Aircraft Radio Navigation Communication Systems

Air Waves in Aviation
Radio transmission is an electromagnetic wave with

the same characteristics as light or heat.
Wavelength is the linear measurement of the wave.
Cycle is the interval in which the wave rises and falls

between its crest and trough.
Frequency is the number of cycles/second.
Amplitude is the strength of the signal.

RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS
3 kHz to 30 kHz Very Low Frequencies (VLF)
30 kHz to 300 kHz Low Frequencies (LF)
300 kHz to 3,000 kHz Medium Frequencies (MF)
3,000 kHz to 30,000 kHz High Frequencies (HF)
30,000 kHz to 300,000 kHz Very High Frequencies (VHF)
300,000 kHz to 3,000,000 kHz Ultra High Frequencies (UHF)

Propagation: How Signals Travel
Propagation On The HF Bands
Ground-wave Propagation
Sky-wave Propagation
HF Scatter Propagation
VHF/UHF Propagation Characteristics
Line-of-sight Propagation
Tropospheric Bending and Ducting
VHF/UHF Signals Through The Ionosphere
T3-6
Radio waves travel to their destination in four ways:
1. Line of Sight
Directly from one point to another.
2. Ground-Wave
Along the ground, bending slightly to follow the Earths
curvature.
3. Tropospheric Bending and Ducting
In the lower layer of the Earths atmosphere.
4. Sky-Wave
Refracted or bent back to the Earths surface by ionized layers
in the ionosphere.
T3-7
Both the VHF and HF system utilize transmitters, receivers
and antennas.
Transceivers are units that include both the transmitter and receiver in
one unit.
VHF and HF systems are completely independent of each other and
utilize their own transmitters, receivers and antennas.
VHF systems are found in any aircraft capable of two way
radio communication and are largely used for controlling
traffic.
HF systems are found in large transport category aircraft
that may need to communicate over large distances
(overseas).
References: Aircraft Electricity and Electronics pg: 294-328, AC 43.13-1B Chapter 12 Section 2
Line Of Sight (LOS)
Tropospheric Bending
Tropospheric Ducting
VHF/UHF Signals Through The Ionosphere
Sporadic E
T3-9
Anytime radio waves are used to follow
a path over the ground.
Types
VORs
NDB/ADF
GPS
Uses
Guidance during times of reduced visibility
Establish orientation
Enhance Situational Awareness
Region Height Notes
Troposphere 7 miles Region where all weather occurs
Stratosphere 6 to 30 Region where atmospheric gases
miles spread out horizontally. The high
speed jet stream travels in the
stratosphere.
Ionosphere 30 to Region where solar radiation from
400 the sun creates ions. Major
miles influence on HF radio wave
propagation.
T3-15
T3-16
Ground-Wave Propagation
Sky-wave Propagation
HF Scatter Mode
T3-17
Results from a radio wave diffraction along the
Earths surface.
Primarily affects longer wavelength radio waves
that have vertical polarization (electric field is
oriented vertically).
Most noticeable on AM broadcast band and the 160
meter and 80 meter amateur bands.
Communication distances often extend to 120 miles
or more.
Most useful during the day at 1.8 MHz and 3.5 MHz
when the D-Region absorption makes sky-wave
propagation impossible.
T3-18
The curved surface of the Earth horizon can diffract long-wavelength
(low frequency) radio waves. The waves can follow the curvature of the
Earth for as much as several hundred miles.
T3-19
Ionization levels in the Earths ionosphere can
refract (bend) radio waves to return to the surface.
Ions in the Earths upper atmosphere are formed when
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and other radiation from the sun
knocks electrons from gas atoms.
The ionization regions in the Earths ionosphere is affected
the sunspots on the suns surface. The sunspots vary in
number and size over a 11 year cycle.
Sky-wave propagation is determined by radio wave
frequency and level of ionization in the ionosphere.
T3-20
Communication distances of 2500 miles are
possible with one skip off the ionosphere.
Skip propagation has both minimum and maximum
ranges.
The area between the maximum ground wave distance
and the minimum skip distance is called the skip zone.
World-wide communications is possible using several
skips (or multi-hops)
The highest frequency that a radio wave
transmitted straight up is reflected back to Earth
is called the critical frequency.
T3-21
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the
highest frequency at which the ionosphere bends
radio waves back to a desired location on earth.
MUF is dependant on level of solar radiation
strength and time of day.
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) tends to
be higher during periods of high sunspots.
T3-22
T3-23
The Earths ionosphere contains
several regions of charged
particles which affect radio
signal propagation.
The ionization regions change
from day to night periods. Region Height Above Surface
D Region 30-60 miles
E Region 60-70 miles
F Region 100-310 miles
