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The Great Circle
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Distance
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Mathematics SL Exploration
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Candidate Number 049046_0003
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003
Introduction
The great-circle distance1 is the shortest distance between two points on the surface
of a sphere, measured along the surface of the sphere. Euclidean geometry states
that on a flat map the length of the straight line between two points can be used to
calculate the distance between the points. While in Non-Euclidean, there are no
straight lines on sphere rather they are substituted by geodesics which on sphere is
referred to shortest course between two points on earth. Along the two points
located on sphere, which are not face to face, there always lies a unique great circle.
Though earth is not an accurate sphere, but still the same formulas used for
Since I love travelling, last time when I travelled on an airplane, I came across a
question that is how pilots determine their route. So I researched about what is that
the pilots do to navigate around in the sky. This was when I came to know about the
way pilots use spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry to find the shortest
distance between two places on Earth. So this was why I chose this topic. With this
investigation I am sure I will find how pilots determine their route with solid, more
scientific, mathematical theory and come to conclusions that could help me answer
my questions.
1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_distance
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Statement of task
Earth with help of spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry. I will be using
globe for my numerical calculations. I will be choosing four countries on globe. Then
I am going to draw the great circle and find the longitude and latitude of the countries
on the great circle. Therefore with the use of spherical trigonometry I will be
Latitude2 - Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's
Figure 1 shows a part of world map. If we need to travel from Point A to Point B on a
world map, we can take the road from A to south till C and then from C to east till B
and then we reach the destination. The total distance travelled would then be length
of AC + length of CB. Also, if there is any straight road from Point A to Point B, then
we can simply travel through that road and the distance would be length of AB.
2
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/latitude
3
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/longitude
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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B Useful explanation
appropriately
supported by the
diagram
FIGURE 1
If we are travelling on an aircraft and if we want to move from one city to another city
we will draw a straight line between those cities. This can be seen in figure 2 where
a straight line is drawn between point X and point Y on the flat world map. And if we
locate the same straight line between two points on a globe, the distance shown on
globe will not be equal to distance shown on a map. The reason for this is that the
straight line on a sphere when drawn on a sphere turns into a great circle. A great
circle basically is that circle which intersects and its plane travels through the centre
of the earth. Hence, any distance calculated on the Earths surface is fundamentally
a spherical distance or great circle distance. That is why its important to properly
and accurately calculate the shortest distance using because any difference between
the distance on map and great circle distance can mislead and misguide the person
A
Appropriate Figure 2
explanation
How do we calculate great circle distance?
There are many methods to calculate distance but many of those are done on
formulas. These methods are not very accurate as a GPS because Earth is not an
exact sphere. A perfect sphere4 has the same radius from the centre of the sphere to
every single point on the surface. As the earth is geographically assorted and is
spinning on its axis, it is actually an oblate sphere which is flat at the poles and
whose radius at the equator is slightly longer than the radius at the poles.
1. Northing/easting: This is the method where we firstly have to locate the centre
of the earth and the two places between which we will calculate distance. Then
4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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we will draw a line from the centre of the earth to both the places. After that, we
will be calculating the difference between the latitude and longitude of the
chosen two places. This can be seen in the figure 3 where the difference is
have calculated the difference between the longitudes and latitudes of the two
places, we can use these to calculate the angle A and angle B which further
C Evidence of Personal
engagement
Figure 3
The north-south distance will be represented by =
between the latitudes of two places. And re stands for mean radius of the earth
The east-west distance would be represented by =
between longitudes of two places and re stands for mean radius of the earth
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003
After we have figured the angles, we can simply use the Pythagorean Theorem
because we will have calculated the north-south distance (length AB) and the east-
With the help of Pythagorean Theorem formula we can now calculate the distance
Good use of
= ( ) + ( )
B
notation
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003
shortest distance firstly I will be taking New York and Johannesburg as two cities
between which I will calculate the distance and then I will be calculating the distance
C Good use of an
example
In degrees
In Radians
Northing/Easting
= 66.916
= -102.05
2637166.916
North-South distance =
360
= 7440.720 km
26371(102.05)
East-West distance =
360
Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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= Mod(-11347.442 km)
=11347.442km
(7440.720)2 + (11347.442)2
= 13569.405 km
By this we can conclude that the distance calculated by this method is not very
accurate as there is 7.68% difference between the actual distance and the calculated
distance. Even though the percentage is small but in terms of distance this
percentage is huge as the difference between both cities is around 1000 km which is
In degrees
In Radians
Northing/Easting
=48.62
= -35.867
2637148.6195
North-South distance =
360
= 5406.2417 km
26371(35.8673 )
East-West distance =
360
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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=3988.2618
= 6718.160574 km
By this we can conclude that the distance calculated by this method is not very accurate
as there is 4.86% difference between the actual distance and the calculated distance.
