ASSIGNEMENT-I Last date for submission : 28 t h August, 2017

Q. 1 Describe the difference between (i) Sensor and Transducer, (ii) Active and passive transducer,
(iii) accuracy, and precission, (iv) primary and secondary transducers

Q.2 With the diagram, explain the terms: (i) Resolution, (ii) Hysteresis, (iii) Dead span.

Q.3 Discuss the static and dynamic characteristics of sensor/ transducer.

Q.4 Write the accuracy class of a transducer in absolute term if its accuracy in percentage term is
20V 5%.

Q. 5 A thermocouple has a uniform scale with 20 divisions and gives full scale reading of 30 mv. The
thermocouples readibility is one fifth (1/5) of a division with fair degree of certainity. Determine the
resolution of thermocouple.

Q.6 Dead zone in a certain pyrometerb is 0.1255 of span. The calibration is 4000 C to 10000 C. What
temperature change might occur before it is detected.

Q.7 A set of independent voltage measurements by a transducer was taken as 20.03, 20.10, 20.11,
and 20.08mV . Calculate (a) the average voltage, and (b) the range of error.

Q.8 A 120 ohm strain gauge is used in one of the arm of wheatstone bride to measure the force at
250 C . Initially the bridge is balanced. When the force increases the strain gauge resistance
increased to 127 ohm and galvanometer shows deflection of 3mm. Determine the sensitivity of
transducer, and deflection factor.

{Note: Inversity sensitivity or Deflection factor or Scale factor = 1/ (Sensitivity )

Q.9 A thermocouple gives 90.5mv at the temperature 1200 C. The transducer correction curve
shows static correction of 0.08mv at this temperature. Determine true output value of
thermocouple.

Q.10 A voltage has true value of 1.50. A voltmeter of scale 0 2.5V, shows a voltage of 1.46V. What
are the values of error and corrections required in readings. Express the the error in true values and
full scale deflectio.

SOLUTION OF ASSIGNMENT

Slo. 6 Span = 1000 400 = 6000C

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 Dead zone = 0.125 x 600 / 100 = 0.75

A change of 0.75 0C must occur before it is detected.

Contents

S.No. Topic Page .No.

1. Introduction, need, and advatages 1

2. Definition of Sensor 1

3. Definition of Transducer 2

4. Differences between Sensors and Transducers 2

5. Single variable vs Multivariable sensing

6. Criteria to choose a sensor 2

7. Requirements of sensor / transducer 2

8. Advantages of Electrical Transducer 3

9. Classification of sensors and transducers 3

10. Static Characteristic 7

10.1 Difference between Accuracy and Precision

11. Dynamic Characteristic

12. Electrical Characterization

13. Mechanical Characterization

14. Thermal Characterization

15. Bath tube Curve

16. Different Types of Sensors: Mechanical & Electromechanical Sensors

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 15.1 Potentiometer

14.2 Strain gauge

14.3 Inductive Sensor- Feromagnetic type

14.4 Inductive Sensor Transformer Type

14.5 Electromagnetic Type sensorsSensor

14.6 Capacitive Type sensors Parallel plate, Variable permittivity

14.7 Electrstatic Type sensor

14.8 Piezo Electric type sensor

14.9 Introduction to PZT family

1. INTRODUCTON

Exponential growing number of transducers is found in common products. The success of the
conversion of electronics to microelectronic circuits Most transducers have at least one electrical
port and are packaged with significant electronics attached Transducers are normally the weak link
in a system, and the gap between transducers and processing electronics in terms of reliability, cost,
and power is increasing at an alarming rate. Escalating demand for automatic control of processes
All control need actuators and, if the control is closed-loop, sensors are needed as well. The
development of new materials and techniques Materials capable of converting one form of energy
to another is the heart of many transducers.

Sensors and transducers are important components in measurement system. Their main
function is to collect information of interested process parameter, or system. Today a wider
variety of sensors and Transducer are present in market. It is quite difficult to choose a
suitable sensor / Transducr for the desired application (s). It is, therefore, essential to learn
the principal of working of commonly used sensors and transducers.Theys play very
important role in robotics and plant automation. Sensors in manufacturing are basically
employed to automatically carry out the production operations as well as process
monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the following importantant advantage in
transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.

1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any sub units of manufacturing
system. It helps the operator to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by
carrying out the preventive measure.

2. Reduces requirements of skilled and experienced labours.

3. Ultra precision in product quality can be achieved.

2. DEFINITION OF SENSORS:

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A sensor is a device/ element which respond to a physical, chemical, biological, etc.
conditions / parametric variation . Thus basically sensor acts as a detector to change in
physical stimulus and turns it into signal which can be measured or recorded. Any sensor is
based on a simple concept that physical property of sensor must altered by external
stimulus. In mercury thermometer, the expansion of mercury detects the rise of
temperature by placing bulb of thermometer in the process of interest. The other examples
of sensors are resitance temperature detector (RTD), strain gause, micrphone, magnetic
compass, etc. Sensor is an input transducer, i.e. microphone. It is preferred that the output
of sensor is an electrical quantity and measurand may be a physical quantity, property, or
condition which is to be measured. A sensor is assumed to be linear so that its response y to
a stimulus x is idealised to have the form:
y (x) = Ax , 0 x xmax , A>0 (1.1)

Actuator is an output transducer i.e

3. DEFINITION OF TRANSDUCERS:

A transducer is one step further to sensor. It is a combination of sensor plus signal conditing
functional device. Transducer can be defined as a device whichconvert one form of energy
to another form of energy. The output of transducer is always meaningful. Examples of
transducers are: Thermocouple, Linear variable differential transformer ( LVDT), etc.

Every transducer is also or has a sensor but every sensor need not to be transducer.

Figure 1 shows the basic configuration of a transducer.

Measuring quanity sensor Signal conditioning Meaningful

information

4. Difference between Sensor and Transducer

Sensor Transducer

1. The purpose of sensor is to detect or 1. The transducer converter one form of

energy

measure and efficiency is not matter to another form of energy. Efficiency is

whether it is 10% or 0.5% provided the intended to convert energy ,therfore, its

measurand is known. Efficiency is important though in some cases

it may not be high.

2. Linearity of response defined by 2. Linearity for transducer is much less

Plotting the output against input, is likely significance for a transducer.

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to be important.

3. The output of sensor may or may not be 3. The outputof a transducer is always

meaningful. Meaningful.

4. A sensor may or may not have a 4. A transducer is always involved

convernation and only senses. For example aconversion i.e transduction.For example

thermometer where the temperature is thermister senses temperature and its

sensed and is directly measured. resistace changes. Singal conditioner is

required to provide useful output.

5. Single Variable vs. Multi-variable Sensing

Measurement sensing can be classified as mechanical, electrical or analytical. Common
mechanical measurements include pressure, temperature, humidity, flow rate, liquid level,
force, velocity, acceleration, and position to name but a few. Electrical measurements are
generally voltage, resistance and current, but can also include capacitance, inductance,
charge, etc. Measurements of analytical properties may include electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, chromatography, turbidity, density, pH, etc. As one may surmise, if a
property exists it can probably be measured.
Single variable sensing is debatably the most common. Just as it sounds, we are sensing the
value of a single property of a body or substance. It is important to note most
measurements cannot be taken directly. For example, temperature is a measurement of
heat intensity; which, in turn, is directly related to the average velocity of the molecules
comprising the substance being measured. Obviously, the direct measurement of molecular
velocity is not practical; we must find a different way to measure temperature. To that end,
the pneumatic temperature transmitter described above is designed based upon a well-
known relationship between temperature and the thermal expansion of brass. Thus, this
unit provides temperature indication by measuring the change in length of the brass tube.
This change in length is converted to an air pressure as described above. Another example
of indirect measurement is that of fluid flow. One of the most common
methods of measuring fluid flow is to detect the pressure difference across a restriction.
This differential pressure has a direct relationship to volume flow rate by means of a
mathematical equation developed by the manufacturer of the device.
Multi-variable sensing is used to provide information regarding properties that also cannot
be measured directly. For example, we may wish to measure the heat flow rate in a reboiler
for purposes of controlling the flow of steam to a distillation column. From a course in
thermodynamics, we know that heat flow is defined as:
q m0.x cp x (T2 T1)
where: q - heat flowrate; m- mass flowrate; cp - specific heat;
T2 - outlet temperature; T1 - inlet temperature

The specific heat is a material property that can usually be considered a constant. If it does
vary widely with temperature, this variation is predictable and can also be mathematically

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defined. If we measure both temperatures and the mass flow rate of fluid, we can send this
information to a central processor. The processor is programmed with the above
equation(s) to provide the controller a value representing heat flow rate. The controller
then responds to this value based on its tuning parameters.

6. Criteria to choose a sensor: The following are certain features that are considered when
choosing a sensor.

(i) Type of Sensing: The parameter that is being sensed like temperature or pressure.

(ii) Operating Principle: The principle of operation of the sensor.

(iii) Power Consumption: The power consumed by the sensor will play an important role in defining
the total power of the system.

(iv) Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is a key factor in selecting a sensor.

(v) Environmental Conditions: The conditions in which the sensor is being used will be a factor in
choosing the quality of a sensor.

(v) Cost: Depending on the cost of application, a low cost sensor or high cost sensor can be used.

(vi) Resolution and Range: The smallest value that can be sensed and the limit of measurement are
important.

(vi) Calibration and Repeatability: Change of values with time and ability to repeat measurements
under similar conditions

7. Requirements of sensor / transducer:

Basic Requirements of a Sensor or Transducer are :

Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature measurement,
a thermocouple can have a range of 25 250 0C.

Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy is
expressed as percentage of full range output. It is measured by the absolute and relative errors.

Absolute error = Result True value

Relative error = Absolute error / True value

Further, error can be either:

(i) System errors, result from a variety of factors such as: Interfering or modifying variables( i.e.
)temperature, drift ( i.e. changes in chemical structure or mechnical stresses), loading error,
attenuation, parallaxetc. Systematic error s can be corrected with compentation methods, such as
feedback, filtering.

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(ii) Random errors: Also called noise. A signal that carries no information. True random errors (
white noise) follow a gaussian distribution. The source of random error s are repeatability of the
measurand itself, envirmental noise, transmission noise, etc.

Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is
the ratio of change in output of the sensor to unit change in input value that causes change in
output. It is not time dependence. Such an idealised sensor has no memory and its output
instantly tracks the input. In the more general case it may know the steady state transfer
function of the sensor. We can
define the sensitivity as the derivative of the output with respect to the input:
S = y / x . This is a partial derivative. As it can be seen below, the sensor will exhibit
sensitivities to other ambient (e.g. temperature) or operating parameters (e.g. a supply
voltage). It is essential to study the sensor with all other (usually unintended) stimuli held
constant. Sensitivity is, in a few words, the ratio of electrical output to signal input (input
transducer), or physical output to electrical input (output transducer). e.g., a temperature
sensor may be quoted as 50 V/K. and a loudspeahker as 90dBspl/W. However, the term
sensitivity may also be used in its usual electronic sense, i.e. the %change of some property
of a device (eg gain) as a result of a % change in some parameter, (eg the ambient
temperature). For clarity, we will refer to this as the cross-sensitivity of x on y. The
sensitivity is also called the Gain of the sensor.

Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a period
of time.

Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications with
same input value.

Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.

Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of

deviation of curve of actual measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.

Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating
conditions.

Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable value
within the sensors specified range when approaching the point first with increasing and then with
decreasing the input parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic that a transducer has in being unable
to repeat its functionality faithfully when used in the opposite direction of operation.

8. Advantages of Electrical Transducers:

In physical process mostly quantity to be measured are non electrical. Such as temperature,
pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid flow spped ,etc., but these quantities cannot be measured
directly. Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed into sime other form for easy
measurement. Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance, inductance, capacantance,
frequency,etc can be conveniently measured, transferred and stored, and therefore, for
measurement of non electrical quantities these are to be converted into electrical quantities first
and then measured. The function of converting non electrical quantity into electrical one is

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accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer. Basicall an electrical ransducer is a sensing
device by which a physical, mechanical, or optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly,
with a suitable mechanism, into an electrical signal ( voltage, current, frequency). The generation
of these signal is based on electrical effect which may be resistive, inductive, capactive, etc. in
nature .. The input versus output energy reltionship takes a definite reproduceable functioin. The
output to input and output to time time behavior is predictable to a known degree of accurac,
sensitivity, and response, with the specified environmental conditions.

Electrical transducers have numerous advantages, some of them are enumerated bellowo:

1. Friction effect is reduced to the minimum possible.

2. Mass- inertia effects are reduced to the minimum possible.

3. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical or electronic system.

4. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level.

5. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distace from the sensing medium.
Further more than one indicator can be actuated simultaneously.

6. The output can be modified as per requirements of the indicating or controlling equipment. The
signal magnitude can be related in terms of the current or voltage. The analog signal information can
be converted into frequency or pulse informations. The same output can beconverted into a digital
format or display, print out or on-line computation. As the output can be modified, modulated or
amplified easily as per requirement, so the output signal can be easily adapted for recording on any
suitable multichannel recording oscillograph which can cater to a number of electrical transducers
simultaneously.

7. The signals can be conditioned or mixed for obtaining any combination with outputs of similar
transducers or control signals as in an data computer or adaptive control systems.

8. Enabled to miniaturization of systems

9. The contour design and dimentions can be so chosen as not to disturb the quantity under
measurement phenomena, as in case of turbulence measurements.

9. Calibration of Sensors /Transducers:

Calibration is the relationship between the physical measurement variable (x)he signal output
variable (s). A sensor is calibrated by applying a number of known physical inputs and recording the
response of the sensor / system.

Signal Output

(Y)

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 Physical input X

10. Classification of sensors and transducers:

The scheme of classifying sensors can range from very simple to very complex. Sensors and
transducers can be classified in varios ways as follow;

(i) Based on stimulus

(ii) Based on energy conversion

(iii) Based on applications of sensors

(iv) Physical position (Contct / Non- Contact type )

(v) Output type ( Analog / Digital) :

An analogue sensor produces continuously varying output signals over a range of values. Usually the
output signal is voltage and this output signal is proportional to the measurand. The quantity that is
being measured like speed, temperature, pressure, strain, etc. are all continuous in nature and
hence they are analogue quantities.

A Cadmium Sulfide Cell (CdS Cell) which is used to measure the intensity of light is an analogue
sensor. The resistance of a CdS cell varies according to the intensity of the light incident on it. When
connected to a voltage divider network, the change in resistance can be observed through varying

output voltage.

A thermocouple or a thermometer is an analog sensor. The following setup is used to measure the
temperature of the liquid in the container using a thermocouple. The output of an analogue sensor
tends to change smoothly and continuously over time. Hence the response time and accuracy of

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circuits employing analogue sensors is slow and less. In order to use these signals in a
microcontroller based system, Analog to Digital converters can be used.

Analogue sensors generally require an external power supply and amplification of some form to
produce appropriate output signals. Op Amps are very useful in providing amplification and filtering.

A digital sensor produces discrete digital signals. The output of a digital sensor has only two states,
namely ON and OFF. ON is logic 1 and OFF is logic 0. A push button switch is the best example of a
digital sensor. In this case, the switch has only two possible states: either it is ON when pushed or it
is OFF when released or not pushed.

The following setup uses a light sensor to measure the speed and produces a digital signal.

In the above setup, the rotating disc is connected to the shaft of a motor and has number of
transparent slots. The light sensor captures the presence or absence of the light and sends logic 1 or
logic 0 signal accordingly to the counter. The counter displays the speed of the disc. The accuracy
can be increased by increasing the transparent slots on the disc as it allows more counts over the
same amount of time.

In general, the accuracy of a digital sensor is high when compared to an analogue sensor. The
accuracy depends on the number of bits that are used to represent the measurand. Higher the
number of bits, the greater is the accuracy.

(vi) Input output relation (Trasducer / Inverse Transducer )

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(vii) Primary / Secondary

(i) The stimulus that is being sensed is an important factor in this classification. Some of the stimuli
are:

Acoustic: Wave, spectrum and wave velocity.

Electric: Current, charge, potential, electric field, permittivity and conductivity.

Magnetic: Magnetic field, magnetic flux and permeability.

Thermal: Temperature, specific heat and thermal conductivity.

Mechanical: Position, acceleration, force, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density, momentum, torque,
shape, orientation, roughness, stiffness, compliance, crystallinity and structural.

Optical: Wave, wave velocity, refractive index, reflectivity, absorption and emissivity.

