Journal of Oceanography, Vol. 63, pp.

721 to 744, 2007

Review

Diurnal Sea Surface Temperature Variation and Its Im-

pact on the Atmosphere and Ocean: A Review
Y OSHIMI KAWAI1* and AKIYOSHI WADA2
1
Institute of Observational Research for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science
and Technology, Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan
2
Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency,
Nagamine, Tsukuba 305-0052, Japan

(Received 6 November 2006; in revised form 2 April 2007; accepted 14 April 2007)

The importance of the diurnal variability of sea surface temperature (SST) on air-sea Keywords:
interaction is now being increasingly recognized. This review synthesizes knowledge Sea surface
of the diurnal SST variation, mainly paying attention to its impact on the atmosphere temperature,
or the ocean. Diurnal SST warming becomes evident when the surface wind is weak diurnal variation,
intraseasonal
and insolation is strong. Recent observations using satellite data and advanced in-
variation,
struments have revealed that a large diurnal SST rise occurs over wide areas in a
air-sea interaction,
specific season, and in an extreme case the diurnal amplitude of SST exceeds 5 K. The surface flux.
large diurnal SST rise can lead to an increase in net surface heat flux from the ocean
of 5060 Wm2 in the daytime. The temporal mean of the increase exceeds 10 Wm2,
which will be non-negligible for the atmosphere. A few numerical experiments have
indicated that the diurnal SST variation can modify atmospheric properties over the
Pacific warm pool or a coastal sea, but the processes underlying the modification
have not yet been investigated in detail. Furthermore, it has been shown that the
diurnal change of ocean mixing process near the surface must be considered cor-
rectly in order to reproduce SST variations on an intraseasonal scale in a numerical
model. The variation of mixed-layer properties on the daily scale is nonlinearly re-
lated to the intraseasonal variability. The mixed-layer deepening/shoaling process on
the daily scale will also be related to biological and material circulation processes.

1. Introduction (e.g., Reynolds et al., 2002; Rayner et al., 2003; Worley

Sea surface temperature (SST) is the most important
factor in air-sea interaction. The sea surface is the lower
boundary of the atmosphere, and SST influences weather
and climate. On the other hand, SST is also controlled by
atmospheric conditions. Accurate SST data are indispen-
sable for climate monitoring, prediction and research. SST
is also important in chemical and biological oceanogra-
phy. In order to clarify the mechanism of the global cli-
mate system we need a high-quality SST dataset and
knowledge of air-sea interaction processes.
SST data have been collected for more than a cen-
tury, and form the most abundant dataset in oceanogra-
phy. Nowadays several in situ or analytical long-term glo-
bal SST datasets are produced and released to the public
* Corresponding author. E-mail: ykawai@jamstec.go.jp
CopyrightThe Oceanographic Society of Japan/TERRAPUB/Springer
et al., 2005). Although these high-quality datasets enable
us to investigate long-term and large-scale variations, the
spatial and temporal resolution of these SST data is too
poor to resolve eddies and temporal high-frequency vari-
ation. Several researchers have shown that the imposi-
tion of an hourly surface forcing is essential to reproduce
diurnal and intraseasonal SST variations in a numerical
model (e.g., Weller and Anderson, 1996; Sui et al., 1997b;
Shinoda and Hendon, 1998; Bernie et al., 2005). Further-
more, Li et al. (2001) and Clayson and Chen (2002) indi-
cated that the diurnal SST variation can have an impact
on the atmosphere over the western Pacific warm pool.
The air-sea interaction on the daily scale may play an
important role in the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO),
and in turn the El Nio and Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
and climate (cf. Slingo et al., 2003; Dai and Trenberth,
2004).

721
 Diurnal variation, which is caused by solar radiation
and the earths rotation, is one of the dominant variations
in SST. The existence of the diurnal variation in SST was
known at least one century ago (cf. Sverdrup et al., 1942;
Roll, 1965). Sverdrup et al. (1942) indicated that the
diurnal variation of sea temperature in general is so small
that it is of little importance to physical and biological
processes in the sea, but knowledge of the small varia-
tions is essential to the study of the diurnal exchange of
heat between the atmosphere and the sea. The diurnal
amplitude of SST is O (0.1 K) on average, but often
reaches a few degrees and can exceed 5 K in extreme
cases (e.g., Flament et al., 1994; Yokoyama et al., 1995).
The satellite remote sensing community has clearly rec-
ognized that the diurnal SST variability has to be ad-
equately considered to provide better accuracy of satel-
lite-derived SST (e.g., Hepplewhite, 1989; Wick et al.,
2002; Donlon and the GHRSST-PP Science Team, 2005;
Notarstefano et al., 2006). However, the diurnal varia-
tion has often been neglected in analytical SST datasets
or numerical modeling, and the effects of air-sea interac-
tion on the daily scale have not yet been widely recog-
nized nor adequately revealed.
Many researchers have recently become interested
in the diurnal SST variation, and increasing numbers of
studies pay attention to air-sea interaction on the daily
scale. This review synthesizes knowledge of the diurnal
SST variation, focusing on why and how the diurnal vari-
ation is important for the atmosphere and the ocean.
Soloviev and Lukas (2006) gave a detailed, comprehen-
sive account of the structure and dynamics of the near-
surface ocean. Furthermore, previous studies of the skin
effect (see Section 2) were reviewed or introduced by
Katsaros (1980), Robinson et al. (1984), and Ward et al.
(2004a), for example. In this paper we focus on the diur-
nal sea surface warming and its effect on the atmosphere,
with less emphasis on the skin effect. We do not take up
the diurnal variation caused by the tide here.
First, the vertical temperature structure near the sur-
face and the definition of SST are explained in Section 2.
Section 3 summarizes previous observational studies that
showed large diurnal variations in SST. Section 4 intro-
duces several models used to simulate the diurnal SST
variation. Sections 5 and 6 discuss how the diurnal vari-
ability of SST affects the surface flux estimation and the
atmosphere. Some main issues on modeling and observa-
tion of the diurnal SST variation are mentioned in Sec-
tion 7. The paper is summarized in Section 8.
2. Vertical Thermal Structure near the Sea Surface
and SST Terminology
Under clear and calm conditions, thermal stratifica-
tion is formed within the top few meters of the ocean due
to strong insolation. This diurnal stratified layer is often
722 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
called the warm layer (Fairall et al., 1996). The
thermocline near the surface that develops only in the
daytime is referred to as diurnal thermocline. Further-
more, at the top of the ocean, a very thin cool layer, which
is usually called the thermal skin layer, cool skin layer
or simply skin layer, almost always exists (e.g.,
Saunders, 1967; Katsaros, 1980; Robinson et al., 1984;
Ward and Donelan, 2006). The thickness of this layer is
usually the order of 0.11 mm, and the temperature at the
top of the skin layer is generally several tenths of a de-
gree colder than the temperature below it because eddy
diffusion becomes less than molecular diffusion just close
to the surface. The phenomenon of the temperature drop
occurring in this thin layer is called the skin effect.
While the diurnal thermocline vanishes by sunrise next
morning, the skin layer usually exists in both the daytime
and nighttime, even in windy conditions (Donlon et al.,
2002). In the daytime, the temperature difference across
the skin layer becomes smaller due to the absorption of
shortwave radiation in this layer. The temperature at the
top can theoretically even become higher than that at the
bottom when the air temperature is very much higher than
that of the water, as has been confirmed by a tank experi-
ment (Ward and Donelan, 2006). The skin layer thick-
ness and the diurnal thermocline depth vary with surface
heat and momentum fluxes (e.g., Fairall et al., 1996; Ward
and Donelan, 2006). A better knowledge of SST demands
consideration of both the diurnal warming near the sur-
face and the effect of the skin layer.
A sharp temperature gradient sometimes appears
above 1-m depth in the daytime (e.g., Yokoyama et al.,
1995; Soloviev and Lukas, 1997; Ward, 2006; see Figs.
13 in the present paper). The large temperature differ-
ence between the sea surface and about 1-m depth, where
ships and buoys usually measure the seawater tempera-
ture as SST, has been recognized as one of the major
sources of error in satellite-derived SST. The satellite in-
frared sensor, microwave sensor, and in situ sensors ob-
serve different sea surfaces, i.e., skin, subskin, and a
depth of one or a few meters, respectively. Hence it was
indispensable to define SST exactly and consider careful
treatment of different SSTs when producing an accurate
SST dataset. The Global Ocean Data Assimilation Ex-
periment (GODAE) High-Resolution SST Pilot Project
(GHRSST-PP) Science Team has been doing work on
coordinating a new generation of global, multi-sensor,
high-resolution SST products for the benefit of the op-
erational and scientific community (Donlon et al., 2007).
This Science Team has defined five kinds of SST:
interface SST (SSTint), skin SST (SSTskin), subskin SST
(SSTsubskin), sea temperature at depth (SSTdepth), and foun-
dation SST (SSTfnd) (Donlon and the GHRSST-PP Sci-
ence Team, 2005). A schematic picture of the vertical tem-
perature profile is shown in Fig. 1, and the definitions of
Table 1. Definitions of the five kinds of SST proposed by Donlon and the GHRSST-PP Science Team (2005) and Donlon et al.
(2007). See also Fig. 1.

Name Abbreviation Temperature represented Instrument to measure it

Interface SST SSTint Theoretical temperature at the precise air-sea None
interface
Skin SST SSTskin Temperature within the conductive diffusion- Infrared radiometer operating in the 3.712
dominated sub-layer at a depth of micrometer spectral waveband
approximately 1020 m
Subskin SST SSTsubskin Temperature at the base of the conductive laminar Microwave radiometer operating in the 611 GHz
sub-layer frequency range, high-performance autonomous
profiler (SkinDeEP, Ward et al., 2004b)
Sea temperature at depth SSTdepth In situ temperature measured below the Traditional in situ sensor (thermistor, CTD, XBT,
conductive laminar sub-layer, which is etc.)

