Chapter 1 Generalities and Operating Environment

1.1 Systems of units

1.1.1 SI and British units
1.1.2 Weight, Mass and Force
1.1.3 Conversions
1.2 International Standard Atmosphere
1.2.1 Geopotential Altitude
1.2.2 Atmosphere Layers
1.2.3 ISA assumptions and formulation
1.2.4 Pressure-altitude and ISA variations
1.3 Airspeeds
1.3.1 EAS and TAS
1.3.2 Pitot-static tube and IAS to TAS change
1.3.3 IAS to CAS correction
1.3.4 Compressibility effects in CAS
1.3.5 CAS to EAS correction
1.3.6 EAS to TAS correction
1.3.7 ICeT chain
1.4 Wind and Ground Speed
1.4.1 Headwind and Tailwind
1.4.2 Other wind orientations
1.5 Flight Envelopes
1.5.1 Airspeed limitations
1.5.2 Intersection Mach-EAS
1.5.3 Intersection Mach-CAS
1.5.4 Supersonic boundary
1.6 Bibliography

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1.1 Systems of units

1.1.1 SI and British units

The International System (SI) or mks units are based on metre, kilogram and second as
units of length, mass and time respectively. Today, there are only 3 nations that have not
yet adopted the SI units: USA, Liberia, and Burma.

Figure 1-1
British Imperial or units or fps system are based on feet, pound and second, and are
less technically consistent, because of the double use of the pound as a unit of mass and
force. However, the use of British units is a kind of standard practice in the aeronautical
world, due to the predominance of USA. For example, it is very usual to find:
Aircraft speeds expressed in knots.
Altitudes expressed in feet.
- Flight Levels defined in hundreds of feet: FL = h(ft) / 100.
Climb rates expressed in fpm (feet/minute).
Pressures expressed in lb/ft2 or lb/inch2 (pounds per square foot or square inch).
Aircraft weight (instead of mass) expressed in pounds (lb):
- Denomination MTOW (Max Take-Off Weight) instead of MTOM.
- Denomination OEW (Operating Empty Weight) instead of OEM.
Thrust expressed in pounds (lb).
Power expressed in brake-horsepower (bhp).
Therefore in aircraft design it is necessary to manage data expressed in any of the existing
systems of units. A good practice is to calculate in SI, making previous conversions from
British units to the adequate SI units. For example, dealing with a thrust or a weight given
in pounds, it is convenient to transform it to Newtons, prior to any calculation.

1.1.2 Weight, Mass and Force

Weight by definition is a force, not a mass. However the use of these concepts produces in
both SI and British units a lot of confusion.
In SI units, it is common to denote incorrectly the weight of an aircraft as a quantity in kg.
For example, the maximum take-off weight of the A350-900 is usually expressed by pilots
and engineers as 268000 kg, instead of 2628 kN. What they really mean is the A350
produces a weight force equivalent to that exerted by 268000 kg mass in a 1g gravitational
field.

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-3

So, the weight must be calculated in proper force units (N) by multiplying the mass by the
gravity constant, g = 9.80665 m/s2. Note that one point is the relation between N and kg
while other point is the relation between mass and weight of a body in a 1g gravitational
field:
1 N = 1 kg 1 m/s2
The weight exerted by 1 kg mass is 1 kg 9.80665 m/s2 = 9.80665 N
In British units, both mass and weight are usually expressed in pounds (lb). Sometimes,
these magnitudes are denoted as pound-mass (lbm) and pound-force (lbf) respectively.
For instance, the maximum take-off weight of a Boeing B787-9 is 557000 lb, which can be
understood either as a mass or as a weight.
Using the same unis for mass and force is not coherent. There are two variants of the
British system that try to solve this problem, either redefining the unit of mass (slug) or
redefining the unit of force (poundal, abbreviated pdl). The 3 existing subsystems are
summarized in the next table:
System British English Absolute
Gravitational Engineering English
(BG) (EE) (AE)
Mass unit slug lb (lbm) lb
Force unit lb lb (lbf) pdl
Relation 1 lb = 1 slug 1 ft/s2 Equal (lbm=lbf) 1 pdl = 1 lb 1 ft/s2
but not coherent
The gravity constant is g = 32.174 ft/s2 in British units. Thus, in a 1g gravitational field:
In BG subsystem: the weight exerted by a mass of 1 slug is 32.174 lb.
In AE subsystem: the weight exerted by a mass of 1 lb is 32.174 pdl.
In the aerospace industry (mainly in the USA) the common practice is to use lb indistinctly
for mass and weight. The slug is occasionally used as mass unit, but the poundal is rarely
used as a force unit.