The sensors conversion phenomenon is also an important factor in classification of sensors. Some of
the conversion phenomena are magneto electric, thermoelectric and photoelectric.

(ii) Based on power or signal requirement :

All the sensors can be classified into two types based on the power or signal requirement. They are:

(a) Active sensors, and

(b) passive sensors.

In order to operate Passive sensors, require power signal from an external source. This signal is
called an excitation signal, and based on this excitation signal the sensor produces output. Strain
gauge, RTD, thermister, photoconductor, et. are examples of passive sensor. It is a pressure sensitive
resistive bridge network and doesnt produce the output electrical signal on its own. The amount of
force applied can be measured by relating it to the resistance of the network. The resistance can be
measured by passing current through it. Current acts as the excitation signal.

Activee sensors directly produce the output in electrical signal in response to the input stimulus. All
the power required by a passive sensor is obtained from the measurand. A thermocouple ,
photovoltaic, e.g. solar cells, portable exposure meters, piezoelectric crystals,Electromagnetic,
etc.
(iii) Based on the applications of sensors: Their classification can be made as follows.

I. Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors

Resistive Element or Potentiometer

Capacitive Elements

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Strain Gauged Element

Inductive Proximity Sensors

Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

Differential Transformers

Optical Encoders

Hall Effect Sensors

Pneumatic Sensors

Proximity Switches

Rotary Encoders

II. Temperature Sensors

Thermistors

Thermocouple

Bimetallic Strips

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Thermostat

III. Light Sensors

Photo Diode

Phototransistor

Light Dependent Resistor

IV. Velocity and Motion

Pyroelectric Sensors

Tachogenerator

Incremental encoder

V. Fluid Pressure

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Tactile Sensor

Piezoelectric Sensors

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Capsules, Bellows, Pressure Tubes

VI. Liquid Flow and Level

Turbine Meter

Orifice Plate and Venturi Tube

VII. IR Sensor

Infrared Transmitter and Receiver Pair

VIII. Force

Strain Gauge

Load Cell

IX. Touch Sensors

Resistive Touch Sensor

Capacitive Touch Sensors

X. UV Sensors

Ultraviolet Light Detector

Photo Stability Sensors

UV Photo Tubes

Germicidal UV Detectors

Primary / Secondary Sensor

The quantity or the variable which is being measured makes its first contact with the primary
sensing element of a measurement system. The measurement is thus first detected by primary
sensor or detector. The measurement is then immediately converted into an analogous electrical
signal. This is done by a transducer. Though a transducer in general, is defined as a device
which converts energy from one form to another. But in measurement systems, this definition
is limited in scope. A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into
an electrical quantity. The output of the sensor and detector element employed for measuring
a quantity could be in different analogous form. This output is then converted into an electrical
signal by a transducer. This is true of most of the cases but is not true for all. In many cases,
the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a detector transducer.
The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage.

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11. Static and Dynamic Characteristics

11.1 Static Characteristics:

The properties of the sensor / tranducer after all transient effects have settled to their final or
steady state is called static characteristic. These characteristics are defined in terms of:

1. Accuracy,

2. Discrimination,

3. Precision,

4. Linearity errors,

5. Drift,

6. Sensitivity,

7. Linearity

8. Hysteresis

1. Accuracy: It is the conformaty of a measured value to an accepted standard or true value. The
accuracy defines the limits that the errors will not exceed when operated in the standard conditions.

1.1 Resolution: The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated , is
defined as resolution. For digital display, it corresponds to the last stable value.

1.2 Calibration: A transducer gives a response that is measured, but the calibration converts the the
response to a measurement of the propertyof interest. For a liquid glass thermometer, the response
is the height of liquid, calibration by measurement with standards converts this to temperature.

2. Discrimination: Discrimination is the minimal change of the input necessary to produce a

tetectable change at the output. Discrimination is also called as resolution. When the input
increment is from zero, it is calle thrusthold.

3. Precision: The capacity of transducer / sensor to give the same reading when repeatitivelly
measuring the same parameter under the same prescribed conditions.

Precision implies agreement between successive readings, may not closeness to the true value.

Precision is related to variance of a set of measurements. Precision is a necessary but not

sufficient condition for accuracy.

Two terms closely related to precision. (i) Repeatability and (ii) Reproducibility.

(i) Repeatability: It the precision of a set of measurement taken over a short time interval.

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(ii) The precision of a set of measurement but taken over a long time interval or performed by
different operators or in different laboratories.

10.1.1 Difference Accuracy and precision

When selecting a sensor-transmitter, one concern is how well the actual output of the
transmitter conforms to the intended output. Such a specification consists of a measure of
accuracy, precision, deadband, hysteresis, and reproducibility.In layman's terms, accuracy
and precision are often used interchangeably. In actuality, they have entirely different
meanings. Accuracy is defined as the error between the measured value and the true value
of the process variable. It is also referred to as conformity or linearity. Figure 28(a) is a
graphic depiction of accuracy. Precision refers to how repeatable a measurement is. As
such, it is often referred to as repeatability.

a) Conformity b) Repeatability
Figure : Conformity and repeatability of an analog signal

a) Accuracy, no precision b) Precision, no accuracy c) Accuracy and Precision

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d) Accuracy with e) Precision f) No accuracy
random error with random error No precision

Figure : A graphic representation of precision and accuracy

A measurement may be precise, but not accurate. The Figure above illustrates the
difference. Assume a hunter is target shooting. The goal is to hit the target in the center.
Target 'a' illustrates the hunters aim is more or less 'on target'. But the shots are not closely
grouped, indicating the hunter's aim may be accurate but not precise (repeatable). On the
other hand, target 'b' in the graphic illustrates the hunter's aim is off center. However, all
shots are closely grouped, thus the hunter's aim is precise (repeatable), but not accurate.
Target's 'd' and 'e' show the same results, but with a stray shot. This would be considered
random error and is often ignored when defining an accuracy specification. Although we
desire both a high degree of precision and accuracy for sensors installed in a control loop,
precision is more important than accuracy. If the measurement capability of the
sensor/transmitter is very repeatable, the control system will respond in a predictable
manner, even if it is not accurate. Any loss of accuracy may be compensated artificially by
adjusting the manual reset or the set point of the controller.

Calculating Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision may be expressed in a myriad of ways. The most
common ways are:
In Engineering Units
Percent of Reading
Percent of Span
Percent of Full Scale
Irrespective of how accuracy and precision are expressed, the basic calculation is the same.
Accuracy is a statistical calculation comparing the average of a statistically significant
population to the true measurement. Precision is also a statistical calculation represented
by the coefficient of variance. An example is in order.
Assume a room sensor/transmitter is rated to output a 4 - 20 ma signal over a sensing range
of 60 0F - 85 0F. The sensor is used to measure the temperature of a body known to be at 76
0
F. The test involves two groups of ten readings. In the first group, the sensor starts at a
temperature above 76 0F and is allowed to equalize. In the second group, the sensor is at a
temperature below 76 0F and is allowed to equalize. Table 4 also tabulates the calculated
average of each series of readings.
To express the accuracy in engineering units, one could state the sensor is accurate to
within +1/- 1.2 0F.
Temperature Decreasing Temperature Increasing
77 74
76 74
77 76
78 75
77 75.5
76.5 74.5
77.5 75

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77 76
78 74
76 74.5
Ave = 77 Ave = 74.8
Table 4: Test data for a 60-85 0F room sensor measuring a body at 76 0F

The calculated error for this sensor as temperature is decreasing is:

% error = {(x- - x) / x} x100

% error = {(74.8 -76) / 76x 100 = 1.3%

The calculated error for this sensor as temperature is increasing is:

% error = {(77 -76) / 76x 100 = - 1.6%

The accuracy for this sensor could be stated as +1.3/-1.6 % of reading.

To express the percent error in terms of sensor span, one would use the same procedure as
above except the divisor would be the span of the sensor. The range is 60 oF - 85 oF and the
span is 25 oF. Thus the accuracy would be +4/-4.8 % of span.
Finally, accuracy can be expressed in terms of fullscale reading. Since full-scale
reading is 85 oF, the accuracy specification would be +1.1/-1.4 % of full-scale
reading.
The calculation of precision involves the calculation of the coefficient of variance.This
calculation is performed as follows:

Temperature Decreasing
Reading (x) x x - x x -) 2
77 0 0
76 -1 1
77 0 0
78 1 1
77 0 0
76.5 0.5 0.25
77.5 -0.5 0.25
77 0 0
78 1 1
76 -1 1
x- 77 x x-) 2 4.5
Table : Calculation of precision for 60-85 oF sensor on decreasing temperature

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Coeff of Var = StdDev / x

StdDev = (Variance)1/2

Variance = x x-) 2 / (n-1)} , where n sample size

Referring to Table 5, we can finish the calculation of precision as follows:

Variance = 4.5 / (10-1) = 0.5
StdDev = (0.5)1/2 = 0.707
Coeff of Var x = (0.707 / 77)x 100 = 0.9
In a similar fashion, the precision for this sensor on increasing temperature can be shown to
equal 1.0 %. Thus the precision of this sensor is +0.9/-1.0 %.

Temperature Increasing

Reading (x) x x- (x-x-)2

74 -0.8 0.64
74 -0.8 0.64
76 1.2 1.44
75 0.2 0.04
75. 5 0.7 0.49
74.5 -0.3 0.09
75 0.2 0.04
76 1.2 1.44
74 -0.8 0.64
74.5 -0.3 0.09
x 74.8 2 x x 5.55
Table 6: Calculation of precision for 60-85 oF sensor on increasing
temperature

4. Linearity errors: The deviation of the transducer output for varying input from straight line

5. Drift: The signal level may vary from its set zero value when the sensor works. This introduces an
error into the measurement equal to the amount of variation, or drift as it is usually termed. Zero drift
may result from changes of temperature, electronics stabilizing, or aging of the transducer or
electronic components.

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6. Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in magnitude of the output to the change in the input after
steady state has been reached is called sensitivity of transducer / sensor. It is also defined as change
in output to one present change in input stimulus. Strong nonlinearity can lead to very high
sensitivity. Mathematically, sensitivity is calculated as:
sensitivity = Change in output signal / Change in input signal
For example, assume we have a sensor /transmitter rated for 50 oF to 150 oF. The
transmitter outputs a 4 ma to 20 ma signal. Determine the sensitivity of the
sensor /transmitter.
o
sensitivity = (20 4 ma ) / (150 - 500 F) = 0.16 ma / 0F

This means the transmitter output will increase by 0.16 ma for every 10F increase in
temperature. So how does one use this fact to predict the output of a transmitter given a temperature?
Assume a properly calibrated sensor/transmitter. If the we know the sensor is exposed to a temperature of 96
oF, we can determine the following:
At 50 0F, the transmitter outputs 4 ma .
From 50 0F to 96 0F, there is a 46 0F change in the input to the sensor
460 F x 0.16ma/ 0F 7.36 ma This represents the change in output signal from the
transmitter
Since the output at 50 0F is 4 ma, then at 96 0F, we will have 4 + 7.36 = 11.36 ma total output signal. The
process above is independent of the signals measured.

As another example, assume a pneumatic static pressure transmitter with an application range of -0.25 in w.g.
to 1.75 in w.g. The sensitivity of this transmitter is:

Sensitivity = (15 3psi) / (1.75 + 0.25in w.g.) = 6 psi in w.g.

If we wish to predict the output at a pressure reading of 0.45 in w.g., we would do the
following:
At -0.25 in w.g., the transmitter outputs 3 psi
From -0.25 in w.g. To 0.45 in w.g. is a 0.70 in w.g. change in the input to the sensor
0.70in w.g.x 6 psi / in w.g. = 4.2 psi . This represents the change in output signal
Since the output at -0.25 in w.g. is 3 psi, then at 0.45 in w.g., we will have 4.2 + 3 = 7.2 psi
total output signal.
The equation of a sensor
Sometimes, it is appropriate to write the defining equation for a sensor. This is useful when
calibrating sensor /transmitters and is essential when programming general purpose digital
controllers. Fortunately, sensor/transmitters are linear and can be defined with the
equation for a straight line, y mx b . When applied, it can be written in a more descriptive
form as:
output sensitivity input offset
For example, lets assume a flow sensor/transmitter capable of sensing a flow rate from 0 to
100 gpm. The sensor/transmitter outputs a signal of 2 to 10 volts over the sensing range.
Write the equation for this unit.
We can define sensitivity as: volts gpm volts/ gpm

Now we need to find offset. We can do this by writing the equation around a known

19
point. In this case, we know the transmitter outputs 2 volts when flow rate is 0 gpm. We
also know the output is 10 volts when the flow rate is 100 gpm. We can use either of these
points to calculate offset. Both calculations are shown below.

2 volts = 0.08volts/ gpm x 0 gpm +offset ( offset = 2 volts)

10volt = 0.08volts gpm x 0 gpm +offst ( offset = 2 volts)
Regardless of which point you choose to determine the value of the offset, the final
equation is: output = 0.08 volts /gpm input = 2 volts
Now it's a simple matter of substituting a given gpm flow rate for the input variable to
calculate the expected output signal. For example, to determine the output of the
transmitter at a flow rate of 56 gpm, we can write:
output = 0.08 volts/ gpm x 56 gpm + 2volts = 6.48volts
Notice this is identical to what we did above. It is just a more formal way of handling the
same thing.

7. Linearity: Closeness of calibration curve to a specified straight line.

Monotonicity: a monotonicity curve is one in which the dependent variable always increases or
decrease as the independent variable increases.;

8. Hysteresis: hysteris can occur in a number of situations; some are inherant in the sensor /
transducer and other du to defects in the sensor/ transducer and should be avoided.It refers to the
characteristic that a transducer is being unable to repeat faithfully, in the opposite direction of
operation, the data that have been recorded in one direction

A linear sensor with memory will exhibit an apparently hysteretic behaviour if a stimulus of a
high enough frequency (typically higher than the first characteristic frequency, pole or zero)
is applied to it. True hysteresis, as encountered in magnetics, arises when the second order
kernel has a very long time constant in the second order kernel. Hysteresis is not necessarily a
complication. It may be used to provide noise immunity in threshold sensing devices. An
intentionally hysteretic voltage sensor is the Schmitt Trigger used extensively to combat
noise in timer or counter instruments.

Calibration

20
If a meaningful measurement is to be made, it is necessary to measure the output of a sensor in
response to an accurately known input. This process is known as calibration, and the devices that
produce the input are described as calibration standards.

Span (input)

A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor id called a span or an input full scale
(FS). It represents the highest possible input value which can be applied to the sensor without causing
unacceptably large inaccuracy (shown in Figure 3).

Full Scale Output

Full scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured with
maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied. This must include all deviations from
the ideal transfer function. For instance, the FSO output in Figure 3 is represented by SFS.

11.2 Dynamic Characteristics:

In any sensor, the response due to a given input takes some time for its excursion from the initial to
final steady state condition. This period is known as trient period. The study of output response of
sensor / transducer during this period is called dynamic characteristics. In general, the
mathematical represent of dynamic response of sensor / transducer can be written in the form as
below:

Dx / dt = X0 f ( x, t )

The dynamic characteristic of a sensor is essential due to the possibility of storage of energy in
certain elements osf transducer. Generally the performance of sensors / transducers can be studied
by considering the model of sensor / transducer as:

21
1. Zero order, 2. First order, and 3. Second order

Zero order Characteristics of Sensor / Transducer: Zero order Characteristics is the constant
relation between input and output of transducer. This constant is termed as gain of the transducer.
Let y(t) and x(t) are output and input of the transducer, then:

Y(t) = k . x(t) Y(s) / X(s) = K

Zero order is the desirable response of a sensor. It have not delays, but have infinite banwidth. The
sensor only changes the amplitude of the input signal. Zero system donot include energy storing
elements. Example of a zero order Sensor is potentiometer, used to measure linear and rotary
displacements.

Vcc X

First Order Sensor: In first order sensor, there is an element that store energy and another one that
dissipate it. The relation between input x(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential
equation that takes the form:

a1(dy(t)/ dt) + a0 y(t) = x(t)

or Y(s) / X(s) = K / ( 1 + S), where K = 1 / a0 and = a1/ a0

Conducting frequency 0 = 1/

Second Order Sensor: In second order system, there are two energy storing and one energy
dissipating element. The relation between input x(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential
equation that takes the form:

a2{ d2 y(t) / dt2 } + a1(dy(t)/ dt) + a0 y(t) = x(t)

2 2 2
or Y(s) / X(s) / [ K n / ( S + 2 n S + n )

where, k - static sensitivity = 1 / a0,

22
-Damping coefficient if of sensor = { a1 / ( sqrt (a0.a2))} , and

n natural frequency of of sensor = sqrt (a0 /a2)

In second order sensor systen the sensor input impedance should be high for
reducing the error.

