THE STAGE (PAST, PRESENCE AND FUTURE)

WATER GLOBALLY
Water A Limited Resource?

0.0075%
Historical Perspective

WATER IN SINGAPORE
 National water demand: 400 MGD ( 665 Mm3/yr)
Rainfall: 719.2 x (2,350-1,000) 967 Mm3/yr
70% of rainfall alone should be sufficient to meet water
demand

Water Stress in Singapore:

- uneven temporal distribution of rainfall
- lack of water storage capacity

The Stage: 716.2 km2

population: 5,467 million; popula0on density: 7,615
annual rainfall: 2,350 mm
Singapore A History of Water
Challenges
Singapore River Pollution
 History

40 years ago
History

Water
resources were
scarce

This is, after all

10th most water
stressed
country in the
world
History

Floods were common occurrences

History

Proper sanitary
facilities were
lacking

Public health
conditions were
poor
History

And rivers were

polluted.
Malaysia & Singapore Water Issue
(historical context)
Water Availability in Singapore: The
four National Taps
 PUB manages the complete water cycle
From sourcing, collection, purification and supply of drinking water,
to treatment of used water and turning it into NEWater, drainage of storm water

Rain Sea

otable Use
Indirect P

Direct Non-
Potable Use

History

It should be a way of life to keep the water clean,

to keep every stream, every culvert, every rivulet,
free from unnecessary pollution in ten years
let us have fishing in the Singapore River and
fishing in the Kallang River. It can be done.

Mr Lee Kuan Yew

Former Prime Minister
22 February 1977
Singapore: Water Network
17 Reservoirs - 32 major rivers - 7000Kms of waterways

Suppose we could
capture every drop
of rain in Singapore,
could we become self sufficient?

PM Lee Kuan Yews 1977 challenge

to PUB chairman Lee Ek Tieng
"In 20 years, it is possible that there could be breakthroughs in
technology, both anti-pollution and filtration. Then we can dam
up, or put a barrage at the mouth of the Marina, the neck that
joins the sea. And we will have a huge fresh water lake."

Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Former Prime Minister, 2 decades ago

Dredging and Laying new
improvement works sewers

Relocating businesses
and industries into
proper facilities

Resettling squatters into

proper public housing
History

1970s 1990s

Transformation of Singapore River

MARINA LAKE & BARRAGE
 Marina Barrage
Marina Lake has been established by developing a
Dam across the 350-metre wide Marina Channel to
keep out seawater

Comprehensive flood control scheme to alleviate

flooding in the low-lying areas in the city
Balance of Water Systems: Marina
Barrage
During heavy rain, the dam will be activated to
release excess storm water into the sea when the tide
is low.

In the case of high tide, giant pumps (Olympics-size

swimming pool per minute) will drain excess storm
water into the sea.
Marina Reservoir Catchment Area

barrage

Aeration to improve circulation in the reservoir
 Expected water quality problems

Pollutants Nutrients Faecal Coliform Silt Discharges Litters

Brownish Contaminated Unsightly

Impact Algae & Plant Growth Bacterial Water Water Water

Sources

Sewer leakage

Construction Improper
Sites Storage Litters
Animals

Before Closure Level : Low (Dilution from Seawater Flushing)

After
Closure Level : Higher (Without Dilution from Seawater Flushing)
Recirculation Strategy

Reduces stagnation and improves water quality in the main tributaries and reservoir
 REVISED MARINA RESERVOIR RECIRCULATION SCHEME -
Chestnut Ave
Waterworks

Upper Peirce Lower Peirce

30mgd 65mgd 60mgd
Reservoir Reservoir 60mgd

5mgd Kallan
g
MacRitche
Reservoir Woodleigh
Pumping Stn
95mgd
35mgd

MacRitche
Pumping Stn
25mgd
15mgd 5mgd
15mgd 10mgd 15mgd
Marina 5mgd
Pumping
Stn
Alexandra Stamford Pelton Geylang
Canal Canal Rochore Canal Canal
95mgd Canal

Marina Reservoir
Landuse types based upon Master Plan 2003
 Kallang
River

Bukit Timah
Canal

Stamford
Canal
Geylang
River

Marina
Singapore Reservoir
River Marina South
Water quality
Water quality
 Water from Local Catchment