Foundation SST SSTfnd Temperature of the water column free of diurnal

temperature variability or equal to the SSTsubskin
in the absence of any diurnal signal

the SSTs are explained in Table 1. In actuality, we cannot
know SSTint even with current technology (Donlon et al.,
2002), and SSTskin is usually utilized as a substitute for
SSTint on the assumption that SSTskin is close enough to
the true SSTint. The in situ SST measured at about 1-m
depth or deeper has been called bulk SST. The Science
Team recommends using SSTdepth rather than the con-
ventional term bulk SST referring to an in situ SST
measurement made at 1-m depth as SST1m, for example.
This terminology is introduced to encourage reporting of
the measurement depth along with the temperature, be-
cause, as depicted in Fig. 1, the temperature can change
drastically with depth when the diurnal thermocline is
formed. The new concept of foundation SST is intro-
duced as a more precise, well-defined quantity instead of
previous, loosely-defined bulk SST, which is affected
by the diurnal warming. SST fnd will be similar to a
nighttime minimum or pre-dawn value at depths of ~15
m, but note that this depth is only a rough estimate and
can deviate from this range in some cases. This paper
basically adopts the terminology proposed by Donlon and
the GHRSST-PP Science Team (2005). When referring
to the temperature near the surface in a general sense,
loosely, the authors simply use SST.
While a satellite sensor sees SSTskin or SST subskin, in
situ SST observed from ships and buoys is the tempera-
ture at about 1-m depth or deeper. Algorithms of satel-
lite-derived SST are conventionally tuned by using buoy-
observed SST, i.e., SSTdepth , as the truth. Hence the aver-
age of the satellite SST agrees with that of SSTdepth. How-
ever, it is expected that the variability of the satellite SST
reflects that of SSTskin or SST subskin, rather than SST depth
(cf. Kearns et al., 2000; Kilpatrick et al., 2001; Wick et
al., 2002; Stuart-Menteth et al., 2003; Dong et al., 2006).
Some researchers call such satellite SST pseudo-bulk
SST (Notarstefano et al., 2006). We should note that the
satellite SST tuned against SSTdepth has the above char-
acteristics. For the recent satellite SST products from the
Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) (Mutlow et
al., 1994) and the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mis-
sion (TRMM) satellites Microwave Imager (TMI)
(Gentemann et al., 2004), the algorithms were developed
based on the radiance simulated by a radiative transfer
model in order to derive SSTskin or SST subskin exactly.
The atmosphere senses only the exact interface be-
tween the atmosphere and the ocean. Hence we have to
know SSTint (or SSTskin practically) and its diurnal varia-
tion for accurate estimation of air-sea heat and gas fluxes
(e.g., Sarmiento and Sundquist, 1992; Fairall et al., 1996).
If the temperature at a few meters depth is used as SSTint
in a flux calculation, the atmosphere will receive incor-
rect heat and water vapor from the ocean. This impact is
not always negligible, as discussed in Sections 5 and 6.
3. Observational Facts Concerning Diurnal SST
VariationWhen and How can the Diurnal Vari-
ation Become Large?
3.1 In situ observation
Sverdrup et al. (1942) and Roll (1965) introduced
some early observational studies of diurnal SST varia-
tion. These early studies used research vessel SST data,
which correspond to SSTdepth, and the depths of the meas-
urements were not mentioned. For example, according to
them, a 1923 report based on data of German and British
research vessels obtained during 18721903 stated that
mean diurnal amplitude of SST in the low latitude was
about 0.30.4 K, and the amplitude decreased to 0.26 K
at 4555S and 0.15 K at 5560S. Koizumi (1956)
analyzed ocean station data at Extra (39N, 153E) and

Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 723

Tango (29N, 135E) in the northwestern Pacific. He
showed that the diurnal amplitude of SST was smallest
(0.15 K at Extra and 0.36 K at Tango) in winter and larg-
est in summer (0.52 K at Extra and 0.65 K at Tango) on a
monthly average. Koizumi (1956) also indicated that in
summer the daily maximum occurred later (1500 LST)
than in winter (around 1300 LST), although the
seasonality of the time of the daily minimum was not
obvious. Stommel and Woodcock (1951) and Stommel et
al. (1969) reported examples of large diurnal SST rise
reaching 11.5 K in the Gulf of Mexico and south of Ber-
muda in spring.
As mentioned above, in the early and mid twentieth
century it was indicated that the diurnal amplitude of SST
was about 0.20.6 K on average, varying with latitude
and season. It was also known that the diurnal amplitude
depended on cloudiness and wind speed, and could reach
about 1.5 K on clear, calm days. Stronger winds induce
stronger turbulent mixing in the ocean and prevent ther-
mal stratification. Furthermore, stronger turbulence in the
atmosphere draws heat from the ocean. These two func-
tions mean that the diurnal amplitude of SST decreases
as the wind becomes stronger. On the other hand, stronger
insolation causes a greater diurnal SST rise due to the
absorption of radiation near the sea surface. About 60%
of incoming shortwave radiation is absorbed within the
upper 1 m of the ocean (cf. Soloviev and Lukas, 2006).
In relatively recent years, larger diurnal SST varia-
tions have been reported, using advanced instruments.
Bruce and Firing (1974) showed an example of a diurnal
temperature rise exceeding 3 K in the layer of 0~1-m
depth, using slow-sinking Expendable Bathythermograph
(XBT) probes. Other researchers also observed diurnal
amplitudes of SST depth or SST skin reaching 23 K or more
under calm and clear conditions with buoys, profiling
floats, and infrared radiometers on vessels (e.g., Price et
al., 1986, 1987; Yokoyama et al., 1995; Weller and
Anderson, 1996; Webster et al., 1996; Soloviev and Lukas,
1997; Kawai and Kawamura, 2002; Ward, 2006). In par-
ticular, diurnal SST variations were minutely observed
in the Pacific warm pool during the Tropical Ocean Glo-
bal Atmosphere (TOGA)/Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere
Response Experiment (COARE) (cf. Godfrey et al., 1998).
For example, Soloviev and Lukas (1997) observed many
diurnal thermocline profiles using a special instrument
called a free-rising profiler during COARE (Fig. 2). The
depth of the diurnal thermocline tends to be shallower as
the gradient of the thermocline increases, and the forma-
tion of a very sharp diurnal thermocline is restricted within
0~1-m depth. Ward (2006) also showed temperature strati-
fication of up to 2.7 K formed above 1-m depth using an
autonomous profiling float called the Skin Depth Ex-
perimental Profiler (SkinDeEP) (Fig. 3). This large tem-
perature difference across the warm layer has a non-neg-
724 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
ligible influence on air-sea heat flux estimation (see Sub-
section 5.1). According to the results of Soloviev and
Lukas (1997) and Donlon et al. (2002), the diurnal
thermocline almost disappears when wind speed exceeds
about 5 m s1. Furthermore, Webster et al. (1996) and
Soloviev and Lukas (1997) indicated that the shallow
halocline caused by precipitation also affects the diurnal
SST variation.
Infrared radiometers are sometimes operated on re-
search vessels or an oil derrick to measure SSTskin (e.g.,
Schlessel et al., 1987, 1990; Fairall et al., 1996; Donlon
et al., 1998; Kearns et al., 2000; Barton et al., 2004; Nicls
et al., 2004). SSTskin is now urgently required for satel-
lite SST tuning/validation and the study of air-sea fluxes
and interaction, rather than SSTdepth. SSTskin shows larger
diurnal variations than SSTdepth under calm and clear con-
ditions (e.g., Fairall et al., 1996; Donlon et al., 1998;
Clayson and Chen, 2002). During windy conditions, the
variation of SSTskin is almost the same as that of SSTdepth,
and SSTskin is a little cooler than SSTdepth and SSTsubskin
due to the skin effect and the absence of the diurnal
thermocline.
Several kinds of infrared radiometer for in situ
SSTskin observations have been developed, such as M-
AERI, ISAR, SISTeR, CIRIMS, etc. (cf. Barton et al.,
2004). However, infrared radiometers that can measure
SSTskin with high accuracy are generally so expensive and
complicated that the radiometric SST observations are
now restricting their usage to a limited number of research
vessel cruises. Wide spread usage of tough, low-cost ra-
diometers will be also necessary (cf. Donlon et al., 1998).
3.2 Satellite observation
Operational satellite SST observations started in the
1980s, and have provided the ability to investigate diur-
nal SST variation over a wide region. Deschamps and
Frouin (1984) studied the diurnal heating of the sea sur-
face in the Mediterranean Sea using the SST observed by
the Heat Capacity Mapping Radiometer (HCMR) satel-
lite. They indicated that the day-night SST difference
clearly depended on wind speed, and exceeded 3 K in
very calm cases. Cornillon and Stramma (1985) and
Stramma et al. (1986) used the SST derived from the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) satellite/Advanced Very High Resolution Radi-
ometer (AVHRR) observation to show that the SST often
became much higher in the daytime than the nighttime in
the northern Atlantic. The large diurnal warming occurred
around the ridge of the Azores-Bermuda high pressure in
spring and summer, and the maximum day-night differ-
ence reached 34 K. Flament et al. (1994) reported an
example of diurnal SST amplitude reaching 6.6 K locally
off California using the AVHRR SST. Diurnal SST varia-
tion is also affected by biological process, and it can be
Fig. 1. Schematic showing (a) idealized nighttime vertical tem-
perature deviations from the foundation SST and (b) ideal-
ized daytime vertical temperature deviations from the foun-
dation SST in the upper ocean. From Donlon and the
GHRSST-PP Science Team (2005). Courtesy of C. J.
Donlon.
Fig. 2. Vertical temperature profiles in the TOGA COARE do-
main obtained by a free-rising profiler during different wind
speed conditions taken at approximately the same afternoon
time on different days. Reprinted from Soloviev and Lukas
(1997), Copyright 1997, with permission from Elsevier.
detected by satellite observation. Kahru et al. (1993) re-
ported that the AVHRR SST increased locally by up to
1.5 K in the daytime in the southern Baltic Sea, corre-
sponding to surface accumulations of cyanobacteria.
Large diurnal SST variations also frequently occur
in the marginal seas around Japan from spring to summer
(Yokoyama et al., 1995; Kawai and Kawamura, 1997,
2000, 2002; Kawai et al., 2006a). Figure 4 shows an ex-
ample of the extremely large SST difference between
Fig. 3. Temperature-depth measurements from SkinDeEP at
22.52N, 109.59W on 10 Oct. 1999 (graph I). Wind speed
(u) and downwelling shortwave radiation (Q sw) (graph II).
Temperature differences: SST skin-SST subskin (blue) and
SST subskin-SSTdepth (red) (graph III). Heat loss differences:
Q(SST skin )-Q(SST subskin ) (blue) and Q(SST subskin )-
Q(SST depth) (red) (graph IV). Q(SSTskin ), Q(SSTsubskin ), and
Q(SST depth) are the surface net heat flux calculated by us-
ing SST skin, SST subskin, and SST depth as SSTint, respectively.
SST skin was measured with an infrared radiometer. From
Ward (2006), Copyright 2006 American Geophysical Un-
ion. Reproduced by permission of American Geophysical
Union.
morning and afternoon in the Japan Sea. The regional
satellite SST dataset produced by Sakaida et al. (2000)
was used here. In this case the diurnal SST rise exceeded
3 K off the coast of northern Japan, and clearly corre-
sponded to the weak wind. In the Japan Sea the diurnal
warming often becomes quite large under a ridge of high
pressure or behind the high mountains of Japan.
Stuart-Menteth et al. (2003) first showed the global
climatological distribution of the day-night SST differ-
ence using six years of AVHRR SST data (see their fig-
ure 9). From spring to summer the difference becomes
larger in the Mediterranean Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 725
Fig. 4. NOAA/AVHRR 0.01-grid SST images at (a) 0645 LST (2145 UT) and (b) 1501 LST (0601 UT) on 27 July 1999. (c) SST
difference between (a) and (b). (d) Daily mean 0.25-grid surface wind speed observed with QuikSCAT/SeaWinds on the
same day.