12. Characterization of Transducer

In the laboratory the atmosphere is relatively free from contaminants, the temperature is relatively
stable, the area is free from vibration, and personnel are specialized in handling the equipment they
are using. The industrial measure is often made under reverse conditions. The produced signal must
be capable of transmission to recording equipment which may be a considerable distance away. The
wiring between the two may be induced much electrical noise. Thus, it is necessary to study te
electrical, mechanical, and thermal characterizations of transducers.

12.1 Electrical Characterization:

The study of sensors by means of their static and dynamic characteristic is no way complete. The quality of
sensor / transducer is greatly affected by electrical parameter as such input / output impedance, break down
voltage and fields, leakage currents, noise, cross talk, bias, etc. For example, to prevent loosing of contact, the
wiper in a potentiometer from with the resistive element, it is necessary for the wiper to exert a force on it, if
it is desired to measure the movement of wiper. To overcome the friction between the wiper and resistive
element, some energy shall be required. It turns out that neither the static nor the dynamic characterics of
sensors describe the real behaviour. A certain amount of power from the measured varible is taken by
transducer. This extraction of a certain amount of power from the measured variable is said a loading error.
The concept of input impedance allows determining when there will be a loading error.

Consider a sensor / transducer, say a thermocouple, with out put impedance zo connected in series
with a Thevenin source of voltage. Let E0 be open terminal voltage as shown in fig. below. When a
measuring or recording device is connected to the terminals, the output voltage under this becomes

E0 = EL ( 1 + Z0 / Zi ) and actul voltage measured = EL = E0 / ( 1 + Z0 / Zi )

Thus, the measured voltage is modified both in magnitude and phase. Inorder that original signal
remain unchanged, the input impedance Zi of measuring device should be infinite or the the value
of output impedance Z0 should be zero. To meet these conditions, it is compromise that input
impedance shall be very high while output impedance shall be low. Thus, for voltage sensitive
sensors should be very high while for current sensitivity input impedance of measuring device to
output impedance should be very low.

Breakdown of insulting part of sensor is very critical as the health of the system depends on it. For
metal-insulator metal (MIM) or for metal-insulator semiconductor (MIS) structure, the breakdown
of insulting film is studied by the system shown in fig. Three differen types of breakdown are interest

23
for such film; (i) dielectric strength, (ii) wear out, and (iii) current induced breakdown. The three
case studies ar shown below .

Breakdown generally implies a sudden or avalance change in voltage or current voltage dropping
to a neglible value and current rising to a very high value. Break down may beextrinsic or intrinsic
though the mechanism in either case is basically the same. There occurs a high local field in material
which may be defect-induced which then is called extrinsic. However, if this is high field induced, it is
called intrinsic type. In latter case, the high field induces microvoids to generate defects leading it to
behave as evtrinsic type.

Leakage current measurement specifies the sensor quality, specially its insulting quality as also the
quality of p-n junctions wherever it exits.

Noise comes from electromagnetic interference, ac magnetic fluction, 50 Hz supply pick up,
mechnical or acoustic vibration, or photon-induced output. Sensors are to be characterized for noise
testing for immunityto suchnoise.

In multichannel or array sensors, crosstalk may occur due to overlapping of signals between the two
adjucent transducer elements. It may, however, occure in a single transducer system because of
inductive or capacitive coupling or coupling through the common voltage source during transduction
inside the element. It is measured using correlation techniques.

12.2 Mechanical Characterization:

It describes the withstnd capability of Sensor / Transducer due to mechanical forces tolerance behaviour such

as vibration, tortional stress, elasticity, size of mateial, viscocity, hardness, phase concentration, etc. The failure

rate due to each mechanical parameters can be estimated or determine expermentally. The failure rate can also

be computed from bath curve. Thus, mechanical characterization provides the reliability of sensor / transducer.

Reliability is the probability of availability. Availability of a system can be is calculated as given by equation

(20):

= 100 (20)
+

The availability of a transducer is also influenced by the reliability of control software programs in case of

intelligent transducer. However, softwares are not subjected to the same probabilities and failures that are common

to hardware. The parameters used for calculating the availability are based on the mean time between failure

(MTBF) and the mean time to repair (MTTR) of transducer. Thus, availability of a system is given by equation

(21):

=
+

(i) Mechanical Hysteresis

The dependence of the strain not only on the instantaneous value of the stress but also on the previous
history of stress. Effect depends on the raw material used, aging, etc.

24
(ii) Viscous Flow or Creep
Effect due to viscous flow in the material of the sensing element. Magnitude increases with increasing
load and temperature. Materials with low melting point show larger creep values.
(iii) Elastic after Effect
A continued deformation when the load is applied and kept constant. This effect decreases with
time. Like creep, there is a similar relaxation towards the original position when the load is removed.
Virtually no deformation is observed.

Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus, it is a
measure of plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength

Mechanical Properties of Metals

1. Introduction

Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used. Mechanical
engineers calculate those forces and material scientists how materials deform
(elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of applied load, time,
temperature, and other conditions.

Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing

materials. Results from the tests depend on the size and shape of material to be
tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of performing the test. That is
why we use common procedures, or standards, which are published by the
ASTM.

2. Concepts of Stress and Strain

To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area,
also called normalization to the area. Force divided by area is called stress. In
tension and compression tests, the relevant area is that perpendicular to the
force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

= F/A0 tensile or compressive stress

= F/A0 shear stress

The unit is the Megapascal = 106 Newtons/m2.

There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, L as a result of a

tensile or compressive stress. To enable comparison with specimens of
different length, the elongation is also normalized, this time to the length L.
This is called strain, .

= L/L

The change in dimensions is the reason we use A0 to indicate the initial area
since it changes during deformation. One could divide force by the actual area,
this is called true stress (see Sec. 6.7).

25
 For torsional or shear stresses, the deformation is the angle of twist, Fig.
6.1) and the shear strain is given by:

= tg

3. StressStrain Behavior

Elastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material returns to the
dimension it had before the load was applied. Valid for small strains (except
the case of rubbers).

Deformation is reversible, non permanent

Plastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material does not return
to its previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation.

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is

called Hooke's law:

= E

That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or

modulus of elasticity. In some cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can
be defined alternatively as the local slope:

E = d/d

Shear stresses produce strains according to:

= G

where G is the shear modulus.

Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the
second derivative of the interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the
force vs. internuclear distance (Fig. 6.6). By examining these curves we can
tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic
modulus decreases with temperature. E is large for ceramics (stronger ionic
bond) and small for polymers (weak covalent bond). Since the interatomic
distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends on direction (i.e., it is
anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is
isotropic.

4. Anelasticity

Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not immediately
reversible. It takes a while for the strain to return to zero. The effect is
normally small for metals but can be significant for polymers.

5. Elastic Properties of Materials

26
 Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression,
bulge. The ratio of lateral and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio .

= lateral/axial

The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related by E =
2G(1+)

6. Tensile Properties

Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being
proportional to the stress. The point at which this happens is the yield point
because there the material yields, deforming permanently (plastically).

Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the
yield point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the
mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is chosen as
that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 (strain offset, Fig. 6.9.)

The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.

The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic
bond is stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves
breaking and reforming bonds.

Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.

Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain
passes through a maximum, called the tensile strength (TS) , and then falls as
the material starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the fracture point
(Fig. 6.10).

Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important

property than the tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has
deformed beyond acceptable limits.

Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of

brittleness. Ductility can be given either as percent maximum elongation max
or maximum area reduction.

%EL = max x 100 %

%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0

These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).

27
 Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume
is the

area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.

Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit

volume is the total area under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an
impact test (Ch. 8).

7. True Stress and Strain

When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after
reaching the tensile strength. The material starts necking (the transverse area
decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond TS. The ratio of the force to
the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the
ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.

8. Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the
stress is then released, the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the
stress is reapplied, the material again responds elastically at the beginning up
to a new yield point that is higher than the original yield point (strain
hardening, Ch. 7.10). The amount of elastic strain that it will take before
reaching the yield point is called elastic strain recovery (Fig. 6. 16).

9. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation

Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses, but in
the case of compressive stresses there is no maximum in the curve, since
no necking occurs.

10. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch).

Thus, it is a measure of plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they
are well correlated. Historically, it was measured on an empirically scale,
determined by the ability of a material to scratch another, diamond being the
hardest and talc the softer. Now we use standard tests, where a ball, or point is
pressed into a material and the size of the dent is measured. There are a few
different hardness tests: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular
because they are easy and non-destructive (except for the small dent).

11. Variability of Material Properties

Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test
equipment, procedures, operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if
all those parameters are controlled within strict limits, a variation remains in
the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non
homogenous composition and structure, etc. The measured mechanical

28
 properties will show scatter, which is often distributed in a Gaussian curve
(bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value and the standard
deviation (width).

12. Design/Safety Factors

To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value of,
say, the tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum value
tolerable. This leads to the use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value
for the tensile strength would be W =TS / N

12.3 Thermal Characterization:

Thermal characterization is an important feature of sensor / transducer. It raises the thermal stress
in the transducer / sensor. These results a fraction of input energy is lost in increasing the internal
temperature of sensor / transducer. This further derates the capacity of sensor. Also, thermal
stresses may carray out failure of the sensor or introduce error in the performance of sensor.

13. Bath Curve of Sensor / Transducer:

A plot of the failure rate over time for most sensor / transducer yields a curve that looks like a drawing of a
bathtub. Thus,the transducer / sensor failure rate can be represented by graphically in three parts
against time. The 1st part define the initial part,a decreasing failure rate, known as early failure / or
infant morality. Transducer failure during during 100 days or defined time is considered for this part.
Failures of transducer / sensor during infant morality period is highly undesirable and always are
faulty design or manufactured defect.

The 2nd part of the bath curve is called normal life failure.. During this phase, the failure of sensors /
transducers are normally due to random exceed of stress strength. Transducers normal life / useful
life is limited by shortest lived component.

The third part of bath curve is called end of life. During this period, failure increases due to aging and
wear out, or constant stresses. These three parts represents the shape of bath curve is generally
used to study the reliability of transducer.

29
 Fig. Bath Curve of Senso / Transducer

Example: A thermocouple open circuit voltage is 6.0 millivolt . It is measured with millivoltmeter
whose sensitivity is 2000ohm/ volt. The output resistance of thermocouple is 10 killo ohm.

14. Mechanical and Electromechanical sensors:

Mechanical sensor is a class of sensors to measure mechanical phenomena, such as pressure sensor,
force and torque sensor, inertial snsor, flow sensor, acceleration sensor, etc. The mechanical sensor
generally uses the following techniques for detecting / converting the input stimulus or variable into
output response or variable.
(i) Piezoresistivity technique
(ii) Piezoelectricity technique
(iii) Capacitive technique
(iv) Inductive technique
(v) Resonant technique

4.1 Potentiometers
An often-used position sensor is the potentiometer. It is motion type resitive transducer. The
potentiometer is composed of a resistor and a contact slider that allows position or displacement to be
made proportional to resistance. There are linear and rotary potentiometers depending on whether the
displacement to be measured is linear or angular. Potentiometers are quite inexpensive, very rugged,
and easy to use. However, they are not as accurate as some other position transducers. They can be used
for linear as well as angular displacement measurement, as shown in Fig. 1. They are the resistive type
of transducers and the output voltage is proportional to the displacement and is given by:
e0 = (xi / xt ).E
where x is the input displacement, x is the total displacement and E is the supply voltage. The major
i t

problem with potentiometers is the contact problem resulting out of wear and tear between the
moving and the fixed parts. As a result, though simple, application of potentiometers is limited.

30
Error due to loading in potentiometer:

Let us consider a dc source is connected across fixed terminals AB and Rt is the resistance of uniform
wire wound potentiometer whose total length lt. Then,

Resistance per unit length of potentiometer = Rt / lt V0 / Vi

Resistance between BC, RBC = (Rt / lt ). li = Rt (li / lt ) 1-----------

Current drawn through the voltage source, I = Vi / Rt

V0 = RBC .i = Rt (li / lt ) . Vi / Rt = (li / lt ). Vi ( when no meter is connected) 1 li / lt

When the output device meter is connected at the output terminals pf potentiometer, let R m is the
resistance meter. Now,

Output resistance of potentiometer = Rt (li / lt ).Rm / {Rt (li / lt )+Rm}

= KRt Rm / {KRt +Rm}, where K = li / lt

Now, the total resistance seen by the source, R = Rt (1-K) + KRt Rm / {KRt +Rm}

= {K Rt2 (1-K) + Rt .Rm } /(KRt +Rm)

Now, Current drawn through the voltage source, I = Vi / R = {Vi (KRt +Rm)} / {K Rt2 (1-K) + Rt .Rm}

The output voltage under output device connected, V0 = i.K Rt Rm / (K Rt +Rm )

= Vi K / { K(1-K).(Rt/Rm) +1}

The ratio of output to input voltage under load conditions is,

V0 / Vi = K / { K(1-K).(Rt/Rm) +1}

Error = output when load connected output load not connected

= - Vi [ K2 (K-1) / { K(1-K)+(Rm/Rt)}]

31
 error

K = li / lt

Strain Gage: Basics

Conside strain stretchs a thin wire (~25 m). Its length increases and its diameter
decreases. This results in increasing resistance of the wire. This can be used to measure
extremely small displacements of the order of nanometers.
For a rectangular wire
Rline = L/.A = L/A, where A = w.t, where, w=width and t= thickness
= conductivity, and = resistivity
Thus, R/R = L/L A/A + /

For a strained thin wire

R/R = L/L A/A + /

A = (D/2)2, for circular wire L

Poissons ratio, :relates change in diameter D to change in
length L
D/D / L/L = ; Thus, R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect
Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

G = (R/R) /( L/L)= (1+2) + ( / )/ (L/L)

Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

Strain Gage: Materials

material gage factor, G TCR (10-5)
Ni80 Cr20 2.1 - 2.6 10
Pt92 W8 3.6 4.4 24
Silicon (n type) -100 to -140 70 to 700
Germanium (p type) 102
TCR = temperature coefficient of resistivity (C-1)
G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals
due to stronger piezoresistive effect, semiconductors have much higher TCR and requires
temperature compensation in strain gage.
Strain Gage
Unbonded strain gage: In unbondedstrain gage, end points are anchored but material
between end points is unbonded.
Bonded strain gage: material is cemented to strained surface

32
 Unbonded strain gage is used for measuring diaphragm pressure, strain etc.
Bonded strain gage are (a) resistive wire,(b) foil type, (c) helical wire
temperature compensation

unbonded dummy strain gage

direction of max sensitivity ?

Balanced bridge Vout = 0,

occurs when R1/R2 = R4/R3, which is also R1/R4 = R2/R3 It implies that mid-node
voltages must be equal.
Single element sensor
R3 = Ro (1+x), x = factional change in resistance of sensor
if R1 = R4 Vout- = VCC/2
if R2 = Ro V ou t+ = VCC (Ro(1+x) / Ro(2+x))
Vout- = VCC/(2+x), Vout+ = VCC((1+x) / (2+x)) VCC (x/(2+x))
Vout+ increases as x increases
Vout+ = VCC/2 when x=0, =VCC when x= infinity
Vout- is same, only Vout+ increases with x
Vout = VCC ((1+x)/(2+x) 1/2)
Two element (half bridge)
R1 & R3 increases/decrease together
if R2=R4=Ro and R1=R3=Ro(1+x)
Vout- = VCC/(2+x), Vout+ = VCC((1+x) / (2+x)) Vout = VCC (x/(2+x))
increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive

Two element (half bridge); alternative

R1=R4, R3 increases when R2 decreases (and visa versa)
if R1=R4=Ro R3=Ro(1+x) and R2=Ro(1-x)
Vout- = VCC/2
Vout+ = VCC ((1+x)/2)
Vout = VCC ((1+x)/2 1/2)
increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive
Four element full bridge
R1 & R3 increases/decrease together
R2 & R4 decrease/increase together
change opposite of R1 & R3
if R1=R3=Ro(1+x) and R2=R4=Ro(1-x)
Vout+ = ??
Vout- = ??
Vout = ??

