LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Identify the different methods by which we acquire knowledge. Give specific examples
for each method.

- There are several methods by which we require knowledge. Firstly is through beliefs. We
hold on to superstitious beliefs as though they are fact because they have been taught to us by our
elders ever since young. For example, people in the ancient ages believed that breaking a mirror
would mean bringing seven years of bad luck. Through this superstition belief, we learn that
before mirrors, reflective surfaces were thought to be magical and could show the future. People in
the ancient ages would stare into water to try to see their future or receive messages from the
gods. So, they believed that if you broke a mirror, you would break your future. Another
superstition that some of us in this modern generation still believe is to not walk under a ladder
because it will bring bad luck. Through this belief, we learn that since the medieval times, a
leaning ladder was thought to resemble gallows. A ladder was placed against the gallows so after a
public hanging, the body could be cut down. If you happened to walk under the ladder as this was
happening, you could be hit by a dead body being cut down.

Secondly, we acquire knowledge by intuition. Through intuition, an approach in inquiring

knowledge that is not based on reasoning or inferring. Intuitive knowledge is not scientific but is
knowledge that originates from gut feeling or predictions by soothsayers, astrologers and fortune-
tellers. This method of acquiring knowledge is also known as unconscious learning. Intuitive
knowledge is knowledge that you just have to know. It is perceived through the senses and left in
its raw perception for the mind to understand. It usually is not meddled with much - it's taken for
what it is and not for what you can get from it nor for what it implies. Intuitive knowledge is
common sense knowledge. It is self-evident and does not have to be proved to be known. It is
knowledge acquired without the use of reason. For example, all of mathematics is based off of
intuitive knowledge. In math, there are some truths that you just have to know, which are often
what we consider to be intuitive knowledge. Intuitive knowledge in math and philosophy includes
numbers, points, lines, and planes. We just have to know those concepts. Thus, this proves that we
learn mathematics through intuition.

Thirdly, we also acquire knowledge through authority. Knowledge learnt through

authority originates from persons or sources that are highly respected. For example, people of
various religions that learn from sacred texts that represents the facts, which are considered
indisputable, final and cannot be challenged. These sacred texts are what we call the holy books
or scriptures. In Malaysia, we have Muslims who learn from all the facts in al- Quran, Buddhists
who are taught by their books which are The Diamond Sutra and Tripitaka, Christians who believe
in the Holy Bible, Hindus who preserve the Vedas and many other smaller groups of residents
performing different religions. Through these holy books and scriptures, we learn to preserve life
and restore peace into our minds.

Fourthly, we acquire knowledge through experience, which is considered as the method

of learning that contributed most towards understanding of how we learn. This approach of
acquiring knowledge is based on the statement which says, If I have experienced it, then it is
valid and true. In other words, only facts that are in agreement with experience are accepted, and
those that do not are rejected. However, reliance on experience has its shortcomings because our
perceptions of people, events and objects are affected by many factors. This is because we
constantly add, delete and reconstruct our experiences based on our own liking. For example,
when I was a child I learned how to read. It was a good learning experience because my teacher
made fun activities that went along with the books and also she would sing to us and teach us
songs to help us to understand the words better. Another example would be the bad experience I
had when I was a five years old. My mother told me over and over again not to aggravate the dog
that our neighbour kept as a pet. I wouldn't listen to her. So I went over to the dog and hit it on the
head. The dog bit me and after that painful experience, I learned not to aggravate the dog
anymore.

Besides that, we also require knowledge through rationalism. This approach of learning
uses reasoning to arrive at knowledge and assumes that valid knowledge is acquired through
correct reasoning. Ancient philosophers believed that knowledge derived from reasoning was just
as valid as knowledge gained from observation. Reasoning is regarded as the beginning of the
scientific process where hypotheses are proposed. This method of learning often results in
deductive and inductive arguments. Some examples of deductive and inductive arguments are:

Deductive Arguments

a) All dogs are mammals. All mammals have kidneys. Therefore all dogs have
kidneys.

b) Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles have four sides, all squares
have four sides.

c) The sun is a star; the sun has planets; therefore some stars have planets.
 Inductive Arguments

a) All swans we have seen have been white; therefore all swans are white.
b) All swans we have seen have been white; therefore the next swan we see will
be white.
c) All known planets travel about the sun in elliptical orbits; therefore all planets
travel about the sun in elliptical orbits.