Protected Catchments

Punggol

Unprotected Catchments

Water Bearing catchment area is now two-

thirds of the country Urbanised Catchments
Present Day Perspective

WATER IN SINGAPORE
However, urbanisation is not
without challenges
 Hot, Impervious & Crowded
(Hot, Flat & Crowded, Tom Friedman)
In ci0es, roads alone easily take 25% of
urban area
Reduced inltra0on alters the natural
ow and reduces groundwater recharge
Much higher peak stream ows require
large (and ironically underu0lized) drains
and associated infrastructure
Increased sediment transport and
polluted runo
Elevated temperature of the ground
surface and make already warm ci0es
much hoTer
Which in turn needs more energy for air
condi0oning (i.e. pumping warm air
outside the buildings)
Which requires even more energy (i.e.
carbon emissions)
Traverse data (14.03.2000, 9-11 pm)
Temperature sensor mounted on on car reveals large nocturnal
air temperature dierences across urban land-uses:
30
Commercial CBD

29
High-rise residential Semi-detached
(HDB) low-rise residential
28
Industrial

Detached low-rise
Temperature/ C
Air temperature (C)
0

27 residential

Rural
26

25

24

23

d
t

UHI magnitude: Tu-r ~4.5 C

ar

En
St

Source: Roth (unpublished)

 ENERGY AND WATER RELATIONSHIPS
WATER FOR ENERGY

Extraction & Refining Hydropower

Fuel Production Thermo electric

(Ethanol, hydrogen) Cooling

Waste Water Extraction and

Treatment Transmission

Distribution and Drinking Water

Collection Treatment

Energy Associated
with Uses of Water ENERGY FOR WATER source: Paul Reiter
Nexus of Urban Sustainability

Water

Temperature Energy
Urbanization and Hydrological Processes

One of Consequences

hTp://www.coastal.ca.gov/nps/watercyclefacts.pdf
Flash Floods
Flash Flood, Orchard Road
(June 16, 2010)
Flash Flood @ NUS
28 Nov 2011
Flood Protection: Information
Traditional reduction of floods by storm water:
Drainage
Channelization
Levee construction or improvement

Main disadvantage is that they merely pass the

danger of flooding further downstream
 Flood Protection: Singapore
Approach:

Provide adequate drainage ahead of new

developments

Adopt flood protection measures

Continual drainage improvement

The effect of a 90 mm storm at the outlet of KR catchment

 Porous pavement
Image courtesy of Kent Hansen, NAPA
Change of Hydrograph with improved green roof

large peak ow
relevant
reducDon
delay
Dmes
Flood Protection: Information
Low Impact Development

Reduce the volume and peak rate of flow

Controlling the water quality

Recharge of storm water with decentralized on-site

detention
Flood Protection: Information
Hydraulic capacity extension of the sewer systems

Flow monitoring

Sewer quality sampling

Dredging of contaminated soils

The construction of large underground storage tanks

 Flood Protection: Issues

Designing infrastructure needed to address the

expected flood events that integrate low impact
developments
FRESH WATER SUPPLY
 Rain Sea
Treatment of
wastewater

Reclamation of
used water

Collection
Stormwater of wastewater

Dir
Desalination
management

ect
in sewers

non
-po
tab
le u
e
us

se
ta ble
t po
ec
Indir
Collection Supply of
of rainfall in water to the
drains and population and
reservolirs Treatment Industry
of raw to
potable water

Fig. 1: Singapores Water Cycle. With desalination and wastewater reclamation, water resources are managed within a closed water loop.
Sustainable water resource management

4 National Taps 3P Approach

Local catchment Conserve Water

Imported water
Value Our Water
NEWater
Enjoy Our Waters

Desalinated water

Water for All

Conserve, Value, Enjoy

Water Supply: Information

10% 20%
Local Catchments
30%
Imported Water
40%
NEWater
Desalinated Water
 Water Supply: NEWater
NEWater is high-grade reclaimed water produced
from treated used water.

By 2060, it is planned to triple the current NEWater

capacity and meet 50% of our future water demand.
 Water Supply: Desalinated
Water
Singapore has one of Asias largest seawater reverse-
osmosis plant

The Plant produces 30 million gallons of water a day

(136,000 cubic meters)

By 2060, the capacity will increase by almost 10

times (30% of the water demand in the long term)
Water Supply: Local Catchment
Water
Network of drains, canals, rivers, storm-water
collection ponds and reservoirs

Water from the remaining streams and rivulets near

the shoreline using technology that can treat water of
varying salinity.
 Water Quality

Science
Integrated Water Management
A river canal in China

Source of pollution
Manila 2009
Qingdao in China 2008
Future Perspective

WATER IN SINGAPORE
 Water Supply: Issues

Is there 5th National Tap?