Fig. 5. Seasonal mean day-night difference of the AMSR-E ver. 5 SST produced by Remote Sensing Systems during June 2002
May 2006. Original grid size of the SST is 0.25, and the seasonal mean is calculated in 1 grids. Nominal observation time is
approximately 0130/1330 LST.

726 Y. Kawai and A. Wada

Arabian Sea, the seas around Japan, the north Pacific off
North America, and the Azores-Bermuda high pressure
belt. Basically, the diurnal warming is large in the tropics
through the year. The diurnal SST variation was also stud-
ied using geostationary satellite data (Wu et al., 1999;
Tanahashi et al., 2003). These authors also reported cases
when the day-night SST difference reached a few degrees
in the Azores-Bermuda high or the seas around Japan.
Gentemann et al. (2003) showed that the TMI SST
data could detect the diurnal variation, which clearly de-
pended on solar radiation and wind speed. The micro-
wave sensor has a great advantage in studying SST vari-
ations because it can observe both SST and wind speed
synchronously through clouds. On the other hand, the
infrared sensor on the geostationary satellite has another
advantage in that it measures SST hourly with a higher
spatial resolution, although infrared radiation cannot pen-
etrate cloud.
The Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for
the Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) on the Aqua sat-
ellite has been operating since June 2002 (e.g., Dong et
al., 2006). AMSR-E is the first microwave sensor that
can observe SST all over the oceans. We calculated sea-
sonal mean day-night differences from the AMSR-E ver-
sion-5 SST dataset produced by Remote Sensing Systems.
The characteristics of the spatial distribution and seasonal
variation of the day-night difference shown in Fig. 5 are
basically consistent with the results of Stuart-Menteth et
al. (2003). The spatial and seasonal variations of the day-
night difference shown by Stuart-Menteth et al. are not
as clear as those in our Fig. 5, especially in the southern
hemisphere, mainly due to the lack of the AVHRR SST
sampling hindered by clouds.
In boreal spring before the Indian monsoon, the day-
night SST difference is greater than 0.5 K over the north-
ern Indian Ocean. A large day-night difference in the high
latitude of the northern hemisphere, and in the subtropi-
cal high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere in sum-
mer is also clearly captured. Around 45S in the Indian
Ocean and the Pacific Ocean sections the mean day-night
difference is less than 0.2 K throughout the year due to
the strong westerlies. Interestingly, in the high-latitude
region around 60S the mean day-night difference reaches
0.30.5 K in austral summer. The diurnal SST variability
around the Antarctic has rarely been reported. This needs
to be investigated in future study.
In the narrow zonal area in the eastern equatorial
Pacific west of the Galapagos Islands, the day-night dif-
ference becomes notably large, reaching a maximum in
boreal spring and a minimum in boreal autumn. Deser
and Smith (1998) and Clayson and Weitlich (2005, 2007)
also indicated that the diurnal SST amplitude has a local
maximum over the cold tongue in the eastern equatorial
Pacific. The diurnal amplitude in this area becomes larger
from boreal winter to spring. This is consistent with the
analysis of buoy data by Cronin and Kessler (2002). Ac-
cording to Clayson and Weitlich (2005, 2007), this pat-
tern disappeared in the mature phase of the 199798
ENSO event. An ENSO event changes the spatial and tem-
poral variations of the diurnal SST amplitude as a result
of the characteristically different surface conditions as-
sociated with ENSO in this region (Cronin and Kessler,
2002; Kawai and Kawamura, 2005). Using satellite data,
Kawai and Kawamura (2005) and Clayson and Weitlich
(2007) also indicated that the diurnal SST amplitude in
the western equatorial Pacific varies in association with
MJO.
4. Modeling Diurnal Variations near the Surface
Many kinds of numerical or empirical models have
been used to investigate the diurnal variations of the up-
per ocean. However, no model can simulate the diurnal
variations perfectly (Soloviev and Lukas, 2006). In gen-
eral, numerical models concerned with simulations of the
diurnal variations are roughly categorized as diffusion-
type, bulk- or slab-type, and transilient models. Soloviev
and Lukas (2006) also provided general information about
the modeling of the diurnal variations. In addition, they
showed a simulated diurnal variation in the Pacific warm
pool by a transilient model. This section reviews numeri-
cal models for the simulation of the diurnal variations,
except the transilient model described by Soloviev and
Lukas (2006).
4.1 Diffusion models
Diffusion models are subdivided into the following
categories: (1) which parameterize the turbulent mixing
and eddy-diffusion directly in empirical or semi-empiri-
cal ways; (2) which estimate turbulence quantities by tur-
bulent closure at each level. The former, based on our
knowledge of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory in
the surface boundary layer, are the models proposed by
Kondo et al. (1979) and Large et al. (1994). The latter
are those of Mellor and Yamada (MY) (1982), and modi-
fied version of MY (e.g., Kantha and Clayson, 1994).
Kondo et al. (1979) proposed a simple one-dimen-
sional model to reproduce observed behavior of the sur-
face current and daily sea temperature within 10-m depth
near the sea surface. Their model specializes in simulat-
ing the surface boundary layer. Results of the numerical
experiment suggested that the diurnal range of upper-layer
temperature was certainly dependent on wind speed. The
diurnal amplitude of simulated SST reached its peak of
nearly 2 K when the 10 m-height wind speed was 2.5
ms1 on a clear equinox day at 35N. They also indicated
that the more stable the sea surface layer was, the faster
the surface drift current, due to inhibition of downward
momentum transfer.
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 727
 Kawai and Kawamura (2000) modified Kondo et al.s
model by replacing dimensionless shear functions to make
turbulent transfer larger for stable cases. Kawai and
Kawamura (2000) were able successfully to simulate a
very sharp diurnal thermocline within 1-m depth observed
in Mutsu Bay (Yokoyama et al., 1995) by using both the
modified version of Kondo et al.s model and the sec-
ond-order turbulence-closure model developed by MY
(Fig. 6).
4.2 Bulk or slab models
Modeling under the assumption of a constant profile
of sea temperature, salinity and current within a mixed
layer is in general categorized as a bulk or slab model
(hereafter, bulk model). The bulk model is subdivided into
integral and layer types. Integral models represent turbu-
lent mixing at the base of the mixed layer by entrainment.
Some of the entrainment rate parameterizations are de-
rived from the kinetic energy equation under the condi-
tion that the energy equation is conserved. In general, a
velocity jump has to be assumed at the bottom of the
mixed layer in the integral models. Layer models use a
modeling methodology that estimates turbulent kinetic
energy in every vertical layer. Simplified versions of the
latter models have been developed recently. We here di-
vide bulk models into multilayer type and simplified sin-
gle layer type. We do not refer to the integral type in the
present review.
a. Multilayer model
A bulk model proposed by Price et al. (1986) has
been frequently applied to studies of the diurnal SST vari-
ation. The model is often called the Price-Weller-Pinkel
(PWP) model. Its numerical scheme is based on a dy-
namic instability model (DIM) (Price et al., 1978). The
concept of DIM is that the rate of change of potential
energy during deepening of the mixed layer balances that
rate of energy released from the mean flow by the reduc-
tion of vertical shear. The PWP model is a modified ver-
sion of the DIM by Price et al. (1978), including a mix-
ing process in the stratified part below the mixed layer.
It is worth noting, though, that the diurnal SST am-
plitude simulated by the PWP model tends to be too large
when compared with observations (Kantha and Clayson,
1994; Large et al., 1994). Large et al. (1994) indicated
that this disagreement of the PWP model could be caused
by insufficient vertical mixing. SST is more sensitive to
the strength of the vertical thermal diffusion when the
surface stratified layer becomes less than 1-m thick un-
der calm and clear conditions. The representation of the
vertical mixing in the stable stratified layer is one of the
crucial keys to predict diurnal SST variation accurately,
but is still imperfect. The mixed layer models mentioned
here do not take the turbulence generated by wave break-
ing and Langmuir circulation into consideration. These
728 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
effects strengthen the vertical mixing. Recently, efforts
have been made to incorporate these effects into the mixed
layer model (e.g., Noh et al., 2004), which will improve
the reproduction of the near-surface temperature varia-
tion.
b. Simplified model
If we desire to simulate sharp diurnal thermocline
and diurnal SST variations in numerical models, we need
a fine vertical grid interval near the surface (Bernie et
al., 2005). This requires an enormous computational load.
In order to avoid it, some simplified models have been
proposed that specialize in simulating the diurnal varia-
tion near the surface. Fairall et al. (1996) proposed a
greatly simplified form of the PWP model that ignores
full mixed-layer dynamics in order simply to predict the
diurnal variation of the near-surface temperature only.
They assumed that the temporal integrals of surface heat
and momentum fluxes are confined within the warm layer,
and the temperature profile in the warm layer is linear
(Fig. 7(a)). The depth of the warm layer is determined by
requiring that the bulk Richardson number is no greater
than a critical number. Their warm layer model is well-
known and is often utilized for air-sea flux estimation in
combination with their cool-skin model.
The Fairall et al. model is simple and convenient,
but the linear temperature profile does not always agree
with observations (e.g., Ward et al., 2004a). Zeng and
Beljaars (2005) developed another simple scheme to es-
timate SSTskin by assuming a more realistic profile shape
(Fig. 7(b)). The temperature profile in the warm layer T(z)
is given by the following formula:
z
T ( z ) = SSTsubskin
DT
[ ]
SSTsubskin T ( DT ) , (1)
where z is the depth, is the depth of the skin layer, and
DT is the depth of the warm layer. An empirical param-
eter is assumed to be 1 in the Fairall et al. model and
0.3 in the Zeng-Beljaars model. Zeng and Beljaars (2005)
mentioned that the diurnal variation of ocean tempera-
ture usually becomes small enough at 2~4-m depth, which
corresponds to SSTfnd mentioned in Section 2. They de-
termined D T in advance empirically within this depth
range. The eddy diffusion coefficient in the surface layer
was determined on the basis of the Monin-Obukhov simi-
larity theory.
For the purpose of reproducing the diurnal cycle of
SST in ocean general circulation models (OGCM),
Schiller and Godfrey (2005) proposed a simple method
that incorporates an extra variable-depth diurnal sublayer
in the top model layer (Fig. 7(c)). The sublayer exists
only when the total buoyancy received in the top layer is
positive. Their sublayer model is based on the concept of