These arguments were induced through logic thinking and strong evidence. Therefore, this proves
that through rationalism, we approach knowledge by reasoning and inducing assumptions.

Lastly, we also acquire knowledge through science. This learning method is a process
that is followed in generating knowledge and has been accepted as the best method of acquiring
knowledge. It lists a series of steps to be followed when acquiring knowledge using the scientific
method. However, it has been argued strictly that following the scientific method prevents us from
studying in depth human behaviour. The scientific method is a body of techniques for
investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous
knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based
on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The Oxford
English Dictionary defines the scientific method as a method or procedure that has characterized
natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. The process of
scientific learning consists of defining a question, gathering information and resources or
observing, forming an explanatory hypothesis, testing the hypothesis by performing an experiment
and collecting data in a reproducible manner, analyzing the data, interpreting the data and draw
conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis, publishing results and retesting or
repeating the previous steps to obtain a more accurate conclusion.

By approaching knowledge scientifically, we are able to learn to predict and

formulate scientific questions about the motion of visible celestial objects, plan ways to model
and/or simulate an answer to the questions chosen, select and integrate information from various
sources, including electronic and print resources, community resources, and personally collected
data to answer the questions chosen. We are also able to learn to communicate scientific ideas,
procedures, results, and conclusions using appropriate SI units, language, and formats, besides
describing, evaluating, and communicating the impact of research and other accomplishments in
space technology on our understanding of scientific theories and principles and on other fields of
endeavour. We are also able to acquire skills like asking questions concerning language usage with
confidence and seek effective help from reference sources and analyze qualitative and quantitative
data, and explain how evidence gathered supports or refutes an initial hypothesis. Besides that, we
are able to learn important values such as how to work cooperatively in a small group environment
and to identify our own position on the political spectrum.
In conclusion, we acquire knowledge through beliefs, intuition, authority, experience,
rationalism and also science. These methods offer different ways and outlook on learning.
Therefore, it is very important for us to preserve these methods so that we are able to equip the
younger generation with the education, skills and also values that they deserve to learn and pass on
to the incoming generation in the future.
2. Which method has contributed most towards our understanding of how children learn?
Give specific examples.

- The method that has contributed most towards our understanding of how children learn is
acquiring knowledge through experience. Research shows that young children learn best by
exploring, trying things out, finding out what works and what doesnt. Young children learn best
through playing in an environment created for their learning where their interests are supported
rather than just having information told to them. In other words, children learn best through first
hand experiences.

Young children are naturally curious about cause and effect, and are naturally motivated
to learn all about the hows and whys of the world. The kindergarten provides a learning
environment that allows children to choose the areas where they want to learn. Children will
always choose to play in an area which is relevant to their current interests. By doing this they
learn a wide range of skills, knowledge, attitudes and develop learning dispositions as they work
alongside other children and adults. An example of this is a child who chooses to play in the
sandpit a lot of the time. The child will possibly learn how to negotiate, plan, communicate, listen
and understand, share, how to make and keep friends, how to lead and follow in a group, how to
recognise and control emotions. First hand experiences of working with sand, water and
equipment may help this child develop skills in problem solving, creating, planning, sequencing,
understanding concepts and physical skills.

Sitting down for lessons maybe okay for older children, but young children learn best by
exploring and discovering alongside someone who is interested. For example, young children will
not be able to learn how to write properly by just watching their teacher without the experience of
holding a pencil themselves. They have to have first hand experiences with a pencil before they
can learn how to write and draw. Holding a pencil and drawing is one way to begin writing;
Matching things up and sorting things is the beginning of maths.

Children are good observers. Children learn from actively investigating the world around
them. Babies and children are like little scientists. They gather evidence by observing and
experiencing the world. While playing with dolls, searching through a toy box, or banging blocks
together in a seemingly haphazard manner, they are actually experiencing a quite rational process
of making hypotheses, evaluating statistical data, and dismissing prior beliefs when presented with
stronger evidence. They also display remarkable psychological intuition and by observing the
actions of other people, they can determine underlying motivations, desires and preferences.

