ABORIGINAL AND EARLY SPANISH NAMES OF SOME CARIBBEAN, CIRCUH-CARIBBEAN ISLANDS AND CAYS By Kenneth C. Dick The Leeward (Sotavento) Islands which run from Guadeloupe to St. Croix were named "leeward" because the Spaniards prac- ticed sailing to their leeward. All of these islands were said to have been inhabited by, or, in power of Caribs. The Caxib-cannibal tradition began at San Salvador (wat- lings Island) on October 12, 1492, when Cristébal Colén (Christ-bearer; colonizer) first stepped on "American" shores. These peaceful natives, and in fact all whom Columbus encountered in his First Voyage, belonged to the so-called Taino culture of the Arawak language group. The Arawaks, an Amerind people, came out of various places in South America, probably by way of Peru, Ecuador, Guiana, Colombia, Voneauela and Trinidad some two to three thousand years ago. The name Arawak first appears in literature in the late 1500's. Juan Lépez de Velasco noted the presence of people who called themselves "Arawak" on the Guinea Coast. Cohane writes: "the name by which people called, and still call, themselves, a blending of two names that reigned supreme in England and Ireland and across Europe, and around the Mediterranean, in Asia, Africa and South America was~ARAWAK: Awak, or Awa and Ok."* Columbus inquired of the natives (no doubt in sign lan= guage) on San Salvador (to whom he gave the name Lucayas) from whence came the enemy who warred upon the Lucayas, stealing their women, plundering and committing man-eating atrocities, The Lucayas indicated directions to the West (Florida?) and to the South. Columbus heard the oft repeated word caniba, or canina, or, caribals, which to him sounded like cannibales. To the Spaniards, all hostile natives were henceforth dubbed Caribes. De Cuneo speaks of both "the Caribs and Indians" as if there was a marked racial distinction. In 1503 Carib was made the official designation of hostile Indians subject to capture and sale. De Rochefort wrote that "the island (carib) natives called themselves Calinago, which is the name for the men, and Calliponan, which is that of the women, collectively they call themselves Oubao-Ronon ‘inhabitants of the Islands', and by other native tribes as Cofachites; these people came from the Haven of Caribana (Florida?); the Span- iards imposed the name Caraibes on many Indian tribes of the mainland (South America); the insular Caribs believed that they descended from the tribe Calibites".** *Cohane, J.P. The Key, Crown, N.Y., 1969. *De Rochefort, Charles, The History of the Caribby Islands, London, 1666, —17—Thomas Jefferys in his West Indies atlas (1773) intro- duced the designation "Caribbean Sea" that was to become standard on maps though not adopted in Spanish lands. The entire Caribbean area came to be known as Islas y Tierra Firme ("islands and mainland") which was referred to by the English as "The Spanish Main". This became Islas y Tierra Firme de las Indias or in English the equivalent of The West Indies (the Caribbean Sea and Circum-Caribbean area). ‘The first people to be called "Indians" were those who eccupied the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica.* Cuba, the largest island in the Antilles, together with some 1634 other islands, offshore islets and cays com- prise the West Indies. By the Treaty of Paris, 1898, Spain relinquished Cuba to the U.S, in trust for its inhabitants and ceded Puerto Rico and the "Spanish Virgin Islands" to the U.S. (Puerto Rico, Vieques, Culebra and adjacent cays). Two islands were purchased by the U.S. which were omitted in the treaty. The derivative use of the term Antilles is rather complex. The names Antillia and Antilles long antedate Columbus. Antillia was believed to have been a large island in the At- jantic, some 850 leagues west of and about the size of Portugal which, according to the Ruysch chronicles and Portuguese myths, was the refuge home for King Roderick (last King of the Visi- goths in Spain), along with seven Christian bishops and their following who fled Portugal after a battle with the Moors in the eighth century and who peopled seven cities on that "island". Toscanelli wrote to Columbus saying that Antilia, Island of the Seven Cities, was on the way to Japan, the mythical Antillia that so many Portuguese and French navigators had sought in vain. Antillia, also Antela, Atilhas, Antiglia is shown on the Becarrio map of 1435; the Pareto map of 1455; the Benincasa map of 1482 in which Antillia is probably Cuba and Reylla is probably Jamaica, yet other notable maps, for example, Giraldi 1426, Valsequa 1439 and Fra Mauro 1459 show nothing of Antillia, while Caneriu's map of 1502 names the large West Indies group Antilhas del Rey de Castella. Ac- cording to Behaim, a Spanish vessel in 1414 sighted the “island". Martyr in his Decades of the New World or West india in narrating the discovery of Cuba and Hispaniola: "it seemeth that both these and other islands adjoining, are the islands of Antillia". It was generally assumed, both in Portugal and France, that Hispaniola, the Island of Seven Cities, was Antillia and the pearl of the Antilles. Hence, the names Las Antilhas and Les Antilles for the West Indies. *tovén, Sven. Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies, GSteborg, 1935. —1s—Ever since Vincenzio Formaleoni called attention to the delineation of Antillia in Bianco's map of 1436, as indicating some knowledge of “America”, there have been those to urge claims of a large island in the great western sea. Humboldt hypothesized that the name Antillia was derived of Al-Tin, Arabic for "the dragon". The Pizigoni map of 1367 cites Arabic experience in proof of dragons rising from the depths of the sea and snatching the crew from on board. Antela, the version on the Laon globe, is identical with the name of Lake Antela of northwestern Spain. Humboldt admits that Antillia may be readily resolved into two Portuguese words ante and illa ("island"). Illa is the old form of ilha found in many maps that either way would be pronounced illia, that Ante-illja would naturally be slurred into "Antillia" meaning the "island out before” or, more correctly, "the opposite island" (opposite Portugal).* Ever since 1503, almost without exception, every chroni- cler, historian and anthropologist recording accounts of Indians eating their enemies, has repeated the etymology Carib. Unscientifically, Columbus had introduced the longest lasting misnomer in Western hemisphere history, and present day his~ torians continue using the language and culture classification carib, If there did exist warlike peoples by that nomencla~ ture, then surely they were made up of many sub-cultures as were the Arawaks. No less an authority than Douglas Taylor writes: "This island Carib...must be considered belonging to the Arawakan family".** tumerous theoretical treatises have been published tracing the migration of the Arawaks but scarcely anything concerning the so-called Caribs, whether red or black, and referred to as the last migrants in the chain from Tobago to the Virgin Islands. There is no documented record of Carib Indians having inhabited st. Thomas, or St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. who were their progenitors in the main stream? And question of questions: what people erected the huge megaliths on the plateau of Greencastle Hill, Antigua, possibly to be dated c. 3000 B.C.?, a site that was only discovered in 1930. We should consider that clusters of peaceful peoples, when enslaved or pushed to the limit of endurance, can and do become rebellious. The Spaniards in their greed for gold and slaves, the conversion of "pagans" to Catholicism being a last weak excuse, subjected the Indians to degradation and death. Anyone of them who so much as raised a spear in defiance was automatically labeled "Carib" and doomed for extinction. That some aborigines were given to anthropophagy is not unique. ‘Babcock, W.H. Legendary Islands of the Atlantic, Research Series #8, American Geographical Society, N.¥., 1922. **International Journal of American Linguistics 20, pg. 4, 1954. 19‘The eating of human flesh is a widespread custom, going back into early history and found among peoples on most continents, and is still practiced in parts of New Guinea, Africa, Mela- nesia, Polynesia, New Zealand, Australia, Sumatra, Borneo, and in various tribes in North and South America. Human flesh appears on the markets of famine areas of China. Cannibalism occurs among the fringe cultures as a need for food; as part of a tribal drama, animism, deism, sacrifice to the gods, spirit fetishism, totemism, filial piety, social justification; for psychological and magical purposes; mythological mechanisms involved in apostasy; therapeutic values; to assimilate the strength and wisdom of the person eaten. The complex symbolism of the Eucharist is here relevant. It appears as religious motifs in many myths and legends. Some tribes eat only rela~ tives--fathers do not eat their own children, but mothers do. Anthropologists have made it a distorted history of motive. Evidence is insufficient to support a single simple explana- tion of this custom, But whatever the attribution, it is a subject that needs a great deal more study. With regard to the Carib eating human flesh Fewkes comments: "There is evidence that the Carib has been maligned".* Etymology of toponyms of the pre-Columbian Antilles abounds with perplexities even when one knows something of the languages involved: Igneri (pre-Caribbean Arawak) Cabre, Taino, Ostione, Ciguayo (sub-Arawakan), Arawak, and Cibuney (variously Cibuneye, Ciboney, Siboneye, Sibaney) who were referred to as "stone people" because they lived in caves. ‘The Cibuney inhabited Cuba, Western Puerto Rico and portions of Haiti. Rouse cites evidence of Cibuney culture in the Les~ ser Antilles: "They were the original inhabitants of the West Indies".