Chapter II

How to Get the Meaning of Unfamiliar Words

Words or vocabulary is considered a vital factor that influences effective

reading, being able to read accurately and efficiently and to understand as much of the
passage as you need to achieve your purpose. Comprehension failure could be a simple
matter of not knowing the meaning of a word or a failure in specific reading skills.
This chapter will provide readers some techniques to get the meaning of unfamiliar
words. There are three possible ways to learn the meaning of unfamiliar word:
1. Using different kinds of context clues;
2. Using what you know of word stems and word formation;
3. Looking up the word in a dictionary (if the other two mentioned techniques
are not possible)

Guessing Word Meaning from Context

Context refers to the words surrounding an unfamiliar word. These
surrounding words provide clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Using context
clues to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words helps the reader save time since
the reader doesn't have to look the word up in the dictionary and give the reader a good
sense of how a word is actually used. Context may include the whole sentence,
paragraph, situation, chapter, or even the entire book in which the strange word
appears (Barnett, 1988).
Clues are hints or things that suggest the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
Clues the writer uses to clarify the meaning of an unfamiliar word are as follows:
 32

1. Situations refer to the consideration what happen or will happen in that

situation and condition. The simple way for this technique is to find out some key
words that can indicate the action in the sentence.
Examples :
1.1 She walks briskly to class so that she wouldn’t be late.
a. slowly b. quickly
c. fortunately d. comfortably
The situation is that she doesn’t want to be late for class. How should
she walk? The answer will be that she has to walk quickly. Thus, briskly means
quickly.
1.2 During the winter, having to take a cold shower makes me shiver all
over.
a. sleep b. shake
c. cry d. warm
The key word is the winter and the situation is to take a cold shower.
We can infer that shiver means shake. When we take a cold shower in the winter it
will make us shake all over.
1.3 We offered our condolence to the unhappy woman when her husband
died.
a. congratulation b. happiness
c. gladness d. sympathy
The situation is her husband died and the key word is unhappy
woman. The question is what we should offer when someone feels unhappy because
her husband died. Naturally we will offer her sympathy. So we can guess that
condolence means sympathy.
 33

2. Repetition is the occurrence of using words which have occurred before.

There are several kinds of repetition where words or certain phrases are repeated for a
stronger emphasis by the author and they refer to the meaning of aforementioned
words.
Examples :
2.1 He’s such a mournful person that just being around him makes me sad,
too.
a. happy b. sad
c. glad d. big
The above sentence the clue is being around him makes me sad that
U U

can lead us to know the meaning of “mournful” because the author use sad as U U

repetition of word meaning. So we can guess that mournful means sad.

2.2 Many ships have vanished during hurricanes. All crews have
disappeared and have never been found.
a. disappeared b. broke
c. threw d. appeared
From the sentence the hint is have never been found that can guide us to
U U

guess that vanished means disappeared.

2.3 Students! Students! Please stop chattering and listen to me. Class has
begun so you cannot enjoy talking.
a. clapping b. playing
c. talking d. going
In this sentence the clue is Class has begun so you cannot enjoy talking
U U

that can hint us to know that chattering is the same meaning as talking. The author use
repetition of word meaning.
 34

3. Contrast is the opposition or dissimilarity of things that are compared; "in

contrast to", "by contrast" an author writes contrast when he or she describes the
difference(s) between two or more entities. The following examples describe using
contrast to get the meaning of a new word.
Examples :
3.1 One plate of rice usually suffices for me, but one plate isn’t enough for
my husband.
a. much b. enough
c. a little d. a few
The key word that can hint us know that suffices means enough is but U

that show the contrast of the two clauses.

U

3.2 My library at home is quite sparse; the central library, however, has a
lot of books.
a. large b. full
c. few in number d. interesting
From the above the correct answer is few in number. The key word that
let us know the meaning of sparse is however and a lot of that show the opposition of
U U U U

the first clause.

3.3 While Drew is popular and …………… , Ben would rather stay at
home alone, enjoying a good book.
a. noisy b. uneducated
c. sociable d. reserved
The appropriate word that fit the blank is sociable because the clue that
shows the contrast of the two clauses are popular and stay at home alone, enjoying a
U U U

good book. These make us choose sociable as the correct answer.

U
 35

4. Examples is another clue that make us get the meaning of a new word.
Sometimes the author tries to help the reader get the right concept of their writing so
they give some examples for their explanation. We can look at examples or look at
words around that word which help to explain its meaning in the context.
Examples:
4.1 The street is crowded with conveyances of all descriptions, such as
buses, bicycles, cars and automobiles.
a. transportation b. bus terminal
c. convenience d. comfort
From the sentence we can guess the meaning of conveyances by
looking at the Examples—buses, bicycles, cars and automobiles—so we know that
conveyances are means of transportation.
4.2 Iran is trying to restore many of its ancient buildings. For example,
Persepolis—Iran’s oldest building---is being partially rebuilt by a group of Italian
experts.
a. destroyed b. partially rebuilt
c. ruined d. wiped up
From the sentence we can guess the meaning of restore by looking at
the Examples --- Persepolis— Iran’s oldest building and also use the repetition
technique for guessing the meaning of restore. So we know that restore is a mean of
partially rebuilt.
4.3 Although the rigors of the job were great--for example, the long hours,
the lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures outdoors--
George didn’t complain because the pay was good.
a. good results b. difficult conditions
c. sleeplessness d. healthfulness
 36

We can guess the meaning of rigors by looking at the Examples --- the
long hours, the lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures
outdoors. All situations as examples show us difficult conditions so we can guess that
rigors are means of difficult conditions.

5. Typographical Clues such as, are the art and techniques the author uses
for presentation of text in a manner. Usage of typographical signs, notably punctuation
marks, parentheses ( ) or dashes --- and various elements of layout can help us not
only easy to read but also visually engaging and hint us the meaning of new words.
Examples:
5.1 Some ancient European families used the unicorn (in old stories, a
horse – like creature with one long horn) for their symbol.
From the sentence we can guess that unicorn means a horse - like
creature with one long horn because words or phrases in parentheses is the
explanation of a word in front.
5.2 Many scientists are now studying bionics --the field of science which
uses information about the functioning of biological systems to help solve engineering
problems.
The same reasons as 5.1 we know bionics means the field of science
which uses information about the functioning of biological systems to help solve
engineering problems because words or phrases that come after dash are usually also
the explanation of the word in front.
5.3 The number of climbers, tourists and trekkers (people who are
interested in long distance walking) in Nepal has now reached one million a year.
From the sentence we easily know that trekkers mean people who are
interested in long distance walking by using typographical clue technique to get the
meaning of trekkers.
 37