T3-24
D Region
Height about 35 to 60 miles above Earth.
Maximum ionization at or near noon.
Ionization disappears by sunset.
Absorbs energy from radio waves. Absorption on lower
frequencies is greater than higher frequencies.
Radio wave absorption is most pronounced at mid-day.
Responsible for short daytime communication ranges on
lower-frequency HF bands (160, 80 and 40 meters).
T3-25
E Region
Height about 50 to 70 miles above Earth.
Ionization useful for bending radio waves when in
sunlight.
Reaches maximum ionization level around mid-
day.
Ionization reaches a minimum level just prior to
sunrise.
Radio wave propagation up to about 1250 miles in
a single skip hop.
T3-26
F Region
Height ranges from 100 to 310 miles above Earth.
Ionization reaches a maximum about noon and tapers off
gradually toward sunset. Minimum ionization is reached
just prior to sunrise.
F region splits into two parts (F1 and F2) during the day
and recombine at night.
F1 region forms about 140 miles above Earth
F2 region forms about 200 miles above Earth
F2 region is responsible for long distance HF band
communication with distances of about 2500 miles.
T3-27
All electromagnetic wave propagation is subject to
scattering influences from the Earths atmosphere,
ionospheric regions and objects in radio path.
Scattered signals may be received in sky-wave
propagation skip zone.
Scatter signals are generally weak and subject to
echoes and distortion.
Most common when operating near the MUF.
Under ideal conditions, scatter propagation is
possible over 3000 miles or more.
T3-28
Back Scatter Propagation
T3-29
Radio signals travel in a straight line from a
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
Provides VHF/UHF communications within a 100
miles or so.
Signals can be reflected by buildings, hills, airplanes,
etc.
Reflections vary the propagation path causing signal
cancellation and reinforcement. This results in a
rapid fluttering sound called picket fencing.
T3-30
T3-31
Slight bending of radio waves occur in the
troposphere close to the Earths surface.
There is always a radio signal loss as radio waves travel
through the troposphere
Radio signal loss increases as the frequency increases
The radio path horizon is generally 15 percent farther
away than the visible horizon (typically 8 to 9 miles).
Communication distances can be increased by increasing the
antenna height above the terrain
Tropospheric bending propagation is most useful at 144
Mhz and higher frequencies
T3-32
The farthest point to which radio waves will travel
directly.
The structure of the atmosphere near the Earths
surface causes the radio waves to bend in a curved
path.
The radio horizon exceeds the geometric horizon by
approximately 15%.
T3-33
The distance D to the radio horizon is greater from a higher
antenna. The maximum distance over which two stations may
communicate by space wave is equal to the sum of their
distances to the horizon.
T3-34
Chart shows theoretical communication distance
(in miles) to the radio horizon for various
transmitter antenna heights above terrain (in feet).
50.0
45.0
40.0
Distance(miles)
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
D 1.415 x H Height(ft)
T3-35
Radio signals can also be trapped in the troposphere,
traveling a long distance before returning to the Earths
surface.
Results when a duct is formed by a temperature
inversion level (warm air over cold air) over land or water.
Adjacent tropospheric regions having different densities will bend
radio waves passing through the regions
Most useful at VHF/UHF frequencies.
Most frequent during spring, summer and fall.
Can provide contacts of 950 miles or more over land and
up to 2500 miles over ocean
T3-36
When a cool air mass is overrun by a mass of warmer air, a duct may be
formed, allowing VHF and UHF radio signals to travel great distances with
little attenuation or signal loss.
T3-37
Sporadic E
A type of sky-wave propagation that allows long distance
communication on the VHF bands (6 meters, 2 meters and
220 Mhz) through the E region of the atmosphere.
Occurs only sporadically during certain times of the year.
Most common type of VHF atmospheric propagation.
The 6 meter band is most likely experience sporadic-E
propagation during the summer months ... even during
periods of low sunspot activity.
T3-38
VHF
HF
ACARS / AIRCOM
Secal decoders
SATCOM
Two types commonly used for communication:
VHF
VHF (very high frequency) is used by air traffic
control and operates in the VHF band between 118
and 136.975 MHz
Range is 30 miles at 1000 feet and approximately
135 miles at 10,000 feet
HF
HF (high frequency) used for extended range
communication operates between 2.0 and 29.999
MHz
Transmits short messages from aircraft systems to
central facility in Chicago
Two modes used
Demand mode Flight crew transmits
Polled mode Ground station transmits
Note: AIRCOM is the European and Australian