** ‘The Tainos inhabited western Puerto Rico and Es- Pafiiola; the Arawaks, Jamaica and Trinidad, and the last of the migrants--the "Caribs", the chain from Tobago to the Virgin Islands and possibly as far West as Vieques. Sauer strongly suggests that Cibuney, along with Taino and sub-Taino, should be dropped as an ethnic term, The Spaniards knew that common speech and habits extended from the Bahamas to Puerto Rico and Jamaica in contrast to the great diversity on Tierra Firme. Sauer points out that the misnaming comes from incorrect trans= lation by Bishop Las Casas in his Apologetica Historia who, for want of a better nomenclature for neglected slave groups, called these MesoIndian inhabitants "exbuneyes", which led Lovén to assume that another sub-culture was meant for the pre- decessors of the Arawaks. Sauer believes that the prefix "ex" *Pewkes, J.W, The Aborigines of Puerto Rico and Neighboring Islands, Government Printing Office, 1907. **Rouse, Irving B. Handbook of South American Indians, Julian Steward, ed., Smithsonian, Washington, D.c., 1963. —20—was an error of transposition for "ci".* Rouse makes a precise statement: “Today, to the best of my knowledge, there are no sites clearly identified with his~ torically documented occupation". To which Haag adds: “This applies for the entire Antilles from Trinidad to Cuba. The Carib people of Dominica and the black Caribs of the Bay Islands of Honduras, have preserved only fragments of even their Carib language. Nothing else of the culture is still viable".** Rouse suggests a proper procedure would be to avoid ethnic terms such as Arawak and Carib when labeling pre- historic remains "except where we have documentary to that effect". Attempts to discover some common language pattern amongst these primitive peoples has not met with much success, Farabee lists the Macusi, Waiwa, Waiwe, Parakutu, Chikena, Katawi, Wakeri, Apalii, Porokoto and Azumara as (mainland South Ameri- can) tribes all having the same word for "water"=-tuna, yet having no other words common to their vocabularies.*** The spoken language of these tribes depends largely upon intona- tion, as does the spoken language of the Chinese, In addition, there are endless variations of the languages and pronuncia- tions. Hoff writes: “With the exception of the glottal stop and the voiced glottal fricative h all the consonantal phonemes have two allophones, a pallative allophone and a non-palatized allophone".**** There are literally thousands of dialects and offshoot languages of other Circum-Caribbean tribes which emanated out of Central and South America and very possibly as far away as from some islands of the Pacific whose peoples touched the western shores of Central America. The mid- Caribbean archipelago had acted as convenient stepping stones for reaching all parts of the Antilles. We know from goods exchanged and the methods of refining and casting of metals that far flung tribes were in contact with aboriginal west Indians. There is even speculation that Jomon pottery from Kyushu, Japan (c. 3600 B.C.) was the forerunner of pre-Columbian Amerind pottery found at Valdivia, Ecuador (c. 3200 B.C.) .*#*#* The earliest evidence of man in the Circum-Caribbean area is found at Muaco, Cucurucho and Taimi Taima, Venezuela, at *Sauer, Carl Ortwin. fhe Early Spanish Main, California Press, Berkeley, 1966. **Haag, W.G. The Identification of archaeological Remains with Ethnic Groups, Proceedings of the Second International Congress, Barbados, 1967. ***Parabee, W.C. The Central Caribs, Vol. X, Anthropological Publication, Univ, Penn., 1924, ****Hoff, B.J. Van Het Koninklijk Instituut, The Hague, 1968. #***401sen, Fred. On the Trail of the Arawaks, Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1973. —21—just under 15,000 B.c.* In his seventh Decade, Peter Martyr wrote that the Lucayas Islands (later to be called the Buhama or Bahama Islands (ori- ginally a British grant to Sir Heath in 1629) were the "useless" islands from which it was proper to ship natives to places where they could be worked as slaves, These islands, states Martyr, were the first part of the New World to become com- pletely depopulated (starting during the time of discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leén in 1513). The Lucayans who were clearly Arawak were transported in large numbers to serve as pearl divers in the Gulf of Paria and to work in the mines of \ispaniola. In less than one generation some six million native peoples perished; within one hundred years of Columbus* landing they became