1.1.3 Conversions

LENGTH
Multiply By To Obtain
Foot (ft) 0.3048 Metres
12 Inches
1.894 E-4 Miles
1.646 E-4 Nautical miles
Inch (in) 2.54 Centimetres
0.0254 Metres
1/12 Feet
Nautical mile (nm) 6076 Feet
1852 Metres
1.15078 Miles
Statute mile (mi) 5280 Feet
1609 Metres
0.86897 Nautical miles

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VELOCITY
Multiply By To Obtain
Knot (kt or kn) 1.852 km / h
0.514444 m/s
1 Nautical miles / h
1.689 Feet per second
1.151 Miles per hour
Mile per hour (mph) 1.609 km / h
0.447 Metres per second
1.467 Feet per second
0.8684 Knots

MASS
Multiply By To Obtain
Slug 14.594 Kilograms
32.174 Pounds
Pound (lb) 0.4536 Kilograms
0.03108 Slugs
Kilogram (kg) 2.2046 Pounds
0.06852 Slugs
Short ton 2000 Pounds
907.185 Kilograms
Ton (Metric tonne) 2204.6 Pounds
1000 Kilograms

FORCE
Multiply By To Obtain
Pound (lb) 4.448 Newtons
32.174 Poundals
Poundal 0.1383 Newtons
0.03108 Pounds

Weights due to given masses in a 1g gravitational field

MASS g WEIGHT
2
1 slug 32.174 ft/s 32.174 pounds
2
1 pound 32.174 ft/s 32.174 poundals
1 kg 9.80665 m/s2 9.80665 N
2
0.03108 slugs 32.174 ft/s 1 pound
2
0.03108 pounds 32.174 ft/s 1 poundal
2
0.10197 kg 9.80665 m/s 1N

PRESSURE
Multiply By To Obtain
Atmosphere (atm) 1.01325 Bars
1.01325 E5 N/m2 or Pa
14.696 lb/inch2 or psi
2116.2 lb/ft2 or psf

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-5

PRESSURE (contd)
Multiply By To Obtain
Bar 0.98692 atm
1 E5 N/m2 or Pa
14.504 lb/inch2 or psi
2088.5 lb/ft2 or psf
Newton per square 9.8692 E-6 atm
metre (pascal) 1 E-5 Bars
(N/m2 or Pa) 1.4504 E-4 lb/inch2 or psi
0.02089 lb/ft2 or psf
Pounds per square 0.068047 atm
inch (psi) 0.068948 Bars
6894.8 N/m2 or Pa
144 lb/ft2 or psf
Pounds per square 4.7255 E-4 atm
foot (psf) 4.7881 E-4 Bars
47.881 N/m2 or Pa

WORK / ENERGY
Multiply By To Obtain
British termal unit 2.530 E2 Calories
(BTU) 7.783 E2 Foot pounds
3.927 E-4 Horsepower hours
1.055 E3 Joules or Nm
2.930 E-4 Kilowatt hours
Foot pound (ft.lb) 1.285 E-3 BTU's
5.050 E-7 Horsepower hours
1.356 Joules or Nm
3.766 E-7 Kilowatt hours
Horsepower hour 2.545 E3 BTU's
(hp.h) 1.980 E6 Foot pounds
2.684 E6 Joules or Nm
7.457 E-1 Kilowatt hours

POWER
Multiply By To Obtain
British termal unit 3.969 E6 Calories per second
per minute 12.97 Foot-pounds / s
(BTU / min) 2.357 E-2 Horsepower
17.58 Watts
Foot pound 7.713 E-2 BTU / min
per second (ft.lb/s) 3.239 E-1 Calories per second
1.818 E-3 Horsepower
1.356 Watts
Horsepower (hp) 42.42 BTU / min
550 Foot-pounds / s
7.457 E2 Watts

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1.2 International Standard Atmosphere