6. Definition refers to a concise explanation of the meaning of a word or

phrase or symbol that the authors use for writings.
Examples:
6.1 Mah Jong and Chi Far are popular games in Hong Kong. Chi Far is a
Chinese numbers game played mostly by maids and working class housewives.
From the two sentences we know that Chi Far means a Chinese
numbers game played mostly by maids and working class housewives because the
writer already tell us the meaning of Chi Far by telling its definition. Saying that Chi
Far is……………

6.2 I need a file for my work because it is needed to rub the rust out. A file
is an instrument used for rubbing something to be a good shape.
Similar to 6.1 the writer also tells us the meaning of Chi Far by telling
its definition. Saying that a file is……………Why do some writers tell us the definition
of words they used? It may be because they don’t want us to misunderstand. English
word has more than a single meaning. Even though we can know the meaning from a
dictionary but it will take time and it is not sure that we can take the right meaning to
the text we read. The easy way to help us the writer gives the definition of words in the
text they wrote.

7. Explanation refers to a statement that makes something comprehensible by

describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc.
Look at the following sentence.

Most domestic dogs are smart.

 38

We can’t guess the meaning of domestic because there is not enough

information. Domestic could mean, for example: either wild or hunting or tame. To get
U U U U U U

more information we have to continue reading.

Most domestic dogs are smart. They can be trained for hunting.

Now the first definition —wild— is improbable because of the second

sentence. But we are still unsure whether domestic means hunting or tame.

Read the following paragraph.

Most domestic dogs are smart. They can be trained for hunting. They can
also be taught to be watchdogs or guide-dogs for blind people.
Now we can be fairly sure that domestic means tame in this context
because of the information given in the last sentence; it helps to explain the meaning of
domestic. More information gives us a more detailed explanation. A more detailed
explanation will help us to make a better guess at the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

8. Appositive is a noun or noun phrase which explains or renames a noun

which comes immediately before it. The writer uses a noun or noun phrase to modify
another noun that come before it. The symbol the writer uses as appositive to describe
a noun that lead us to know the meaning of an unfamiliar word is comma ( , ). We can
guess that words or phrases which are between the two commas are the meanings of
words in front it.
Example:
The nucleus of an atom, the center part which contains protons and
neutrons, is the part with which scientists do most of their work.
 39

By using the appositive we know that Nucleus means the center part
which contains protons and neutrons.

9. Lexical Cohesion The act, process, or condition of cohering: the linguistic

elements that make a discourse semantically coherent.
Example:
This red rose is a very beautiful flower.
Red rose means flower.

10. Similarity
Look at the following sentences.
A cat may look big to a mouse. In the same way, a mouse probably looks
monstrous to an insect.
If we don’t know what monstrous means, we can learn its meaning by
looking at the words around that word. Here the writer is comparing the sizes of a cat
and a mouse. He is also comparing the sizes of a mouse and an insect. Monstrous is
thus similar to big because the author uses the phrase in the same way. Therefore, we
know that monstrous means very large or huge.

Self Practice 2.1: In the following sentences, choose the most appropriate
U U

meaning of words that would fit each blank .

1. Be careful with this knife-- its edge is so keen that you can shave with it.
a. long b. wide
c. sharp d. clear
 40

2. The students are continually perplexed by the professor’s actions. For

example, last week he promised that there would be no quiz and he gave one; then he
said he wouldn’t grade it but he did anyway and gave all the students Fs.
a. confused b. happy
c. uninterested d. patient
3. Although the rigors of the job were great--for example, the long hours, the
lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures outdoors--George
didn’t complain because the pay was good.
a. good results b. difficult conditions
c. sleeplessness d. healthfulness
4. The girl always prevaricated when she was caught in the act of cheating
and didn’t want the truth to be known.
a. ate a lot b. cried
c. lied d. laughed
5. She had a lesion on her arm that would not stop bleeding.
a. bracelet b. headache
c. birthmark d. wound
6. He is a prestidigitator who entertained children by pulling rabbits out of his
hat, swallowing fire, and other similar tricks.
a. magician b. singer
c. lawyer d. teacher
7. The mother showed her wrath at what the child had done by screaming at
him and hit him.
a. pleasure b. anger
c. surprise d. sadness
 41

8. When asked to serve as a chairman, Pual________stating that he did not

feel capable of performing the duties of the office.
a. objected b. accepted
c. wept d. Rejoiced
9. Although measles is thought to be harmless childhood disease, it is
more___________than most people realized.
a. permanent b. widespread
c. exciting d. harmful
10. Not all funerals have to be____________occasions; in New Orleans,
relatives of the dead person often dance to a jazz procession while carrying the coffin
to the cemetery.
a. enjoyable b. happy
c. solemn d. angry
11. In most colleges, at least one course in English is______, required, for
degree.
a. optional b. compulsory
c. suggested d. desirable
12. In order to ______ a message by telephone there must be a wire
connecting the telephones of the sender and the receiver of the message.
a. take b. bring
c. transmit d. carry
13. The claim that Mr. Soontorn failed the test was ______ because the
professor gave him an A for the course.
a. unlikely b. unjustified
c. unusual d. uncommon
 42

14. Joe Blow only had a very______ knowledge of Thai law, and thus was not
able to explain to the student why they were not able to travel to Europe without a
passport.
a. extensive b. great
c. significant d. superficial
15. Dictionaries became_________after the passage of the time because
language changes continuously with new words being added, old words being
discarded and meanings of words changing.
a. old b. changed
c. outdated d. useless

USelf Practice 2.2: Define the italic words in the following sentences by noting
U

their context, and indicate what the clues are:

Example; His schedule was hectic, but he managed to go out for
basketball.
A: Meaning : hasty / confusing / busy
B: Clue : Contrast (but)

1. The prisoner was harassed---annoyed continually----by the jailers.

A: Meaning :_____________________________
B: Clue :_____________________________
2. After the foundation walls are completed, the floor structure is begun by
setting in place the joints, a series of long, wooden, steel or concrete beams that
support the floor.
A: Meaning :_____________________________
B: Clue :_____________________________
 43

3. Although Harry is usually inept at sports, he surprised the coach and won
the race.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________

4. She is susceptible to the ideas of others. She believes most everything

anyone tells her.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
5. There is a great variety of reptiles found in Thailand----for example, many
types of snakes, lizards, crocodiles, turtles, ect.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
6. The increasing number of nosocomial infections in American hospitals is
causing great concern. Nosocomial infections are infections which patients get inside
the hospital.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
7. Decubitus ulcers, or bed sores, have for centuries caused a lot of trouble to
patients and have resisted the efforts of doctors to cure them.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
8. The torrential rains during the rainy season in Thailand sometimes cause
floods and damage to property.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
 44