equivalent
Used to filter messages on COMM radio receivers
Aircraft are assigned a tone combination for secal
unit to monitor.
Secal unit alerts the crew to an incoming radio
transmission
Utilizes satellites for transcontinental flight communications
More reliable the HF communication
Range is between latitudes 75 N and 75 S
Uses three sub-systems
Ground earth station
Aircraft earth station
Satellite system
Capable of of transmitting information from many different
sources
AIRCOM, ACARS, flight-crew communications, passenger telephone,
telex and fax
NDB/ADF
Ground Equipment
NDB: Non Directional Beacon
Refers to the actual station of ground
Airborne Equipment
ADF: Automatic Direction Finder
Refers to instrument found in the airplane
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
Transmits same signal in all directions
Directional/Loop Antenna
Rotates to find the most powerful signal
Sense Antenna
Receives equal signal throughout
System uses both antennas to figure out where
you are in relation to the station
ADF Receives NDB Signals in (190-535)kHz
AM Broadcast Low Band
Relative Bearing
What is read from the Indicator
Degrees from nose of aircraft to the station
Magnetic Heading
What is read from the Heading Indicator
Degrees from North to nose of aircraft
Magnetic Bearing
Where you are in relation to the station
Degrees from north to the station
RB + MH = MB
000
Tracking
350
Inbound
Wind
Wind
350
010
010
53
350
Tracking
000 Wind
Wind
Outbound
340
340
015
54
Navigation Procedures
Homing
Keep the nose of the aircraft always pointing
to the station
Needle always be aligned
Does not take into account wind
55
WHEATON
326 ETH
1. Where is the station in relation to me?
look at the ADF needle - Relative bearing
2. What direction am I going?
look at heading indicator - Magnetic heading
3. Where am I in relation to the
station?
North, South, East, or West?
4. What course would I fly to
get to the station?
Homing
Keep the nose of the aircraft always pointing to the
station
Needle always be aligned
Does not take into account wind
Ground Equipment
Airborne Equipment
Principle : Bearing measurement by
PHASE DIFFERENCE
Very High Frequency Range
108.0-117.95
Transmits two signals
Reference Phase
Same all the way around
Variable Phase
Rotates at 1800 RPM
Measures Phase Difference
360 different radials, that can each be
flown in 2 directions
Is not heading sensitive
Altitude
Class of facility
Terrain
off flag appears
Morse Code no longer heard
Inoperative CDI
Corrective Actions
ADF
GPS
Radar vectors (flight assist)
Omnibearing Selector (OBS)
Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
To-From Indicator
Parts of a VOR system
Receiver
Course
Deviation
Indicator
(CDI)
To/From ind.
Omni
bearing
selector
VHF ANTENNA
VHF RECEIVER
118.00 136.97 108.00 117.95

USE STBY USE STBY
KX 155 TSO COMM NAV

BENDEX / KING
PULL PULL
TEST IDENT
OFF
Identifying the Station
Interpreting the VOR Indications
Reverse Sensing
Off Indications
Tracking
Intercepting a Course
Cross Checking Position
Must do prior to using the VOR
Ensure correct station is selected
Ensure station is working
Morse code identification
Turn the OBS so that the CDI is aligned
Make sure that it has a FROM indication
Draw out where you are in relation to the station
090
0
0 30
33
300
60
270
90
12
0
24
0
0 16
21 0
OBS 180
KING
FROM
Selected Course
From Envelope Crossbar
FROM TFROM
Selected Course:
360o
OFF OFF
OFF OFF
TO
To Envelope
TO
TO
VHF Omnirange
Where are you in relation to the station?
OBS 180
KING
Where are you in relation to the station?
180
0
OBS 180
KING
If wrong course is set in
Needle will move farther away when
correcting
Make sure that OBS course matches Aircraft
Heading
If you want to head TO the station line up TO
indication
If you want to head FROM the station line up
FROM Indication
Reasons for OFF indications
Cone of Confusion
Out of Range/Unreliable
90 from selected course
0
0 30
33
300
60
270
90
12
0
24
0
0 16
21 0
OBS 180
KING
Zone of Ambiguity
Cone of Confusion
"A" and "B"