Fig. 6. Vertical temperature profiles in Mutsu Bay at 1430 LST
on 7 July 1992. Solid line and open circles represent ob-
served values. Broken line and asterisks represent tempera-
ture simulated by the second-order turbulence-closure model
of Mellor and Yamada (1982). Chain line and pluses repre-
sent those simulated by Kawai and Kawamuras (2000)
model. Reproduced from Kawai and Kawamura (2000).
DIM, like that of Fairall et al. (1996). Schiller and
Godfreys model could well reproduce the observed di-
urnal cycle of 2.5-m-depth temperature. However, note
that their model does not calculate SSTskin, and the tem-
perature in the sublayer is assumed to be independent of
depth. Hence the SST simulated by their model is expected
to be a little different from SSTskin. Furthermore, we need
to bear in mind that the simplification of the models in-
troduced in this subsection would neglect some dynami-
cal processes in the upper ocean, which may affect air-
sea interaction.
4.3 Empirical parametric models
The diurnal SST variation depends primarily on wind
speed and solar radiation, so the diurnal SST amplitude
can be estimated from these meteorological data. Price et
al. (1987) proposed an empirical model to evaluate the
diurnal amplitude of 0.6-m-depth temperature. They re-
lated the amplitude of SST0.6m with surface stress and
surface heat flux. Another simple model proposed by
Webster et al. (1996) included precipitation rate as well
as wind speed and solar radiation based on mixed-layer
model simulations during COARE. Their empirical model
of the diurnal amplitude of SSTskin (SSTskin) has the fol-
lowing form:
SSTskin
= f + a( PS) + b( P) + c[ln(U )] + d ( PS) ln(U ) + e(U ),
(2 )
where PS is the daily peak surface solar radiation
(W m2), P is the daily mean precipitation rate (mm h1),
and U is the daily mean wind speed (m s 1). a, b, c, d, e,
and f are the coefficients (Table 2). The estimated SSTskin
is shown in Fig. 8. If there is precipitation, SSTskin be-
comes higher due to the saline stratification. The SSTskin
estimated by Webster et al.s empirical model cannot ex-
ceed 3 K, even in the extremely calm and strong insola-
tion case. This upper limit seems too small in compari-
son with the observational studies mentioned previously.
They produced the model (2) based on the simulation re-
sults of Kantha and Claysons (1994) mixed layer model
under various forcing conditions. The reason for the
smaller upper limit of model (2) may be that the sensitiv-
ity of the mixed layer model to the forcing was imper-
fect.
The effects of precipitation and latent heat flux will
certainly be needed for better estimation of the diurnal
amplitude of SST (e.g., Price et al., 1987; Soloviev and
Lukas, 1997; Kawai and Kawamura, 2003). However, they
have a secondary effect on the diurnal SST variation, and
the diurnal amplitude can even be approximately evalu-
ated from wind speed and solar radiation only (Kawai
and Kawamura, 2002; Gentemann et al., 2003; Clayson
and Weitlich, 2005). In reality it is not easy to know daily
precipitation rate accurately over a wide ocean region.
Stuart-Menteth et al. (2003) estimated the diurnal ampli-
tude of SST over the globe using Kawai and Kawamuras
(2002) empirical formula, which uses only wind speed
and solar radiation, and confirmed that the spatial distri-
bution of the estimated diurnal amplitude agreed well with
that of the day-night satellite SST difference.
While the above models can estimate only the am-
plitude, which is defined as the daily maximum-minimum
difference, Zeng et al. (1999) and Gentemann et al. (2003)
proposed simple empirical models that can estimate the
diurnal SST rise from the morning minimum at each hour.
Clayson and Curry (1996) also developed a method to
estimate the diurnal SSTskin cycle. They assumed a co-
sine-shaped diurnal cycle with the amplitude estimated
by Webster et al.s empirical model (2), and added it to
daily predawn SSTskin, which was determined from satel-
lite-derived SSTskin data by linear interpolation. Further-
more, Li et al. (2001) proposed a simple technique to es-
timate SSTskin at each hour in a numerical model by ap-
plying Webster et al.s model. Li et al. (2001) assumed
that the variation of SSTskin was determined by the sur-
face wind and solar radiation one hour previously, and
the hourly anomaly of SSTskin from its daily mean at the
i-th hour on the j-th day (T i,j) could be expressed in the
following form:
1 24 12 i + 1
Ti, j = i 1, j i , j 1 1 , (3)
i =1
12 12
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 729
Fig. 7. Schematics of vertical temperature profile near the surface assumed in (a) Fairall et al.s (1996) model, (b) Zeng and
Beljaars (2005) model, and (c) Schiller and Godfreys (2005) sublayer scheme. DT is the depth of the warm layer (sublayer).
Z k=1 in (c) is the thickness of the top layer of an ocean mixed model. is the depth of the skin layer. T top and T bot(z) in (c) are
the temperatures in the sublayer, and the layer under the sublayer, respectively. Tbot(z) may depend on depth, but is not solved
in the scheme. In (a) and (c) DT is time-dependent, while it is given in advance empirically in (b).

( ) ( )
i, j = f + a Si, j + c ln Ui, j
Si. j > 0
+ d ( Si, j ) ln(Ui, j ) + e(Ui, j ),
i, j = 0, Si. j 0,
where Si,j and Ui,j is the hourly surface solar radiation
and wind speed at the i-th hour on the j-th day, respec-
tively. The precipitation is ignored here. The time of lo-
24
cal sunset is defined as i = 1, and i , j 1 is the sum of
i =1
on the previous day. They showed that their
parameterization could well reproduce diurnal SST skin
variations. Since these simple schemes introduced here
use daily mean meteorological values and/or previous-
day information, it may be difficult to utilize these
schemes for discussing simultaneous air-sea interaction
processes in a coupled model. However, they will be use-
ful to test the sensitivity of the atmosphere to the diurnal
variation of SST.
5. Effect of Diurnal Thermocline on Air-Sea Flux
Estimations
5.1 Air-sea heat flux estimation
Sverdrup et al. (1942) suggested the importance of
the diurnal SST variability on air-sea heat exchange. Since
the atmosphere contacts the sea skin, not the water at a
few meters depth, evaluating the temperature difference
across the warm layer and skin layer is indispensable for
accurate air-sea heat flux estimation. An error of 1 K in
SSTskin can lead to an error of 27 W m 2 in net surface
heat flux in the tropical western Pacific (Webster et al.,
1996). Furthermore, Cornillon and Stramma (1985)
Table 2. Coefficients for the empirical formula (2). Reproduced
from Webster et al. (1996).
( 4)
Coefficient U > 2 m s1 U 2 m s1
f 0.262 0.328
a 0.00265 0.002
b 0.028 0.041
c 0.838 0.212
d 0.00105 0.000185
e 0.158 0.329
showed an example in the north Atlantic where monthly
mean SST was higher by about 0.2 K in the case that di-
urnal SST variations were included than in the case that
they were ignored. This difference reduces the net heat
flux of 5 W m2 entering the ocean.
Fairall et al. (1996) showed that the cool skin de-
creased the net heat flux from the ocean by about 11
W m2 and the warm layer increased it by about 4 W m2
on average over 70 days during COARE. The effect of
the warm layer may seem to be fairly small, but this was
the mean value including the cases when the warm layer
did not develop. Fairall et al. (1996) and Ward (2006)
indicated that the net heat flux from the ocean can in-
crease 5060 W m2 in the daytime under calm and clear
conditions due to the effect of the warm layer (Fig. 3).
Clayson and Curry (1996) estimated surface turbulent heat
fluxes during COARE from satellite data and compared
them with in situ measurements. They showed that deter-
mining the fluxes every 3 h from interpolated satellite-
derived input variables, i.e., including diurnal cycles in
SSTskin and atmospheric variables, improved the estimate