9. The number of climbers, tourists and trekkers (people who are interested in
long distance walking) in Nepal has now reached one million a year.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________
10. Recent years have seen increased use of air structures, that is, closed
containers of soft material that become hard when fill with air.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue :____________________________

Guessing Meaning from the Formation of Words

Words not derived or compounded or developed from other words are called
Simple or Primary Words (stem). They belong to the original stock of words in the
language; as moon, take, bare, man
From these Simple or Primary Words are formed other words. They are of two
kinds :-
1. Compound Words
A compound word is a combination of two or more words used to express a
single concept. Consistency in the treatment of compounds is always difficult. There
are wide variations in acceptable style, and the rules that do exist sometimes conflict or
overlap. More important than absolute consistency in the formation of compounds is
the union or separation of the elements so that terms can be easily read, understood,
and pronounced. Look at Table 2.1 that shows some examples of compound words.
 45

Table 2.1 Some examples of compound words

U U U

Primary word Compound word

news Newsstand, newspaper
flower Flower petal, flowerpot
pig Pigtail, pigpen,
sand Sandpaper, sandstorm
lady Ladybug, ladyfinger
thumb Thumbtack, thumbprint, thumbnail
copper copperhead
eye Eyebrow, eyelid
bed Bedrock, bedtime
hand Handbag, handshake

2. Derived Words or Derivatives

Derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for
HT TH

example, by adding a derivational affix. It is a kind of word formation or it is the

HT TH HT TH

process by which words are formed from existing words or bases by adding affixes, as
singer from sing or undo from do, by changing the shape of the word or base, as song
from sing, or by adding an affix and changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as
electricity from electric. They are formed;
1. by making some changes in the body of the Primary Words; as
bond is derived from bind,
feed is derived from food,
song is derived from sing.
 46

2. by adding something to the beginning or the end of the Primary

Words; as,
unkind is derived from kind,
reclaim is derived from claim,
manhood is derived from man
fortunate is derived from fortune.
kindness is derived from kind.
joyful is derived from joy.
amazement is derived from amaze.
speaker is derived from speak.
national is derived from nation.

3. Stem
A stem, in linguistics, is the combination of the basic form of a word or it is
HT TH HT TH

part of a word which remains the same, while combining with different ending. Look
at Table 2.2 that shows some example of word stems.

Table 2.2 Some Common Stems

U U U

Stem Meaning Examples

-anthro-,- man anthropoid (of animal - like a man)
enthropo-
-arch- rule; chief patriarch (the father and ruler of a family
or tribe)
-aster-; -astro-; star astronomy (the scientific study of the sun,
-stellar- moon, stars and other heavenly bodies)
Stem Meaning Example
-audi-,-audit- Hear audible (able to be heard)
 47

U Table 2.2 (Continued)

U

-chron- time chronic (continuing a long time)

-corp- body corpus (a body of writing)
-dict- say, speak diction (style of speaking or writing)
-duc- lead bring induce (to lead on; to persuade)
-gam- marriage polygamy (the practice of having many or
several marriage partners)
-geo- earth geography (the science dealing with the
earth and its life)
-graph- write phonograph (a sound-producing machine
using records)
-hydr-, -hydro- water hydrophobia (fear of water; rabies)
-lith- stone lithoid (stone-like)
-man-, -manu- hand manufacture (to make by hand or machinery)
-mit- send; let go emit (to send forth)
-mort- death mortal (causing death)
-onym- name antonym (a word opposite in meaning
to another)
-pathy- feeling; suffering sympathy (harmony in feeling; compassion)
-phil- love philosophy (the study of language;
love of speech)
Stem Meaning Example
-ped-, -pod- foot centipede (a small animal with many legs)
-polis- City metropolis (a chief city or capital city of
a country)
-port- -port- porter (one who carries luggage)
 48

Table 2.2 (Continued)

U U

-chron- time chronic (continuing a long time)

-pon-, -poo- put; place postpone (to put off to later time)
-pose- state; offer for propose (put forward for consideration)
consideration
-psych- mind psychologist (one who studies mental
processes and behavior)
-scope- instrument for chronoscope (an instrument to measure
seeing or small period of time)
observing
-scrib-, -script- write inscribe (to write or engrave words)
-spect- look at inspect (to look over carefully)
-spir- breathe respire (to breathe)
-soph- wise sophisticated (worldly-wise)
-theo-, -the- god theology (study one God and of God’s
relationship with man)
-ver- true veritable (real; rightly named)
-voc-, -vok- call vocalist (a singer)

4. Affixes
Affixes are a group of letters added to the beginning of a word (in the case
of a prefix) or the end of a word (in the case of suffix) to change its meaning or its use.
(Anderson,1986).
4.1 Prefixes
Prefix is an affix which is placed at the beginning of a word or an affix
stem. (Crystal, 1980) or it is a group of letters that comes before the base form of a
 49

word. A prefix changes the meaning of words. Knowing the meaning of common prefix
helps us in two important ways. First, it helps us built our vocabulary and quickly guess
the meaning of unknown words in a reading, especially if we are unfamiliar with the
root. Second, knowing how prefixes are used with words can also make our writing
clearer and more precise. Table 2.3 shows some example of common prefixes.

Table 2.3 Some examples of English derivational prefixes:

U U U

Prefix
HT THMeaning Examples
a(n)- not, without HT atonality, amoral, anarchy, anonymous, atypical
TH HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

ab-
HT away
TH abduction, absolutism, ablution
HT TH HT TH HT TH

acr(o)- high, up, hill acropolis, acrobatics HT TH HT TH

ad-
HT near, at
TH adrenal HT TH

aden(o)- gland adenectomy

aer(o)- air HT TH aeronautics, aerodrome, aeroplane, aerodynamics
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

agr(o)- relating to farming agriculture HT TH

alt- high altitude HT TH

alter- another Alter-ego, alternate HT TH

am- love amorous, amateur HT TH

ambi- around, either, encircling ambiguity, ambidexterity, Ambisagrus

HT TH HT TH HT TH

an(a)- out of anachronism HT TH

andr- man HT androgyny, androcentrism, android, androgen

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

anem- wind anemometer HT TH

Anglo- English or British HT Anglo-Irish relations

TH HT TH HT TH

ante- before antebellum HT TH

anthropo- relating to human beings anthropology, anthropocentrism, anthropomorphic