Semiconductor Strain Gage

Semiconductors:
make highly sensitive strain gages
have higher gage factors than metals/alloys
more temperature sensitive than metals/alloys
less linear than metals/alloys
Semiconductor strain gage option:
bulk semiconductor material

33
 p-type: positive gage factor
n-type: negative gage factor
lightly doped material gives higsh gage factor
diffused/doped semiconductor
Integrated planer multi-element strain gage:
Example: diaphragm pressure sensor
strain gage (resistors) integrated into the surface
when pressure is applied, diaphragm bends
outer strain gages stretch and inner gages compress
Wheatstone bridge configuration
high sensitivity & good temperature compensation

Cantilever-beam force sensor

2 piezoresistors in top and two in bottom of a semiconductor beam
when force F is applied
R1 & R3 (on top) are compressed
R2 & R4 (on bottom) are stretched
can be read out with Wheatstone bridge

34
14.3 Inductive Transducer:

Inductance is the feature of flux which opposes the building / decaying of current instantaneously.
Inductance are caterized in to (i) Self inductace, and (ii) mutal inductance. Thus, inductive
transducers operate on one of the following three principles.

(i) Variation of self inductance of the coil,

(ii) Variation of mutal inductance of the coil, and

(iii) eddy current generation.

(i) Working principle of self inductance transducer: The self inductance of coil is given by equn.

L = N2 / S , S = reluctance of flux path = l / .A = N2 G (1)

Where N is the number of turns on the coil, l is the mean length of magnetic path, and A is area of
cross section of magnetic path and is the permeability of the magnetic material. A/l is call ed the
geometric form factor, G.

Eqn. (1) shows that the self inductance of coil can be varied by varying the number of turns on the
coil, the permeability of magnetic materials or by changing the geometrical configyration of
magnetic circuit. It is usually used for measurement of displacement, by varying N, , or G.

Varation of Permeability Ferromagnetic type:

The self inductance, L = N2 G. This eqn. shows that self inductance is directly propotional to
permeability, .The variation in permeability of ferromagnetic material type sensor changes the self
inductance. Such a transducer has a coil wound on a former ( non-conductive tube) and an iron core,
to which the movable element is attached, moves inside the coil. When the iron core, is completely
inside the coil, self inductance of the coil is maximum because of increased value of flux. As the iron
core moves out, reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases causing decrease in flux which results in
decrease in self inductance, L of coil.

Former _ Iron Core

Displacement

35
 Output

Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) Transformer type

Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle of a
transformer. As shown in Figure 2, an LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a
stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is being measured. The coil assembly consists of three
coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form. The inn er
coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two
secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types of displacement transducer is the high degree of robustness.
Because there is no physical contact across the sensing element, there is no wear in the sensing element.

Because the device relies on the coupling of magnetic flux, an LVDT can have infinite resolution. Therefore the smallest
fraction of movement can be detected by suitable signal conditioning hardware, and the resolution of the transducer is solely
determined by the resolution of the data acquisition system.
An LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given position of the core. This association of a
signal value to a position occurs through electromagnetic coupling of an AC excitation signal on the primary winding to the c ore
and back to the secondary windings. The position of the core determines how tightly the signal of the primary coil is coupled to
each of the secondary coils. The two secondary coils are series-opposed, which means wound in series but in opposite
directions. This results in the two signals on each secondary being 180 deg out of phase. Therefore phase of the output signal
determines direction and its amplitude, distance.

Figure 3 depicts a cross-sectional view of an LVDT. The core causes the magnetic field generated by the primary winding to be
coupled to the secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly between both secondaries and the primary, as shown, the
voltage induced in each secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of phase. Thus the LVDT output (for the series -
opposed connection shown in this case) is zero because the voltages cancel each other.

Figure 3. Cross-Sectional View of LVDT Core and Windings

Displacing the core to the left (Figure 4) causes the first secondary to be more strongly coupled to the primary than the sec ond
secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the second secondary causes an output voltage that
is in phase with the primary voltage.

36
 Figure 4. Coupling to First Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to be more strongly coupled to the primary than the first
secondary. The greater voltage of the second secondary causes an output voltage to be out of phase with the primary voltage.

Figure 5. Coupling to Second Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

To summarize, The LVDT closely models an ideal zeroth-order displacement sensor structure at low frequency, where the
output is a direct and linear function of the input. It is a variable-reluctance device, where a primary center coil establishes a
magnetic flux that is coupled through a center core (mobile armature) to a symmetrically wound secondary coil on either side of
the primary. Thus, by measurement of the voltage amplitude and phase, one can determine the extent of the core moti on and
the direction, that is, the displacement.[1] Figure 6 shows the linearity of the device within a range of core displacement. Note
that the output is not linear as the core travels near the boundaries of its range. This is because less magnetic flux is coupled to
the core from the primary. However, because LVDTs have excellent repeatability, nonlinearity near the boundaries of the range
of the device can be predicted by a table or polynomial curve-fitting function, thus extending the range of the device.

Figure 6: Proportionally Linear LVDT Response to Core Displacement

37
Electromagnetic Type Variation of reluctance of magnetic circuit:
The inductance, L = N2 /S . Variable reluctance type inductive transducer for measurement of linear
displacement is shown in fig. below:

It consistance a electromagnet, iron piece, and coil. The distance between iron piece and
electromagnet varies by displacement of iron piece. This displacement varies the length of magnetic
path.

EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCER:

Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The driver creates an

alternating current in the sensing coil in the end of the probe. This creates an
alternating magnetic field with induces small currents in the target material;
these currents are called eddy currents. The eddy currents create an opposing
magnetic field which resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The
interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance between the
probe and the target. As the distance changes, the electronics sense the change
in the field interaction and produce a voltage output which is proportional to the
change in distance between the probe and target. The target surface must be at
least three times larger than the probe diameter for normal, calibrated operation; otherwise, special calibration my be
required.

Eddy-Current sensors are noncontact devices capable of high-resolution measurement of the position and/or change
of position of any conductive target. Eddy-Current sensors are also called inductive sensors, but generally "eddy
current" refers to precision displacement instruments (or nondestructive testing probes) and "inductive" refers to
inexpensive proximity switches. High resolution and tolerance of dirty environments make eddy-current sensors
indispensable in today's modern industrial operations.

High-Performance Sensors
It is important to distinguish between "high-performance" eddy-current sensors and inexpensive inductive sensors.
Simple inductive sensors, such as those used in inexpensive proximity switches, are comparatively crude devices
allowing them to carry a low price. Proximity type sensors are tremendously useful in automation applications and many
commercially available models and are well made for their intended applications, but they are not suited to precision
metrology applications.

In contrast, eddy-current sensors for use in precision displacement measurement and metrology applications use
complex electronic designs to execute complex mathematical algorithms. Unlike inexpensive sensors, these high-

38
performance sensors have outputs which are very linear, stable with temperature, and able to resolve incredibly small
changes in target position resulting in high resolution measurements.

Eddy-Current Sensor Advantages

Compared to other noncontact sensing technologies such as optical, laser, and capacitive, high-performance eddy-
current sensors have some distinct advantages.

Tolerance of dirty environments

Not sensitive to material in the gap between the probe and target

Less expensive and much smaller than laser interferometers

Less expensive than capacitive sensors

Eddy-Current sensors are not a good choice in these conditions:

Extremely high resolution (capacitive sensors are ideal)

Large gap between sensor and target is required (optical and laser are better)

Visit the Eddy-Current vs. Capacitive Sensors page for a more detailed comparison between these two technologies.

Applications
Eddy-Current sensors are useful in any application requiring the measurement or monitoring of the position of a
conductive target, especially in a dirty environment.

Position Measurement/Sensing

Eddy-Current sensors are basically position measuring devices. Their outputs always
indicate the size of the gap between the sensor's probe and the target. When the probe is
stationary, any changes in the output are directly interpreted as changes in position of the
target. This is useful in:

Automation requiring precise location

Machine tool monitoring

Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

Precision stage positioning

Dynamic Motion

39
Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
requires some form of noncontact measurement. Eddy-Current sensors are useful
whether the environment is clean or dirty and the motions are relatively small. Lion
Precision eddy-current sensors also have high frequency response (up to 80 kHz) to
accommodate high-speed motion.

Drive shaft monitoring

Vibration measurements

Capacitive Sensors :

Capacitance of two parallel plates

The most common capacitor consists of two parallel plates. The capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor depends on the area of the plates A and their separation d.
According to Gauss's law, the electric field between the two plates is:

Since the capacitance is defined by one can see that capacitance

is:

Thus you get the most capacitance when the plates are large and close together. A
large capacitance means that the capacitor stores a large amount of charge.

If a dielectric material is inserted between the plates, the microscopic dipole

moments of the material will shield the charges on the plates and alter the relation.
Materials have a permeability,which is given by the relative permeability, =0.
The capacitance is thus given by:

The energy, U is: given by:

40
Coaxial cylinders capacitor,C:

C = 2or L / ln b awhere L is the length of coaxial cylinder, a and b are the radius of
inner and outer coaxial cylinder respectively.

Effect of Dielectric
If the plates are close compared to the plate spacing, the calculation in Fig. 1 is accurate.
But as the plate spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect from the edges
and backs of the plates and the measured capacitance can be much larger than calculated.

All materials have a relative permeability, , greater than unity, so the

capacitance can be increased by inserting a dielectric. Sometimes, is
referred to as the dielectric constant of the material. The electric field
causes some fraction of the dipoles in the material to orient them selves
along the E-field as opposed to the usual random orientation. This,
effectively, appears as if negative charge is lined up against the positive
plate, and positve charge against the negative plate. In the figure to the
right, the blue material is the dielectric.

Effect of fringing flux

If the plates are close compared to the plate spacing, the calculation in Fig.
1 is accurate. But as the plate spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect
from the edges and backs of the plates and the measured capacitance can be much larger
than calculated.

Equivalent circuit:

An ideal dielectric has a zero conductivity. This means that the electrical circuit of the element with
this dielectric is pure capacitance, which does not dissipate any real power. The reactive power of
capacitor is, Qr = CV 2 , where angular frequency, rad/s ; Qr = reactive power
And its impedance is, Zc = 1/ j C

A real dielectric between the capacitor plates contributes to losses. The power dissipated in the
capacitor: P VI cos, cos = power factor , = power factor angle
I= current through capacitor , and V= voltage applied to the capacitor
The losses are also evaluated in terms of phase angle
Capacitors Equivalent Circuit
cossin= tan ; usually is very mall.
The actual element carrying the real dielectric can be regarded with a
perfect capacitor Cs or Cp with the series or parallel resistances
s
sC
Rs = cos/Cs ; Rp = 1/CpCos;For pure capacitor: =90o

41
Relationships for the two equivalent circuits of real capacitors:

Cs= Cp{ 1+ tan2), Rs = Rp / {1+1/ tan2)

For Real capacitor, its impedance,

Z = R jX, where X = capacitive reactance X for parallel capacitor , X = 1 / C

The equivalent circuit of a capacitor can be approximated by this circuit, with small
series resistance and inductance neglected for our high-impedance uses. Good
capacitor dielectrics have a very large shunt resistance; polypropylene capacitors
have an RC product of over 300 hours. Other materials have a much smaller shunt
resistance, sometimes reaching 5-10% of the impedance of the capacitor. Although
the dielectric constant K of most materials is stable, the shunt resistance or its
equivalent, loss tangent, may show considerable variation with material properties or
with frequency. As an example, dry leather has a loss tangent of 0.045, but with a
relative humidity of 15% the loss tangent increases to 1.4--possibly a good
hygrometer. Aviation gas at 100 octane exhibits a loss tangent at 1 kHz of 0.0001,
but at 91 octane loss tangent increases to 0.0004. Water has a high K (80) and a
loss tangent which peaks at low frequencies and again at 10 10 Hz. With this high
dielectric activity, the loss tangent or the dielectric constant of water can be used to
detect the moisture content of materials. Another characteristic of capacitor
dielectrics which may have some use in detecting material properties is dielectric
absorption. It is measured by charging a capacitor, discharging for 10 s, and
measuring the charge which reappears after 15 min. A relatively low-quality dielectric
like metallized paper has a dielectric absorption of 10%.

Signal conditioning

42
Signal conditioning circuits convert capacitance variations into a voltage, frequency, or pulse
width modulation. Very simple circuits can be used, but simple circuits may be affected by
leakage or stray capacitance, and may not be suitable for applications with very small
capacitance sense electrodes.
5.1 Excitation frequency
The excitation frequency should be reasonably high so that electrode impedance is as low
as possible. Typical electrode impedance is 1-100M ohms. Ideally, the excitation frequency
will be high enough to reject coupling to power waveforms and also high enough so that the
overall sensor frequency response is adequate; about 50 kHz is usually acceptably high.
The frequency should also be low enough for easy circuit design, CMOS switches work well
at 100 kHz and below. Excitation waveshape is usually square or trapezoidal, but a triangle
waveform can be used to allow a simpler amplifier with resistive feedback and a sine wave
offers better accuracy at high frequency. Square wave excitation produces an output
bandwidth which can be higher than the excitation frequency by 10x or more, other
waveshapes usually result in an output bandwidth 2x or 3x lower than the excitation
frequency. Sensors excited with a continuous wave signal usually use synchronous
demodulators. This demodulator type offers high precision and good rejection of out-of-band
interference.
Capacitive sensors can directly sense a variety of thingsmotion, chemical composition,
electric field, and indirectly, sense many other variables which can be converted into motion
or dielectric constant, such as pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition.
They are built with conductive sensing electrodes in a dielectric, with excitation voltages on
the order of five volts and detection circuits which turn a capacitance variation into a voltage,
frequency, or pulse width variation. The range of application of capacitive sensors is
extraordinary;
Motion detectors can detect 10 -14 m displacements with good stability, high speed,
and wide extremes of environment, and capacitive sensors with large electrodes
can detect an automobile and measure its speed.
Capacitive technology is displacing piezoresistance in silicon implementation of
accelerometers and pressure sensors, and innovative applications like fingerprint
detectors, and infrared detectors are appearing on silicon with sensor dimensions
in the microns and electrode capacitance of 10 fF, with resolution to 5 aF (10 -18 F).
Capacitive sensors in oil refineries measure the percent of water in oil, and sensors
in grain storage facilities measure the moisture content of wheat
In the home, cost-effective capacitive sensors operate soft-touch dimmer switches
and help the home craftsman with wall stud sensors and digital construction levels
Laptop computers use capacitive sensors for two-dimensional cursor control, and
transparent capacitive sensors on computer monitors are found in retail kiosks
The first reference to capacitive sensors is found in Nature, 1907, but the penetration today
is only a few percent of all sensor types. This is surprising, with the technologys low cost
and stability and its simple conditioning circuits--often, the offset and gain adjustments
needed for most sensor types are not required, as the raw output span of the signal on the
capacitive sense electrodes can be nearly to the supply rails. These advantages are
attracting many converts. An often-heard objection to capacitive sensor technology is that it
is sensitive to humidity and needs unstable, high impedance circuits. In fact, as the dielectric
constant of humid air is only a few ppm higher than dry air, humidity itself isnt a problem.
Very high impedance circuits are needed, but with proper circuit design and proper printed
circuit board layout, capacitive sensors are as rugged as any other sensor type. They cant
tolerate immersion or condensing humidity, but few circuits can. The design process usually
follows these steps
Design electrode plates to measure the desired variable. Maximize capacitance
with large-area, close-spaced plates
Surround this sensor with appropriate guard or shield electrodes to handle stray
capacitance and crosstalk from other circuits
Calculate sensor capacitance, stray capacitance and output signal swing

43
 Specify transfer function, like Eo = C (area-linear), Eo = 1/C (spacing-linear). Use
two balanced capacitors for high accuracy, with a transfer function like C1/C2 or
(C1-C2)/(C1+C2)
Choose an excitation frequency high enough for low noise. As excitation frequency
increases, external and circuit-generated noise decreases
Design circuit to meet accuracy specifications and provide immunity to environmental
challenges
1.1 Applications
Capacitive sensors have a wide variety of uses. Some are
Flow--Many types of flow meters convert flow to pressure or displacement, using
an orifice for volume flow or Coriolis effect force for mass flow. Capacitive sensors
can then measure the displacement.
Pressure--A diaphragm with stable deflection properties can measure pressure
with a spacing-sensitive detector.
Liquid level --Capacitive liquid level detectors sense the liquid level in a reservoir
by measuring changes in capacitance between conducting plates which are
immersed in the liquid, or applied to the outside of a non-conducting tank.
Spacing--If a metal object is near a capacitor electrode, the mutual capacitance is
a very sensitive measure of spacing.
Scanned multiplate sensor--The single-plate spacing measurement can be
extended to contour measurement by using many plates, each separately
addressed. Both conductive and dielectric surfaces can be measured.
Thickness measurement--Two plates in contact with an insulator will measure the
insulator thickness if its dielectric constant is known, or the dielectric constant if the
thickness is known.
Ice detector--Airplane wing icing can be detected using insulated metal strips in
wing leading edges.
Shaft angle or linear position--Capacitive sensors can measure angle or position
with a multiplate scheme giving high accuracy and digital output, or with an analog
output with less absolute accuracy but faster response and simpler circuitry.
Lamp dimmer switch--The common metal-plate soft-touch lamp dimmer uses 60
Hz excitation and senses the capacitance to a human body.
Keyswitch--Capacitive keyswitches use the shielding effect of a nearby finger or a
moving conductive plunger to interrupt the coupling between two small plates.
Limit switch--Limit switches can detect the proximity of a metal machine component
as an increase in capacitance, or the proximity of a plastic component by virtue of its
increased dielectric constant over air.
X-Y tablet--Capacitive graphic input tablets of different sizes can replace the computer
mouse as an x-y coordinate input device. Finger-touch-sensitive, z-axis-sensitive
and stylus-activated devices are available.
Accelerometers--Analog Devices has introduced integrated accelerometer ICs
with a sensitivity of 1.5g. With this sensitivity, the device can be used as a tiltmeter.

