plot for each

gage is not surprising since the same shape is obtained for t

the loss in stress during any relaxation test. It was not,

therefore, difficult to conclude that the problem of drift

would occur in any Instrument of this type and must be cor

rected for in evaluating data obtained by its use.

-30-
 o
o
1 o
<3 o
<I
Q 0

<1 o
c
o o
o\

< Ef)

< O w
0

< O
o 8
o
E-* &H EH IH EH EH
till 1 1
r-i CVJ CO-5T liAMJ
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<1 o o o o o o

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< GO o

Zero Drift of Series 1 Tension Gages

VO

0)
a
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0 0 o o
^ o
<3 0 O
e m

<1 0
i a\ a

0 o
<J f 4 o
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8
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<! O o
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<| 0 <
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Figrue 8e

< 0 0 * fH
< 0 o B
<1 0 O '
<1 8
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4

8 o
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8
G B OOOOOO ^"S
G < o s < 0
<i ai
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xi o
8

Zero Drift of Series 1 Bending Gages

o
0
o <i
< 0 G
O
in
o 0
0
<i 0 < 0

o 0 5
. < < 0

0
0
o
o
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0 B
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Figure 9

0 9 o
0
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A

0
o

0
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VO
o
in.
o O o
on CVJ

(irw) q.JIia ox?z

-32-
 o
o
o

-<> o
<O ooo a
I I I
a invo
i i i
ooo
o
T B 8

ooo
I I I I
rH OJ CO
I I I O CO
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<o

Zero Drift of Series 1 Compression

S3
<*
0
& " o
H o
8J in
HOd

0
G3 o
- 03
Oa
G3B
\
\ \ <*>qafs
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Wa o4K s
*0 sPM \
o
Figure 10.

o o
m O o
- s CO OJ

(*nw) ^JT^a oaz

-34-
Table 1. Zero Drift Observations for Series 1 Gages
Gage No. Order Zero Reading (M.U.)* Wire Stress (psi)
A QQam.
bled Initial At lOOOHrs. Initial At lOOOHrs.
C-l-'/ 3 112.5 65.3 70400 66800

C-2-T 4 100.0 47.0 69500 65400

C-3-T 8 81.9 34.7 68100 64500
C-4-T 16 102.2 76.1 696OO 67600
C-5-T 17 106.8 76.8 70000 67700
C-6-T 18 108.2 80.8 70100 68000
C-l-M 1 236.0 178.3 798OO 75400
C-2-M 2 246.5 198.0 80600 77000
C-3-M 9 245.2 200.3 80500 77100
C-4-M 13 258.5 214.0 80700 78200
C-5-M 14 274.0 234.3 82400 79700
C-6-M 15 244.0 211.2 80400 78000
C-l-C 5 319.9 264.9 85900 818OO
C-2-C 6 341.0 286.3 87500 83400
C-3-C 7 318.3 264.2 858OO 81700
C-4-C 10 470.5 406.0 97300 92500
C-5-C 11 449.2 384.7 95700 90800
C-6-C 12 433.7 383.7 94500 90600

* See Appendix A for explanation of abbreviations.

# Gage designators containing the numbers 1,2,3 refer to
the undisturbed gages.

34 -
 Before a correction for drift can be accomplished

it is necessary that the variation of drift between

gages be eliminated. It can be seen that numerous random

variations from a smooth curve occur in each plot.

During the course of these tests the ambient temperature

at the time of each reading was noted and so for as the

writer could determine changes in temperature bear no

relation to the deviations mentioned above. This same

effect is reported by Mainstone (6). An insight into

one of the contributing factors is gained through an

examination of the plots for gages C-4-T, C-5-T, and

C-6-T. AS already stated these gages were mounted on a

test member with a two inch by one and one-half inch

cross section and due to the small size of the test

member were extremely sensitive to vibrations emanating

from sources in and around the laboratoryeven to the

field of the flourescent lighting. Even with the utmost

care any reading taken was, at best, a guess; however,

the general shapes of the plots are the same as those

obtained for other gages. A part of the variation,

plus or minus one-half division, may result from reading

error, and it may be assumed that part may result from

a slight instability of the measuring instrument such as

due to fluctuations in the power source.