extinct in the Antilles. In passing, it might be noted that the first Negroes from Africa were brought to the Antilles in 1511. By the mid 1600's in the West Indies there were nearly as many white slaves as black. During depressed periods a white indentured worker, almost without monetary value, was lower than the lowest Negro slave and could be purchased for a hogshead of salt. As late as the mid 1800's, in Jamaica, a white slave could be bought for a hundredweight of Guinea corn. “when want of labor began to be felt in the colony of the U.S. Virgin Islands, traffic in slaves was encouraged by King Christian V of Denmark who purchased in Africa from the King of Acquaban the two forts of Frederiksburg and Christianburg on the Gold Coast of Afxica."** The Aquabamos slaves were from a tribe who were warriors and noblemen of Africa, slave holders, not slaves in their own land. with rare exception, slaves coming from Africa had been slaves at home, born in slavery, bred for it by a long line of "accustomed" slaves. The Negro invented the in- stitution of slavery, demanded it by submitting to it, something the black ruling class learned through satisfying demand for blacks reduced to slavery. Since aboriginal tribes did not arrive in the Indies at any given location all at one time but came in a series of overlapping waves, each wave brought with it an admixture of cultural and lingual changes, depending, of course, upon their contacts and affiliations with other peoples along the migra- tory routes. Naturally, such diffusion makes it impossible to go back over the past centuries to identify some of the original place names, thus, we are compelled to rely upon the few refer- ence sources which have been preserved. Records of early explorers in the Caribbee Islands and their chroniclers are *Rouse, I., and Cruxent, J.M. Venezuelan Archaeology, Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn., 1963. **Zabriskie, L.K. The Virgin Islands of the United States of america, G.P. Putnam, N.¥., 1918, —22—sometimes confusing and contradictory, For example, state~ ments made by Ferdinand Columbus are not always reliable. As for later historians, the same might be said of Samuel E. Mori- son. But to begin at some point is what is important, even though this disquisition be superficial. when new data become available, we can always amend. Perhaps such challenge may appeal to others having this narrow interest in Caribbean island toponymy. The major fountains of data stem largely from old maps such as those of Juan de la Cosa, 1500; Andrés de Morales, the first geographer to make a map and description from field ob- servation of any part of the New World, £1 Mapa Ms de la Isla de Santo Domingo, 1508; the mappemondes of Cantino, 1502, the oldest of European maps showing America,* if the La Cosa map is not truly of a date prior to 1502; the Vespucci, 1526; the Diego Ribero, 1529; the Alonso de Santa Cruz, 1536; an anonymous map in the Archivo Historica Nacional and Litho- graphed by Marcos X de la Espada in 1877; from the writings of several imposing Spanish chroniclers: Peter Martyr (Pietro Martire d'Anghiera), De Rebus Oceanicis et Norvo Orbe, 1516, which was the first account of the discovery of America; Oviedo (Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdés), Historia Gen- eral y Natural de las Indias Occidentales, 21 volumes partially published 1535-1647, in completed form 1851-1855; Las Casas (Bartolomé de), Breve Relacién de la destruccién de las Indias, 1522, first printed in 1875-76, perhaps the most important historical source relative to Columbus' discovery of the New World; Bernéldez (Andrés), Historia de los Reyes Cat6licos, covering the period of Spanish history from 1488 to 1513, finally published in 1856; Annriquez (Pedro) with Columbus on his Second Voyage, mentions the order and names of the islands as discovered. Also of importance are the chronicles of Dr. Diego Alvarez Chanca, Michele de Cuneo and Melchior Maldonado whose account is the basis of Martyr's in his Decades of the New World. Pertinent Spanish records having lacunae, we must look further to the annals left by French and Spanish missionaries such as Dutertre, R.P. Labat, Fray Raymond Breton (Dictionaire Caraibe Francais, 1665), Fray Ramén Pané, and lesser known Franciscan and Catalan friars. We might also include such works as The Voyage of Robert Dudley, Earl (1594~5) Hakluyt Society, Lichenstein, 1899; Lucien Adams' Dialectes, de la Famille Caraibe, 1893; Adams and Le Clerc, Grammaire Caraibe, 1878; the vocabularies of Brasseur de Bourbourg; D.G. Brinton's Arawak Language of Guiana; the treatises of Coll y Toste of Puerto Rico, and Bachiller y Morales of Cuba. Mundus Novus or "America" applied solely to the southern hemisphere. 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