730 Y. Kawai and A. Wada

Fig. 8. Diurnal amplitude of SSTskin estimated by Webster et al.s (1996) empirical model as a function of daily peak solar
radiation for different values of daily mean wind speed and precipitation. Solid, broken, and dotted lines represent 0, 1, and 5
mm h1 of daily mean precipitation rate, respectively. Black, magenta, red, blue, and green lines represent 0.1, 1, 3, 5, and 10
m s1 of daily mean wind speed, respectively.
of daily-mean surface fluxes. However, they did not evalu-
ate the effect of the diurnal variation of SSTskin on the
fluxes.
Zeng and Dickinson (1998) investigated the impact
of the diurnal variation of SSTskin on surface fluxes over
the equatorial Pacific using TOGA Tropical Atmosphere
Ocean (TAO) buoy hourly data from 95W to 137E in
19901996. The surface latent and sensible heat fluxes
showed clear diurnal variability, and the average diurnal
amplitudes of the latent and sensible heat fluxes were 19.7
and 5.6 W m2, respectively. They also calculated the heat
fluxes by replacing hourly SSTskin with daily or monthly
mean SSTskin. Figure 9 shows the examples of the differ-
ences between the heat fluxes with the hourly SSTskin and
those with the daily or monthly SSTskin. Evidently the
diurnal cycle in SSTskin is the main cause of the diurnal
variability of latent and sensible heat fluxes. They sug-
gested that numerical modeling may require the inclu-
sion of the diurnal SSTskin variation. Parsons et al. (2000)
also showed that the average diurnal amplitudes of sur-
face sensible and latent heat fluxes were about 4 and 35
W m2, respectively, within the inner intensive flux array
of the COARE experiment in mid-November 1992.
Schiller and Godfrey (2005) examined the effect of
the diurnal variability of SST on surface latent heat flux
during COARE using a one-dimensional coupled model
with their sublayer scheme (see Subsection 4.2). Use of
this scheme increased the latent heat flux during the day-
time by 1020 W m2 and reduced it in the nighttime by
05 W m2. The increase in time-mean net heat loss of
the ocean was about 10 W m2. Zeng and Beljaars (2005)
reported that incorporating their SSTskin scheme (see Sub-
section 4.2) into an operational forecasting model changed
ensemble annual mean surface latent heat flux by more
than 10 W m2 over several regions in the north Atlantic.
The authors also checked the impact of the warm
layer on the air-sea heat transfer by a simple numerical
experiment. The test data used here were obtained with a
moored buoy of the Triangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network
(TRITON) in the western tropical Pacific at 2.07N,
138.06E during 313 March 2004. The authors simu-
lated near-surface temperature using the buoy-observed
meteorological data and Kawai and Kawamuras (2000)
one-dimensional model. The details of the observations
and the model simulation are reported in Kawai et al.
(2006b). The diurnal temperature variation was large on
3, 7 and 9 March, and the model could reproduce the vari-
ation of SST0.3m approximately (Kawai et al., 2006b). This
simulation result of SSTskin is shown in Fig. 10(a) with a
solid line, and is called the control run. The layer be-
tween the sea surface and 1.5-m depth was then forcibly
mixed by setting the minimum of the eddy diffusion co-
efficients to 5.0 10 4 m2s1 above 1.5-m depth. This
simulation is referred to as the no-warm-layer run (bro-
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 731
ken line in Fig. 10). In the no-warm-layer run the diurnal
thermocline was destroyed and the temperature became
vertically homogeneous within 01.5 m depth, even in
the daytime (Fig. 10(b)). The diurnal amplitude of SSTskin
decreased by about 1.5 K in the no-warm-layer run in the
daytime of 7 and 9 March. The no-warm-layer run al-
most corresponds to the case that a model applies a coarse
vertical grid of 1.5 m, which cannot resolve the shallow
warm layer.
If the warm layer cannot be reproduced correctly,
the surface net heat flux from the ocean decreases by 20
40 W m2 in the daytime (Fig. 11). The integrated differ-
ence of the net heat flux through a day exceeds 0.9
MJ m 2 on 7 and 9 March (Table 3). About 64% of the
total heat difference is due to latent heat. The effect of
the warm layer is to retain the incident solar energy near
the sea surface and increase the heat transfer back to the
atmosphere, mainly as latent heat. The heat of 0.9
MJ m 2, which can raise the temperature of the 10-m-
thick water column by only 0.02 K, may not be important
for the ocean, but it will not be negligible for the atmos-
phere because the thermal capacity of the air is much
smaller and such an amount of excessive heat from the Fig. 9. Mean diurnal cycles of surface flux differences at 0N,
ocean can destabilize the lower atmosphere. 156E (ab), and 2S, 95W (cd). Latent (a and c) and
Recently several kinds of global surface flux datasets sensible (b and d) heat flux differences using hourly versus
daily (monthly) mean SSTskin are denoted by solid (dotted)
have been developed using satellite and/or reanalysis data
lines. Abscissa represents local time. From Zeng and
(cf. Kubota et al., 2003; Curry et al., 2004). In some of Dickinson (1998), Copyright 1998 American Geophysical
these datasets, the SST produced by optimum interpola- Union. Reproduced by permission of American Geophysi-
tion (e.g., Reynolds and Smith, 1994; Reynolds et al., cal Union.
2002) is used for the flux calculation. However, such SST
data lack diurnal and day-to-day variability. Yu et al.
(2004) suggested that the absence of the high-frequency
variations in SST appeared to cause the degradation in perature dependence of 4.23% K1 for constant total CO 2
the accuracy of air-sea temperature and specific humid- was similar to the observed fCO2 (Fig. 12). This means
ity differences. Consideration of the high-frequency that fCO2 near the surface can vary widely in association
SSTskin variations will be necessary to improve the qual- with diurnal warming. The diurnal amplitude of the cal-
ity of surface flux data. culated fCO2 was 1020 atm.
Ward et al. (2004a) evaluated the effects of the skin
5.2 Air-sea gas flux estimation layer and the warm layer on the air-sea CO2 exchange in
The solubility of gases in seawater depends on tem- the eastern equatorial Pacific during the GasEx-2001
perature. Hence diurnal increases in near-surface tempera- cruise. Basically, the skin effect consistently suppresses
ture can change the concentrations of CO2 and O2 and the CO2 emission from the oceans through a day, while
modify the air-sea gas flux. Researchers working on the the formation of the warm layer increases it only in the
air-sea gas exchange have been paying attention to the daytime. According to their evaluation, the mean decrease
diurnal warming and the skin effect. For example, of the surface CO2 flux due to the skin effect was about
Soloviev et al. (2001) reported an observed example that 2% with a maximum of almost 4%. The increase of the
dissolved oxygen concentration just near the surface (shal- CO2 flux due to the warm layer could exceed 6% tempo-
lower than 0.1-m depth) was lower by about 5 ml l1 than rarily, although the mean value throughout the observa-
that at 0.5-m depth or deeper in association with the for- tion period was only about 0.7%. They implied that the
mation of the diurnal thermocline. McNeil and Merlivat effect of the warm layer may be less important for the
(1996) revealed the diurnal variations of water tempera- air-sea CO2 exchange than the skin effect, because while
ture and dissolved CO2 fugacity (fCO2) observed at 2-m the warm layer forms only in the daytime of a calm and
depth in the Mediterranean Sea, and indicated that the clear day, the skin layer exists even in windy conditions
fCO2 predicted from observed SST2m and an fCO2-tem- (Donlon et al., 2002). The relative increase due to the