A final point of interest, along this line, is to be

-35-
noted for gages C-4-C, C-5-C, and C-6-C. In the early

portions of the plots for these gages sudden increases

in drift occur which appear to be due to slippage of the

wire. These increases (denoted by points connected with

dashed lines) coincide with loading tests performed in

determining the gage factor.

A more precise determination of these effects at

this time is of little or no value, since, even if they

are discounted, the major problem of the difference in

drift between gages still exists. The problem then is

to ascertain the source of the variation and eliminate

or minimize its effect in future designs.

Referring again to Figures 8, 9, and 10 it is seen

that the widest variation in drift occurs between gages

in the tension and bending groups. Since in these groups

the initial wire stress in each gage varied only about

three percent from every other gage in that group, it is .

unlikely that the drift variation is produced by differ

ences in wire stress. Noticing that*v in some cases,

nearly half of the thousand hour drift occurs in the first

few hours after installation, a probable source of error

is in the initial zero reading taken for a particular gage.

While every attempt was made to take this reading immedi

ately after final clamping of the wire, it was often neces

sary that the reading be delayed until the wire and test

-36-
member reached the same temperature. During this same

period, it is likely that the gripping forces are under-

going a continuous readjustment. At first the gripping

action is supplied in large part by friction between the

wire and clamping surfaces. At the most highly stressed

cross section, due to Poissons effect, these friction

forces are reduced. The point of highest stress is thus

propogated across the clamping surface until a balance

is reached between the friction forces and the direct

mechanical anchorage produced by the undistorted cross

section at the free end of the wire bearing against

the anvils. This phenomenon may account for a number of

the irregularities previously mentioned including the

erratic shape of the early portions of the curves and

the sudden drift of the compression specimens.

The drift problem was noted early in the observations

discussed above. As a check on the gripping configuration

four additional gages were assembled. Two of these, CM-1

and CM-2, were of the same design as described except

the clamping groove was set at 0.010 inches. The second

pair of miscellaneous gages, CM -3 and CM-4, were the result

of an attempt to adapt the system suggested by Mainstone.

The end post is shown in cross section in Figures 4 and 5.

Cutting the slot to receive the two clamping pins was

extremely difficult, mainly due to the round stud. The

- 37-
results of the drift observations on these gages are tabulated

on page 80 of Appendix B. Since no improvement was noted

these designs were discarded.

Coincident with the drift observations, gage calibra

tion tests were being conducted. As previously stated, nine

gages were assembled for calibration purposes; three each

for observation under tension, compression and bending or

alternating strain conditions. While it was not expected

that any change in calibration or gage factor would result

from the different loading conditions, the results of the

tests would indicate the most advantageous method for future

work.

The tension specimen was eliminated from further consid

eration by the first test. Owing to the small size of the

test member and the close proximity of the gage end posts,

the bar became warped during the welding process. This,

coupled with the hypersensitivity of the gages to external

vibration, made the data obtained from the test impossible

to analyze. Consequently only the bending and compression

specimens were relied on for calibration.

Calibration of the gages was accomplished by comparing

the strain indicated by four SR-4 electrical resistance gages

with the change in dial setting for the accoustic gage. The
strain gage and loading arrange ment for each type of loading

are shown in Figures 11, 12, and 13.

-38-
 Electric
Gages
E-3
JL6L12.5
Acoustic Section A--A
Gage

Compression Specimen

r
k 15--J
(rv
I5i!j
E-2 n_ ^E-3 V

E
-
X
<& ^
A
1 3^" ^ 34"
Bending Specimen

Figure 11. Strain Gage and Loading Arrangement

-39-
p
c
e

s
4)

U
u
<
s
'd
cd
5
C
o
CQ
(0
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JH
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41
 Since it was desirable that the results be verified by

a number of tests on each gage it was necessary that the mem

ber stresses were kept well below yield. Consequently, real

izing that residual rolling stresses were present, in the

compression case a load of 55 kips, producing an average

stress of approximately 15 ksi, was chosen.