signal
received
Only "A" Only "B"

signal signal
received received
Neither
"A" or "B"
received
VOR VOR
station "A" station "B"
Fly from one point to the other keeping
the CDI centered
Bracket by keeping a stabilized
crosswind correction
Draw out which way you need to turn to intercept
Turn to heading and set OBS to desired radial
Track inbound on new radial
Use two VORs to find your exact
position
Center both VORs with a from indication
Draw out the radials
Where they cross is where you are at
Advantages Limitations
Concise form of Line of Sight
Navigation Range
Easy to interpret
position
Not heading sensitive
Provides multiple
courses TO/FROM the
station
Advantages Limitations
Not limited to Line of Errors
Sight Quadrantal error
Simple form of Night effect
Navigation Terrain effect
Precipitation static
Heading sensitive
Combination of several systems to provide pilot
with the ability to land in conditions with poor
visibility.
Localizer indicates alignment w/ runway
Glideslope indicates correct descent path
Outer Marker Final Approach Fix
Middle Marker Missed Approach Point

Needle indicates direction of
runway.
Centered Needle = Correct
Alignment
Needle indicates above/below
glidepath.
Centered Needle = Correct Glidepath
Correct
Glidepath
Descent
Cone Runwa
OM Denotes beginning of final approach segment
(Final Approach Fix).
MM Denotes Missed Approach Point (MAP)

Usually placed at decision height on glidepath.
If you cant see the runway yet, go around.
Represented by indicator lights with accompanying