732 Y. Kawai and A. Wada


Fig. 10. (a) Time series of the model-simulated SSTskin in the
no-warm-layer run (broken line), and that in the control run
(solid line) at 2.07N, 138.06E in March 2004. (b) Their
vertical temperature profiles at 1600 LST on 9 March.
warm layer effect shown by Ward et al. (2004a) was cer-
tainly small, but this can correspond to a large absolute
increase in the regions such as the eastern tropical Pa-
cific where the absolute value of the CO2 flux is large.
They also indicated that the estimated difference of fCO2
across the warm layer of a few meters thickness can reach
20 atm or more (Fig. 13). In the eastern equatorial Pa-
cific, the diurnal SST amplitude becomes larger during
La Nias and lower during El Nios. Hence it is expected
that the impact of the warm layer on the surface CO2 flux
will vary with the ENSO cycle (Cronin and Kessler, 2002).
The skin effect on the global CO2 budget has also
been assessed by several researchers (e.g., Sarmiento and
Sundquist, 1992; Robertson and Watson, 1992; Van Scoy
et al., 1995; Wong et al., 1995), but this issue is beyond
the scope of this paper, and we do not review it here. The
studies mentioned in this subsection indicated that a care-
ful consideration of the ocean surface boundary layer and
its high-frequency variability will be significant in stud-
ies of the global material circulation and climate change.
Fig. 11. Difference of net air-sea heat flux between the two
runs (control run minus no-warm-layer run, upward is posi-
tive) at 2.07N, 138.06E in March 2004. Shortwave radia-
tion is not included.
6. Impact on the Atmosphere
The diurnal variation of SST is strongly affected by
meteorological conditions. Can the diurnal SST variation
really significantly affect the properties of the atmos-
phere? As yet, we do not know the impact of the diurnal
SST variation on physical properties or processes in the
atmosphere, especially in the boundary layer. Large diur-
nal SST variations must be accompanied by a weak wind,
which suppresses the turbulent heat transfer from the
ocean to the atmosphere. Zhang (2005) pointed out that
the atmosphere does not see SST; it only senses it through
surface fluxes. From this viewpoint, paradoxically, the
atmosphere near the surface may sense that the sea sur-
face is cool in calm and clear conditions. Chen and Houze
(1997) indicated that the diurnal cycle in the surface air
temperature was not completely dependent on that in
SSTskin, although they suggested the importance of the
diurnal heating of the sea surface on cloud convection
over the Pacific warm pool.
On the other hand, as mentioned in Subsection 5.1 it
has been reported that the diurnal SST rise in the equato-
rial Pacific can increase the surface net heat flux by the
order of 10 Wm2, which is probably non-negligible for
atmospheric physical processes. Several researchers as-
sume that the diurnal SST variability may have some
impact on the atmosphere. For example, Dai and Trenberth
(2004), using a fully coupled climate system model with-
out the diurnal SST variation, indicated that simulated
diurnal cycles in surface air temperature, pressure and
precipitation over the oceans were much weaker than the
observed values. They inferred that the lack of the diur-
nal cycle in SST was a significant deficiency. The diur-
nal variability of SST in the tropics is basically large,
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 733
Table 3. Daily-integrated differences of the surface heat fluxes
between the control run and the no-warm-layer run. Unit is
MJ m 2.
3 March 7 March 9 March
Net 0.649 0.912 0.990
Sensible heat 0.080 0.112 0.117
Latent heat 0.417 0.590 0.631
Longwave radition 0.152 0.210 0.242
and has been intensively investigated since COARE. In
this section we first review studies and hypotheses on the
effect of the diurnal SST variation on the tropical atmos-
phere. Other topics in the mid and high latitudes are then
summarized.
6.1 Tropics
The diurnal variability of cloud convection over the
ocean has been observed, although its mechanism has not
yet been completely solved. In general, the diurnal varia-
tions of cumulus convections over the ocean and land are
different from each other. The convective activity is en-
hanced in the late afternoon to evening over continents
and large islands, while it attains its maximum in the early
morning over the ocean (e.g., Gray and Jacobson, 1977;
Janowiak et al., 1994; Yang and Slingo, 2001; Dai and
Trenberth, 2004). Various kinds of mechanisms have been
proposed for the formation of diurnal deep convection
over the ocean: the direct interaction between radiation
and convection (Randall et al., 1991); the effect of the
horizontal distribution of clouds on radiation (Gray and
Jacobson, 1977); the radiative interaction between sur-
face and clouds (Chen and Houze, 1997); the diurnal vari-
ation of available precipitable water due to the diurnal
radiative cooling/heating cycle (Sui et al., 1997a); and
gravity wave forcing induced by the nearby continental
diurnal cycle of convection (Mapes et al., 2003).
Analyses of the COARE observation results revealed
a more detailed aspect of the diurnal variation of convec-
tion over the warm pool. During the convectively active
phase of MJO, the large, deep convective systems tended
to reach a maximum before dawn, as mentioned above.
On the other hand, during the convectively suppressed
phase of MJO, when the diurnal SST variation was large,
shallow precipitating clouds were most abundant (Fig.
14). Many of these shallow clouds occurred in the after-
noon near the time of maximum SST, unlike the diurnal
variation of the deep convection in the active phase (e.g.,
Chen and Houze, 1997; Sui et al., 1997a; Johnson et al.,
1999). Parsons et al. (2000) showed from COARE sound-
ing data that there was a detectable diurnal cycle in con-
vective inhibition (CIN), with a minimum in the late af-
ternoon just preceding the maximum in convective activ-
734 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
Fig. 12. Observations during 5 days in August 1995 of 2-m-
depth water temperature (T, dashed line) and fugacity of
CO2 (fCO2, bold solid line) at a mooring site between Nice
and Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea (43.42N, 7.87E).
Thin solid line is the predicted fCO2 from the observed T
and an fCO2-temperature relation of 4.23% K1 for constant
total CO2. From McNeil and Merlivat (1996), Copyright
1996 American Geophysical Union. Reproduced by permis-
sion of American Geophysical Union.
ity. Parsons et al. (2000) and Chen and Houze (1997)
claimed that the absorption of shortwave radiation in the
atmospheric boundary layer will be as important (or more
important) in the diurnal variation in CIN as (than) the
diurnal cycle in SST and the resulting changes in the
fluxes. Slingo et al. (2003) suggested the possibility that
the diurnal SST rise may act as a trigger for the shallow
cloud convection. The basic paradigm proposed by them
is as follows: the diurnal cycle in SST leads to a trigger-
ing of convection in the inactive phase of MJO. In turn
the cumulus congestus clouds gradually moisten the free
troposphere and prepare a favorable condition for deep
convection. This preconditioning may set the time scale
for the following active phase of MJO. These hypotheses
have not yet been corroborated.
Li et al. (2001) performed numerical experiments
using a global atmospheric model with or without the di-
urnal variation of SSTskin. They indicated that the phases
of the intraseasonal variations of surface flux and pre-
cipitation simulated with diurnal SSTskin variations were
closer to those of the observations in the warm pool dur-
ing COARE, compared to those simulated without the
diurnal SSTskin variations. The diurnal SSTskin variation
brought the increase of precipitation especially over the
tropical Indian Ocean and the western tropical Pacific,
although the ratio of the increase to the mean value was
not more than 10%.
Woolnough et al. (2007) also examined the impact

Fig. 13. Series of SkinDeEP temperature profiles acquired on
8 Feb. 2001 in the eastern equatorial Pacific (GasEx-2001)
and the extrapolation of the aqueous fCO 2 to the surface
from an fCO2-temperature dependence of 4.23% K1 for
constant total CO2. The local times are indicated for each
plot. From Ward et al. (2004a), Copyright 2004 American
Geophysical Union. Reproduced by permission of Ameri-
can Geophysical Union.
of the diurnal mixing of the upper ocean on MJO by cou-
pled model experiments. They compared the result of
constant-SST simulation with the result simulated by cou-
pling to a full dynamical ocean model of 10-m vertical
resolution in the upper ocean, or that by coupling to a
one-dimensional ocean mixed layer model of 1-m reso-
lution. This 1-m resolution mixed layer model could re-
produce large diurnal and intraseasonal SST variations.
The experiment with the mixed layer model showed the
best improvement in prediction skill, especially for the
phase of the MJO over the Indian Ocean and the western
Pacific. They indicated the role of the ocean in determin-
ing the propagation characteristics of the MJO, and the
significance of the representation of the diurnal cycle in
the upper ocean.
Clayson and Chen (2002) investigated the sensitiv-
ity of the atmosphere to SST as the lower boundary con-
dition in the tropical Pacific using a coupled single-col-
umn model. They showed that use of the simulated SSTskin
as the interfacial temperature rather than SSTdepth resulted
in large differences in the atmospheric profiles of tem-
perature, moisture, and cloud amount. Figure 15 shows
the cloud amount simulated with the SSTskin (baseline
simulation), and that with the SST4.5m (4.5-m tempera-
ture simulation). The SST4.5m was higher by 0.25 K than
the SSTskin on average due to the skin effect, and showed
less diurnal variability. The baseline simulation has lower
low-level cloud amounts during periods 1 and 3, and
higher amounts during period 2, compared with the 4.5-
m temperature simulation. The cloud amount differences
in the low level are larger than that in the mid level. One
of their interesting indications is that both the skin effect
and the diurnal variability are important for the atmos-
phere, and which of the effects is dominant varies with
the periods. Clayson and Chen (2002) also indicated that
the model atmosphere was sensitive to the scheme of sur-
face turbulent heat fluxes.
Deser and Smith (1998) indicated from TAO buoy
data that the mean diurnal amplitude of SST showed a
local maximum over the cold tongue in the eastern equa-
torial Pacific. They proposed a hypothesis that this large
diurnal SST variation over the cold tongue may affect
the zonally symmetric diurnal cycle of equatorial wind
divergence.
6.2 Mid and high latitudes
Flament et al. (1994) found streaks of large diurnal
sea surface warming that occurred in spring off Califor-
nia from satellite data. These streaks were at least 50 km
long and 48 km wide. They hypothesized that these
streaks may interact with roll-like circulations in the at-
mospheric boundary layer, and proposed two kinds of
hypotheses to explain this phenomenon. These hypoth-
eses are interesting, but nobody has verified them yet.
Kawai et al. (2006a) investigated the impact of diur-
nal sea surface warming on a local atmospheric circula-
tion over Mutsu Bay, which is located at the northern end
of Honshu Island in Japan around 41N, 141E, on a clear
summer day. Over this region small sea breeze circula-
tions and mountain up-slope wind circulations are com-
bined during the daytime, and a unique atmospheric cir-
culation is formed. The result of their simple model ex-
periment showed that the SSTskin rise in the daytime weak-
ens this atmospheric circulation due to the decrease of
the land-sea temperature difference. This results in the
increase in surface air temperature over coastal areas. The
effect of the diurnal sea surface warming on the sea breeze
circulation is expected to obtain over other coastal areas
throughout the world, especially in the tropics. Yang and
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 735