Parallel capacitor with Varying permittivity:

For each segment of the capacitor

Qi = Ci V = I Ai V/ d

Total charge, Q = (1 A1 + 2 A2 ) V / d
Comparing with Q = A V/ d, the effective permittivity,

44
Capacitive transducer in which the permittivity varies spatially

eff = (1 A1 + 2 A2 ) / A = {1 y + 2 (1-y)} / d
The voltage constitutive equation is

V = Qd / {1 y + 2 (1-y)} w
The thickness of a dielectric film can be measured by pulling it between two plates of the capacitor.

1. Fil ; 2,3: plates

If 1>> 0,

Large Displacements and Level Sensors

1. Dielectric element, 2 and 3 are plates

Sensitivity,

Liquid level sensor Varying Permittivity :

The elementary capacitor C with two circular imaginary electrodes at radius r,
separation dr from each other, and length L

45
Therefore the capacitance between the electrodes with radii R1 and an

With liquid level h, the overall transfer function for the level sensor will be:

(1)
Eqn. (1)

Thus for small gap,

Sensitivity of C to a change of h will be:

We can modify the above results for measuring large displacement of a moving rotor element

46
Electrostatic Sensor / Transducer:

When a sensing voltage is applied to one of the plate of capacitive sensor, electrostatic field starts from
higher potential (sensing probe) and ends to lower potential (target plate). If the plates are close
compared to the plate area, the electrostatic field at the edge of two plates is nearly perpedicular to
plates. However, as the plate spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect from the edges
and backs of the plates and bulges in space. This is called fringing. The measured capacitance can be
much larger than calculated. Thus, for accurate measurement the electrostatic field emerges from
sensing probe to target probe shall be restricted. This needs guarding of two probes. Inorder to provide
gaurding, the sensing area of sensing probe (back and sides) is surrounded by another conductor that
is kept at same voltage as sensing probe itself. ..

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER:

Introduction to PZT transducer:

PZT is chemically lead zirconate titanate (Pb[Zr(x)Ti(1-x)]O3) perovskite crystal structure, is one of most widely
used, synatetic piezoelectric ceramic materials. Each unit of PZT consists of a small tetravalent metal ion usually
titanium or zirconium, in a lattice of large divalent metal ions. The large divalent metal ion is usually Lead.
Under conditions that confer a tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry on the PZT crystals, each crystal has a
dipole moment. PZT materials are piezoelectric materials exhibit a unique range of properties. In a basic sense,
if a piezoelectric material is deformed, an electric charge is generated in what is known as the piezoelectric
effect. The opposite of this phenomenon also holds true: If an electric field is applied to a piezoelectric material,
deformation occurs in what is known as the inverse piezoelectric effect. The dielectric constant of PZT can
range from 300 to 3850, depending upon orientation and doping.

PZT, lead zirconate titanate, is the most commonly used piezo ceramic today. In general, piezo ceramics are
the preferred choice because they are physically strong, chemically inert and relatively inexpensive to
manufacture. Plus, they can be easily tailored to meet the requirements of a specific purpose. PZT ceramic is
reversed because it has an even greater sensitivity and higher operating temperature than other piezo ceramics.

PZT is a metallic oxide based piezoelectric material developed by scientists at the Tokyo Institute of Technology
around 1952. In comparison to the previously discovered metallic oxide based piezoelectric material Barium
Titanate (BaTiO3), PZT materials exhibit greater sensitivity and have a higher operating temperature.

47
PZT materials are manufactured from high purity precursors, with properties optimized for specific applications
by adjusting the zirconia:titania ratio, and/or by including secondary materials.

How is PZT Manufactured?

Figure 1:

The process of manufacturing PZT powders consists of six distinct unit operations (See Figure 1). Once each
material is selected and approved for use, it is precisely weighed, according to the formulation being
manufactured, and transferred to wet mills. These ingredients are wet-milled together in their proper
proportions to achieve a uniform particle size distribution. Precise control over particle size distribution is
necessary to ensure appropriate material activity during the calcination. Following the wet milling process, the
product is dried and prepared for calcining. The product must be calcined in high-purity crucibles to guarantee
no chemical contaminants are present in the final product. The calcining operation is carried out in air at about
1000C, where the desired PZT phase is formed. The major ingredient in PZT material is lead oxide, which is a
hazardous material with a relatively high vapor pressure at calcining temperatures. Therefore, it is possible to
alter the desired composition by allowing too much lead to evaporate during the firing operations. Proprietary
measures are employed to ensure lead loss is not a factor.

After calcining, the PZT powder is returned to the mill to ensure homogeneity and to prepare the material for
the addition of an organic binding agent. The binder-containing slurry is then fed to a spray dryer, where water
is evaporated. A successful spray drying operation requires experienced operators who can regulate the
temperatures within the unit in accordance with the solids content of the slurry material, as well as the volume
of slurry entering the dryer. The purpose of spray drying the PZT powder material is to provide a free-flowing
product in the form of binder-containing hollow spheres with a narrow particle size distribution. The morphology
of the PZT material is crucial to consistently fill die cavities in the dry pressing process when manufacturing
piezoelectric ceramics. The uniform PZT spheres of appropriate particle size distribution allow for air
escapement throughout the compaction process, yielding lamination-free green ceramic shapes.

PZT Ceramic Applications

PZT ceramic is used in a wide variety of applications. Soft (sensor) PZT ceramic powders are typically used when
high coupling and/or high charge sensitivity are important, such as in flow or level sensors; ultrasonic
nondestructive testing/evaluation (NDT/NDE) applications; or for accurate inspections of automotive, structural
or aerospace products. Material characteristics include a high dielectric constant; high coupling; high charge
sensitivity; high density with a fine grain structure; a high Curie point; and a clean, noise-free frequency
response.

Hard (high power) PZT ceramic powders are used when high power characteristics are required, including
applications such as the generation of ultrasonic or high-voltage energy in ultrasonic cleaners, sonar devices, etc.
Important powder characteristics include a high piezoelectric charge constant (d33); a higher mechanical quality
factor that reduces mechanical loss and enables a lower operating temperature; a low dissipation factor that
ensures cooler, more economical operation; high dielectric stability; and low mechanical loss under demanding
conditions.

48
A Hall effect sensor with its current bias and terminal voltage definitions:

Since the Hall resistance is inversely proportional to the carrier density, Hall probes are usually
made as thin strips of low carrier density semiconductors, or even true 2-dimentional sheets of
electrons residing at heterostructure interfaces. Examples are the MOSFET inversion layer and
the (Quantum well) channel of HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistors). The Hall Effect
is also used to measure carrier densities in materials.
At very high magnetic fields and very low carrier densities and temperatures, a Hall probe may
exhibit the Quantum Hall Effect in which the Hall resistance is quantised to integral
submultiples of a fundamental constant (m is an integer):
()2
25.8
H
Rmhk
me m
= = (1.28)
Even more fascinating is the fact that the longitudinal resistance vanishes at the values of the
magnetic field where the Hall resistance is quantised. It is superficially surprising that the
longitudinal conductance also vanishes at these field values. However this surprising result
follows by simply inverting the resistance matrix. The Quantum Hall Effect measurement is
reproducible between differently constructed samples. It is a reproducible SI standard for the
resistance measurement. The Quantum Hall Effect is used as a primary standard in Standards
offices for production of secondary calibration standards for resistance meters.
Figure 1.5: The quantum Hall Effect.
Vy+
Vy-
Vx+ Vx-
I
L
W

Gas Thermometer:
Working Principle: When a gas is heated, its molecules vibration speed
increases. If the volume of the gas is kept constant, the gas pressure increases
with rise of temperature as the result of increased heat. Generally, inert gas
such as Nitrogen is used and confined to constant volume by hermetically
sealed system. The increase of temperature is measured by pressure response
of the confined volume gas. Thus, from Boyles law if a gas is kept in a

49
container at constant volume and temperature and pressure vary, the ratio of
gas temperature and pressure is constant. Mathematically,

P1/T1 = P2/T2 , Here P1 and P2 are the pressure at temperature in Kelvin T1

and T2, respectively.

Gas Thermometer works on Zero law of thermodynamics. The constant volume

gas thermometer can be used for calibration of other thermometer.

Construction:

A constant volume gas thrmometer consists of a bulb filled with a fixed

amount of dilute ga that is attached to a merucury manometer . Manometer is
a device to measure pressure. Mercury manometer has a column partially
filled with mercury that is connected to a flexible tube that has another
partially filled column of mercury, called receiver, attached to other end. The
height of mercury column in manometer is set to reference point or pressure
P. The mercury in the reservoir is allowed to move up and down in relation to a
scale as gas pressure changes. As per Gay-Lussac , the temperature of an ideal

50
Gas increases corresponding increase in pressure with the assumption that the
gas is at low pressure and temperature is well above liquification.

Calculations:

For a pressure P, the equation used to find the temperature T is:

T = aP + b (i)

Where a and b are constants determined from two fixed points, such as ice at
00 c and steam at 1000 c. However, constant volume gas thermometer uses
values from the triple point of water to calibrate other thermometers. 273.16
Kelvin (K) is the temperature where water exits in an equilibriumstate as gas,
liquid, and solid. Thus, in eqn. (i) a = 273.16, b = 0, Ptb is the pressure of gas at
temperature to be measured.At low pressure and high temperature real gases
behave like ideal gas. And equation (i) becomes:

T = 273-16K ( p/ Ptb ) (ii)

Operation;

The gas bulb is inserted into the bath or place whose temperature is to be
measured. When the temperature increases or decreases, the volume also
increase or decrase as well as the pressure. The pressure of mercury also
changes such that it begins to move up or down and thus away from reference
point.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT THERMOMETER:

The dielectric constant thermometer is based on the relation between

dielectric constant ( ) of perfect gas to the molar polarizability (A ) . This
relation is defined by Clausius- Mossotti by equation given below

51
(- 1 )/ ( + 2) = ((A. N/V ), where V is volume of ideal gas .

Since P V / T = R N (N / V) = (P / T R)

Therefore, P = (- 1 )/ ( + 2).R T / A

Thus, temperature is directly measurable in terms of dielectric constant and

pressure under gas, if A is known either from calculation or measurement. The

dielectric constant is best measured in term of capacitance to which it is related by

equation below:

C(P) / C(0) = (1 + K P)

Where C(P) is the capacitance at gas pressure P and K is capacitor

compressibility which is required to account for capacitor dimensional change
when gas pressure changes from 0 to p for real gas, the viral expansion for
dielectric constant which is written in terms of capacitance is:

P = A1 ( 1+A2 +A3 2 + -------),

Where, = { C(P) / C(0) 1)( C(P) + 2)

The coefficient Ai are related to viral coefficient of eqn. as follow:

A1 = [ A0/Rt + K/3 ]-1

A2 = [ B b ] / A

A3 = [ C / A ] for the case of He

where b is the second viral coefficient in the expression of (- 1 )/ ( + 2) in power

of (1/V). Gugan and Michel have shown that dielectric constant thermometer
has better accuracy below 300 K.

REFRACTIVE INDEX THERMOMETER::

The refractive index of a gas, and dielectric constant are related as below:

52
 2
=
thus, the Clausius Mossotti equation (1) becomes
2 2
( - 1 )/ ( + 2) = ((A. N/V ),

Since P V / T = R N (N / V) = (P / T R)

2 2
Therefore, ( - 1 )/ ( + 2) =P A / R.T

A practical techniq is used to measure (-1) by passing a laser beam through a

Michelson interferometer with one of its arms containg the gas sample. With

pressure, the optical path length L increases and relation

L/L = ( -1 )

= , is the gas density

= P/T

Refractive Index () Thermometer usinf Optical fibres:

The temperatue dependance refractive index ( ) of optical fibres measure

directly the temperature distribution or average temperature along its length..
When a light pulse is propagated through an optical fibre, the refractive index
of fibre changes with change of temperature, result scattering of light intensity
components occurs. As a result the wavelength of back scattering light pulse is
different from that of incident light. These are called stokes light and anti-stokes
light. The intensity of the back scattering stokes and anti-stokes lights are the
functions of temperature, T , of that part of the optical fibre, at which the
scattering occurs. The path length covered by the input pulses in optical fibre
upto the point of scattering is measured by a reflectometer. Temperature
induced change of refractive index for average temperature along the length of
fibre.

53
Application of Refrective Thermometer :

1. For detecting leakage in a low temperature liquid container. A glass core

light guide, covered by a plastic sheath, is placed below the pointer. The
appearance of cold liquid steps the light wave from being transmitted, because
below 250C, the refractive of core and sheath are equal.

Field of application Example of application Temperature range

Aircraft and aerospace Temperature measurement of engine Low & medium

Inlet air. Monitoring & control of

Temperature in combution engine

Space craft and cermetal production.

Automobile industry temperature measurement in const- High

ruction and testng of engine.

Chemical industry temperature measurement in Low and medium

Hazardous area

Electronic components Low and medium

production

High voltage application Monitoring the temperature of Low and medium

transformer and generator windings

and electrical supply lines.

Medicine and biology In therpy using microwave and Low and medium

radio frequency

Power engineering Temperature of gas turbine High

Various industrial process heat treatment and production of High

metals, glass and ceramics.

54
Fig.;

NUCLEAR THERMOMETER:

Nuclear thermometer can be used at very low temperature below 0.1 0 K and
can be designed with oe without a magnetic field.

Photo detectors are used primarily as an optical receiver to convert light into
electricity. The principle that applies to photo detectors is the photoelectric
effect, which is the effect on a circuit due to light. Max Planck In 1900
discovered that energy is radiated in small discrete units called quanta; he also
discovered a universal constant of nature which is known as the Plancks
constant. Plancks discoveries lead to a new form of physics known as quantum
mechanics and the photoelectric effect E = hv which is Planck constant
multiplied by the frequency of radiation. The photo electric effect is the effect

55
of light on a surface of metal in a vacuum, the result is electrons being ejected
from the surface this explains the principle theory of light energy that allows
photo detectors to operate. Photo detectors are commonly used as safety
devices in homes in the form of a smoke detector, also in conjunction with
other optical devices to form security systems. Photo detector: A photo
detector operates by converting light signals that hit the junction to a voltage
or current. The junction uses an illumination window with an anti-reflect
coating to absorb the light photons. The result of the absorption of photons is
the creation of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region. Examples of photo
detectors are photodiodes and phototransistors. Other optical devices similar
to photo detectors are solar cells which also absorb light and turn it into
energy. A similar but different optical device is the LED which is basically the
inverse of a photodiode, instead of converting light to a voltage or current, it
converts a voltage or current to light. Photodiodes: A commonly used photo
detector is the photodiode. A photodiode is based on a junction of oppositely
doped regions (pn junction) in a sample of semiconductor. This creates a
region depleted of charge carriers that results in high impedance. The high
impedance allows the construction of detectors using silicon and germanium
to operate with high sensitivity at low temperatures. The photodiode functions
using an illumination window (Figure 1), which allows the use of light as an
external input. Since light is used as an input, the diode is operated under
reverse bias conditions. Under the reverse bias condition the current through
the junction is zero when no light is present, this allows the diode to be used as
a switch or relay when sufficient light is present. Figure 1 photo diode with
illumination window as shown. Photodiodes are mainly made from gallium
arsenide instead of silicon because silicon creates crystal lattice vibrations
called phonons when photons are absorbed in order to create electron-hole
pairs. Gallium arsenide can produce electron-hole pairs without the slowly
moving phonons; this allows faster switching between on and off states and
GaAs also is more sensitive to the light intensity. Once charge carriers are
produced in the diode material, the carriers reach the junction by diffusion.
Important parameters for the photodiode include quantum efficiency, current
and capacitance which will be covered in the equations section. PIN
Photodiode Another type of photodiode is the PIN photodiode; this
photodiode includes an intrinsic layer in between the P and N type materials.