1.2.1 Geopotential Altitude

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a theoretical vertical distribution of
temperature, pressure, and density which is taken to be representative of the atmosphere
for the purpose of altimeter calculations, aircraft design, aircraft performance, etc.
Altitude definitions:
Height = vertical geometric distance between one point and the ground.
Altitude (z) = vertical geometric distance between one point and certain reference
level (usually sea level).
The geopotential altitude (h) is a false altitude that would give the same potential
energy in a simplified gravity field:
h is associated to constant gravity, g = g0 = 9.80665 m/s2.
z is associated to actual gravity; in general the gravity acceleration depends
on altitude (z) and latitude (); that is g = f(z,).
The relation between the geopotential altitude h and the altitude z is given by:
g
dh dz (1.1)
g0
In a simplified model, disregarding the influence of the latitude, it can be assumed:
g0
g f ( z, ) (1.2)
1 z R e 2
Being Re the radius of the Earth; a usual average value is Re = 6371 km, accounting for
variations between 6356 km as equatorial radius and 6378 km as polar radius. Integrating
the equation (1.1) with the simplified model (1.2) yields:
z
h (1.3a)
1 z / Re
h
z (1.3b)
1 h / R e
Note that z > h, but the deviations are very small. For instance, with this model:
Geopotential Actual
Deviation
altitude (h) altitude (z)
11000 m 11019 m 0.2%
25000 m 25098 m 0.4%
The Standard Atmosphere is based on geopotential altitude.

1.2.2 Atmosphere Layers

It is assumed that the atmosphere is divided into standard layers that either have constant
temperature or a constant temperature gradient. These layers are:
Troposphere, from sea level up to 11 km altitude. This is a gradient layer where the
temperature decreases 6.5C/km with altitude.
Tropopause = separation layer at 11 km.

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Stratosphere, from 11 to 25 km altitude. This is an isothermal layer where the

temperature remains constant.
Stratopause = separation layer at 25 km.
Mesosphere, beyond 25 km altitude.
The most of the manned aircraft fly in the troposphere and the stratosphere, so we will
focus on the models of these two layers.

1.2.3 ISA assumptions and formulation

ISA is based on the following assumptions:
The air is dry and a perfect gas:
p = RT, with specific gas constant R = 287.04 m2/(s2K)
The standard sea level conditions are:
Temperature T0 = 15C = 288.16K
Pressure p0 = 101325 N/m2
Density 0 = 1.225 kg/m2
Acceleration due to gravity is constant, using geopotential altitude.
g = g0 = 9.80665 m/s2
Hydrostatic equilibrium yields:
dp = g dh
Temperature profile:
In the troposphere the temperature decreases linearly with altitude up to
56.5C at the tropopause. Therefore the gradient slope in the troposphere is
D = 6.5C/km = 6.510-3 K/m.
In the stratosphere the temperature remains constant.
With the previous hypothesis, the following expressions are found for the non-dimensional
variables (, and ), with altitude (h) in metres:
Troposphere (h 11000 m)
T D
1 h 1 2.25569 10 5 h (1.4)
T0 T0
p
g /(DR) 5.2561 (1.5)
p0

g /(DR) 1 4.2561 or (1.6)
0
Tropopause (h = 11000 m):
tpp 0.75187 , tpp 0.22336 , tpp 0.29707

Stratosphere (h 11000 m):

tpp 0.75187 (1.7)

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1-8 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

g(h 11000)
tpp exp
RTtpp

0.22336 exp 1.57688 10 4 (h 11000) (1.8)


1.33001 (1.9)
tpp
Sound speed changes with temperature, being:
a RT , with =1.4 (ratio of specific heats cp/cv) (1.10)

a a0 340.29 m / s (1.11)
Although equations (1.4) to (1.9) have the altitude (h) expressed in m, it is more usual to
manage the altitude in ft. To do that, we only need to transform from ft to m and then use
the equations directly. In fact the equations (1.4) and (1.8) can be expressed as:
Troposphere: 1 6.87535 106 h ft (1.4b)

Stratosphere:
0.22336 exp 4.80634 105 (h ft 36089) (1.8b)
Next figure 1-2 and table provide ISA values up to 50000 ft of:
and T (K)
and p (N/m2)
and (kg/m3)
Sound speed, a (m/s)
Note that the tropopause was defined at a rounded number in SI (11000 m) and then it
looks like a rare number in ft (36089). It is essential to recognize 36089 ft, because it is
an altitude in the zone of typical jet cruises. In fact, keeping this number in mind is a good
way to recover the conversion from ft to m, since 11000 / 36089 = 0.3048.