Fig. 14. Daily-average number of low or cumulus (04 km),
middle or congestus (59 km), and high or cumulonimbus
(1116 km) radio-echo tops for a cruise of R/V Vickers dur-
ing COARE, and SST observed with the Improved Mete-
orological instrument (IMET) buoy at 1.75S, 156E. In the
upper three panels, solid curve segments refer to periods
when convective echoes organized on the Mesoscale Con-
vective System (MCS) scale (>100 km) and dotted segments
to periods when only sub-MCS or isolated cells existed.
Reproduced from Johnson et al. (1999).
Slingo (2001) indicated that the strong diurnal signals of
convection over land were spread out many hundreds of
kilometers away over the Bay of Bengal and the coastal
seas in the Maritime Continent. They suggested that this
phenomenon is affected by complex land-sea and moun-
tain-valley breezes. The diurnal cycle in SST may affect
this phenomenon through modification of the land-sea
breeze circulation. Yang and Slingo (2001) and Slingo et
al. (2003) point to the need for a proper parameterization
of the effect of land-sea breezes in a numerical model for
better simulation of the diurnal cycle in convection. The
effect of the diurnal SST variation should also be included
in the parameterization or model.
Stuart-Menteth et al. (2003) and Kawai and
Kawamura (2005) showed that the diurnal SST variation
736 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
became large in the Bay of Bengal and the South China
Sea during the transition period of the Asian monsoon in
boreal spring. It was also reported from in situ observa-
tions that the diurnal SST cycle in the South China Sea
was dominant before the onset of the monsoon, and de-
creased thereafter (D. Wang, the presentation in the 11th
Ocean Observations Panel for Climate, 2006). A suggested
possibility was that the diurnal variability of SST may
affect the monsoon onset, but no corroboration has yet
been obtained.
Kawai and Kawamura (2005) indicated that the di-
urnal amplitude of SST also became large, even in the
Sea of Okhotsk from spring to summer. Low-level clouds
and fog frequently cover this region in summer. Tachibana
et al. (2004) pointed out that the appearance and disap-
pearance of fog in the Sea of Okhotsk will be controlled
by air-sea interaction. They reported from ship observa-
tions that when warm air was advected in the lowest level,
the air cooled while the upper ocean warmed. In this case
the atmospheric mixed layer could not develop and fog
did not occur, which led to strong insolation at the sea
surface. Therefore, thermal stratification was formed
within a few meters depth. The large diurnal rise of SST
may, in turn, change the stability of the lowest atmos-
phere. Furthermore, the formation of the shallow diurnal
stratification may affect the variations of SST and the
ocean mixed layer on a longer time scale (see Subsection
7.1).
7. Issues in Modeling and Observation of Diurnal
SST Variation
7.1 Numerical modeling
a. Surface forcing
In order to reproduce realistic diurnal variation of
SST using an ocean model, accurate surface forcing is
required as a boundary condition. In particular, insola-
tion with a diurnal cycle is important in reproducing the
diurnal variation. Recently many model researchers have
investigated the effect of diurnal variability of surface
forcing on modeling of SST and ocean mixed layer (e.g.,
Sui et al., 1997b; Shinoda and Hendon, 1998; McCreary
et al., 2001; Schiller and Godfrey, 2003; Bernie et al.,
2005; Lee and Liu, 2005; Shinoda, 2005; Danabasoglu et
al., 2006). These studies indicate that the diurnal varia-
tion of surface forcing, especially that of insolation, plays
an important role in reproducing diurnal and intraseasonal
variations, or a mean state in the upper ocean. The diur-
nal change of the mixing process of the upper layer is not
only related to the diurnal SST variability, but is also es-
sential for the intraseasonal SST variation. The inclusion
of the diurnal cycle of insolation enables one to simulate
a more realistic temperature and depth of mixed layer.
The temporal mean of tropical SST simulated with the
Fig. 15. Time series of (a) daily-averaged mid-level (400700 hPa) cloud amount, and (b) low-level (below 700 hPa) cloud
amount for the baseline simulation (solid line) and the 4.5-m temperature simulation (dashed line) with a coupled atmos-
phere-ocean single-column model during COARE. Reproduced from Clayson and Chen (2002).
diurnal cycle of insolation tends to be higher than with-
out it.
Figure 16 shows the result of a numerical experi-
ment performed by Bernie et al. (2005), who simulated
mixed layer depth and temperature with hourly surface
fluxes and with daily mean fluxes, respectively. The am-
plitude of the intraseasonal SST variation clearly de-
creases if the diurnal variations of the surface fluxes are
neglected. The mixed-layer depth simulated with the
hourly fluxes becomes a little deeper than that with the
daily fluxes. Sui et al. (1997b) insisted that, because of
the asymmetric heating rate of the diurnal cycle, the vari-
ation of mixed-layer properties on the diurnal timescale
is nonlinearly related to the intraseasonal variability. The
diurnal change of the ocean mixed layer will affect the
phase of intraseasonal atmospheric variation through the
amplification of the intraseasonal SST variation (cf. Li et
al., 2001; Woolnough et al., 2007). The inclusion of the
mixed-layer deepening/shoaling process on the diurnal
scale cannot be neglected in biological modeling
(McCreary et al., 2001).
b. Solar extinction modeling
Unlike longwave radiation, sensible and latent heat
fluxes, shortwave radiation can penetrate the ocean. De-
termination of vertical distribution of warming by
shortwave radiation in the upper ocean is critical to re-
producing accurate diurnal and intraseasonal variations
of SST (e.g., Kantha and Clayson, 1994; Sui et al., 1997b;
Shinoda, 2005; Wick et al., 2005; Ward, 2006; Clayson
and Weitlich, 2007). Sui et al. (1997b) pointed out that
realistic diurnal and intraseasonal SST variations in the
tropics cannot be reproduced if an inappropriate
parameterization for shortwave radiation is used.
An approximate formula of a polynomial exponen-
tial function (e.g., Paulson and Simpson, 1977) consider-
ing only the simple classification of water type (e.g.,
Jerlov, 1968) is convenient and is often used to calculate
the downward shortwave radiation flux in seawater. How-
ever, this parameterization is not always satisfactory (e.g.,
Sui et al., 1997b), and cannot consider the interaction
between physical and biological processes. Recently a
significantly improved parameterization that depends on
upper-ocean chlorophyll-a concentration, cloud amount,
and solar zenith angle has been proposed (Ohlmann and
Siegel, 2000). Fairall et al. (1996) originally adopted
shortwave-radiation parameterizations that depended on
only depth for their skin-layer and warm-layer models.
Ohlmann and Siegel (2000) and Wick et al. (2005) re-
placed them with Ohlmann and Siegels parameterization,
and compared the temperature and surface fluxes simu-
lated by this modified version of Fairall et al.s model
with those by the original model. If Ohlmann and Siegels
parameterization is adopted, due to the reduction of the
absorption of insolation, the skin effect is strengthened
and the temperature difference across the warm layer is
decreased. As a result, SSTskin and the net heat flux from
the ocean can be reduced by about 0.2 K and 5 Wm1
under calm and clear conditions, respectively.
As reviewed here, use of an improved
parameterization for shortwave radiation in the ocean is
important to simulate SST and surface fluxes in a numeri-
cal model accurately. It is known that biological proc-
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 737
esses such as increase of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria
can significantly affect SST (e.g., Kahru et al., 1993).
Siegel et al. (1995) found that in the warm pool during
COARE, the penetration depth of shortwave radiation
decreased substantially after westerly bursts. This was due
to the upward mixing of nutrients and subsequent
phytoplankton growth. Godfrey et al. (1998) suggested
that plankton dynamics may have a significant influence
on SST in the warm pool too. It has also been reported
that the chlorophyll-a concentration in the upper ocean
significantly increases in response to tropical cyclones
(e.g., Subrahmanyam et al., 2002; Siswanto et al., 2007).
The formula proposed by Ohlmann and Siegel will be
useful when considering the physical-biological interac-
tion in relation to air-sea interaction.
c. Time step and vertical resolution
Restricted computational resources make it suffi-
ciently difficult to refine the temporal and vertical reso-
lution of an OGCM so that a sharp diurnal thermocline
can be reproduced. Although even a model with a coarse
vertical resolution of 1015 m in the upper ocean can
simulate the diurnal variation to a certain degree (Schiller
and Godfrey, 2003; Danabasoglu et al., 2006), more real-
istic simulations need a much finer vertical resolution in
the upper ocean. Bernie et al. (2005) discussed the tem-
poral resolution of forcing flux and the vertical resolu-
tion required to accurately reproduce the diurnal varia-
tion of SST by a numerical model. They indicated that a
temporal resolution of less than 3 h and a vertical resolu-
tion of less than 1 m should be specified in order to re-
produce more than 90% of the amplitude of the diurnal
SST variation.
d. Other model parameterizations
Modeling methodology remains affected by other
problems, one of which is uncertainty in the bulk coeffi-
cients used to estimate air-sea fluxes (e.g., Clayson and
Chen, 2002). Another is concerned with schemes of an
atmospheric model. A coupled GCM (CGCM) with a short
coupling interval of 13 h between an atmospheric GCM
and an OGCM can produce diurnal ocean variations
(Danabasoglu et al., 2006). However, even if correct di-
urnal SSTskin variations are supplied to an atmospheric
model as a lower boundary condition, the model atmos-
phere cannot correctly respond to the diurnal variations
of SSTskin without appropriate parameterizations. Present
CGCMs still have deficiencies in the dynamics for low-
level atmospheric convergence and in their physical
parameterizations for the planetary boundary layer, cloud
and precipitation formation, moist convectionespecially
at its initiation, as well as the deficiency that simulated
diurnal SST variations are too small (Dai and Trenberth,
2004). These atmospheric parameterizations also need to
be improved in order to study air-sea interaction on a di-
urnal time scale.
738 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
Fig. 16. (a) Sample SST and (b) turbulent boundary layer depth
time series from the control integration with hourly fluxes
(Run CTL, solid line), and the sensitivity experiment with
daily mean fluxes (Run 24HR, dotted line). IMET buoy data