Besides that, young children also learn important skills and values through first hand
experience of helping their parents in daily life. For example, a child that helps their mother to set
up the table for dinner every day may learn to understand the importance of compassion and
teamwork. They can also develop skills to organize and decorate their things. Not only that,
children also tend to imitate adults and follow whatever they do. This proves that children try their
best to get involved and experience in things so that they learn better.

Therefore, I believe that children learn best through experience. Children learn by
doing, using their senses, exploring their environment of people, things, places and events.
They learn from first-hand and concrete experiences as well as vicarious forms of
experiences because children do not learn as effectively when they are passive.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Define research in your own words.

- Research is a careful and diligent study that is done to find and report new knowledge about
something. It is understood by many people as an activity of getting information about a subject.
Research is also a studious inquiry or examination, usually an investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light
of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.

2. Identify the steps that are followed in gaining knowledge through the use of the scientific
method.

- The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something we identify as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed. Then, a hypothesis is developed based on the problem stated earlier. A hypothesis is
a tentative statement about the relation between two or more theoretical constructs and also is a
possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the bases of which a
study has to be conducted. This hypothesis is tested for possible rejection or approval. For
example, if the problem stated is How does the amount of sunlight a tomato plant receives affect
the size of the tomatoes?, then the hypotheses formulated would be The more amount of
sunlight the tomato plant receives, the bigger the size of the tomatoes. or The less the amount of
sunlight the tomato plant receives, the smaller the size of the tomatoes. Several hypotheses can be
formulated in a research.

A study is then designed to establish whether the relationships between the constructs are
as hypothesised. An analysis plan is also formulated to describe the ways to use the research data
to evaluate the hypothesis. Research data may be collected in various ways. Some of these
methods depend on the methodology and the theoretical assumptions used in the research. Data
collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can
impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Therefore, data collection
must be done carefully and repeatedly to achieve the most accurate result. Generally, there are
quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection method is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and is usually done through interviews
and questionnaires. Qualitative data collection plays an important role in impact evaluation by
providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results. It is usually
done through in-depth interview, observation methods and document reviews.

Then, the data collected is analysed thoroughly to be able to interpret research results.
More processes such as data graphing, visual inspection, statistical analysis or other operations
are conducted on the data as appropriate. Depending on the nature of the research, results may be
statistically significant, simply important or unusual. Therefore, any significant or interesting
results are to be taken note. Finally, the results are interpreted. Once the results are organized and
been carried out through whatever statistical or other analysis planned, it is time to figure out
what they mean for the evaluation of the research. At this point, a conclusion of the research is
formulated. They earlier formulated hypotheses are then accepted or rejected. To get the most
accurate results, it is best to repeat the research several more times.
3. What are the four objectives of science attempting to accomplish?

- The four main objectives of science attempting to accomplish are to describe, predict,
control and explain. These four objectives are a very important part in a scientific research. The
term to describe is defined as to be able to explain the relations between the factors, which is
practiced during problem statement and hypothesis. To predict means to be able to predict what
might happen during the experiment given the factors and what is known. This is practiced during
formulating the hypotheses. Besides that, to control means to be able to manipulate and fix
certain variables while observing the responding variables. To explain is literally defined as to
be able formulate theories that explain the results of the subjects being investigated.

4. What are some characteristics of research?

- As adapted from Leedy, 1993, Borg & Borg, 1983, Mitchell & Jolley, 1988, research is a
way of thinking and to qualify as a research it needs to possess certain characteristics. One of the
characteristics mentioned was the research must begin with a question in the mind of the
researcher. Formulation of a problem statement in the form of a question is always the first step in
a research process. We only need to look around and everywhere we see phenomena which arouse
our curiosity. For example, why are children in this school unable to read? Why are girls
performing better in Biology than boys? By asking relevant questions, we are able to create an
inquisitive environment which is the prerequisite for research. Therefore, research arises from a
question that is intelligently asked with regards to a phenomenon that the researcher observes and
is puzzling him or her.

Besides, research also requires a plan. A serious and meticulous plan is needed to
discover the truth or explanations about a phenomenon as research is not only about looking-up
something in the hope of coming across the solution to a problem. Research always entails a
definite plan, direction and design. It is important to write down exactly what we are planning to
do and how we are planning to do it. This is so that somebody else would be able to repeat the
experiment, and also so that we remember what we are supposed to be doing.