HT TH HT TH HT TH
 50

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT Meaning
TH Examples
ant(i)- against; opposite antidote, antibody, antisocial HT TH HT TH

aut(o)- self HTautonomy, autobiography, automobile, autopilot

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

bar(o)- heaviness, heavy barometer HT TH

bathy- deep Bathyscaphe, Bathysphere HT TH HT TH

be-
HT TH completely, bemuse, bespeak, bewail
excessively; forms
transitive verbs
ben- well Benediction, benign HT TH

bi- two HTbicycle, bijection, bicameralism, bisexual

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

bi(o)- life HTbiology, biography, biopsy

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

bibli(o)- relating to books bibliophilia, bibliography HT TH HT TH HT TH

blast(o)- bud, germination blastocyst HT TH

brady- slow bradycardia HT TH

brom(o)- Stench Bromine, bromide HT TH

bronch(o)- relating to breathing bronchitis HT TH

cac(o)- bad cacophony, cacography

cad/cas- a fall cadence, cascade HT TH HT TH

carcin(o)- relating to cancer carcinogenic HT TH HT TH

cardi(o)- heart cardiovascular, Cardiac arrest HT TH HT TH

hundred or
cent-, centi- centenarian, centimeter, centipede
HT TH

hundredth
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

cephal(o)- head cephalothorax

chrom(ato)- colour chromatic, chromosome
 51

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT TH Meaning Examples
chron(o)- time HT TH chronology, chronic, chronicle
HT TH

circum- around circumcision, circumlocution, circumference

HT TH HT TH HT TH

co- with; together cooperative, co-belligerence, co-worker

HT TH HT TH

colpo- vagina colpospasm

con-
HT with, together
TH connotation, Congress, congregation
HT TH HT TH HT TH

contr- against, opposite HT TH contradiction, contraception, controversy

HT TH HT TH HT TH

cosm(o)- world cosmology, cosmopolitan, cosmotheism

HT TH HT TH HT TH

counter- against, opposite HT TH counterpoint, Counter-Reformation, contraception

HT TH HT TH

crin(o)- cry(shed tears) endocrinology

cryo- frost, icy cold HT TH HT TH cryogenics, cryoelectronics, cryostorage
HT TH HT TH HT TH

crypt(o)-
HT hidden TH cryptography, cryptozoology
HT TH HT TH

cyt(o)- cell (originally HT TH cytoplasm, cytology

HT TH HT TH

hollow receptacle)
culp- fault culpable, culprit
dactyl(o)- finger, digit dactylogram
de- taking something decentralisation, dehydration, Denazification, degrade
HT TH HT TH HT TH

away, the opposite

dec(a)-, ten HT TH decamerous, December, decimeter HT TH

dek(a)-
deci-
HT one tenth
TH HT TH HT TH HT deciliter TH

dem(o)- people demographics, democracy

HT TH HT TH

derm(at)- skin dermatology, dermatitis

HT TH HT TH

di- two, double HT TH dichromic

HT TH
 52

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT TH Meaning Examples
di- day HT TH diurnal HT TH

dia- Through diameter, diagnosis, diarrhea

didact(o)- apt at teaching HT TH didactic
dis-
HT TH apart, separation,
HT TH HT TH dissent, discovery, disambiguation, disconnected
HT TH HT TH HT TH

reverse, opposite, not

HT TH HT TH

dok, dox(o)- view, teaching doxology, dogma, orthodox HT TH

dynam(o)- power, force HT dynamic, dynamite, dynamo

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

dys- bad, deformed, dyspepsia, dystrophy, dysarthria HT TH HT TH HT TH

abnormal
eco- house economy, ecology, ecosystem, ecotage HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

ecto- outer, external ectomorphic, ectoparasite

edaph(o)- soil edaphic
relating to
electr(o)- electrocution, electroencephalogram
Electricity
HT TH HT TH

HT TH

embry(o)- embryo embryogenesis

en- to make ~ (transitive enrage, enlarge
verb)
end(o)-, inside endoscope, endothermic, entoblast HT TH

ent(o)-
enne(a)- nine HT enneastyle, enneagram
TH

enter(o)- intestine enteritis

earliest, most
eo- eobacterium, eohippus
primitive
 53

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT TH Meaning Examples
ep(i)-, eph- upon, above, around epitaxy, epicenter, ephemeral HT TH

erg(o)- work, labour ergonomics synergy, energy HT TH HT TH HT TH

erythr(o)- Red erythrocite

erot(o)- love erotic, erotomania
ethno- race, people ethnology, ethnolinguistics, ethnocentrism
HT TH HT TH HT TH

eu- good eulogy, euthanasia, eugenics, euphemism

HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

Euro- European
HT Euro-MP, Eurocentric
TH HT TH

ex-
HT TH former ex-wife, ex-president
exo- outside exoskeleton HT TH

extra- outside, beyond, extra-thin, extra-special extraordinary, extraterrestrial HT TH

additional
flor- relating to flowers florist HT TH

fore- before, in advance foreskin, foreshadowing HT TH HT TH

geo- earth geography, geology HT TH HT TH

glosso- language
HT glossogeny, glossogony, glossolalia
TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

gyn- female
HT gynaecology, gynoid
TH HT TH HT TH

hemi- half
HT TH hemimetabolous, hemisphere HT TH

hemo- blood
HT TH hemophilia, hemophobia HT TH HT TH

heter(o)- different heterogenous, heterosexual HT TH HT TH

hex(a)- six
HT TH hexapod, hexagonal, hexameter HT TH

hom(o)- same homogenous, homosexual HT TH HT TH

hydro- water hydrogen, hydry HT TH HT TH

 54

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT Meaning Examples TH

hyper- excessive, over, hyperactive, hyperthyroidism, hypertension HT TH HT TH

beyond
hyp(o)- below , under
HT hypodermic, hypnosis
TH HT TH

in- intensively inflammable, invaluable HT TH

in- not infallibility, illiteracy, immoral, irrelevant

HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

inter- between, mutual intervention, international, internet HT TH HT TH

intra- within intramural, intravenous, intraocular HT TH

kilo-
HT thousand
TH kilogram, kilowattHT TH HT TH HT TH

Litho- rock lithosphere HT TH HT TH

Luso- Portuguese lusophone HT TH HT TH

Mac- or "son of" (often used McCarthy, Kirsty MacColl

HT TH HT TH HT TH

Mc-
HT in last names)
TH HT TH

macro- large macrobiology, macroscopic HT TH HT TH

mal- bad malpractice, malnutrition HT TH HT TH

maxi- many ,most maximal, maximum

McDonalds-like,
Mc- McJob, McPaper (See McWords)
HT TH

often derogatory
HT TH HT TH HT TH

mega-
HT million, very large megabyte, megaphone, megalopolis
TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

meso- middle mesoamerica, mesoscale HT TH HT TH

meta- after, beyond metacarpal, metaphysics HT TH HT TH

micro-
HT one millionth, very microgram, microorganism, micronation
TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

small
mid- in the middle of mid-term elections, Mid-Autumn Festival HT TH HT TH
 55