56
The PIN must be reverse bias due to the high resistivity of the intrinsic layer;
the PIN has a larger depletion region which allows more electron-hole pairs to
develop at a lower capacitance. The illumination window for a PIN is on the P-
side of the diode because the mobility of electrons is greater than holes which
results in better frequency response. The larger breakdown voltage in
comparison to the PN photodiode allows it to be used with a biased voltage of
approximately 100 which results in a fast response time by the equation
below. ( ) b PIN V +V = 0 2 l PIN -Response time of PIN photodiode
Avalanche Photodiode An Avalanche photodiode is operated at reverse bias
close to the breakdown, which causes photo excited charge carriers to
accelerate in the depletion region and produce additional carriers by
avalanching. The avalanche photodiodes are good for fiber optic systems that
require low light levels with quantum efficiency larger than 100%.
Phototransistor Phototransistor is similar to the photodiode except an
additional n-type region is added to the photodiode configuration. The
phototransistor includes a photodiode with an internal gain. A phototransistor
can be represented as a bipolar transistor that is enclosed in a transparent case
so that photons can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are
generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base,
and the current is then amplified. Since phototransistor detection is on the
order of the photodiode they can not detect light any better than a
photodiode. The draw back of a phototransistor is the slower response time in
comparison to a photodiode. The figure below shows the relationship between
a photodiode and phototransistor. PN Photodiode NPN Phototransistor
Photodiode Equations: The conductivity of photodiodes is as follows: = th
+ ph The value th is the thermal conductance and is also referred to as dark
current when no light hits the junction. The photodiode conductivity ph can
be represented by the electron hole charge carrier concentrations: q( n p) ph
= n + p Current density X qn X X J = = 0 Quantum Efficiency By looking
at the diffusion of charge carriers into the depletion region shown by: g n dx d
n D dt dn n = n + 2 2 g- Photo-excitation n -electron lifetime The quantum
efficiency for steady state (dn/dt=0) can be derived: 0 2 2 2 + = D g L n dx d n
g in this equation is the photo generated charge carriers The quantum
efficiency after numerous derivations is in the form: =+=Lcbhe
e b c L c L sec 2 / / , b The fraction of incident photons available to produce

57
charge carriers c The flux of charge carriers Current The total current in the
junction is I = Ip In and can be represented as: ( ) 1 /
= + qVb KT n p p n p p n n p n n e L D p L D I qA The term in the square
bracket represents the saturation current I0. Capacitance The width of the
depletion regions for the p and n type materials are: ( ) ( ) 2/1 0 2 +
= A A D D b p qN N N N V V w , ( ) ( ) 2/1 0 2 + = D A D A b n qN
N N N V V w The Total width of the depletion region is the sum of the n and p
type materials: ( )( ) 2/1 0 2 + = + = A D A D b p n qN N N N V V w w
w The Junction Capacitance can now be obtained as: w A w A CJ r 0 = = .
Applications of Photo Detectors Photo detectors are used in various different
applications such as radiation detection, smoke detection, flame detection and
to switch on relays for street lighting. The circuits that use photodiodes use
either normally closed or normally open contacts depending on the desired
operation. In a smoke detector circuit the photo diode is attached to a relay
switch, this switch is normally closed and attached to the fire alarm. When the
photo diode conducts it picks up the relay switch, this causes the normally
closed switch to open preventing the alarm from activating. When the photo
diode fails to conduct, the normally closed contact activates the alarm. Photo
diodes are also used in modern oil burning furnaces as a safety feature. The
photo diode is comprised of lead sulphide and is used to detect the flame from
the boiler, in the event that the flame goes out or fails to occur the photo
diode opens the circuit, cutting power to the motor and step up transformer.
Another commonly used application is street lights. The photo diode in the
circuit uses switch-on relays to turn on the street lights when the diode fails to
conduct and turns the lights off with when sufficient light is present. Another
application is the AFM (Atomic Force Microscope), a laser beam is projected
from a laser diode onto the back of the cantilever, and the beam is then
reflected to a photodiode. The position of the beam of light on the diode gives
the (x,y,z) position of the material as the probes of the cantilever scraps across
the surface of the material. This gives a three dimensional representation of
the surface being scanned. Photodiodes are also used with lasers to form
security system. When the light projected by a laser to the photodiode is
broken a security alarm is tripped.

58
A Thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two
important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer) in which
some physical change occurs with temperature, and (2) some means of converting this physical change
into a numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer).
Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes, in the study of weather, in
medicine, and in scientific research. There are various principles by which different thermometers operate.
They include the thermal expansion of solids or liquids with temperature, and the change in pressure of a
gas on heating or cooling. Radiation-type thermometers measure the infrared energy emitted by an object,
allowing measurement of temperature without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they
are solids at room temperature. Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and has high
coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is notable when it's used in a
thermometer. This is the reason behind mercury being used in thermometer

Resistance thermometer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),

are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire
wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other constructions are also used. The RTD wire is
a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper. The material has an accurate resistance /
temperature relationship which is used to provide an indication of temperature. As RTD elements
are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes. Platinum is the best metal for RTDs due to its
very linear resistancetemperature relationship, highly repeatable over a wide temperature range. The
unique properties of platinum make it the material of choice for temperature standards over the range of
272.5 C to 961.78 C. It is used in the sensors that define the International Temperature Standard, ITS-
90. Platinum is chosen also because of its chemical inertness.

The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear approximation of the
resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and 100 C. This temperature coefficient of
resistance is denoted by and is usually given in units of /(C):

= ( R100 R0 ) /100.R0
Where, is the resistance of the sensor at 0 C,R0 , and R100 are the resistance of the sensor at 0OC
and 100 C, respectively. Pure platinum has = 0.003925 /(C) in the 0 to 100 C range and is
used in the construction of laboratory-grade RTDs. Conversely, two widely recognized standards for
industrial RTDs IEC 60751 and ASTM E-1137 specify = 0.00385 /(C). Before these standards
were widely adopted, several different values were used. It is still possible to find older probes that
are made with platinum that have = 0.003916 /(C) and 0.003902 /(C). These different
values for platinum are achieved by doping; basically, carefully introducing impurities into the platinum.
The impurities introduced during doping become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and
result in a different R vs. T curve and hence value.

Calibration of RTD:

To characterize the R vs T relationship of any RTD over a temperature range that represents the planned
range of use, calibration must be performed at temperatures other than 0 C and 100 C. This is necessary
to meet calibration requirements, although RTDs are considered to be linear in operation, it must be proven
that they are accurate with regard to the temperatures they will actually be used. Two common calibration
methods are (i) the fixed-point method and the (ii) comparison method.

59
Fixed point calibration : Fixed point calibration is used for the highest-accuracy calibrations. It uses the
triple point, freezing point or melting point of pure substances such as water, zinc, tin, and argon to
generate a known and repeatable temperature. These cells allow the user to reproduce actual conditions of
the ITS-90 temperature scale. Fixed-point calibrations provide extremely accurate calibrations (within
0.001 C). A common fixed-point calibration method for industrial-grade probes is the ice bath. The
equipment is inexpensive, easy to use, and can accommodate several sensors at once. The ice point is
designated as a secondary standard because its accuracy is 0.005 C (0.009 F), compared to
0.001 C (0.0018 F) for primary fixed points.

Comparison calibrations: is commonly used with secondary SPRTs and industrial RTDs. The
thermometers being calibrated are compared to calibrated thermometers by means of a bath whose
temperature is uniformly stable. Unlike fixed-point calibrations, comparisons can be made at any
temperature between 100 C and 500 C (148 F to 932 F). This method might be more cost-effective,
since several sensors can be calibrated simultaneously with automated equipment. These electrically
heated and well-stirred baths use silicone oils and molten salts as the medium for the various calibration
temperatures.

Advantages and limitations[edit]

The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:

High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitability for precision applications.
Limitations: RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C. At temperatures above 660 C it
becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the
metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath
with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below 270 C (3 K), because there are very
few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and
thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and
therefore not useful.[citation needed]
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and have a
slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability.
RTDs vs thermocouples[edit]
The two most common ways of measuring industrial temperatures are with resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples. Choice between them is usually determined by four factors.
Temperature
If process temperatures are between 200 and 500 C (328.0 and 932.0 F), an industrial RTD is
the preferred option. Thermocouples have a range of 180 to 2,320 C (292.0 to 4,208.0 F),[8] so
for temperatures above 500 C (932 F) they are the only contact temperature measurement
device.
Response time
If the process requires a very fast response to temperature changes (fractions of a second as
opposed to seconds), then a thermocouple is the best choice. Time response is measured by
immersing the sensor in water moving at 1 m/s (3 ft/s) with a 63.2% step change.
Size
A standard RTD sheath is 3.175 to 6.35 mm (0.1250 to 0.2500 in) in diameter; sheath diameters
for thermocouples can be less than 1.6 mm (0.063 in).
Accuracy and stability requirements

60
If a tolerance of 2 C is acceptable and the highest level of repeatability is not required, a
thermocouple will serve. RTDs are capable of higher accuracy and can maintain stability for many
years, while thermocouples can drift within the first few hours of use.

Construction[edit]

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. PVC, silicone rubber or
PTFE insulators are used at temperatures below about 250 C. Above this, glass fibre or
ceramic are used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing
or protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy that is chemically inert to the process
being monitored. Selecting and designing protection sheaths can require more care than
the actual sensor, as the sheath must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide
convenient attachment points.

Wiring configurations[edit]
Two-wire configuration[edit]

The simplest resistance-thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is only used when
high accuracy is not required, as the resistance of the connecting wires is added to that
of the sensor, leading to errors of measurement. This configuration allows use of
100 meters of cable. This applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.
For a balanced bridge usual setting is with R2 = R3, and R1 around the middle of the
range of the RTD. So for example, if we are going to measure between 0 and 100 C (32
and 212 F), RTD resistance will range from 100 to 138,5 . We would choose R1 =
120 . In that way we get a small measured voltage in the bridge.
Three-wire configuration[edit]

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire configuration can be
used. In this method the two leads to the sensor are on adjoining arms. There is a lead
resistance in each arm of the bridge, so that the resistance is cancelled out if the two

61
lead resistances are accurately the same. This configuration allows up to 600 metres
(2,000 feet) of cable[citation needed].
As in the case with the 2-wire connection, the usual setting is with R2 = R3, and R1
around the middle of the range of the RTD.
Four-wire configuration[edit]

The four-wire resistance configuration increases the accuracy of measurement of

resistance. Four-terminal sensing eliminates voltage drop in the measuring leads as a
contribution to error. To increase accuracy further, any residual thermoelectric voltages
generated by different wire types or screwed connections are eliminated by reversal of
the direction of the 1 mA current and the leads to the DVM (digital voltmeter). The
thermoelectric voltages will be produced in one direction only. By averaging the reversed
measurements, the thermoelectric error voltages are cancelled out.[citation needed]

Classifications of RTDs[edit]
The highest-accuracy of all PRTs are the Standard Platinum Resistance
Thermometers (SPRTs). This accuracy is achieved at the expense of durability and cost.
The SPRT elements are wound from reference-grade platinum wire. Internal lead wires
are usually made from platinum, while internal supports are made from quartz or fused
silica. The sheaths are usually made from quartz or sometimes Inconel, depending on
temperature range. Larger-diameter platinum wire is used, which drives up the cost and
results in a lower resistance for the probe (typically 25.5 ). SPRTs have a wide
temperature range (200 C to 1000 C) and are approximately accurate to 0.001 C
over the temperature range. SPRTs are only appropriate for laboratory use.
Another classification of laboratory PRTs is Secondary-Standard Platinum Resistance
Thermometers (Secondary SPRTs). They are constructed like the SPRT, but the
materials are more cost-effective. SPRTs commonly use reference-grade, high-purity
smaller-diameter platinum wire, metal sheaths and ceramic type insulators. Internal lead
wires are usually a nickel-based alloy. Secondary SPRTs are more limited in
temperature range (200 C to 500 C) and are approximately accurate to 0.03 C over
the temperature range.
Industrial PRTs are designed to withstand industrial environments. They can be almost
as durable as a thermocouple. Depending on the application, industrial PRTs can use
thin-film or coil-wound elements. The internal lead wires can range from PTFE-insulated
stranded nickel-plated copper to silver wire, depending on the sensor size and
application. Sheath material is typically stainless steel; higher-temperature applications
may demand Inconel. Other materials are used for specialized applications.

History[edit]
The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase their electrical
resistance with rising temperature was first described by Sir William Siemens at
the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the Royal Society of Great Britain. The necessary
methods of construction were established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn and Wein
between 1885 and 1900.

62
Standard resistance thermometer data[edit]
Temperature sensors are usually supplied with thin-film elements. The resistance
elements are rated in accordance with BS EN 60751:2008 as:

Tolerance class Valid range

F 0.3 50 to +500 C

F 0.15 30 to +300 C

F 0.1 0 to +150 C

Resistance-thermometer elements functioning up to 1000 C can be supplied. The

relation between temperature and resistance is given by the Callendar-Van Dusen
equation:

Here is the resistance at temperature T, is the resistance at 0 C,

and the constants (for an = 0.00385 platinum RTD) are:

Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance

changes almost linearly with the temperature.
For positive temperature, solution of the quadratic equation yields
the following relationship between temperature and resistance:

Then for a four-wire configuration with a 1 mA precision

current source[9] the relationship between temperature and

measured voltage is

Temperature-dependent resistances
for various popular resistance
thermometers[edit]

63
 Resistance in

P
Temp Pt Pt1
T NT NT NT NT NT
eratur 10 00
ITS- C C C C C C
e 0 0
90 Ty Ty Ty Ty Ty Ty
in C Ty Ty
Pt10 p: p: p: p: p: p:
p: p:
0[10] 2 10 10 10 10 10
40 50
0 1 2 3 4 5
4 1
1

1
79.90 80. 80 0
50
1192 31 3.1 3
2

1
81.92 82. 82 0
45
5089 29 2.9 8
4

1
50
83.94 84. 84 1
40 47
5642 27 2.7 3
5
5

1
36
85.96 86. 86 1
35 40
2913 25 2.5 9
5
1

1
26
87.97 88. 88 2
30 55
6963 22 2.2 4
0
6

1
26 19
89.98 90. 90 3
25 08 56
7844 19 1.9 0
3 0
6

64
 1
19 14
91.99 92. 92 3
20 41 56
5602 16 1.6 6
4 0
6

1
14 10
94.00 94. 94 4
15 59 94
0276 12 1.2 3
6 3
0

1
11
96.00 96. 96 4 82
10 06
1893 09 0.9 9 99
6
3

1
31
98.00 98. 98 5 84
5 38
0470 04 0.4 6 66
9
1

1
10 10 23
99.99 6 65
0 0.0 00. 86
6012 2 36
0 0 8
8

1
101.9 10 10 18
7 50
5 8843 1.9 19. 29
0 78
0 5 5 9
0

1
103.9 10 10 14
7 39
10 7780 3.9 39. 13
7 86
3 0 0 0
1

1
105.9 10 10 10
8
15 6413 5.8 58. 99
4
7 5 5 8
7

65
 1
107.9 10 10
9 86
20 4743 7.7 77.
2 18
7 9 9
2

2
109.9 10 10 15
0 68
25 2770 9.7 97. 00
0 00
8 3 3 0
0

2
111.9 11 11 11
0 54
30 0495 1.6 16. 93
8 01
4 7 7 3
0

2
113.8 11 11
1 43 95
35 7917 3.6 36.
6 17 22
9 1 1
2

2
115.8 11 11
2 34 76
40 5038 5.5 55.
4 71 57
7 4 4
4

2
117.8 11 11
3 61
45 1858 7.4 74.
3 94
1 7 7
0

2
119.7 11 11
4 50
50 8376 9.4 94.
1 39
6 0 0
5

2
121.7 12 12 27
5 42
55 4594 1.3 13. 47
0 99
3 2 2 5
5

66
 2
123.7 12 12 22
5 37
60 0511 3.2 32. 59
9 56
6 4 4 0
5

2
125.6 12 12 18
6
65 6128 5.1 51. 66
8
9 6 6 8
9

2
127.6 12 12 15
7
70 1446 7.0 70. 05
8
3 7 7 2
2

2
129.5 12 12 12
8
75 6464 8.9 89. 93
8
2 8 8 2
0

2
131.5 13 13 10
9
80 1182 0.8 08. 83
7
8 9 9 7
7

3
133.4 13 13
0 91
85 5602 2.8 28.
7 21
4 0 0
9

3
135.3 13 13
1 77
90 9723 4.7 47.
8 08
2 0 0
0

3
137.3 13 13
2 65
95 3545 6.6 66.
8 39
6 0 0
5

67
 3
139.2 13 13
3
100 7069 8.5 85.
9
7 0 0
0

141.2 14 14
105 0295 0.3 03.
8 9 9

143.1 14 14
110 3224 2.2 22.
2 9 9

158.4 15 15
150 5963 7.3 73.
3 1 1

177.3 17 17
200 5317 5.8 58.
7 4 4

RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly replacing thermocouples in
industrial applications below 600 C

THERMISTOR SENSOR:
A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of semiconductor material that exhibits a
large modification in resistance in proportion to a tiny low modification in temperature.
Thermistors are inexpensive, rugged, reliable and responds quickly. Because of these qualities
thermistors are used to measure simple temperature measurements, but not for high
temperatures. Thermistor is easy to use, cheap, durable and respond predictably to a change in
temperature. Thermistors are mostly used in digital thermometers and home appliances such
as refrigerator, ovens, and so on. Stability, sensitivity and time constant are the final properties
of thermistor that create these thermistors sturdy, portable, cost-efficient, sensitive and best to
measure single-point temperature. Thermistors are available in different shapes like rod, disc,
bead, washer, etcThis article gives an overview of thermistor working principle and
applications.