Not only that, research demands a clear statement of the problem. Successful research
always begins with a clear and simple statement of the problem. The problem statement should be
precise and grammatically complete, and also must set forth what it seeks to discover and enables
one to see what we are attempting to research.
 The research must deal with the problem through sub problems. The main problem has to
be divided into appropriate sub problems, all of which when resolved will result in the solution of
the main research problem. A research must also seek direction through appropriate hypotheses.
After the problem statement is formulated and the related sub problems are identified, the sub
problems are then each viewed through logical constructs and hypotheses. The hypotheses must be
logical suppositions, reasonable guesses, an educated conjecture which may give direction to
thinking with respect to the problem, and thus, aid in solving it.

Moreover, the research must deal with facts and their meaning. Having defined the
problem, sub problems and hypotheses, the next step is to collect whatever facts that are pertinent
to the problem. The data collected is organised into a form that is potentially meaningful. An
analysis is carried out on the data organised earlier. Thus, a conclusion is formulated and the
results of the research are recorded in a report.
 LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Do you agree with statement ...the central purpose of educational research is to find
ways improve student learning?

- Yes, I agree with the above statement. Through educational research, we can identify the
problems that the students face in their studies. We can also find out the flaws in certain ways of
teaching and learning. Then, we can formulate ways to overcome those problems and flaws to
make studying better and easier for our students. Therefore, I do think that the central purpose of
educational research is to find ways to improve student learning.

2. Give some examples of findings from educational research in your area of interest.

- From the researches that I carried out before, I have some examples of findings from
the educational research in my area of interest. One of the examples is that I found out that
students tend to learn more effectively when we differ the styles of teaching in the class. This is
because male students tend to be visually based learners while female students tend to be
auditory based learners. This is definitely not absolute but it is a tendency due to the gender
difference of the students. Based on my research, most male students are more sensitive to
visuals, such as pictures, colourful animations and objects of different shapes. They are also able
to perform better in gross motor body movements and possess better abilities in terms of dealing
with three dimensional space. However, contrary to that, most female students learn more
effectively when there are auditory learning tools in the class. They are more sensitive to sounds
and more attentive to faces, speech patterns and tones of voice instead of colours and motion. In
other words, male students usually focus only on the main point of a subject, while female
students tend to spot the details better than the main point of a subject.

Therefore, most male students learn more effectively through presentations, especially
the colourful and animated ones while most female students learn more effectively in activities
which require the teachers instructions and explanations. This theory is proven accurate when
researchers found that most male students prefer to draw colourful mind maps while most female
students prefer to just write down simple notes and reading them aloud while studying. As visual
learners, male students tend to excel in visual subjects, such as spelling and math. Spelling
requires accurate visual recall of the patterns of words, and success in math hinges on the ability to
mentally visualize and manipulate quantities. Therefore as adults, males tend to favour visually
precise fields, or favour fields where they can be physically active. However, female airline pilots,
accountants and landscape designers prove exceptions to this rule. On the other hand, from the
time they begin formal schooling, female students excel in auditory subjects, such as reading,
which require the ability to break words into individual sound units, and then blend them back into
a whole. As auditory learners, they perform well in classroom settings that demand attention to
teacher instructions. Therefore as adults, they often lean toward careers in communications. Male
broadcasters, courtroom attorneys and speech-language pathologists prove that there are
exceptions to this rule. Moreover, teachers should also take note of their voice tone and volume.
Loud voice might be dismissed as yelling by the female students, but male students are usually
more attracted to loud, energetic voice. Female students might also be irritated with teachers who
walk around the classroom while teaching, but male students naturally can focus better because
they are very visually attuned.

Assuming that this phenomenon happens not only in Malaysia but also in other parts of
the world, based on my findings, I believe that adversity in teaching techniques can definitely help
students to learn better. Teacher can never have only one fixed style of teaching because different
students may face different learning problems and also approach knowledge in a variety of ways.
Therefore, teachers must always make an effort to add variety to their teaching techniques.
Personal help and constant motivation will also contribute to helping the students to learn more
effectively.