ISA non-dimensional variables

1
T/T0
0.8

Troposphere Stratosphere
0.6
/0

0.4

p/p0
0.2

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Altitude (ft)

Figure 1-2

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-9

h theta delta sigma Temperature Pressure Density Sound speed

/0 (kg/m )
2 3
ft T/T0 p/p0 T (K) p (N/m ) a (m/s)

0 1 1 1 288.16 101325 1.2250 340.3

1000 0.99312 0.96439 0.97106 286.18 97717 1.1896 339.1
2000 0.98625 0.92981 0.94277 284.20 94213 1.1549 338.0
3000 0.97937 0.89624 0.91512 282.22 90812 1.1210 336.8
4000 0.97250 0.86366 0.88808 280.24 87510 1.0879 335.6
5000 0.96562 0.83205 0.86167 278.25 84307 1.0555 334.4
6000 0.95875 0.80138 0.83586 276.27 81199 1.0239 333.2
7000 0.95187 0.77163 0.81064 274.29 78185 0.9930 332.0
8000 0.94500 0.74278 0.78601 272.31 75262 0.9629 330.8
9000 0.93812 0.71481 0.76196 270.33 72428 0.9334 329.6
10000 0.93125 0.68770 0.73847 268.35 69681 0.9046 328.4
11000 0.92437 0.66143 0.71555 266.37 67020 0.8765 327.2
12000 0.91750 0.63598 0.69317 264.39 64441 0.8491 326.0
13000 0.91062 0.61133 0.67133 262.40 61943 0.8224 324.7
14000 0.90375 0.58745 0.65002 260.42 59524 0.7963 323.5
15000 0.89687 0.56434 0.62923 258.44 57182 0.7708 322.3
16000 0.88999 0.54197 0.60896 256.46 54915 0.7460 321.0
17000 0.88312 0.52032 0.58919 254.48 52721 0.7218 319.8
18000 0.87624 0.49938 0.56991 252.50 50600 0.6981 318.5
19000 0.86937 0.47912 0.55112 250.52 48547 0.6751 317.3
20000 0.86249 0.45954 0.53281 248.54 46563 0.6527 316.0
21000 0.85562 0.44061 0.51496 246.55 44645 0.6308 314.8
22000 0.84874 0.42232 0.49758 244.57 42791 0.6095 313.5
23000 0.84187 0.40464 0.48065 242.59 41000 0.5888 312.2
24000 0.83499 0.38757 0.46416 240.61 39271 0.5686 311.0
25000 0.82812 0.37109 0.44811 238.63 37601 0.5489 309.7
26000 0.82124 0.35518 0.43249 236.65 35989 0.5298 308.4
27000 0.81437 0.33983 0.41729 234.67 34433 0.5112 307.1
28000 0.80749 0.32501 0.40250 232.69 32932 0.4931 305.8
29000 0.80061 0.31073 0.38811 230.71 31485 0.4754 304.5
30000 0.79374 0.29696 0.37413 228.72 30089 0.4583 303.2
31000 0.78686 0.28369 0.36053 226.74 28744 0.4416 301.9
32000 0.77999 0.27090 0.34731 224.76 27449 0.4255 300.5
33000 0.77311 0.25858 0.33446 222.78 26201 0.4097 299.2
34000 0.76624 0.24672 0.32199 220.80 24999 0.3944 297.9
35000 0.75936 0.23530 0.30987 218.82 23842 0.3796 296.5
36000 0.75249 0.22432 0.29810 216.84 22729 0.3652 295.2
36089 0.75187 0.22336 0.29707 216.66 22632 0.3639 295.1
37000 0.75187 0.21379 0.28435 216.66 21663 0.3483 295.1
38000 0.75187 0.20376 0.27100 216.66 20646 0.3320 295.1
39000 0.75187 0.19420 0.25829 216.66 19677 0.3164 295.1
40000 0.75187 0.18509 0.24617 216.66 18754 0.3016 295.1
41000 0.75187 0.17640 0.23461 216.66 17874 0.2874 295.1
42000 0.75187 0.16812 0.22360 216.66 17035 0.2739 295.1
43000 0.75187 0.16023 0.21311 216.66 16236 0.2611 295.1
44000 0.75187 0.15271 0.20311 216.66 15474 0.2488 295.1
45000 0.75187 0.14555 0.19358 216.66 14748 0.2371 295.1
46000 0.75187 0.13872 0.18450 216.66 14056 0.2260 295.1
47000 0.75187 0.13221 0.17584 216.66 13396 0.2154 295.1
48000 0.75187 0.12600 0.16759 216.66 12767 0.2053 295.1
49000 0.75187 0.12009 0.15972 216.66 12168 0.1957 295.1
50000 0.75187 0.11446 0.15223 216.66 11597 0.1865 295.1