Even though the ends of the thirty inch compression

members were milled, it was extremely difficult to eliminate

eccentricity of loading. In early tests conducted without

the benefit of spherical heads, an attempt was made to cor

rect for the inevitable bending. The results of these tests

were very erratic and it was only after a spherical seat had

been added at each end that any sort of consistency was ob

tained. It was still necessary, however, that each specimen

be loaded, unloaded, and repositioned until all four electric

gages indicated the same strain. (It is probable that this

cyclic loading contributed materially to the large drift

changes mentioned in the previous discussion.) The remainder

of the test consisted of increasing the load in increments of

5000 pounds and, at the end of each increase, reading the

strain indicated by all five gages in the order E-l, E-2,

Acoustic gage, E-3, E-4. Due to leakage in the testing

machine hydraulic system, the load tended to drift during

the reading Interval, consequently, an exact 5000 pound incre

ment was sacrificed in favor of maintaining as nearly a

-42-
constant load as possible. Reading all four electric gages
was necessitated by the possibility that friction in the

spherical heads would introduce bending which was not de

tected during alignment of the specimen. The gage factor

at each interval was then calculated by dividing the average

of the strains indicated by E-2 and E-3 by the reading

obtained for the acoustic gage.

Three tests for gages C-4-C and C-5-C, and two tests

for C-6-C are reported in Table 2. (An error in milling

the specimen for C-6-C was producing bending of the specimen

and was not noticed in early tests. A third test on this

gage was not considered necessary since excellent agreement

was obtained on the first two.)

Considering the difficulty of maintaining a constant

load and that the minimum reading error inherent in the

electrical gages is approximately two percent, the values

are in quite good agreement and the gage factor for this

group may justifiably be reported as 2.40 x 10"^ i 2$

inches per inch per Maihak Unit.

The results obtained from the bending tests (Table 3)

are less satisfying although the problems of alignment and

constant load are much less complicated. In this case the

strain indicated by the electrical gages must be corrected

to the level of the vibrating wire. This was accomplished

by a linear extrapolation of the strains Indicated by gages

- 43-
 CVJ
c Cft rH crv rH o o o CVJ H rH
P =r CO it CO it it it it it it it
CQ o
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1 EH
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P it VO in it CO it CO it CO
CQ 0 o o o
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EH

CO
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p in st* it it it it it it it it it
ra o o o
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o CVJ
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in
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in
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CVJ
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Gage Factors for Series 1 Compression Gages

o 0 CVJ CVJ CVJ CVJ CVJ CVJ CVJ CVI CVJ CVJ CVJ
IH

H
on VO GO it rH rH CVJ it rH rH H
P vo in =t -t it it it it it it it
CO o o
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E*

(Gage Factor units are in./in./lM.U. x 10

CO
p in.
. in
in
t-*
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CVJ
if
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.=t
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EH

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CO 0 o
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ft-P =
it o\ CO
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it it it
Table 2.

M <*N
o *o m
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CVJ
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CO it it in in
<

- 44 -
 Table 3. Gage Factors for Series 1 Bending Gages

45
-
I
VO

K
c

(Gage Factor units are lne/ln0/M.U.

Table 3. (Continued)

Approx. Approx. C-6-M

Total Surface
Load Strain c Compression Tension
(Lbs.) ("/xlO ) Test 1 Test 2 Test 1 Test 2
500 22 2.48 2.31 2.72 2.51
1000 44 2.43 2.39 2.60 2.49
1500 66 2.46 2.39 2.54 2,52
2000 88 2.47 2.42 2.49 2.52
2500 110 2.47 2,43 2.44 2.50
3000 130 2.45 2.43 2.42 2.49
3500 150 2.46 2.43 2.44 2.46
4000 170 2.46 2.42 2,50 2.46
4500 190 2.44 2.45 2.48 2.48
500C 210 2.43 2.45 2.48 2.48
5500 230 2.44 2.45 2.50 2.48

(Gage Factor units are in./in./M.U. x 10"^)

-46-
on opposite sides of the specimen. On examination of the
observed data (piP91- lO^Appendix B) it is seen that these

strains are not equal but begin to diverge at higher loads.