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT TH Meaning Examples
milli-
HT TH thousandth milligram, milliliter
HT TH HT TH

mini- small miniskirt, miniseries

HT TH HT TH

mis- bad, wrong

HT TH HT TH miscarriage, misanthropy, misogyny, mistake
HT TH HT TH HT TH

mon(o)- one, single

HT TH monolith, monorail, monotony, monocle
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

multi- many multiculturalism, multilingualism

HT TH HT TH

myco-
HT TH relating to fungi mycology, mycoprotein
HT TH HT TH

myri(a)- Ten thousand

HT TH myriagon, myriad HT TH HT TH

non- not HT TH nonsense, non-denial denial

HT TH HT TH

non- nine HT TH nonagon HT TH

O'- (son) of (often used O'Brian

in last names)
oct(o)-, eightHT TH octane, octopod, octagon, October
HT TH HT TH HT TH

oct(a)-
omni-
HT all TH omnidirectional, omnivore, omnipotent HT TH

oo- ("oo - egg, ovum oocyte HT TH

oh")
out-
HT TH more, to a greater outdo, outrun
degree
over- (noun) more than normal,
HT TH overpopulation, over-consumption, overlord
HT TH HT TH HT TH

too much
over- (verb) to do too much, to
HT TH overlook, overspend, oversee
HT TH HT TH HT TH

(verb) over
pent(a)- five HT TH HT pentagon TH
 56

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT Meaning TH Examples
peri(o)- around, about, perimysium, pericardium, periosteum, perinatal
HT TH HT TH HT TH

enclosing, near
photo-
HT light, photon TH HT TH HT TH photograph, photosensetive, photosynthesis
HT TH HT TH HT TH

phyto-
HT relating to plants
TH phytogeography, phytoplankton
HT TH HT TH

post-
HT after TH postpartum depression,postmodernism
HT TH HT TH

pre-
HT before
TH prediction, preview, precedent, prenatal care
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

pro-
HT for, in favor of
TH pro-choice, protagonist
HT TH

psycho- mind, mental psychology, psychosomatic

HT TH HT TH

pyro- fire, flame pyromania

HT TH

quadr-, four HT TH HT quadrangle, quadruplet, quartic, quartile

TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

quart-
quinque- five HT TH quinquesection,
quint(i)- fifth, five HT TH HT TH quintiped, quintet
re- again, repeatedly reduction, reflection, revolution
HT TH HT TH HT TH

rect(i)- proper, straight rectify, rectangle

HT TH

retro- backward retrograde, retrospective

scler(o)- hard scleroderma, atherosclerosis
HT TH HT TH

semi- half, partial HT TH semi-automatic, semi-detached

HT TH HT TH

sept(a)- seven HT TH heptachord, September

HT TH

sex(i)- six HT TH sexivalent

Sino- Chinese HT TH Sino-American relations
HT TH

spasm(o)- spasm spasmatic, spasmolysis

sperm- seed spermophile, spermine
 57

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix
HT Meaning
TH Examples
spher(o)- sphere, ball spherical, atmosphere
sphygm(o)- Pulsation sphygmomanometer, sphygmograph
HT TH

splen(o)- spleen splenomegaly

splanchn(o)- viscera HT TH splanchnopathy
schiz(o)-, split schizophrenia, schistocyte
HT TH HT TH

schist(o)-
staphyl(o)- cluster, uvula staphylococcus, staphyloplasty
stom(ato)- mouth stomatitis, stomach
styl- pillar stylus, stylist, stylopodium
sub-
HT TH below, less than, subset, subsonic, subway, subtitles
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

under,2 P P

super- extremely, more HT superhuman, Superego, supersonic TH HT TH HT TH

than,2 P P

syn- together, united, at synergy, synchronicity, synesthesia

HT TH HT TH

the same time

tach(y)- rapid, accelerated tachycardia, tachymeter, tachyon
HT TH HT TH HT TH

tel(e)- distance, distant telecommunications, television, telephoto lens,

HT TH HT TH HT TH

telodynamic
tel(o)- end teloblast, telophase
HT TH

theo- god theology, theogony

HT TH HT TH

trans-
HT TH across, beyond transfer, transubstantiation, transatlantic, Trans-Siberian
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT

railway TH

tri- three
HT TH triangle, tricolor, triptych
HT TH HT TH HT TH
 58

Table 2.3 (Continued)

U U

Prefix HT Meaning TH Examples

twi-
HT two TH twilight, twig, twin
HT TH HT TH HT TH HT TH

ultra-
HT extremely, beyond ultramontanism, ultraviolet
TH HT TH HT TH

certain limit
un- not, opposite, take unconstitutional, undelete HT TH HT TH

something away
under- below, incompletely underestimate, underage, undercook
uni- one, single uniform, unification
HT TH HT TH HT TH

up- higher upscale, update, upgrade, upheld

ur-
HT TH first, original urtext HT TH

ur(o)- urine uric, urinal

vita- life vitamin, vital
with- together, united withhold, withstand HT TH HT TH

zoo- relating to animals zoomorphic, zoology HT TH HT TH

4.2 Suffixes
Suffix is an affix which is placed at the end of a word or stem.
(Hartmann, 1972) or it is a group of letters that comes after the base form of a word.
The suffix changes the way a word used.
Example:
ex- is the prefix and -able is the suffix, both added to the stem -port- =
exportable (that can be exported). Table 2.4 shows you some examples of English
derivational suffixes.
 59

Table 2.4 Some examples of English derivational suffixes

U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-able
HT adj TH capable, can do usable, notable, comfortable
HT TH HT TH

-ably adv notably, fashionably

-ad
HT noun
TH group triad, monad
HT TH HT TH

-ade
HT nounTH lemonade, accolade, blockade
HT TH HT TH

-age
HT nounTH forming a noun marriage, mileage, garage
HT TH HT TH

-agogy noun
HT leading
TH pedagogy, demagogy
HT TH HT TH

nominal, focal,
-al adj aspect of
HT TH HT TH

(compare -ality)
HT TH

-al
HT TH noun abstract noun refusal
-ality
HT noun TH property (aspect, proportionality, sexuality
HT TH HT TH

behaviour, condition) (see -al and -ity)

of
-an adj urban
-an adj, noun republican, Roman, veteran
-ance noun relevance, annoyance, repentance
-ancy noun pregnancy, redundancy, vacancy
-ant adj relevant, dominant, pleasant
-ant noun assistant, immigrant, inhabitant
-ar adj linear, alveolar
-ar noun beggar, liar
-ard noun drunkard, coward, wizard,
steward
-ary adj ordinary, secondary, military
U
 60