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1.2.4 Pressure-altitude and ISA variations

ISA model is based on average annual conditions at latitude 45 N. Then frequently it is
necessary to make some variations to approach the model to the real conditions;
especially variations of temperature. Generally, the model is adjusted as follows:
The relation altitude-pressure is maintained. The pressure-altitude (hp) is defined as
that altitude that would produce, in the standard atmosphere, the same pressure as
measured at the aircraft.
The variation of temperature is a shift T (C) with respect to ISA. In this way there
are atmospheres ISA+10, ISA+20, ISA40, etc, representing hotter or colder days
with respect to the standard or normal one.
The density is calculated with the perfect gas law, = p/(RT), or = /. Note that
T > 0 (hot atmosphere) produces lower than the standard one while T < 0 (cold
atmosphere) produces higher than the standard one (see figure 1-3).

Variation of density ratio with T

1.2

1
ISA-40
0.8

0.6

0.4
ISA+40
0.2

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Altitude (ft)
Figure 1-3
Figure 1-4 represents an altimeter, which is a pressure gauge calibrated in altitude instead
of pressure according to the way the pressure varies in the standard atmosphere. It is
adjustable to correct reference pressure for non-standard conditions, for instance near the
airport.

Figure 1-4: Altimeter schematic (from Brandt [1R2])

In certain cases, other models are adopted, based on:

Density-altitude (h) that maintains the ISA relation h-.
Temperature-altitude (hT) that maintains the ISA relation h-T.

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1.3 Airspeeds

1.3.1 EAS and TAS

The equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the speed that would produce the same dynamic
pressure at sea level as the true airspeed (TAS) at the flight altitude under consideration.
EAS and TAS are related by the density ratio ( = /0) between the flight altitude
and sea level.
EAS is less than TAS at altitudes above sea level. The ratio EAS/TAS is nearly 50%
at typical jet cruise altitudes (around 35000 ft), as can be seen in figure 1-5.

1 1
0 VE2 V 2 (1.12)
2 2

VE V V (1.13)
0

EAS / TAS = 1/2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Altitude (ft)
Figure 1-5

1.3.2 Pitot-static tube and IAS to TAS change

One common system to indicate airspeed is the pitot-static tube or just pitot (named after
Henri Pitot, french scientist of 18th-century), shown in figure 1-6. For incompressible flow:
The pitot tube measures the total pressure of the flow, by equation (1.14).
The static ports are oriented parallel to the flow velocity and measure a pressure as
close to the free stream static pressure as possible.
The manometer measures the differential pressure (total static). This provides the
free equivalent airspeed by Bernouillis equation (1.15).
1
pT p V2 (1.14)
2

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1-12 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

2p T p
V (1.15)

Figure 1-6
Schematic of an Airspeed Indicating System (from Brandt [1R2])

But the equation (1.15) is not valid for compressible flow, being necessary to replace it by
other more sophisticated relations between V and (pTp). On the other hand, the
position of the instrument in disturbed flow makes it not to capture exactly the total
pressure pT and the static pressure p.
The airspeed measured by the pitot-static tube or anemometer is called the indicated
airspeed (IAS), being a first approximation to the equivalent airspeed (EAS). To obtain the
true airspeed (TAS) it is needed to apply several corrections to the indicated airspeed:
1st correction (due to position error)
It transforms indicated into calibrated airspeed
IAS CAS
2nd correction (due to compressibility effects)
It transforms calibrated into equivalent airspeed
CAS EAS
3rd correction (due to density variation with altitude)
It transforms equivalent into true airspeed
EAS TAS

1.3.3 IAS to CAS correction

The 1st correction accounts for errors in the measurement of the static pressure.
Any device placed in the airflow to measure the static pressure disturbs the flow, and so
alters the pressure it is trying to measure.
Additionally, there might be small inaccuracies in the fabrication of the instrument.
These errors are determined by Flight Testing, for a range of airspeeds and configurations.
The results are collected as tables or graphs of position error or installation error, VP, as