This condition casts serious doubt on the validity of the

assumption of linear strain distribution across the test

specimen. The divergence is a result of the loading arrange

ment. Referring to Figure 13# as the load increases the

loading beams deflect downward causing the knife edges to

rotate. Sufficient friction is developed between the knife

edge and specimen to cause an increase in tensile stress in

the lower flange. An attempt was made to use the 200,000

pound capacity Tinius Olsen Testing Machine which has a

loading beam built into the stationary head. The extreme

vibrations of the driving motor necessitated that it be

shut off during the reading interval. This, coupled with

rapid load drift, caused the test results (not reported)

to be highly erratic, however, the strains indicated by the

electric gages were sufficiently close together that the

divergence mentioned above could be blamed on the flexible

loading beams.

Since the assumption of linear strain distribution

becomes more erroneous with increasing loads the range of

strain for these tests was limited to about half that for

the compression case. The total applied load then was 5500

pounds resulting in a maximum moment of 52.3 kip-inches

-47 -
and a stress of approximately 7.15 ksi. The test procedure

was the same as for the compressive case with four tests,

two in compression and two in tension, performed on each

gage. An exact load increment of 500 pounds was again

sacrificed in favor of maintaining a constant load during

the reading interval.

The values of gage factor shown in Table 3 agree fairly

well with those obtained for the pure compression case, the

minimum reading error of the electric gages being about 4#

in the test range. Since no significant difference in gage

dimensions occurs between the two groups, the gage factor

for all gages may be assumed to be 2.40 x 10" inches per

inch per Maihak Unit. And for short term tests assuming

an accuracy of 2# is not unreasonable.

Sufficient information was obtained from the zero drift

observations and calibration tests on these gages to allow

the formation of several conclusions so far as improvement

in design was concerned. Since good agreement was obtained

for the gage factors further control of dimensions was con

sidered unnecessary. The primary concern was to eliminate

the variation in drift between gages. Since the most prob

able source of this error is the initial zero reading, an

effective method for reducing the variation would be to

reduce the total drift.
A common feature of all the gages to this point was that

-48 -
the deformation produced by clamping had occured entirely

in the wire. Surmizing that reducing the anvil hardness

(previously Rockwell C-50) until the deformation took place

in both the anvils and the wire or in the anvils only would

materially reduce the loss in wire stress, six gages of

Series 1 design were assembled with the following anvil

hardness: CM-5 and CM-6 at Rockwell C-38; CM-7 and CM-8

at C-32j and two others at C-l8. (C-l8 is the untreated

hardness of the standard drill rod.) In the latter two

gages deformation took place in the anvils only with all

gripping being the result of friction. These friction

forces turned out to be insufficient to maintain the wire

stress within the range of the measuring instrument.

Bofore drift observations were commenced with the other

four gages a number of wires were tuned, clamped and removed.

In these cases deformation occurred both in the anvils and

the wire necessitating the use of new anvils with each

mounting of the wire. An examination of the wire in the

clamping area with a microscope revealed that the deform

ation of the cross section was irregular across the clamp

ing surface as opposed to the smooth surface obtained in

previous gages. Obviously the irregularity was an undesire-

able condition, however, short term drift observations were

made and the results are presented on page 8l of Appendix B.

Comparing these results with Figures 8, 9* and 10 indicates

-49 -
that no improvement has resulted.