aural tone in cockpit.
When glideslope is unavailable, pilots may still make
a localizer-only approach.
VOR Radio altimeters
ADF DME
ILS GPS
LOC Transponders
GS ELT
Marker beacons
VORs operate between 108.0 to 117.9 MHz
frequency band
System includes
VOR ground station or transmitter
VOR receiver in aircraft
In light aircraft this is often combined with the comm radio
Aircraft display
CDI course deviation indicator
TO/FROM indicator
OBS omni-bearing selector or course selector
ON/OFF flag to determine field strength
Antenna
VOR station continually transmits an infinite
number of radials.
The VOR receiver in the aircraft receives the signal
and operates the visual indicator.
The pilot determines the bearings of VOR station
with respect to the aircraft.
Operation
The ADF receives NDB (non-directional beacon)
signals in the 19 to 535 kHz AM broadcast low
band.
The ADF display pointer (RMI or radio magnetic
indicator) will indicate the relative bearing to the
selected AM band in that range.
Combination of several systems to provide pilot with the
ability to land in conditions with poor visibility.
Components
LOC (localizer)
Horizontal reference
GS (glide slope)
Vertical reference
Marker beacon
Distance from runway
Radio altimeter
Very accurate altitude measurement
DME (distance measuring equipment)
Very accurate distance measurement
Combined with the VOR system
Utilizes 1 of 40 ILS channels between 108.10 to
111.95 MHz.
Operation
The ground transmitter is located at the far end of the
runway and provides a valid signal up to 18 NM
The CDI (course deviation indicator) gives full fly left/right
deviation of 700 feet at the runway threshold.
Utilizes 1 of 40 channels between 329.15 to 335.00
MHz.
Operates on the same principles as the LOC.
The GS transmitter is located between 750 and 1250 ft.
from the approach end of the runway and is offset 250 to
650 ft.
The indicator is either an ADI (attitude-director indicator)
or HSI (horizontal-situation indicator).
Both indicators combine other indications for ease of use.
Marker beacon receivers operate at 75 MHz and sense the
audio signature of 3 types of beacons.
Blue outer marker (5 miles from end of runway)
Modulated with 400 Hz
Amber middle marker (2/3 mile from end of runway)
White inner marker (1500 feet from end of runway)
Operation
As the aircraft flies over each maker the appropriate light will flash
and an audible sound may be heard.
The radio altimeter provides better accuracy then
the pressure sensitive altimeters.
Operation
The transmitter sends out a VHF signal downward then
receives the reflected signal.
The transmitter-receiver unit calculates the time needed
for the signal to transmit and return to obtain AGL (above
ground level) altitude.
DH (decision height) used for instrument landings may be
incorporated in this system.
Range is up to 199 NM at the high end of controlled airspace
based on line of sight with accuracy of mile or 3% of the
distance.
DME operates on frequencies from 962 to 1213 MHz.
Operation
The aircraft transmitter sends out paired pulses at specific spacing.
The ground station receives the pulses and then responds with paired
pulses at the same spacing but a different frequency.
The aircraft receiver measures the time it takes to transmit and
receive the signal which is transmitted into distance.
Utilizes a 24 hour satellite system that is
accurate within 100 meters and is unaffected by
weather.
Has 3 independent segments
Space segment satellites
Control segment ground based monitoring
User segment aircraft
Database updating and antenna maintenance
are the primary concerns to the GPS user.
Will be the most widely used system in the near
future.
An automatic receiver and transmitter that can
receive a signal (be interrogated) from a ground
station and send a reply back to the station.
Used to identify aircraft on radar
Identification or squawk is 1200 for VFR flight
Squawk assigned by ATC for IFR flight
Used for emergency transmissions
Three modes of operation
Mode A
Location only, non-altitude reporting
Mode C
Location and altitude reporting
Mode S
Can do Mode A and C and also responds to TCAS
(traffic collision avoidance systems)
Required on all aircraft to provide a signal on crash landings
that will enable search aircraft or ground stations to locate
the aircraft.
Consists of a dual frequency radio transmitter and battery
power supply with a whip antenna.
Transmits on international distress signals of 121.5 (civil) and
243.0 (military) MHz.
Activated by impacts of 5g or more or manually.
Transmits up to 100 miles at receiver altitude of 10,000 ft for 50
continuous hours.
Located in an area of the aircraft where impact damage will
be minimal.
Tail cone area
Aft top of cabin
Three switch positions: AUTO, OFF and ON
Testing may be done under the following
conditions:
Tune VHF COMM receiver to 121.5 MHz
Only within the first 5 minutes of an hour
Only three pulses should be activated
Listen for an audible signal when switched to ON position
The battery pack must be changed in accordance with
the date stamped on the unit.
The battery pack must also be replaced or recharged
when it has been in use for more than one cumulative
hour, or when 50% of the useful life or charge has
expired.
Testing should be performed regularly.
Inspections must be made every 12 calendar months.
Regulations FAR Part 91.52
System inspections
Antenna inspections
Static discharge inspections
Operational checks or any additional inspections
required by the manufacturer
Inspect the condition and security of equipment including
wiring bundles.
Check for any indications of overheating in the equipment or
wiring.
Check for poor electrical bonding
Requirements are specified by the manufacturer.
Cables should be kept as short as possible, except antenna cable
which have a specific length determined in installation.
Proper bonding on the order of .003 ohms is important to the
performance of avionics equipment.
Check instruments and radios for secure
attachment to the instrument panel.
Check that all avionics are free of dust or
contaminates.
Equipment ventilation openings must not be
obstructed.
Check all plugs, connectors, switches, controls for
operation and condition.
Check all instruments for placards as needed.
Check all instrument lighting and annunciator lights
for operation.
Check circuit breaker panel for placards labeling
each circuit breaker installed.
Check for:
broken or missing antenna insulation
lead through insulators
Safety wires
Cracked antenna housing
Missing or poor sealant at base of antenna
Check for:
Correct installation
Signs of corrosion
Condition of paint/bonding and grounding
Bonding of each antenna from mounting base
to the aircraft skin.
Tolerance 1 ohm, maximum
Check for:
Physical security of mounting attachments, wear
or abrasion of wicks, missing wicks, etc.
Assurance that one inch of the inner braid of
flexible vinyl cover wicks extends beyond the vinyl
covering.
Assurance that all dischargers are present and
securely mounted to their base.
Check for:
Assurance that all bases are securely bonded
to the skin of the aircraft.
Any sign of excessive corrosion or
deterioration of the discharger tip.
Any lighting damage shown by pitting of the
metal base.
The ohm value of the static wick itself per
manufacturers instructions.
Transponder
Per FAR 14 Part 91.411 and 91.413
ELT
Per FAR Part 91.52
Functional checks of all other COMM and NAV
systems per the manufacturers instructions
Ground station oriented to magnetic north,
transmitting directional information to aircraft
Benefits
More accurate, precise flying
Reliable
Not susceptible to interference
Voice Capable
Errors/Negatives
Costly to maintain
Line-of-sight
Omnidirectional reference
signal
Directional signal from
antenna rotating @ 1800
rpm
Receiver uses phase
discrimination
Navigation in polar
Distance Measuring coordinates (rho-theta)
Equipment (DME) & often
Tacan are colocated with
VOR
VHF 108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight
1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix)
VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)
Not sensitive to aircraft heading
Fly to or from a VOR or intercept a radial
Radial courses oriented FROM the station
High
1,000 14,500; 40NM
14,500 18,000; 100NM
18,000 45,000; 130NM
45,000 60,000; 100NM
Low
1,000 18,000; 40NM
Terminal
1,000 12,000; 25NM
* All altitudes AGL