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-13

a function of airspeed and configuration. Adding the position error to the indicated airspeed
yields the calibrated airspeed:
VC VI VP (1.16)

1.3.4 Compressibility effects in CAS

The deceleration of the flow inside the pitot-tube sees compressibility effects, due to the
fact that the density is not constant. For that reason Bernouillis equation (1.15) is accurate
only at low speeds (<100 m/s).
Integrating Euler equation it is possible to obtain a compressible form of the Bernouillis
equation.
The next one is valid to obtain TAS for subsonic flow assuming isentropic flow relations:

p 2
( 1) /
p T p
V 1 1 (1.17)
1 p

But this equation is not easy to be installed into a mechanical device; and values of are
difficult to be measured accurately in flight. Due to these reasons, the correction is split in
2 steps (CASEAS and EASTAS).
For supersonic flow there is other more complex equation, which is obtained assuming
adiabatic flow with a normal shock located just forward of the total pressure pickup (it is
out of the scope of this course).
To avoid the complexity of (1.17), airspeed indicators are built with gears calibrated to use
sea-level standard values of pressure and density (p0 and 0), instead of actual pressure
and density ones (p and ). Thus the calibrated airspeed in subsonic flow is:

p 0 2
( 1) /
p T p
VC 1 1 (1.18)
0 1 p 0

In absence of position error this is the airspeed indicated by the anemometer.
In supersonic flow there is other expression (similar but more complex).
To obtain true airspeed (TAS) from calibrated airspeed (CAS) two corrections must be
made:
One for the actual existing pressure (2nd correction in the process).
Other for the actual existing density (3rd correction in the process). This correction is
inversely proportional to the square root of the density ratio and provides the TAS,
like in equation (1.13). It means that the result of the 2nd correction is necessarily
the equivalent airspeed (EAS).

1.3.5 CAS to EAS correction

Making the pressure correction yields equivalent airspeed. In subsonic flow:

p 2
( 1) /
p T p
VE 1 1 (1.19)
0 1 p

The ratio between EAS and CAS, that is, the result of dividing equation (1.19) by (1.18), is
generally called the compressibility correction factor (f) and constitutes the 2 nd correction.

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In subsonic flow:
( 1) /
pT p
1 1
VE p p
f ( 1) /
(1.20)
VC p0 p p


T
1 1
p0
In supersonic flow there is other expression (more complex).
Note that f in equation (1.20) varies only with (pTp) and p. All other variables in the
equation (1.20) are constant. Then:
p is a function of altitude, in ISA pressure-altitude definition.
(pTp) can be obtained from equation (1.18) knowing CAS.
A table of factors (f) can be produced, as a function of altitude and CAS. It applies for any
aircraft; shaded cells indicate supersonic flow; given for interpolation:
h Calibrated Airspeed knots)
ft 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5000 0.9994 0.9991 0.9987 0.9983 0.9978 0.9972 0.9966 0.9959 0.9952 0.9944 0.9936
10000 0.9987 0.9980 0.9971 0.9961 0.9950 0.9938 0.9924 0.9909 0.9893 0.9876 0.9859
15000 0.9978 0.9966 0.9952 0.9935 0.9916 0.9895 0.9872 0.9848 0.9822 0.9794 0.9766
20000 0.9967 0.9949 0.9927 0.9902 0.9874 0.9842 0.9809 0.9773 0.9735 0.9695 0.9654
25000 0.9953 0.9927 0.9896 0.9860 0.9820 0.9777 0.9730 0.9681 0.9629 0.9575 0.9520
30000 0.9934 0.9898 0.9856 0.9807 0.9754 0.9695 0.9633 0.9568 0.9500 0.9430 0.9359
35000 0.9910 0.9862 0.9805 0.9741 0.9670 0.9594 0.9513 0.9429 0.9343 0.9256 0.9167
36089 0.9904 0.9852 0.9792 0.9724 0.9649 0.9568 0.9483 0.9395 0.9305 0.9213 0.9121
40000 0.9879 0.9815 0.9740 0.9657 0.9565 0.9468 0.9367 0.9263 0.9157 0.9051
45000 0.9840 0.9757 0.9661 0.9555 0.9441 0.9321 0.9197 0.9071 0.8947
50000 0.9793 0.9686 0.9565 0.9433 0.9293 0.9148 0.9001 0.8858
It is also possible to compute the compressibility correction factor (f) as a function of EAS
and altitude, since (pTp) can be obtained from equation (1.19) knowing EAS and p.
h Equivalent Airspeed (knots)
ft 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5000 0.9994 0.9991 0.9987 0.9983 0.9978 0.9972 0.9966 0.9959 0.9952 0.9944 0.9936
10000 0.9987 0.9980 0.9971 0.9961 0.9950 0.9937 0.9923 0.9908 0.9892 0.9875 0.9857
15000 0.9978 0.9966 0.9951 0.9935 0.9915 0.9894 0.9870 0.9845 0.9818 0.9790 0.9760
20000 0.9967 0.9948 0.9926 0.9901 0.9872 0.9839 0.9804 0.9766 0.9726 0.9684 0.9640
25000 0.9952 0.9926 0.9894 0.9857 0.9816 0.9770 0.9720 0.9667 0.9611 0.9551 0.9490
30000 0.9933 0.9897 0.9853 0.9802 0.9745 0.9682 0.9614 0.9542 0.9465 0.9386 0.9303
35000 0.9909 0.9859 0.9799 0.9731 0.9654 0.9570 0.9479 0.9383 0.9282 0.9178 0.9071
36089 0.9902 0.9848 0.9784 0.9709 0.9626 0.9534 0.9434 0.9328 0.9217 0.9101
40000 0.9877 0.9810 0.9730 0.9638 0.9536 0.9424 0.9305 0.9179 0.9047
45000 0.9837 0.9748 0.9644 0.9525 0.9394 0.9251 0.9100 0.8943
50000 0.9786 0.9671 0.9537 0.9384 0.9217 0.9038 0.8849