What is Thermistor and How it Works?

68
A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable temperature sensitive resistor, thermistor
working principle is,its resistance is depends upon temperature. When temperature changes,
the resistance of the thermistor changes in a predictable way. The benefits of using a thermistor
is accuracy and stability.

Types of Thermistors
Thermistors are classified into two types such as

Thermistor Elements
Thermistor Probes

Thermistor Elements

Thermistor elements are the simplest form of thermistor, it is commonly used when space is
very limited. OMEGA offers a wide variety of thermistor elements which vary not only in form
factor, but also in their resistance Vs temperature characteristics. Since thermistors are non-
linear, the device used to read the temperature must linearize the reading.

Thermistor Probes

The standalone thermistor element is comparatively delicate and cannot be located in a ruuged
environment. OMEGA offers thermistor probes that are thermistor elements fixed in metal
tubes. Thermistor probes are much more suitable for industrial enviraonments than thermistor
elements.

Simple Fire Alarm Circuit Diagram Using Thermistor

This simple fire alarm circuit is based on thermistor and fire detection is possible through this
circuit.

69
 Simple Fire Alarm Circuit using Thermistor

This circuit is very useful in home security systems.

This circuit works based on the principle of switching property of the transistor
The thermistor and resistor R1 forms potential divider n/w to drive the transistor
The semiconductor materials used for thermistors are sensitive to temperature
The transistor is switched ON by the voltage drop through the resistor R1.
Consider the atmospheres temperature is around 25C, and then the resistance of the
thermistor changes, then the voltage across the thermistor changes according to the principle
of ohms law V=IR.
When the voltage across resistor R1 is low, then it is not sufficient to turn ON the transistor.
When the temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases, so that the drop
across the resistor R1 increases which turns ON the transistor.
When the transistor is turned ON, the current from Vcc starts to flow via 6V buzzer which
generates a beep sound. The diode is used for enabling unidirectional conduction and the
capacitor removes sudden transients from the thermistor.

The temperature of the thermistor can be calculated from the measured resistance by using the
Steinhardt-Hart equation.

1/T=A+B*ln(R)+C*(ln(R))3
Where, R in W and T in oK

In the above equation, A, B, and C are the constants, that can be determined from experimental
measurements of resistance. For a typical thermistor, here are some data points

Data Points of a Typical Thermistor

Using these three values we can get three equations in A, B and C.

(1/273) = A + B ln(16330) + C (ln(16330))3

(1/298) = A + B ln(5000) + C (ln(5000))3

(1/323) = A + B ln(1801) + C (ln(1801))3

These equations can be solved and calculated for A, B, C

A = 0.001284

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B = 2.364x 10-4
C = 9.304x 10-8

Using these values you can calculate the temperature and the reciprocal and we get a plot of
resistance vs Kelvin

Plot of Resistance vs Kelvin

Calculating the Temperature from Resistance
If you have resistance value, then you can solve for the temperature by from the above
Steinhardt-Hart equation.

1/T=A+B*ln(R)+C*(ln(R))3

From the above equation, we can calculate the temperature

T=1/[A+B*ln(R)+C*(ln(R))3]

Testing of a Thermistor
This is just a sample test for a thermistor. The multimeter has to be kept in the mode of
resistance. The two terminals of the multimeter are to be connected to the two terminals of the
thermistor.

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 Testing of a Thermistor
We need not to focus on polarity here. Now, heat the thermistor by moving the heated soldering
iron tip to it. Now you can observe the changes in the multimeter readings smoothly depending
on whether the thermistor under test is PTC or NTC.

For faulty thermistors, the following things should observe.

The change in the readings of thermistor will never be smooth

For a short thermistor, the meter reading will be always zero, whereas in an open thermistor
the meter reading will be always infinity.

Applications of thermistors

A Thermistor is used to measure the temperature.

The thermistor is used as an electrical circuit component
For temperature compensation
Circuit protection
Voltage regulation
Time delay, and Volume control.
Thermistors are used in an automotive applications
Instrumentation and Communication
Consumer electronics
Food handling and processing
Industrial electronics
Medical electronics
Military and aerospace

For better understanding of this concept, here we have explained two projects as an
application.

Temperature Controlled Load by Thermistor Sensor

The main aim of this project is to design a circuit to control a load automatically using a
thermistor sensor with a fixed temperature limit. When the temperature increases beyond an
exact limit, a lamp is switched ON to bring the temperature to a normal value. Due to the
automatic switch On of the load, this system doesnt require human interference for observance
the load of the temperature

A negative co-efficient thermistor is employed with an op-amp to activate the relay within the
event of the temperature going out of range. Thermistor is usually used instead of different
temperature sensors because they are cost effective.

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 Temperature Controlled Load by Thermistor Sensor Project Kit by Edgefxkits.com
But most of their resistance vs temperature characteristics are extremely nonlinear and need
correction for applications that need a linear response. A change in temperature will change the
input parameters to the op-amp. The op-amp delivers an o/p to energize the relay and switch
ON/OFF the lamp through its contacts.

In future, this project can be developed by using a digital temperature sensor instead of an
analog one. By doing so, we can increase the accuracy of the temperature control system.

Industrial Temperature Controller

The main intention of this industrial temperature controller project is used to control the
temperature of any device in industries. The temperature can be displayed on the LCD display
in the range of 55C to +125C. The 8051 microcntroller is a heart of the circuit, which
controls all the functions. As a temperature sensor DS1621 IC is used. This IC provides 9-bit
temperature readings, these readings specifies the control of the temperature of the device. User
defined temperature settings are stored in an EPROM memory through the microcontroller.

Max and min temperature settings are entered to the microcontroller through a set of switches
which are stored in the EEPROM -24C02.Maximum and minimum setting are meant for
allowing any hysteresis necessary. Set button is used first and then the temperature setting by
INC and then the enter button.

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 Industrial Temperature Controller Project Kit by Edgefxkits.com
Similarly, for the DEC button. A relay is driven from the microcontroller through a transistor
driver. The contact of the relay is used for the load (lamp) in the circuit. For high power heater
load a contact may be used, the coil of which is operated by the relay contacts in place of the
lamp as shown.

THERMOCOUPLE ( THERMO EMF SENSOR)

A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from different metals.
The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured. When
the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is created. The voltage can then be interpreted using
thermocouple reference tables to calculate the temperature.

There are many types of thermocouples, each with its own unique characteristics in terms of temperature range, durability,
vibration resistance, chemical resistance, and application compatibility. Type J, K, T, & E are Base Metal thermocouples, t he
most common types of thermocouples.Type R, S, and B thermocouples are Noble Metal thermocouples, which are used in
high temperature applications (see thermocouple temperature ranges for details).

Thermocouples are used in many industrial, scientific, and OEM

applications. They can be found in nearly all industrial markets: Power Generation, Oil/Gas, Pharmaceutical, BioTech, Cement,
Paper & Pulp, etc. Thermocouples are also used in everyday appliances like stoves, furnaces, and toasters.

Thermocouples are typically selected because of their low cost, high temperature limits, wide temperature ranges, and durable
nature.

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Types of Thermocouples:
Before discussing the various types of thermocouples, it should be noted that a thermocouple is often enclosed in a protective
sheath to isolate it from the local atmosphere. This protective sheath drastically reduces the effects of corrosion.

1
Type K Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel): The type K is the most common type of thermocouple. Its
inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a wide temperature range.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, 454 to 2,300F (

270 to 1260C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

Type J Thermocouple (Iron/Constantan): The type J is also very common. It has a smaller temperature range and a shorter
lifespan at higher temperatures than the Type K. It is equivalent to the Type K in terms of expense and reliability.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -346 to 1,400F (-210

to 760C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

Type T Thermocouple (Copper/Constantan): The Type T is a very stable thermocouple and is often used in extremely low
temperature applications such as cryogenics or ultra low freezers.

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Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 700F (-270

to 370C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.0C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.5C or 0.4%

Type E Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan): The Type E has a stronger signal & higher accuracy than the Type K
or Type J at moderate temperature ranges of 1,000F and lower. See temperature chart (linked) for details.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 1600F (-270

to 870C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.7C or +/- 0.5%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.0C or 0.4%

Type N Thermocouple (Nicrosil / Nisil): The Type N shares the same accuracy and temperature limits as the Type K. The
type N is slightly more expensive.

Temperature Range:

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 Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 2300F (-270
to 392C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

NOBLE METAL THERMOCOUPLES (Type S,R, & B):

Noble Metal Thermocouples are selected for their ability to withstand extremely high temperatures while maintaining their
accuracy and lifespan. They are considerably more expensive than Base Metal Thermocouples.

Type S Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium - 10% / Platinum): The Type S is used in very high temperature applications. It is
commonly found in the BioTech and Pharmaceutical industries. It is sometimes used in lower temperature appl ications because
of its high accuracy and stability.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to 2700F (-50 to

1480C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or 0.1%

Type R Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium -13% / Platinum): The Type R is used in very high temperature applications. It
has a higher percentage of Rhodium than the Type S, which makes it more expensive. The Type R is very similar to the Type S
in terms of performance. It is sometimes used in lower temperature applications because of its high accuracy and stability.

Temperature Range:

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 Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to 2700F (-50 to
1480C)
Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or 0.1%

Type B Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium 30% / Platinum Rhodium 6%): The Type B thermocouple is used in
extremely high temperature applications. It has the highest temperature limit of all of the thermocouples listed above. It
maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high temperatures.

Temperature Range:

Thermocouple grade wire, 32 to 3100F (0 to

1700C)
Extension wire, 32 to 212F (0 to 100C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

Standard: +/- 0.5%

Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.25%

Thermocouple Junctions:
Grounded Thermocouples: This is the most common junction style. A thermocouple is grounded when both thermocouple
wires and the sheath are all welded together to form one junction at the probe tip. Grounded thermocouples have a very good
response time because the thermocouple is making direct contact with the sheath, allowing heat to transfer easily. A drawback
of the grounded thermocouple is that the thermocouple is more susceptible to electrical interference. This is because the
sheath often comes into contact with the surrounding area, providing a path for interference.

Ungrounded Thermocouples (Or Ungrounded Common Thermocouples): A thermocouple is ungrounded when the
thermocouple wires are welded together but they are insulated from the sheath. The wires are often separated by mineral
insulation.

Exposed Thermocouples (or bare wire thermocouples): A thermocouple is exposed when the thermocouple wires are
welded together and directly inserted into the process. The response time is very quick, but exposed thermocouple wires are
more prone to corrosion and degradation. Unless your application requires exposed junctions, this style is not recommended.

Ungrounded Uncommon: An ungrounded uncommon thermocouple consists of a dual thermocouple that is insulated from the
sheath and each of the elements are insulated from one other.

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Thermocouple Sheath Comparison:
316SS (stainless steel): This is the most common sheath material. It is relatively corrosion resistant and is cost effective.
304SS: This sheath is not as corrosion resistant as 316SS. The cost difference between 316SS and 304SS is nominal.
Inconel (registered trademark) 600: This material is recommended for highly corrosive environments.

What are Special Limits of Errors (SLE)?

Special Limits of Error: These thermocouples are made with a higher grade of thermocouple wire, which increases their
accuracy. They are more expensive than standard thermocouples.

Standard Limits of Error: These thermocouples use standard thermocouple grade wire. They are less expensive and more
common.

What is M.I. Cable?

M.I. (Mineral Insulated) cable is used to insulate thermocouple wires from one another and from the metal sheath that
surrounds them. MI Cable has two (or four when duplex) thermocouple wires running down the middle of the tube. The tube is
then filled with magnesium oxide powder and compacted to ensure the wires are properly insulated and separated. MI cable
helps to protect the thermocouple wire from corrosion and electrical interference.

What is System Error?

System error is calculated by adding the accuracy of the temperature sensor (thermocouple) and the accuracy of the met er
used to read the voltage signal together. For example, a Type K thermocouple has an accuracy of +/- 2.2C above 0C. Lets say
the meter has an accuracy of +/- 1C. That means the total system error is +/- 3.3C above 0C.

Thermocouple vs. RTD

Temperature range:
First, consider the difference in temperature ranges. Noble Metal Thermocouples can reach 3,100 F, while standard RTDs have
a limit of 600 F and extended range RTDs have a limit of 1,100 F.

Cost:
A plain stem thermocouple is 2 to 3 times less expensive than a plain stem RTD. A thermocouple head assembly is roughly
50% less expensive than an equivalent RTD head assembly.

Accuracy, Linearity, & Stability:

As a general rule, RTDs are more accurate than thermocouples. This is especially true at lower temperature ranges. RTDs are
also more stable and have better linearity than thermocouples. If accuracy, linearity, and stability are your primary concerns
and your application is within an RTDs temperature limits, go with the RTD.

Durability:
In the sensors industry, RTDs are widely regarded as a less durable sensor when compared to thermocouples. However,
REOTEMP has developed manufacturing techniques that have greatly improved the durability of our RTD sensors. These
techniques make REOTEMPs RTDs nearly equivalent to thermocouples in terms of durability.

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Response Time:
RTDs cannot be grounded. For this reason, they have a slower response time than grounded thermocouples. Also,
thermocouples can be placed inside a smaller diameter sheath than RTDs. A smaller sheath diameter will increase response
time. For example, a grounded thermocouple inside a 1/16 dia. sheath will have a faster response time than a RT D inside a
dia. sheath.

Type J Thermocouple
Type K Thermocouple
Type T Thermocouple
Type N Thermocouple
Type E Thermocouple
Type B Thermocouple
Type R Thermocouple
Type S Thermocouple

Select sensor, Head, Connection,

Sheath, etc.
Confirm Lead Time
Get Pricing
Build Part #
Save Quotes

80
 The information on thermocoupleinfo.com
was provided by REOTEMP Instrument
Corporation. A high quality U.S.
manufacturer of thermocouples and RTD.
Visit www.reotemp.com for more
information about our products and
services.

COPYRIGHT 2011 BY THERMOCOUPLEINFO.COM , ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

on thermocoupleinfo.com was provided by REOTEMP Instrument Corporation. A high quality U.S. manufacturer of thermocouples and
om for more information about our products and services.