Rather than pursue the clamping grip further, it seemed

more profitable at this point to investigate an entirely dif

ferent system. In the December, 1961 issue of "Materials

Research and Standards", an article by G. R. Gohn and A. Pox

describes apparatus using the vibrating wire technique for

determining the relaxation properties of wire. (8) The wire

is fixed by wrapping the ends around steel arbors in much

the same manner as a violin or piano is tuned. This config

uration proved readily adaptable to the five-eighths inch

diameter end posts. (See Figures 3 and 14) Machining of the

studs is basically the same as previously described with the

addition of a second five-sixteenths inch diameter hole bored

transversely to both the gage centerline and the longitudinal

axis of the stud. The arbor, a one inch length of the stand

ard five-sixteenths drill rod, is reduced to three-sixteenths

inches in the wrapping area. A 0.040 inch diameter hole

in one end of the reduced section allows the wire to be

threaded through the arbor providing a mechanical anchorage

while the wire is wrapped. The stiffness of the 0.016 Inch

diameter wire failed to provide this anchorage, consequently,

a 0.020 inch diameter was used for the remainder of these

tests. Also, since the wire is held in tension by friction

between the wire and arbor, the greater surface area of the

0.020 inch diameter wire will enhance the friction effect.

-50-
-5/
After the wire is wrapped and tuned, tension is maintained
by clamping the arbor against the bottom of the hole with

an anvil of the same description as the upper anvil in the

Series 1 type connection; the groove providing a positive

stop against rotation of the arbor. Since the length of

vibrating wire is the same as the center-to-center distance

between end posts, both dimensions were set at six inches.

The gage is shown schematically in Figure 15.

The gages assembled with this arrangement have been

labeled Series 2, Preliminary, and Series 2. For the pre

liminary group, installation proceeded in much the same

manner as for Series 1 gages. With the arbor hole aligned

by eye, the end posts and magnet mounting studs were welded

in position. Since the end post cross section was mater

ially weakened by the arbor hole adjustment of the vibrat

ing wire length was not possible, however, as evidenced

by previous results, slight dimensional inconsistencies

had little effect and were accepted. With the exciter unit
approximately positioned, the ends of the wire were threaded

through the arbors and wrapped by simultaneously turning

both arbors in opposite directions. As the wire tension

approached the desired level, one end was clamped and the
other adjusted until the required frequency was attained.

While the exciter unit was being positioned, it was noticed

that the signal had decreased both in amplitude and duration

-52-
-52
compared with Series 1 gages. Since both the stiffness and

mass of the wire have been nearly doubled, this was not unex

pected, consequently the magnets were positioned for maximum

response rather than at a fixed distance from the wire.

A total of eleven gages were assembled in this manner:

six gages, three tuned at compression level and three at

bending level, were left undisturbed; five gages, three at

compression level and two at bending level, were for cal

ibration purposes. For the sake of economy the gages to be

calibrated were mounted on the same specimens as the Series 1

gages. Although a number of items which demanded correction

were noted during the assembly of these gages, these tests

were continued before any improvements were attempted.

Zero drift observations were made on all eleven gages

and the results are presented in Figures 16 and 17. The

drift performance of these gages was very encouraging;

the total difference in drift for all six undisturbed gages

being only five Maihak Units at three hundred fifty hours

compared to approximately twenty units at the same time for

Series 1 gages. Also of prime importance, the total drift

has been reduced to about fifty percent of that in the

previous case.
The results of the calibration tests are shown in
Table 4. The increase in gage factor over Series 1 gages
is the result of the decreased gage length and the increased

-53 -
 t)
VO

PH
H
Zero Drift of Series 2 Preliminary Gages
-
55-
(*n*W) T*3 OJz
(*n*W) WF-IQ oaaz
o
o

8
Q
CO
<0

EH
h

Figure 17. Zero Drift of Series 2 Preliminary Gages

 Table 40 Gage Factors for Series 2 Preliminary Gages

-5G-
Table 4. Gage Factors for Series 2 Preliminary Gages

Approx, WP--4-M WP-!5-M

Total
Load
(Lbs,) Tension Compression Tension Compression
500 3.00 2.98 3.17 2.70
1000 2,95 2.95 2.89 2.7 6
1500 2.96 2.95 2.90 2.7 6
2000 2.99 3.00 2,84 2.79
2500 2.99 3.02 2.83 2.79
3000 3.02 3.03 2.86 2.8l
3500 3.00 3.04 2.87 2.81
4000 2.99 3.06 2.87 2.82
4500 3.00 3.04 2.85 2.83
5000 3.01 3.07 2.83 2.81
5500 3.02 3.07 2.85 2.83
(Gage Factor units are in./in./M.U, x 10^)