Table 2.4 U U (Continued)

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples
-ary noun dictionary, library, seminary
-arch
HT TH noun ruler, leader monarch, tetrarch
HT TH HT TH

-archy
HT TH noun rule, leadership gynarchy, anarchy HT TH

-ate adj literate, desperate, fortunate

-ate noun certificate, advocate
-ate verb concentrate, oscillate
-athlon
HT TH noun sporting event pentathlon, decathlon
HT TH HT TH

-ation
HT TH noun state or concept of invitation, pronunciation,
starvation
-ation
HT TH noun from verb with -ate, concentration, oscillation,
HT TH HT TH

state or concept of narration

-ative adj talkative, lucrative, affirmative
-atory noun laboratory, conversatory
-cele, -
HT TH HT noun body cavity mucocoel or mucocoele
HT TH

coele, - TH HT

coel TH

-cele
HT TH noun tumor, hernia hydatidocele
HT TH

-centesis
HT TH noun puncturing amniocentesis, rachicentesis
HT TH HT TH

-cephalic
HT TH adj relating to the head
HT TH HT anencephalic, macrocephalic TH HT TH

-
HT noun small grainlike mitochondrion
HT TH

chondrion TH structure
-cide
HT TH noun murder, killing agent suicide, vespacide, regicide,
HT TH HT TH HT TH

fratricide
HT TH

U
 61

Table 2.4 (Continued) U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-city
HT NounTH practice atrocity
HT TH

-cy
HT noun
TH expressing the quality diplomacy, literacy, idiocy HT TH

of an adjective
-cycle
HT noun circle, cycle, unit of
TH epicycle, hydrocycle
HT TH HT TH

radio frequency
-dom
HT noun THstate or condition of freedom, boredom, kingdom
HT TH HT TH

-ectasia, noun
HT stretching out TH brochiectasis, telangiectasia
HT TH HT TH

-ectasis
HT TH

-ectomy noun
HT surgical removal TH laryngectomy, vasectomy
HT TH HT TH

-ed adj bored, tiled

-ee
HT TH noun changes verb to a noun employee, referee, payee
HT TH HT TH

(the object of that

verb)
-eer adj engineer, overseer
-eme
HT noun TH linguistic unit lexeme, phoneme, morpheme
HT TH HT TH HT TH

-emia
HT noun blood condition
TH leukemia, anaemia
HT TH HT TH

-en adj golden, wooden, written, frozen

-en verb lessen, deafen, frighten
-enchyma noun
HT cellular tissue TH mesenchyma, karyenchyma
HT TH HT TH

-ence noun independence, violence, absence

-ency noun frequency, clemency, consistency
-ent adj different, excellent, independent
-ent noun resident, regent, superintendent
U
 62

Table 2.4 U U (Continued)

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples
-eous adj courteous
-er
HT TH noun changes verb to noun write, writer
HT TH HT TH

(the subject of that

verb, see also -or)
-ergy
HT TH noun work energy, synergy
HT TH HT TH

-ern adj direction western, northern

-ery noun slavery, machinery, nunnery
-ese adj, noun nationality, language Chinese, Lebanese, Portuguese
-esque
HT TH adj in the style of Pythonesque, Romanesque,
HT TH HT TH

picturesque
-ess
HT TH noun female actress, waitress, stewardess,
HT TH HT TH HT TH

priestess
HT TH

-esthesis,
HT TH noun sensation, feeling synesthesia, kinesthesis
HT TH HT TH

-esthesia
HT TH

-etic adj energetic, sympathetic, frenetic

-ette noun small diskette, statuette, usherette
-fare noun how things are going / welfare, fanfare, warfare
coming along
-ful
HT TH adj full of, having some hopeful, useful
HT TH HT TH

or much
-gate
HT TH noun a scandal Watergate, nipplegate
HT TH HT TH

-gnosis
HT TH noun knowing prognosis, diagnosis
HT TH HT TH

-gon
HT TH noun angle polygon, pentagon
HT TH HT TH

U
 63

Table 2.4 (Continued) U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

adjective form of only
-gry
HT TH noun 2 or 3 nouns in the anger, hunger
HT TH HT TH

English language
-hedron
HT TH noun seat, face icosahedron, tetrahedron
HT TH HT TH

-holic
HT TH adj love, addiction
HT TH HT TH alcoholic
HT TH

state/condition of,
brotherhood, adulthood,
-hood noun a group sharing
HT TH

falsehood
HT TH

characteristics
-iable adj sociable
-ial adj special, filial, remedial
-ian adj mammalian
-ian adj, noun Brazilian, Christian
-ian noun librarian, barbarian, physician
-iant adj deviant, defiant
-iary adj tertiary
-iate verb asphyxiate, deviate
-ible
HT TH adj capable, can do (same incredible, terrible, visible
HT TH HT TH HT TH

as -able)
-ibly adv incredibly, responsibly, terribly
-ic
HT TH adj (adjective)
HT THneurotic, electronic, historic
HT TH HT TH

-ical adj historical, phonological,

economical
U
 64

Table 2.4 (Continued) U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-ics
HT nounTH the study of Physics, Aerodynamics,
HT TH HT TH

Forensics, economics
HT TH

-id
HT TH adj (categorical) property hominid, tepid, candid, fervid
HT TH HT TH

(aspect) of (compare -al)

-iency noun expedieny
-ient adj salient, sentient, expedient
-ier noun cashier, financier, gondolier
–ify, –fy
HT TH HT TH verb to become, make clarify, specify, basify, vilify HT TH HT TH

-ile adj tactile, facile, volatile

-illion
HT TH large numbers million, billion
HT TH HT TH

-ious adj delicious, ambitious, religious,

vivacious
-ing
HT TH noun noun from verb, in doing, acting
HT TH HT TH

the process of
-ing
HT TH noun bedding, stuffing, roofing
-ion noun action, companion
-ish
HT TH adj adjective from noun; foolish, selfish, greenish, tallish HT TH HT TH

sort of; approximately

-ish
HT TH adj, noun nationality, language Spanish, Turkish, English
-ism
HT TH noun doctrine, act, practice, Protestantism, alcoholism,
HT TH HT TH

condition Buddhism, southernism

HT TH HT TH

-ist
HT TH noun person dentist, socialist, cellist
HT TH

-ista
HT TH adept fashionista
HT TH

U
 65

Table 2.4 U U (Continued)