MAGNETIC SENSORS:

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84
85
86
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC PROXIMITY ENSOR

Magnetic proximity sensors are actuated by the presence of a permanent

magnet. Their operating principle is based on the use of reed con-tacts, whose
thin plates are hermetically sealed in a glass bulb with inert gas. The presences
of a magnetic field makes the thin plates flex and touch each other causing an
electrical contact. The plate's surface has been treated with a special material
par-ticularly suitable for low current or high inductive circuits. Magnetic sensors
compared to traditional mechanical switches have the following advantage:

Contacts are well protected against dust, oxidization and corrosion due to
the hermetic glass bulb and inert gas; contacts are activated by means of
a magnetic field rather than mechanical parts
Special surface treatment of contacts assures long contact life
Maintenance free
Easy operation
Reduced size

Outputs:

When using the NO (normally open) type the open reed contact closes as the
magnet approaches. NO Magnetic sensors are two wires. When using the NO+NC
type both NO (normally open) and NC (normally closed) functions are made
available by means of a single glass bulb. NO+NC Magnetic sensors are supplied
with three wires, one is in common, one is NO and one is NC

TYPICAL REED CONTACT PROTECTIONS

The lifespan of a magnetic sensor at low values of voltage and current depends
on the mechanical characteristics of the contact while for higher values the

87
operating life depends on the characteristics of the load. In these cases, it is
suggested to apply some form of external protection at the sensor output.

88
SWITCHING POWER DIAGRAM

Voltage (V), switching current (I) and max. power (P) mean the max. switching
istantaneous value in presence of loads. When choosing a type of contact it is
recommended that the following formula be applied: P = V x I.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSOR:

Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensors

Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.

When placed in a magnetic field, these materials change size and/or shape (see Figure
1).

Figure 1
A magnetising force, H,
causes a dimensional
change due to the
alignment of magnetic domains.

The physical response of a ferromagnetic material is due to the presence of magnetic

moments, and can be understood by considering the material as a collection of tiny

89
permanent magnets, or domains. Each domain consists of many atoms. When a material
is not magnetized, the domains are randomly arranged. When the material is
magnetized, the domains are oriented with their axes approximately parallel to one
another. Interaction of an external magnetic field with the domains causes the
magnetostrictive effect. This effect can be optimized by controlling the ordering of
the domains through alloy selection, thermal annealing, cold working, and magnetic field
strength. The ferromagnetic materials used in magnetostrictive position sensors are
transition metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt. In these metals, the 3d electron shell
is not completely filled, which allows the formation of a magnetic moment. (i.e., the
shells closer to the nucleus than the 3d shell are complete, and they do not contribute to
the magnetic moment). As electron spins are rotated by a magnetic field, coupling
between the electron spin and electron orbit causes electron energies to change. The
crystal then strains so that electrons at the surface can relax to states of lower energy.
When a material has positive magnetostriction, it enlarges when placed in a magnetic
field; with negative magnetostriction, the material shrinks. The amount of
magnetostriction in base elements and simple alloys is small, on the order of 10-6 m/m.

Since applying a magnetic field causes stress that changes the physical properties of a
magnetostrictive material, it is interesting to note that the reverse is also true: applying
stress to a magnetostrictive material changes its magnetic properties (e.g., magnetic
permeability). This is called the Villari effect. Normal magnetostriction and the Villari
effect are both used
in producing a magnetostrictive position sensor.

Figure 2
The Wiedemann effect describes
the twisting due to an axial
magnetic field applied to a
ferromagnetic wire or tube
that is carrying an electric
current.

An important characteristic of a wire made of a magnetostrictive material is the

Wiedemann effect (see Figure 2). When an axial magnetic field is applied to a
magnetostrictive wire, and a current is passed through the wire, a twisting occurs at the
location of the axial magnetic field. The twisting is caused by interaction of the axial
magnetic field, usually from a permanent magnet, with the magnetic field along the
magnetostrictive wire, which is present due to the current in the wire. The current is
applied as a short-duration pulse, -1 or 2 s; the minimum current density is along the
center of the wire and the maximum at the wire surface. This is due to the skin effect.

The magnetic field intensity is also greatest at the wire surface. This aids in developing
the waveguide twist. Since the current is applied as a pulse, the mechanical twisting
travels in the wire as an ultrasonic wave. The magnetostrictive wire is therefore called
the waveguide. The wave travels at the speed of sound in the waveguide material, ~
3O00 m/s. The operation of a magnetostrictive position sensor is shown in fig 3.

90
Figure 3.
The interaction of a current pulse with the position magnet
generates a strain pulse that travels down the waveguide
and is detected by the pickup element.

The axial magnetic field is provided by a position magnet. The position magnet is
attached to the machine tool, hydraulic cylinder, or whatever is being measured. The
waveguide wire is enclosed within a protective cover and is attached to the stationary
part of the machine, hydraulic cylinder, etc. The location of the position magnet is
determined by first applying a current pulse to the waveguide. At the same time, a timer
is started. The current pulse causes a sonic wave to be generated at the location of the
position magnet Wiedemann effect. The sonic wave travels along the waveguide until it
is detected by the pickup. This stops the timer. The elapsed time indicated by the
timer then represents the distance between the position magnet and the pickup. The
sonic wave also travels in the direction away from the pickup. In order to avoid an
interfering signal from waves travelling in this direction, their energy is absorbed
by a damping device (called the damp). The pickup makes use of the Villari effect. A
small piece of magnetostrictive material, called the tape, is welded to the waveguide
near one end of the waveguide. This tape passes through a coil and is magnetized by a
small permanent magnet called the bias magnet. When a sonic wave propagates down
the waveguide and then down the tape, the stress induced by the wave causes a wave of
changed permeability (Villari effect) in the tape. This in turn causes a change in the tape
magnetic flux density, and thus a voltage output pulse is produced from the coil
(Faraday effect). The voltage pulse is detected by the electronic circuitry and
conditioned into the desired output.MTS magnetostrictive sensors are available with
many outputs, including DC voltage, current, pulse width modulation, start-stop digital
pulses, CANbus, Profibus, serial synchronous interface, HART, and others.

Eddy-Current sensors are noncontact devices capable of high-resolution measurement of the position and/or
change of position of any conductive target. Eddy-Current sensors are also called inductive sensors, but generally
"eddy current" refers to precision displacement instruments (or nondestructive testing probes) and "inductive" refers to
inexpensive proximity switches. High resolution and tolerance of dirty environments make eddy-current sensors
indispensable in today's modern industrial operations.

Below you will find:

Basic Theory, High-Performance Eddy-Current Sensors, Eddy-Current Sensor Advantages, Applications, and Products
Overview.

Basic Theory

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Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The driver creates an
alternating current in the sensing coil in the end of the probe. This creates an
alternating magnetic field with induces small currents in the target material;
these currents are called eddy currents. The eddy currents create an opposing
magnetic field which resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The
interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance between the
probe and the target. As the distance changes, the electronics sense the change
in the field interaction and produce a voltage output which is proportional to the
change in distance between the probe and target. The target surface must be at
least three times larger than the probe diameter for normal, calibrated operation; otherwise, special calibration my be
required.

High-Performance Sensors

High performance eddy-current sensors

It is important to distinguish between "high-performance" eddy-current sensors and inexpensive inductive sensors.
Simple inductive sensors, such as those used in inexpensive proximity switches, are comparatively crude devices
allowing them to carry a low price. Proximity type sensors are tremendously useful in automation applications and many
commercially available models and are well made for their intended applications, but they are not suited to precision
metrology applications.

In contrast, eddy-current sensors for use in precision displacement measurement and metrology applications use
complex electronic designs to execute complex mathematical algorithms. Unlike inexpensive sensors, these high-
performance sensors have outputs which are very linear, stable with temperature, and able to resolve incredibly small
changes in target position resulting in high resolution measurements.

Eddy-Current Sensor Advantages

Compared to other noncontact sensing technologies such as optical, laser, and capacitive, high-performance eddy-
current sensors have some distinct advantages.

Tolerance of dirty environments

Not sensitive to material in the gap between the probe and target

Less expensive and much smaller than laser interferometers

Less expensive than capacitive sensors

Eddy-Current sensors are not a good choice in these conditions:

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 Extremely high resolution (capacitive sensors are ideal)

Large gap between sensor and target is required (optical and laser are better)

Visit the Eddy-Current vs. Capacitive Sensors page for a more detailed comparison between these two technologies.

Applications
Eddy-Current sensors are useful in any application requiring the measurement or monitoring of the position of a
conductive target, especially in a dirty environment.

Position Measurement/Sensing

Eddy-Current sensors are basically position measuring devices. Their outputs always
indicate the size of the gap between the sensor's probe and the target. When the probe is
stationary, any changes in the output are directly interpreted as changes in position of the
target. This is useful in:

Automation requiring precise location

Machine tool monitoring

Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

Precision stage positioning

Dynamic Motion

Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,

requires some form of noncontact measurement. Eddy-Current sensors are useful
whether the environment is clean or dirty and the motions are relatively small. Lion
Precision eddy-current sensors also have high frequency response (up to 80 kHz) to
accommodate high-speed motion.

Drive shaft monitoring

Vibration measurements

Radiation Sensors

PHOTO DETECTOR:

Most modern photodetectors operate on the basis of the internal photoelectric

effect. The photo excited electrons and holes remain within the material,
increasing the electrical conductivity of the material . Electron-hole photo
generation in a semiconductor absorbed photons generate free electron hole

93
pairs. Transport of the free electrons and holes upon an electric field results in
a current.
Bandgaps for some semiconductor photodiode materials at 300 K
Bandgap (eV) at 300 K
Indirect Direct
Si 1.14 4.10
Ge 0.67 0.81
GaAs 1.43
InAs 0.35
InP 1.35
GaSb 0.73
In0.53Ga0.47As 0.75
In0.14Ga0.86As 1.15
GaAs0.88Sb0.12 1.15
Absorption coefficient = 103 cm-1. Means an 1/e optical power absorption
length of 1/ = 10-3 cm = 10 m. Likewise, = 104 cm-1 => 1/e optical power
absorption length of 1 m. = 105 cm-1 => 1/e optical power absorption length
of 100 nm. = 106 cm-1 => 1/e optical power absorption length of 10 nm.

Fig. Absorption coefficient

Silicon and germanium absorb light by both indirect and direct optical
transitions. Indirect absorption requires the assistance of a phonon so that

94
momentum and energy are conserved. Unlike the emission process, the
absorption process can be sequential, with the excited electron-hole pair
thermalize within their respective energy bands by releasing energy/momentum
via phonons. This makes the indirect absorption less efficient than direct
absorption where no phonon is involved.

electron phonon process

energy
hf
thermalization process

electron
wavevector k

Silicon is only weakly absorbing over the wavelength band

0.8 0.9 m. This is because transitions over this
wavelength band in silicon are due only to the indirect
absorption mechanism. The threshold for indirect absorption
(long wavelength cutoff) occurs at 1.09 m. The bandgap for direct absorption
in silicon is 4.10 eV, corresponding to a threshold of 0.3 m.
Germanium is another semiconductor material for which the lowest energy
absorption takes place by indirect optical transitions. Indirect absorption will
occur up to a threshold of 1.85 m. However, the threshold for direct
absorption occurs at 1.53m, for shorter wavelengths germanium becomes
strongly absorbing (see the kink in the absorption coefficient curve). A
photodiode material should be chosen with a bandgap energy slightly less than
the photon energy corresponding to the longest operating wavelength of the
system. This gives a sufficiently high absorption coefficient to ensure a good
response, and yet limits the number of thermally generated carriers in order to
attain a low dark current (i.e. current generated with no incident light).
Germanium photodiodes have relatively large dark currents due to their narrow
bandgaps in comparison to other semiconductor materials. This is a major
shortcoming with the use of germanium photodiodes, especially at shorter
wavelengths (below 1.1 m)

Direct-bandgap III-V compound semiconductors can be better material choices

than germanium for the longer wavelength region. Their bandgaps can be
tailored to the desired wavelength by changing the relative concentrations of
their constituents (resulting in lower dark currents). They may also be

95
fabricated in heterojunction structures (which enhances their high-speed
operations). e.g. In0.53Ga0.47As lattice matched to InP substrates responds to
wavelengths up to around 1.7 m. (most important for 1.3 and 1.55 m)

PHOTO EMISSIVE:

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Phototube.

A photoemissive cell, commonly known as a phototube, makes use of the

photoelectric effect, the phenomenon whereby light-sensitive surfaces give off
electrons when struck by light. Photoemissive cells are sometimes called
photocells or electric eyes. A phototube consists of a vacuum tube, housed in glass
or quartz, containing two electrodes: a curved surface called a cathode and a
slender rod called an anode. The cathode is made of a photoemissive material, so
that when light strikes the cathode, it emits electrons.

All light can be considered as being made up of separate packets of energy called
photons (see light; quantum mechanics). When photons strike the cathode, the
electrons in the light-sensitive substance absorb their energy. The electros thus
acquire enough energy to escape from the surface of the metal. If the anode is
positively charged, the electrons are drawn to it. This movement of electrons from
cathode to anode constitutes electric current, which can be used as a source of
power.

In a vacuum phototube, the brighter the light that strikes the cathode, the greater
the number of electrons that are released and the greater the current that flows
through the tube. Thus any change in the brightness, or intensity, of the light
falling on the tube instantly results in a change in the flow of electric current.
Many photoelectric devices depend on a changing light intensity to operate. The
electric current may be increased if the tube is filled with an inert gas, such as
helium or argon. The response of a gas-filled phototube, however, is not uniformly
proportional to the light intensity. As a result, such units may be unsuitable for
certain applications.

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The performance of a photoemissive material is measured in terms of its quantum
efficiency, defined as the ratio of its output energy to the energy of the total
number of incident photons. The quantum efficiency of metals, which were
originally used for phototube cathodes, is about 10 percent. Today, however,
phototubes use semiconductors, or crystalline substances such as silicon or
germanium, that can have efficiencies of up to 100 percent. (See
also semiconductor.)

The current that flows through a phototube is very small, especially at low light
levels, and cannot be used to operate any device directly. It must first be
amplified. For this purpose, a device called an electron multiplier may be used in
the phototube. In this case, the phototube is known as a photomultiplier tube. A
photomultiplier tube has a series of anodes, called dynodes, enclosed in a glass
envelope. Electrons from the cathode strike the first dynode at high speeds and
knock out electrons from the dynode. These released electrons (called secondary
emission electrons) are attracted to the second dynode, which has a higher
positive voltage. Each electron again knocks out more secondary electrons, and
this process continues as the electrons strike one dynode after another. Up to ten
dynodes are used in a photomultiplier tube. The current from the last dynode,
which may be up to 2 million times stronger than the initial current, can be used
to operate various devices.

An alternative method of amplifying the current is to use a channel electron

multiplier, a C-shaped hollow glass tube coated with a material capable of
releasing a large number of secondary emission electrons. In effect, it has one long
dynode surface instead of separate dynodes.

An electric field is set up in the tube, so that electrons from the cathode are
swept along to the other end. The electrons strike the dynode surface several
times as they round the bend, and each time they do, more electrons are emitted.

Phototubes are commonly used in alarm systems and automatic door openers.
Photomultipliers are used in astronomy to measure the intensity of faint stars and
in nuclear studies to detect and measure minute flashes of light.

Light Sensor
photoconductor
light R

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photodiode
light I

PHOTO MULTIPLIER:
A photomultiplier is a light detection of very weak signals. It consists of a (i) photoemissive
device, in which the absorption of a photon results in the emission of an electron, and (ii)
electrons amplifing mechanism.A photomultiplier detectors work by amplifying the electrons
generated by a photocathode exposed to a photon flux as shown in fig. below. The
photomultiplier detects light at the photocathode (k) which emits electrons by the
photoelectric effect. These photoelectrons are electrostatically accelerated and focused
onto the first dynode (d1) of an electron multiplier. On impact each electron liberates a
number of secondary electrons which are in turn, electrostatically accelerated and
focused onto the next dynode (d2). The process is repeated at each subsequent dynode
and the secondary electrons from the last dynode are collected at the anode (a). The
ratio of secondary to primary electrons emitted at each dynode depends on the energy
of the incident electrons and is controlled by the inter-electrode potentials. By using a
variable high voltage supply and a voltage divider network, to provide the inter-electrode
voltages, the amplitude of photomultiplier output can be varied over a wide dynamic
range.

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SCINTILLATION:
Scientillation is a high energy radiation sensor , which converts the radiation
energy into light. A scintillation detector uses a special crystal, often sodium
iodide (NaI). There are also organic materials and plastics that may be used for
this purpose. Many of these have faster responses than the inorganic crystals
This light is detected using a photo multiplier tube (PMT) which converts it to
electrical current and amplifies it. The result is very similar to a proportional
counter.

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The advantage is that the crystals often have a very high efficiency, especially
for higher energy gamma rays, so scintillation detectors are extremely sensitive.

The disadvantage is primarily cost - the crystals and PhotoMultiplierTtubes are

all very expensive items.

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