-57-
mass and stiffness of the wire, also it was expected that

the factor obtained from the bending tests would be slightly

higher than that from the compression test. The main prob
lem is in the variation in factor between the three compres
sion gages. A check of gage dimensions revealed that the

magnet gap for VJP-2-C was set at 0.02 inches while the gap

for the other two gages was 0.03 inches. A third test on

WP-2-C with the gap set at 0.03 inches evidenced no

change in gage factor, hence it was assumed that the dif

ference must be due to differences in gage dimensions.

Again sizeable changes in drift accompanied most of the

load tests.

In order to improve the gage characteristics, three

basic changes were necessary. During assembly of the prelim

inary gages, it was noted that the wire and arbor were not

in contact over the full length of the wrap. Consequently,

the mechanical anchorage produced by the sharp bend in the

wire at the hole in the arbor had little effect. The grip

in this case relies entirely on friction developed between

the wire and arbor. Since these forces are not evenly dis

tributed around the wrap, they are in a continuous state of

change; this situation probably accounts for the sudden

drift associated with the calibration tests. The most

plausible method of eliminating this condition is to wrap

the wire under tension - preferably under the desired final

-58-
tension. The device shown in Figure 18 allows pretension

ing of the wire. Theoretically, this device will automatic

ally maintain a tension in the wire which varies between the

limits of 100$ and 80$ of the desired value during wrapping.

Since the theoretical dimensions could not be maintained, it

was necessary that wrapping be performed under less than the

desired value. The values of pretensioning chosen were;

twenty pounds for compression gages, where the required

final tension was approximately thirty pounds; and fifteen

pounds for bending gages, where final tension was to be about

twenty-five pounds.

The second correction required for improvement of the

gage was a more precise control over the gage dimensions.

Variations in dimensions were traced to clearances within

the welding gun. A sleeve attached to the legs of the gun

allowing only five thousandths of an inch clearance for the

stud chuck successfully eliminated most of the variations

in gage length. Control of the vibrating wire length nec

essitated more careful alignment of the arbor hole. This

was accomplished in the following manner. The ends of the

studs were marked on both sides at the center of the arbor

hole and inserted in the chuck. A template similar to the

stud positioning template previously described was then fitted

over the points on the legs of the gun with the stud passing

through a hole in the plate. The marks describing the center

of the arbor holes could then be easily aligned with a line

-59-
on the plate set perpindicular to the gage centerline.

After the studs were welded in position, the arbor was

inserted and clamped firmly in place. This allowed slight

adjustments to be made in the vibrating wire length by

bending the studs. That these precautions were effective

can be seen by comparing the dimensions for the two sets

of Series 2 gages shown on page 105 of Appendix B.

Finally the magnet gap for the second set was increased
to 0.04 inches for all gages. While this caused a marked

decrease in amplitude of the signal, damping was less se

vere which facilitated readings during the calibration

tests. Twelve gages were assembled incorporating the above

changes. Three compression gages and three bending gages

were left undisturbed and six compression gages were in

tended for calibration.

The results of zero drift observations are shown in

Figures 19 and 20. The magnitude of the drift has been

reduced when compared to the preliminary gages, although

the variation between gages has remained unchanged at about

five Maihak Units for all compression gages. The most

significant point is the reaction of the calibrated gages

to loading. Before, a sizeable increase in drift accom

panied a load testj but in this case several of the gages

experienced a decrease in drift. This indicates that the

tension in the wire around the wrap is higher than in the

60-
 o
o o
E&$) o\ 0W &

o o
sss
8 ooo

i i i 1 1 I
H CM CO t-co o\
1 1 1
(6d JSlSlS a<3 O ! > Is
o

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

<1 0 o <3^ 0 -

Time (Hrs)
m

Zero Drift of* Series 2 Undisturbed Gages

o
O t)
VO e

3 o
o
o
in
O

o
GW o <3 0

ew O Q <1
o
CO

GXW <J G
o
o
CVI
<W1

0< o cQQ
8
Figure 19.