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples
-ite Noun member of a group socialite, Carmelite
-itis
HT TH noun disease, inflammation hepatitis, gingivitis
HT TH HT TH

-itive adj sensitive

-itude
HT TH noun attitude, gratitude, Beatitude
HT TH HT TH

-ity
HT TH noun expressing state or normality, formality, banality
HT TH HT TH HT TH

condition
-ium
HT TH noun metallic element sodium, Calcium
HT TH HT TH

(exception: helium)
-ive
HT TH adj make the noun an defensive, aggressive, passive
HT TH HT TH

adjective
-ization/ noun organization/organisation,
-isation categorization/ categorisation
-ize/-ise
HT TH HT TH verb to cause, to be, to materialize/materialise,
HT TH HT TH

become idolize/idolise
HT TH HT TH

-izzle
HT TH used for hip hop slang Americizzle
-kinesis
HT TH noun movement (ability telekinesis
HT TH

thereof)
-less
HT TH adj lack of homeless, useless, careless
HT TH HT TH

-let
HT TH noun diminutive, or ringlet, hamlet, anklet
HT TH HT TH HT TH

denoting a relation to
some part of the body
-like adj having the qualities of childlike
 66

Table 2.4 (Continued)

U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-ling
HT noun
TH smaller, younger, darling, duckling, earthling,
HT TH HT TH HT TH

cuter or weaker sapling

HT TH

version of the noun

root OR sharing an
identity or quality of
the noun root (e.g. as
a follower)
-ly
HT TH adj -like, having the stately, monthly
HT TH

attributes of
-ly
HT TH adv -like, having the quickly
HT TH

attributes of
-man
HT nounTH person fireman, statesman
HT TH HT TH

-mancy noun
HT divination by
TH crystallomancy, bibliomancy,
HT TH HT TH

necromancy
HT TH

-mania
HT TH noun an irrational but kleptomania, megalomania,
HT TH HT TH

irresistible motive for mythomania

HT TH

a belief or action
-ment noun abstract noun movement, amazement,
government
-meter
HT TH noun measuring device barometer, thermometer
HT TH HT TH

-metry
HT TH noun measure symmetry, geometry, isometry
HT TH HT TH HT TH

-mony noun testimony, ceremony

U
 67

Table 2.4 (Continued) U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-morphism noun
HT form TH isomorphism, homomorphism
HT TH HT TH

-most adj utmost, innermost

-ness noun abstract noun kindness, ruthlessness, darkness
-nik
HT TH noun Slavic origin; otkaznik, beatnik
HT TH HT TH

corresponds to
" - er"
-ocracy
HT noun system of
TH kakistocracy, democracy,
HT TH HT TH

government androcracy
HT TH

-ogram
HT noun writing, description
TH ideogram
HT TH

-ography noun
HT study of TH stenography, geography
HT TH HT TH

-oid
HT TH adj resembling solenoid, hominoid
HT TH HT TH

-oid
HT TH noun resembling planetoid
-ologist
HT noun one who studies a
TH archaeologist
HT TH

scientific subject
-ology
HT TH study, science biology, psychology,
planetology
HT TH

-ome
HT TH noun subject of an HT genome TH

"-omics"
HT TH

-omics
HT TH noun study of rules proteomics, economics
HT TH HT TH

-onomy
HT TH noun knowledge of astronomy
HT TH

-onym
HT TH noun name, word antonym, consonym, heteronym
HT TH HT TH HT TH

-or
HT TH noun changes verb to actor, governor
HT TH HT TH

noun (see also

-er), person
 68

Table 2.4 (Continued)

U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-or or -our noun
HT TH candor, fervour, color
-ory adj auditory, sensory
-ory
HT TH noun history, repository
HT TH HT TH

-ose
HT TH adj full of, like, given verbose; globose
HT TH HT TH

to; carbohydrates
-osis
HT noun TH process, action, mitosis, osmosis, ostosis,
HT TH HT TH HT TH

formation, diseased psychosis

HT TH

condition
-ous
HT adj
TH adjectival suffix porous, disastrous, nervous
HT TH

-phagy,
HT noun eatingTH monophagy
HT TH

-phagia
HT TH

-philia
HT noun attraction
TH hemophilia
HT TH

-phobia
HT noun fear TH acrophobia, mysophobia
HT TH HT TH

-phone
HT noun, adj sound, audio;
TH telephone, homophone;
HT TH HT TH

speaker of a Anglophone
HT TH

language
-phyte
HT noun TH plant, used in therophyte, halophyte
HT TH HT TH

botany to create
terms which
categorise plants
based on their life-
history, growth-
form
U
 69

Table 2.4 (Continued) U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-polis
HT noun TH referring to city or Metropolis
HT TH

big area
-science
HT adj knowing TH omniscience
HT TH

-scope
HT noun from Greek
TH HT TH microscope, telescope
HT TH HT TH

skopos, view;
instrument for
viewing and
observing spaces
-script
HT noun written
TH manuscript, transcript
HT TH HT TH

-ship
HT noun TH abstract noun, state friendship, relationship,
HT TH HT TH

of being dictatorship
HT TH

-sion noun noun that has been decision, illusion

altered from a
process
-some adj tiresome, awesome, fulsome
-stan
HT noun
TH land, country Afghanistan
HT TH

-ster
HT TH noun person youngster, gangster
HT TH HT TH

-t adj burnt, spoilt

-th, -eth
HT TH adj ordinal number tenth, millionth, twentieth
HT TH HT TH

-th
HT TH noun forming a noun growth, health, depth, strength
HT TH

-tion noun noun that has been evaporation, introduction

HT TH

altered from a
process
 70

Table 2.4 (Continued)