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-15

Next figure 1-7 shows the correction from CAS to EAS, as a function of CAS and altitude.

EAS - CAS (knots)

0 10000 ft
20000 ft
(f-1) x CAS (knots)

-10 30000 ft

40000 ft

-20

50000 ft

-30
100 150 200 250 300 350
CAS (knots)

Figure 1-7

1.3.6 EAS to TAS correction

Finally, for the density correction (3rd correction), it is needed to divide equation (1.17) by
(1.19). The result is the true airspeed (TAS) or V, often denoted by VT or just V, given by:
0 V
V VT V VE E (1.21)

Although the final step of the airspeed conversion chain is the TAS, sometimes the EAS is
more useful than the TAS. The dynamic pressure is proportional to the square of EAS, and
this is an indicator of the aircrafts capability to generate aerodynamic loads (lift and drag):
Lift is proportional to Pdyn CL (EAS)2 CL
Drag is proportional to Pdyn CD (EAS)2 CD

1.3.7 ICeT chain

The series of airspeed corrections is often called the ICeT (like ice tee) problem, with the
lower case e to remind that equivalent airspeed is usually less than the other airspeeds.

Indicated Calibrated Equivalent True

Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed
(IAS) (CAS) (EAS) (TAS)

Position Compressibility Density

error correction correction
(Vp) (f) (1/2)

Figure 1-8

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1-16 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

1.4 Wind and Ground Speed

1.4.1 Headwind and Tailwind

In presence of mean wind, the true airspeed may need another correction:
V is the magnitude of the aircrafts true velocity relative to the air mass.
The velocity of the air mass relative to the ground is the wind velocity (Vw).
Ground speed Vg is the magnitude of the aircrafts velocity relative to the Earths
surface.
To determine Vg, the wind velocity must be added vectorially to TAS, extending the
ICeT chain to an ICeTG chain, as shown in figure 1-9.
Headwind: Vg V VW (1.22)

Tailwind: Vg V VW (1.23)

Rest of wind orientations are intermediate cases in terms of Vg and they are
discussed in the next subsection.

Indicated Calibrated Equivalent True Ground

Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed Speed
(IAS) (CAS) (EAS) (TAS) (GS)

Position Compressibility Density Wind

error correction correction correction
(Vp) (f) (1/2) (VW)

Figure 1-9
Note that:
- Motion relative to the air mass (true airspeed V) is most important in terms of
aerodynamic and propulsive evaluation of the flight vehicle. That is, for generating
sufficient aerodynamic forces to sustain flight, which usually depends on Mach and
dynamic pressure.
- But motion relative to the Earth (Vg) allows an aircraft to fulfil its mission. Sometimes
the headwind or tailwind airspeed is significant for Vg.