360 Magnetic
045 North
315
135
270 090
135
225
180
VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial

Receiver
Course
Deviation
Indicator
(CDI)
To/From ind.
Omni
bearing
selector
Initial Tracking
Tune, Identify, Twist
Turn OBS to center needle and figure out position
(use FROM)
Note heading on top of card
If flying FROM station (radial), then turn to that
heading
If flying TO station, put reciprocal heading on
top and center, then turn to that heading
Wind Correction
Further away, more correction is needed to get
back on track
At 60NM from station, 1 = 1NM
Generally, when within 20NM, 20-30 in direction
of needle works
Once needle centers, turn back towards original
heading, but add wind correction of 5
Station Passage
CDI will become very sensitive, and then begin to
oscillate
Flag will switch from TO/OFF/FROM
Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to new course
to fly
Intercepting
If needle is alive, then turn towards it as if you were
tracking it
If full deflection, first center needle to find what radial you
are on
Twist OBS back to desired course
Parallel that course
Turn 30-60 in direction of needle, depending on distance
from station
Once needle is alive, turn back in direction of desired
course
Follow tracking procedures
Radio signal sent out from aircraft to ground station. Ground
station interprets this signal and sends back. Equipment in
aircraft measures time and converts to nautical miles.
Errors
Diagonal (slant-line) distance from station to aircraft not
lateral
Becomes greater the closer you get to the station
Greatest when directly over station at high altitudes
Limited number of queries
Uses
Intersections/Fixes
IAP
Groundspeed
Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Generic name for a system that permits point-to-
point flight
Onboard computer that computes a position,
track, and groundspeed
VOR/DME
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Collection of antennas throughout the United
States transmit signals
Aircraft receiver calculates position based on
intersection of multiple signals
GPS = Global Positioning System
A space based, all-weather, jam resistant,
continuous operation, worldwide radio navigation
system.
Provides extremely accurate 3D location data as
well as velocity and time.
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in view at all
times
Receiver uses 4 of these to determine position of
aircraft
Each satellite transmits code, which contains
satellite position and GPS time
Receiver, knowing how fast signal was sent and at
what time, calculates position
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
Determines if satellites are providing correct data
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
Collection of ground receivers take satellite data and
correct it for atmospheric conditions
Works based on known position of ground stations
LAAS Local Area Augmentation System
Same as WAAS, but on a smaller, more precise scale
For terminal area around airport
R1
Single range
can lie
anywhere on
a sphere
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

Two ranges will
intersect on a
line, defined by
the intersection
of two spheres

Three spheres
intersect at a
point
Three ranges
needed to resolve
lat/long/altitude

Civilian Uses Military Uses
Marine Navigation Marine Navigation
Air Navigation Air Navigation
Surveying Rendezvous
Search and Rescue Close Air Support
Collision avoidance Mine Warfare
Agriculture Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)
Dead-Reckoning
Self-contained source of:
Position, groundspeed, & heading
Does not even need a receiver
Cannot be jammed
Gets better with use
Applies a calibration correction after
each flight
s(t ) a (t )dt 2
Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.

Output is compensated movement of the platform
& for curvature & rotation of the earth.
Early systems required precise mechanical parts
Bigger is more accurate
Modern systems can be:

Mechanical (platform)
Simple gyros
Accurate
Electronic (strap-down)
Few moving parts
Smaller
Cheaper
Aircraft systems use
Pendulum accelerometers or MEMS
Micro-electromechanical sensors
Ring laser gyros
To measure angular change
INS complements GPS
Mechanical
Ring Laser Gyro

Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Advantages Disadvantages
No power required Dusk & dawn only
Self contained Clear weather only
Cannot be jammed Slow for aircraft
Available everywhere Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill
Requires computation
At least data entry
Circle of Equal
Altitude
DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation
Error increases with distance
VOR/DME, ADF
Error increases with time
DR, Inertial
Reliability Concerns
GPS, Loran, Celestial
Human error
1. Pilotage
2. Dead Reckoning
3. Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
4. Celestial
5. Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Be suspicious.
Check and recheck.
If you cannot tell your passengers your ETA at
the destination, you are not navigating.
Assume youre near your DR position
Do not assume a huge wind just came up
Use your VOR/DME or 2 VORs
Look on the chart for landmarks
Especially those that are shown small
If you miss a checkpoint, hold your heading & look
for the next one
Do not guess where you are! If all else fails, CALL ATC
(after all, YOU are paying for it)
Frequency Band:
Airborne: 1025 MHz 1150 MHz
Ground : 63 MHz below Tx frequency 1025 1087 MHz
63 MHz above Tx frequency 1088 1150 MHz
This gives 126 channels but two codings are used (X and Y)
which doubles the capacity
As the name implies , DME provides information on the
distance from the aircraft to the ground station
Used to establish position along an airway and also to
establish hold points
Frequency Band:
Airborne: 1025 MHz 1150 MHz (L band)
Ground : 63 MHz below Tx frequency 1025 1087 MHz
63 MHz above Tx frequency 1088 1150 MHz
This gives 126 channels but two codings are used (X and Y)
which doubles the capacity
General Principle:
Airborne transceiver transmits a pair of pulses
(spaced at 12s for mode X and 30s for mode Y)
Ground transmitter receives the pulses, waits 50s and then

transmits another pair of pulses back to the aircraft
Airborne transceiver measures the time between transmission
and reception, subtracts the 50s, multiplies by the speed of
light and divides by 2.
This is very simple but gets more complicated when we
want to service more than one aircraft
We need a method of distinguishing among the signals
from up to 100 aircraft.
This is done essentially by generating a random set of
pulses and correlating with the replies to determine the
correct ones.
Distance
Speed
Time to Station
Notes:
1. The last two are valid only if the aircraft is going
directly towards or away from the ground station.
2. The DME measures SLANT RANGE to the station.
Altitude
Ground Range
The ground station simply receives a pulse
pair, inserts the 50 s delay and retransmits
it.
To reduce the effects of reflections it will not
reply to another interrogation for about 60
s (dead time)
The ground station transmits 2700 pulse pairs per second regardless of
the number of aircraft interrogating.
The extra pulse pairs are called squitter
If there are not enough interrogations to make up 2700 pulse pairs, the
ground receiver increases its sensitivity until noise pulses trigger
enough replies to make up the difference
If there are too many interrogations, the receiver decreases its
sensitivity so that the weakest interrogations get ignored
Using squitter has the following advantages:
The transmitter average output power is constant
The receiver AGC has a constant average signal to work
with
The ground receiver sensitivity is maintained at the
optimum level
In the case of overload, the aircraft farthest from the
station are dropped off first.
Using squitter has the following advantages:
The transmitter average output power is constant
The receiver AGC has a constant average signal to work
with
The ground receiver sensitivity is maintained at the
optimum level
In the case of overload, the aircraft farthest from the
station are dropped off first.
Accuracy:
The ICAO specification for DME is 0.5NM or 3% of distance
Tests done on Canadian DMEs show that their errors are

less than 30m.
Integrity
DME ground stations are equipped with monitors which can
detect erroneous delays and out-of-tolerance power output
levels. These shut the system down if and error is detected
Availability:
As with most systems there is a standby transmitter which