E< a
BO
00
G

o
CM rH
o o
3
W**CI oaz (*aW) oaz

6 /
62
(irw) wza oiz
o

Figure 20 Zero Drift of Series 2 Calibrated Compression Gages

free portion.

The limited time remaining for completion of this

investigation permitted only a single calibration test on

each of the six compression gages. The gage factors for

the five meaningful tests are reported in Table 5 An

error in machining one of the end posts used in gage W-6-C

caused the clearance between the wire and the body of the

post to be reduced to a fraction of that originally intended.

Under load, even the slightest bending of the test specimen

caused the wire to touch the end post body and no consistent

results could be obtained with this gage. The spread in

gage factors has been considerably reduced although it still

amounts to about four percent. Since the minimum combined

reading errors for both electric and acoustic gage systems

is about two percent, the spread could be attributed to this

factor. It was suspected, however, that this was not the

case and a check of the resistance of the electromagnet

coils revealed that some relatibn might exist between the

spread and the damping and excitation characteristics of the

exciter units. Hence, for future work with configuration,

the properties of the exciter unit should be subjected to

more rigid specifications. Asuggested unit is a five hun

dred ohm coil of the same number of turns as those used above,

with care taken that both electrical resistance and permanent

magnet strength are precisely the same for all units.

Table 5. Gage Factors for Series 2 Gages

Approx. W-l-C W-2-C W-3-C W-4-C W-5-C

Load
(Kips)
5 2.61 2.45 2.53 2.49 2.35
10 2.68 2.55 2.61 2.59 2.45

15 2.67 2.60 2.62 2.62 2.46

20 2.67 2.6o 2.59 2.63 2.51

25 2.68 2.58 2.6l 2.67 2.54

30 2.67 2.60 2.61 2.66 2.56

35 2.66 2.60 2,60 2.66 2.59
40 2.67 2.60 2.60 2.68 2.63

45 2.70 2.61 2.60 2.68 2.63

50 2.69 2.61 2.6l 2.70 2.66
55 2.69 2.62 2.62 2.69 2.68
C
(Gage Factor units are in./in./M.U. x 10")
 SUGGESTED AREAS OP FUTURE WORK

The favorable results obtained with Series 2 gages

indicates that with a few more improvements, this type

will eventually result in a gage which meets the five

general requirements listed in the opening paragraphs

of the introduction. As already stated, a better exciter

unit would be the first step in this direction! also,

for better control of the wire tension, a more sophisti

cated pretensioning device must be designed.

a large part of the difficulties encountered in

calibrating the gages resulted from bending of the test

specimen. Since with the Series 2 type end post the

position of the wire is not restricted by a lower anvil,

the effect of bending can be reduced by dropping the

wire to very near the surface of the specimen and repo

sitioning the magnet so that it is above the wire. This

would necessitate moving the magnet mounting studs so that

the bracket would be at a slight angle with the gage center

ling.

Naturally, in order to asses the long term accuracy

of the gage, zero drift observations must be extended in

duration beyond those performed in this work. Since the

tests indicate that the drift is a product of relaxation

-6 5-
in the wire, it is to be expected that the drift curves
will become assymptotic to the time axis after several

thousand hours. Consequently, the error introduced by

drift will reach a maximum value and afterwards will

remain constant.

Finally, a more accurate system than the electrical

resistance gages used in this investigation should be

used for determination of the gage factor. An auto

matic recording arrangement permitting simultaneous

readings to be taken would also increase the accuracy

of the gage factor.