2. Haversine formula: In this method too, the first step is to locate the two cities and
the centre of the earth and then we will draw a line from the centre of the earth to
both the cities. Under this we will just find the central subtended angle, the angle
which is subtended at the centre of the earth by the two lines connecting the angle is
For any two points on a sphere, the Haversine5 of the central angle between them is
given by
d
hav = hav 2 1 + cos 1 cos 2 hav(2 1 )
r
where hav is the haversine function:
1 cos ()
hav = sin2 =
2 2
B Variables are well defined
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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d
On the left side of the equals sign is the central angle.
r
Solve for d by applying the inverse Haversine or by using the arcsine function:
d = rhav1 h = 2r arcsin( h )
d
Where h is hav or more explicitly:
r
C Good
demonstration
of personal = + ( )
involvement
Or
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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distance firstly I will be taking New York and Johannesburg as two cities between which
I will calculate the distance and then I will be calculating the distance between Dakar
In degrees
In Radians
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003
Haversine Formula
Good mathematical
E
manipulation of
formula
(101679) 1.78111
= + 0.710593 0.457311 ( )
= . + 0.710593 0.457311 (. )
. + . (.
=
)(. )
= . + .
= .
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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= .
= .
= .
= . km
This value is still inaccurate but we can say that this value is more accurate than
northing/easting method as the difference between the actual and the calculated
distance is 5.75%.
In degrees
In Radians
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Haversine Formula
Good demonstration of
C
learning and describing
unfamiliar mathematics
(0.84857) 0.626002
= + 0.256453 0.592117 ( )
= . + 0.256453 0.592117 (. )
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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. + . (.
=
)(. )
= . + . .
= .
= .
= .
= .
= .
B No explanation of how this
value is determined.
With this formula, the difference between the actual distance and the calculated
distance is 4.87%.
So, we can know that any method to calculate distance will always result in
inaccurate distance. These methods were used in the past when the technology was
not that advanced. However, today the technology has developed to the point where
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Conclusion
This exploration was really fascinating for me as I could link my exploration to the
theories. This exploration helped me to clear my doubts and made it easy for me to
understand the concept of navigation. With the help of geodesic, I was able to
understand the spherical geometry and trigonometry in a better way and could
actually use it with ease in my exploration. The biggest lesson I learnt from this
research is that any work will look hard till the time you put your effort on researching
on it. The same thing happened during my project. At the starting of my project I was
not at all confident on whether I will be able to complete my project or not but as I
investigated on it, I came across a totally new field, learned many new things and
was finally able to do my project. So, overall I enjoyed doing this exploration as
through this not only I learned non-Euclidean geometry and broadened my view on
maths but also it was a fun activity for me as I gathered information about different
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Bibliography
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=634GucAdzzA
Great Circle ( GC) Track. Calculation of GC dist, initial and final course Part 1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LEpjVsKEU4
from http://geology.com/world/world-map.shtml
https://support.groundspeak.com/index.php?pg=kb.page&id=211
from http://dateandtime.info/citycoordinates.php?id=993800
http://dateandtime.info/citycoordinates.php?id=2253354
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Assessment
Criterion A B C D E Total
Comments
Criteria A :Communication:
A3:The work is concise and easy to follow. It fulfills the aim and its complete.
CriteriaB:Mathematical representation
C3:The student has created some examples. Some personal interest is expressed
Criteria D:Reflection
D2:It links with the area of maths. Student needs to put some more efforts for
meaningful reflection.
demonstrated.
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Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Background Information
Before beginning with an exploration, student has made a deep study about the
spherical geometry and mathematical term associated with it. Student has also gone
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