U U

Suffix Part of speech Meaning Examples

-tom,
noun part or segment dermatome
HT TH

-tome
HT TH

HT TH

-tropism
HT noun to turn TH phototropism
HT TH

-ty noun certainty, loyalty

-uary noun sanctuary, mortuary
-ulent adj turbulent, fraudulent
tempestuous, unctuous,
-uous adj
sensuous
-ure noun failure, exposure, temperature
-us
HT TH noun inflammation ulcus
HT TH

city, town from

-ville noun Nashville
French
HT TH HT TH

-vore, -
noun / adj to devour carnivore, herbivore
HT TH HT

vorous
HT TH HT TH

TH

-ward or
adj, adv direction southward, inward, upward
HT TH

-wards
HT TH HT TH HT TH

HT TH

-ware
HT noun TH software hardware, software, freeware
HT TH HT TH HT TH

-ways
HT adj TH sideways, longways
-wise
HT adj TH direction clockwise, lengthwise
HT TH

playwright, wheelwright,
-wright noun person who makes
shipwright
HT TH

having the quality

-y adj runny, messy, chewy
of, inclined to
HT TH HT TH HT TH
 71

This is an incomplete list of suffixes in English. Note that this list includes only
HT TH HT TH

derivational suffixes (which form new words, often of a different part of speech) and
HT TH HT TH

suffixes which serve to mark the part of speech. It does not include the inflectional
HT TH

suffixes which only produce new forms of a word without changing the part of speech,
eg -s for the plural of nouns.
In conclusion, knowing the meaning of stems and prefixes can help us in
quickly guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words in reading. They are the useful,
timesaving skills. We won’t have to constantly consult our dictionary, and we can
follow the text more easily and knowing the form of suffixes is also very helpful. If we
know the way a word formed by adding suffixes, we will quickly know the meaning of
unknown words. For example, the suffixes can be used to form personal nouns;
- ian musician, politicain
- er reader, writer
- ist economist, scientist
- or actor
- ant attendant,

Self Practice 2.3: In each item, select the best definition of the italic word.
U U

1. In retrospect, we could have been wise to leave our money in the bank.
a. Many years ago b. In fact
c. Looking around d. Looking back
2. No matter what Fred said, Jim contradicted him.
a. laughed at him b. said the opposite
c. yelled at him d. didn’t listen to him
 72

3. The doctor is a specialist in the human respiratory system. She knows

most about_________
a. bones b. nerves
c. lungs d. the stomach
4. If a man is a bigamist, he___________________.
a. is married to two women b. has two children
c. is divorced d. will never marry
5. There was a great antipathy between the brothers.
a. love b. dislike
c. difference d. resemblance
6. Dan says he is an atheist.
a. one who believes in one god.
b. one who believes in many god.
c. one who believes there is no god.
d. one who is not sure if there is a god.
7. Janet is interested in autographs of famous people.
a. signatures b. pictures
c. personalities d. families
8. The immigration authorities deported Mr. Jensen because he did not have a
legal passport.
a. searched through his body
b. sent him out of the country
c. locked him up
d. questioned him
 73

9. The government is financing a study of the effects on man of living in a

megalopolis.
a. an apartment in a large building
b. a dangerous part of a city
c. a city with a large police force
d. an extremely large city
10. Dr. Swanson has written articles about interstellar travel.
a. underwater b. high-speed
c. outer space d. long-distance

Looking Up Words in a Dictionary

There are many ways that we can find out about words. The best known way
to find out about a word is to use a dictionary. What are some of the things we find out
when we use a dictionary?
There are numerous things we can find in a dictionary. The first and obvious
things in a dictionary that people think of are definitions. The words are all in
alphabetic or A-B-C order. Words sometimes have more than one definition. There is
also other information about words such as their function or part of speech, their
pronunciation, as well as origins, or roots, of words.
Other useful information can be found in the dictionary as well. Information
such as English to metric conversion tables, maps, Presidents of the United States,
explanations of common symbols. Here is a list of some of the things that we can learn
from a dictionary.
1. Spelling. A dictionary shows the accepted spelling of every word that is
listed, as well as the spelling of irregular verb forms and plurals.
2. Pronunciation. Each dictionary has a special way of showing how words
are pronounced, including stress.
 74

3. Syllable division. This helps in spelling and pronouncing words and

indicates where the word should be divided at the end of a line.
4. Derivation. A dictionary includes the history of each of each word
indicating its origin and development through different languages before it became an
English word.
5. Meaning. Almost every word has more than a single meaning. Different
meanings are given, often with illustrative sentences. Special technical definitions are
also listed.
6. Part of Speech. There are determined, of course, by actual use in a
sentence. A dictionary indicates, however, whether the word is commonly used as a
noun, pronoun, verb (transitive and intransitive), adjective, adverb, conjunction, or
preposition.
7. Usage. Your dictionary will tell you whether a word is chiefly British or
American, or whether the word is formal, colloquial, dialectal, archaic, poetic, or
slang. The information is often important in writing.
8. Synonyms and antonyms. Frequently words of similar meanings
(synonyms) or words of opposite meaning (antonyms) are listed, with explanation of
the distinctions.
9. General information. Information about persons and places is listed, either
within the alphabetical arrangement of the words or in special sections at the back. For
example, a dictionary will tell you the location of Roanoke, the population of
Katmandu, or the dates that Cleopatra rules.

How to Use a Dictionary

First, think of the word to look up. Then open the dictionary to as close to the
first letter or two of the word as possible. Then either turn back or forward to find the
word. To help the search, dictionaries have guide words to help. Guide words are at
 75

the top of each page. The first guide word is the first word on a page, and the second
guide word at the top of the page is the last word on the page. Using the guidewords,
you should find the word you a looking for easily. It will be between the words.

USelf Practice 2.4

Here are some sample definitions of words from an English dictionary. After
each definition there are some sentences using the word that has been defined. Your
task is to select the correct definition for each sentence. Put the letter a, b, c and
others of the correct definition in front of the sentence.
1. Pinch ( V) (a) be too tight; hurt by being too tight
(collog.) (b) steal; take without permission
(c) be very mean; live sparingly or economically
(d) take in a tight grip between the thumb and fingers; have in a
tight grip between two hard things which are passed together.
_____1. I pinched my finger in the door way.
_____2. Who has pinched my dictionary?
_____3. Their parents had to pinch and scrape in order to save
money for their clothes.
_____4. These shoes pinch me

2. Open (adj.) (a) not blocked

(b) not filled
(c) not hiding anything; honest
(d) spread out; unfolded
(V.) (e) to cause to start
(N.) (f) the outdoors.
 76

_____1. The story opens with a snow storm.

_____2. The flowers are open.
_____3. She loves to spend life in the open.
_____4. Let’s be open with each other.
……...5. The job is still open.
……...6. An open river is one without ice.

3. Nurse (N) (a) a woman employed to take care of a young child.

(b) a person who is trained to take care of sick people.
(c) to suck milk from woman’s breast.
(d) to act as or be a professional nurse.
(e) to take care of as or like a nurse
……….1. She spent some time nursing during W.W.II in a military hospital.
……….2. The number of male nurses has increased recently.
……….3. Since she has no one to take care of her baby during her
working hours she has to hire a nurse.
……….4. All her time goes into nursing her old father.
……….5. A baby feels secure while nursing at her mother’s breast.