-66-
 CONCLUSIONS

The wide variation in zero drift between the var

ious Series 1 type gages is attributable in large part

to the difficulty in establishing the initial zero read

ing for each gage. Since the rate of drift immediately

after clamping of the wire is extremely high due to

deformation of the wire cross section it is this writers

considered opinion that any deformation is an undesirable

situation and must be avoided. Also, there is only a

remote possibility that the drift can be controlled by

selecting the proper anvil hardness so that no plastic

deformation of the wire occurs.

The fairly consistent test results for Series 2

type gages indicates that after those suggestions men

tioned in the preceding section have been implemented a

gage meeting the general requirements listed in the

introduction can be developed. However, much more work

is required before any definite conclusions may be drawn

so far as long term accuracy is concerned.

For short term tests (of about twenty-four hours

duration), expecting an accuracy of about plus or minus

two micrinches per inch is not unreasonable provided

sufficient time has elapsed after damping of the wire

-67-
so that the gage is operating in the flat portion of the

drift curve. Similarly, with an improved exciter unit,

the same results may he assumed for the Series 2 config

uration.

-68 -
 APPENDIX A

NOTATION

Listed below are explanations of those symbols which have

not been defined elsewhere in the text.
E-l, E-2, etc. Electrical resistance strain gages.
G.P. Gage Factor.

% Height of wire above test specimen.

L Gage length, Center-to-Center distance
between end posts.
M.U. Malhak Unit or one division of the meas
tiring instrument scale.
R Zero Reading for acoustic gages.
Electromagnet coil resistance.

Gage Numbers are designated by three groups of symbols:

The first group consists of one or two letters: the
first letter, either "C" or "W" refers to Series 1 or
Series 2 respectively and means 'Clamped or"Wrapped"
wire ends; the second letter, either "M or P means
"Miscellaneous" or "Preliminary".
The second group consists of a single number which
was arbitrarily assigned to each gage.
The third symbol will be either "C", "M" or "T"
meaning "Compression Range", "Mid-Range" or "Tension
Range" and refers to the level of tension in the wire.

-69-
 APPENDIX B

OBSERVED DATA

This appendix contains a complete record of the data

recorded during this investigation. It has been arranged

in the following order:

A. Series 1 Zero Drift Observations.

B. Series 1 Calibration Tests.

C. Series 2, Preliminary, Zero Drift Observations.

D. Series 2, Preliminary, Calibration Tests.

E. Series 2 Zero Drift Observations.

F. Series 2 Calibration Tests.

0. Miscellaneous.

-70-
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-74 -
 SER/ES r
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Figure 20. Frequency-Dial Setting Curve for Maihak Strain Recorder

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 APPENDIX C

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Dawidenkow, N.: Journal of Applied Physics, Leningrad,

Vol. 5, (1928). (Referenced for date of publication only.)

2. Coyne, Andre: "An Acoustic Process for the Examination

of Stress," The Engineer, Vol. 158* (August, 193*0,
pp. 142-143.

3. Jerrett, R. S.: "The Acoustic Strain Gage," Journal

of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 22, (1945), pp.29-34.

4. Gibson, J. E.: "The Design and Application of a Simple

Acoustic Strain Gage," Civil Engineering and Public
Works Review, Vol. 52, No. blfci, (Dec., 1957) PP. 1366-
unr.
5. Mainstone, R. J.: "Vibrating-Wire Strain Gauge for Use
in Long-Term Tests on Structures," Engineering, Vol. 176,
No. 4566, (July, 1953), pp. 153-156.
6. Chapman, J. C.: "Stud-Welded Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge',1
The Engineer, Vol. 206, No. 5360, (October, 1958),
pp. 64o-64i.

7. Instruction Booklet for Maihak Remote Control Measuring

Instruments, H. Maihak Ag., Hamburg, Germany^

8. Gohn, G. R., and Pox, A.: "New Methods for Determining

Stress-Relaxation," Materials Research and Standards,
Vol. 1, No. 12, (December, 1961), pp. 957-965.

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