at 2S, 156E during COARE and a one-dimensional mixed
layer model were used for the simulations. Dashed line
shows the daily mean SST from the control integration to
emphasize the intraseasonal variability. Reproduced from
Bernie et al. (2005).
7.2 Observations
Satellite observations, especially by such microwave
sensors as TMI and AMSR-E, are very effective, indeed
indispensable for research into high-frequency SST vari-
ation. In order to resolve the global diurnal cycle, flights
of at least two satellites with microwave sensors are de-
sirable. High-quality, sustainable satellite observations
must be continued.
However, uncertainty in satellite-derived SST is una-
voidable. High-quality, continuous in situ observations
of near-surface temperature are also necessary in order
to minimize satellite SST errors and to determine the ver-
tical temperature profile. At present moored buoys are
densely arranged only in the tropics and some coastal ar-
eas. As mentioned above, the diurnal variability of SST
will be also important in the extratropics, and we need a
dense in situ observation system to observe the diurnal
change of the upper ocean even in the mid- and high-
latitudes.
In situ SST measurement also has some problems.
For ship SST data, it is well known that the SSTs reported
from voluntary observing ships are noisier than buoy
SSTs, and can have a warm bias due to the heating in the
engine room (e.g., Saur, 1963; Reynolds and Smith, 1994;
Emery et al., 2001; Reynolds et al., 2002). The SSTs ob-
served with buoys are usually considered to be more reli-
able, and are utilized for the tuning and validation of sat-
ellite SSTs. However, Kawai and Kawamura (2000) and
Kawai et al. (2006b) indicated that the temperature ob-
served with a moored buoy at about 1-m depth would
deviate from the actual temperature at the nominal depth
when a sharp diurnal thermocline develops just near the
surface. Although the exact reason for this still remains
unclear, the turbulence and/or heating induced by a buoy
hull are suspected.
A careful temperature measurement technique that
avoids disturbing the near-surface temperature field is re-
quired when a sharp diurnal thermocline is formed. One
of the solutions is use of a compact profiling float. Ward
and Minnett (2001) and Ward et al. (2004b) developed
the SkinDeEP autonomous profiler, which can measure
near-surface temperature with a fine vertical resolution
without disturbance. SkinDeEP is similar to an Argo-type
float, but it is smaller and its temperature sensors pro-
trude several tens of centimeters from the top of the body
to avoid distorting the stratification. Although this float
is excellent in near-surface temperature measurement,
only a few prototypes have been built and they are not
equipped with telecommunication functionality. At
present, many profiling floats are deployed globally un-
der the international cooperation of the Argo Project (e.g.,
Argo Science Team, 2001; Argo Project Office, 2006),
but the normal profiling floats do not measure the sur-
face layer above about 5-m depth in order to prevent deg-
radation of sensor performance caused by contaminants
near the sea surface, such as oil (e.g., Kobayashi et al.,
2004; Riser and Wijffels, 2005). If the profiling floats
are improved to measure near-surface temperature with
fine vertical and temporal resolution, this will become a
powerful tool for studies on the diurnal SST variability.
8. Summary
The importance of the diurnal variability of SST is
becoming increasingly clearly recognized. This paper has
summarized studies of the diurnal SST variation and its
possible impacts on air-sea interaction. We first introduced
the latest definitions of the several kinds of SST (Sec-
tion 2), and reviewed the observational facts about the
diurnal SST variation (Section 3). Basically, when inso-
lation is strong and wind speed is low, the diurnal rise of
SST becomes large. Early studies indicated that the diur-
nal amplitude of SSTdepth was 0.20.6 K in the low and
mid latitudes on average, reaching about 1.5 K under clear
and calm conditions. Studies conducted during the past
two decades have revealed from in situ and satellite ob-
servations that the diurnal rise of SSTskin or SSTsubskin can
reach 5 K or more in extreme cases. Satellite observation
also clarified that the large diurnal rise can occur over
wide areas in a specific season. Various kinds of model
have been proposed and utilized to simulate diurnal vari-
ations in the upper ocean (Section 4). The large diurnal
SST variation can be approximately simulated by the
models, although there still remain some challenges in
precise modeling.
The atmosphere feels SSTskin, not SSTdepth, through
surface heat fluxes. Hence the estimations of air-sea heat
and gas fluxes are susceptible to the diurnal SST vari-
ability and the skin effect. Previous studies of the surface
flux estimations were then summarized (Section 5). While
the cool skin layer almost always exists through a day,
even in windy conditions, the warm layer is formed only
in the daytime of a calm and clear day. Therefore, the
skin effect may be more important for the flux estimation
than the effect of the warm layer. However, for the heat
flux, it is indicated that the consideration of the warm
layer can increase the net heat flux by 5060 W m2 in
the daytime, and its temporal mean exceeds 10 W m 2.
Furthermore, the significant effect of the skin layer and
the warm layer on air-sea gas exchange has already been
pointed out, and the surface mixing process on the diur-
nal scale can also affect marine biology (McCreary et al.,
2001). Accurate physical-chemical-biological modeling
and material circulation studies will need knowledge of
the oceans diurnal variability.
Recent studies of the relation between the diurnal
SST variation and air-sea interaction were then introduced
(Section 6). Whether the diurnal SST variation really af-
fects the atmospheric physics significantly is a difficult
but interesting question. A few studies have showed that
the diurnal variation and/or the skin effect can modify
precipitation and surface fluxes variations on an
intraseasonal scale, the vertical profile of the air tempera-
ture and humidity, and a sea-breeze circulation. Although
at present the investigation of this subject is not yet ad-
equate, many researchers expect that the diurnal cycle in
SST will have some impact on the atmosphere, and an
attempt to simulate the diurnal variation of the upper
ocean in a GCM has already begun. The necessity of this
attempt at a numerical model has also summarized (Sub-
section 7.1). Fine vertical/temporal resolution and appro-
priate parameterization for shortwave extinction in the
ocean are required to accurately simulate large diurnal
SST rise. Some schemes that enable us to reproduce real-
istic diurnal SST variations without enormous computa-
tional load have been proposed recently (e.g., Schiller and
Godfrey, 2005; Zeng and Beljaars, 2005).
In conclusion, the issues to be clarified can be sum-
marized as follows:
(1) A few studies have pointed out from numerical
experiments that the diurnal SST variation and/or the skin
effect can significantly affect the atmospheric field over
the warm pool (e.g., Li et al., 2001; Clayson and Chen,
2002). However, the processes through which the differ-
ences in cloudiness and humidity were caused were not
discussed, and still remain unknown.
Diurnal SST Variation and Its Impact 739
 (2) The diurnal temperature rise and the tempera-
ture drop across the skin layer increase or decrease the
air-sea sensible heat flux, and thus will affect the heat
content and height of the atmospheric boundary layer. The
perturbation of only a few W m2 of the sensible heat flux,
which will be negligible for the ocean, may significantly
affect the lower atmosphere. The changes of the atmos-
pheric mixed layer and the surface wind field related with
the diurnal SST variation need to be investigated inten-
sively. Furthermore, whether large diurnal SST rise re-
ally can be the trigger for the shallow cumulus convec-
tion (Slingo et al., 2003), which may control the precon-
ditioning of the MJO active phase, has not been confirmed
yet, either.
(3) The effect of the diurnal SST rise on a coastal
local atmospheric circulation has been indicated by Kawai
et al. (2006a). They reported only an idealized calm and
clear case. More detailed numerical experiments are nec-
essary for more realistic conditions and/or different ar-
eas, especially for the tropics. Consideration of this ef-
fect may be significant for practical weather forecasting
in coastal regions.
(4) While many researchers interested in the diur-
nal SST variation pay much attention to the tropics and
subtropics, the diurnal variation in the high latitudes has
rarely been noted. However, as shown in Fig. 5, the diur-
nal SST rise can become large even in the high latitudes
in summer. In situ observations that can resolve the diur-
nal SST cycle are not sufficiently close to the polar re-
gions. Intensive studies focusing on the high latitudes
should be conducted.
(5) As mentioned in Subsection 7.1.d, some
parameterizations in an atmospheric model would not be
appropriate for simulating atmospheric response to the
diurnal SST variation. Further improvement of the model
parameterizations will be necessary.
(6) When a sharp and shallow diurnal thermocline
is formed, in situ near-surface temperature measurement
is not easy (Subsection 7.2). Careful measurements with-
out instrument-induced turbulence and/or heating are re-
quired for studies of diurnal air-sea interaction.
Again, the impact of the diurnal SST variability on
air-sea interaction has not yet been investigated suffi-
ciently. Even if the diurnal change of SST itself were to
have little effect on the atmosphere, it has been confirmed
that the formation/decay process of the diurnal
thermocline near the surface cannot be neglected in or-
der to reproduce the SST variation on an intraseasonal or
longer scale accurately in a model, which is essential to
air-sea interaction, especially in the tropics. Further stud-
ies using numerical models are necessary, and an observ-
ing system that can detect the diurnal cycle in SST all
over the world is also indispensable for the corroboration
of the model simulation.
740 Y. Kawai and A. Wada
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to greatly thank C. J. Donlon,
H. Kawamura, G. A. Wick and all the members of The
GHRSST-PP Science Team, K. Yoneyama, K. Ando, M.
Katsumata, T. Kobayashi of JAMSTEC, J. Ishizaka of
Nagasaki University, and T. Shimada and H. Qin of
Tohoku University for providing us with useful informa-
tion and support. We also appreciate valuable comments
of two anonymous reviewers. The AMSR-E data used in
this paper are produced by Remote Sensing Systems and
sponsored by the NASA Earth Science REASoN
DISCOVER Project and the AMSR-E Science Team. The
data are available at [www.remss.com].
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