Ensure that each technology is optimized and

practical to meet the demand of fresh water in
Singapore.
 Water Supply: Issues
Water-Energy-Temperature Nexus?

What new resources can be developed?

 Balance recreation, flood
protection, and fresh water
supply
Freshwater: multidimensional approach

Monitoring of Assessment of roof run-os

contaminants and leachates
from canal

Biosorp0on
techniques
Vegeta0ve roof top
plants for
phytoremedia0on

TOC of Aquatic Rhizosphere

10
Total Organic Carbon (mg/L)

9
8
7
6
5
2
4 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5
3 0 dag 0

2 Dracaena Pandan 1 dag 1

1 Pandan 2
-2
Pandan 3 dag 2
diepte (cm)

dag 3
0
-4 dag 4
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Time (days) dag 6
-6 dag 11
dag 16

Ecohydraulics and
-8 dag 23

-10

modeling : towards controlling

pH

Understanding physico-bio-chemical
ooding risks
processes
 Bioremediation

A fresh application in ecological engineering

- Common tropical, ornamental plants show effective pollutant removal

- Certain terrestrial plant species with remediation capabilities are adaptive to aquatic
environment
-Phytoremediation presents a low energy and cost efficient way to improve water quality
-Effective plants can be cultivated in Water Sensitive Urban Designs (WSUDs)

Naturalised canals Urban wetlands Rain gardens Green roofs

Bioremediation potential of tropical plants

I. Nutrients II. Heavy metals III. Chemicals

NO3

Cd

PO4

Pb

Hoagland conc
 Studies on Improvement of Water Quality

35 70
A4 30 60
A2 25 50

NO3 (mg/L)

PO4 (mg/L)
A3 A1 20 40
15 30
10 20
5 10
0 0
Rain Control Soil Green Daku Rain Control Soil Green Daku
roof roof

Quality of runo from dierent assemblies

100

50

Green roof assemblies in EA rooRop in NaDonal

University of Singapore 0
Na K Ca Mg Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Pb Cd

Removal efficiency (%)

-50

-100 Amberlite
Chitosan

Amberlite Chitosan Sargassum -150

Sargassum
Crab shell
Bagasse

-200 Sawdust
Peat

-250

Crab shell Bagasse Sawdust Peat Performance of dierent sorbents to remove metal
Dierent sorbents used to treat urban runo ions from urban storm water runo
 Peak reduction and runoff delay
through Green Roofs

Gill et al (2007) found that

an addi0onal 10% green large peak ow
relevant reducDon
delay Dmes

space in ci0es can mi0gate

UHI by up to 4 C (7 F)
Development of plant root networks

0.6 m

0.1 m

0.2 m
 Bioremediation ability of plants
How ecient are tropical, terrestrial plants in remedia8on?
12 PO4
Concentration (ppm)

10 NO3
8

0
 Bioretention systems
Selec8on of tropical plants suitable for growth in bioreten8on systems
Control Drought Recovery

1 mth-
drought

Control Drought Recovery

2 mth- 1 mth-
drought drought

Control Drought Recovery

Osmoxylum lineare
1 mth-
2 mth- drought
drought

Bougainvillea
2 mth-
drought

Dracaena reflexa Song of India

Building a City of Gardens and Water
ABC Programme:
Ac0ve new recrea0onal spaces
Beau0ful integra0on of waters with urban landscape
Clean Improved water quality
Bishan River
ABC Waters Programme

Before

Kallang River @
Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park
After
ABC Waters Programme
Kallang River @ Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park

After
Bishan River
ABC Waters Programme
Rochor Canal
ABC Waters Programme
Alexandra Canal
 ABC Waters Programme
Sungei Tampines / Sungei Api Api
 Balance of Water Systems: Issues

Can we effectively manage trade-off between

protection, supply and recreational use?
Is there are an objective way to achieve these trade-
offs?
How to plan developments under uncertain (i.e.
changing climate) conditions?

These are some questions for next

generation of engineers
 Balance of Water Systems:
Issues

Design and implementation to seizing these

three objectives.

Systems that will interact to achieve optimal

conditions.
 Future Challenges?

July 2, 2013 123

A never ending story

WATER IN SINGAPORE