takes over when the main one fails.
availability is well above 99.9%

Availability:
As with most systems there is a standby transmitter which takes

over when the main one fails.
availability is well above 99.9%

ILS
Non-precision approaches supply the pilot with
horizontal guidance only. (VOR, NDB, Localizer,
Loc. B/C, GPS without VNAV)
Precision approaches supply the pilot with
horizontal and vertical guidance. (ILS, MLS, PAR,
GPS with VNAV)
ILS is the primary international precision approach
system approved by ICAO and protected until 2010.
ILS provides an aircraft with precision horizontal
and vertical guidance to the runway.
Localizers operate in the VHF range and provide horizontal
course guidance to runway centerline. Transmitters are located
on the centerline at the opposite end of the runway from the
approach threshold.
The signal transmitted consists of two fan shaped patterns that
overlap at the centre. The overlap area provides the on-track
signal.
The angular width of the beam is between 3and 6. Normally
width is 5, resulting in full scale deflection at 2.5. The width of
the beam is adjusted to be 700 feet wide at runway threshold.
The localizer may be offset from runway centerline by up to 3.
Localizers offset more than 3 will have an identifier beginning
with X, aligned localizer identifiers begin with I.
A cautionary note will be published in the CAP whenever
localizer is offset more than 3.
Normal reliable coverage of localizers is 18nm within 10 of
either side of course centerline and 10nm within 35.
Localizer installations provide back course information, and
non-precision localizer back course approaches may be
published. (ignore all glide path information on back course)
Normally glide path will flag off.
Caution: a localizer signal is transmitted differently than a VOR
radial. Aircraft receivers are not supplied with azimuth
information relative to magnetic or true north. It is simply a
beam aligned with the runway centerline. For this reason CDIs
will display normal sensing characteristics when flying in the
same direction as front course alignment, but reverse sensing
when traveling in the direction of back course alignment. (HSI
will normal sense anytime front course direction is set on head
of track bar.)
Glide path information is paired with the associated localizer
frequency.
The glide path is normally adjusted to an angle of 3 (may be
adjusted 2 to 4.5) and a beam width of 1.4(0.7 for full
scale deflection).
The antenna array is located approx. 1000ft from the
approach end of the runway and offset approx. 400ft. (if
glide path is followed to the pavement touchdown point will
be at the 1000ft markers)
In installations with an ILS serving both ends of a runway the
systems are interlocked so only one can operate at a time.
Note: on a standard 3 glide path 320ft/1nm can be used to
verify.
Typical final approach fixes are NDBs in Canada, but
can also be identified by DME or VOR radial and
DME as published.
Fan Markers are commonly used in the US as a
means of identifying aircraft location along a
localizer. As the marker is reached a fan marker light
will illuminate in the flight deck (if equipped).
CAT I: operation down to a minimum of 200ft DH and RVR2600 or
sm ground visibility when RVR not available.
CAT II: operation down to a minimum of 100ft DH and RVR 1200ft.
CAT III: minimums will be prescribed in the carriers operating
specifications, carriers operations manual, or the CAP. (minimums
are further broken down into A,B, or C with a CAT IIIC minimums
being zero-zero).
Requirements: CAT II/III approaches require specific aircraft and
airport capabilities. (ex: airport lighting, aircraft autoland)
Note: when CAT II/III approaches are being conducted the CAT II or
CAT III hold line must be adhered to.
The following must be fully serviceable to meet CAT II/III
standards:
Airport lighting:
approach lights
runway threshold lights
touchdown zone lights
centerline lights
runway edge lights
runway end lights
all stop bars and lead-on lights
essential taxiway lights
ILS components:
localizer
glide path
RVR equipment:
CAT II- two transmissometers- approach end, mid-field
CAT III- three transmissometers- approach end, mid-field,
departure end
Power source:
Airport emergency power as primary power source for all
essential system elements.
Commercial power available within one second as a
backup.

Aircraft Radio Navigation Communication Systems

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Aircraft Radio Navigation Communication Systems

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Air Waves in Aviation

Radio transmission is an electromagnetic wave with

Wavelength is the linear measurement of the wave.

Cycle is the interval in which the wave rises and falls

Frequency is the number of cycles/second.

Amplitude is the strength of the signal.

3 kHz to 30 kHz Very Low Frequencies (VLF)

30 kHz to 300 kHz Low Frequencies (LF)

300 kHz to 3,000 kHz Medium Frequencies (MF)

3,000 kHz to 30,000 kHz High Frequencies (HF)

30,000 kHz to 300,000 kHz Very High Frequencies (VHF)

300,000 kHz to 3,000,000 kHz Ultra High Frequencies (UHF)

Note: AIRCOM is the European and Australian

118.00 136.97 108.00 117.95

KX 155 TSO COMM NAV

"A" and "B"

Only "A" Only "B"

Glideslope indicates correct descent path

Outer Marker Final Approach Fix

Middle Marker Missed Approach Point

MM Denotes Missed Approach Point (MAP)

Represented by indicator lights with accompanying

* All altitudes AGL

VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.

Modern systems can be:

Ring Laser Gyro

Ground transmitter receives the pulses, waits 50s and then

Tests done on Canadian DMEs show that their errors are

As with most systems there is a standby transmitter which

availability is well above 99.9%

As with most systems there is a standby transmitter which takes

availability is well above 99.9%

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