1.4.2 Other wind orientations

The rest of wind orientations are intermediate cases between headwind or tailwind and null
wind. Lateral wind is compensated by aircraft attitude (yaw angle) in order to fly with null
sideslip angle (=0), as shown in figure 1-10. The relation between the three airspeeds
(true, wind and ground speed) is given by the equation (1.24).
2
V 2 Vg Vw cos Vw sin
2
(1.24)

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-17

Vw sin
Vg Vw sin
Vg to be cancelled
by yaw angle
Vw Vw cos

Vg + Vw cos

Figure 1-10
In first approach, we can retain only the wind component in the direction of the ground
speed Vg, that is (VW cos). It can be justified changing (1.24) to the form shown in (1.25)
and then, when (VW/V) is sufficiently small, discarding the non-dominant terms in a series
development, as indicated by equation (1.26):
2
Vg V V
1 w sin w cos (1.25)
V V V

Vw
If 1: Vg V Vw cos (1.26)
V
Vw V
Next figures 1-11(a) and (b) show, for two specific cases at 0.1 and w 0.2 , the
V V
small difference between the exact equation (1.25) and the approximation (1.26).

Vw / V = 0.1
Exact Approx
1.1

1.05
Vg / V

0.95

0.9
-180 -90 0 90 180
Wind orientation (deg)

Figure 1-11(a)

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1-18 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

Vw / V = 0.2
Exact Approx
1.2

1.1
Vg / V
1

0.9

0.8
-180 -90 0 90 180
Wind orientation (deg)

Figure 1-11(b)

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-19

1.5 Flight Envelopes

1.5.1 Airspeed limitations

The flight envelope of an aircraft encloses the region (typically in altitude versus airspeed
or in altitude versus Mach) where the aircraft is allowed to operate. Usually there are 3
kinds of speed limits in the flight envelope:
A lower limit in terms of minimum EAS, related to the stall speed, where the aircraft
reaches the aerodynamic CLmax.
An upper limit, in terms of maximum EAS, which is related either to the maximum
structural capability to withstand flight loads or to the maximum propulsion provided
by the powerplant. This limit is frequently expressed as maximum CAS, instead of
maximum EAS, for convenience of flight instrumentation.
An upper limit of maximum Mach, normally applying at high altitude. It is related to:
o The suitability of the aerodynamic design to fly with compressibility effects, in
high subsonic regime, or
o The maximum design Mach in supersonic regime.
Figure 1-12 shows two sketches of typical aircraft flight envelopes.
Boundary Usually related to:
Maximum EAS or CAS Structural and/or propulsive limits
Maximum Mach Compressibility effects
Maximum altitude Propulsion capability
Minimum EAS Maximum lift & stall speed

Altitude Altitude
Altitude limit
Altitude limit

Mach Mach
limit CLmax limit
CLmax limit
limit

CAS
limit EAS
limit

EAS Mach
Figure 1-12(a) Figure 1-12(b)

In the next subsections we will solve some problems of interest regarding the management
of the typical flight envelopes:
Intersection between lines of constant Mach and constant EAS.
Intersection between lines of constant Mach and constant CAS.
Transition from subsonic to supersonic regime.

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1-20 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

1.5.2 Intersection Mach-EAS

The point of intersection in the flight envelope between a line of constant Mach and a line
of constant EAS is easily found by using the equations (1.11), (1.21) and (1.6):
VT Ma 0 (1.27)

VE
VT VE (1.28)

Equating (1.27) with (1.28) yields the pressure ratio :
2
V
E (1.29)
Ma0
Finally the altitude is obtained through ISA relations.

1.5.3 Intersection Mach-CAS

The point of intersection between two lines of constant Mach and constant CAS can be
found putting VE = f VC in equation (1.29), which yields (1.30):
2
V
f C
2
(1.30)
Ma0
This equation can be solved by iteration or by linear approximation:
Iterative solution:
Starting with f=1 yields ; then altitude (h) can be calculated from ISA relations; then
f can be calculated from CAS and h, and the process continues until convergence.
Solution by linear approximation:
At a given CAS, the compressibility correction factor f is a function of the altitude.
Tabulating and f at several altitudes, the solution is identified to be between 2
breakpoints of the f-table. Then, using a linear approach between them, f = k 0+k1,
reduces (1.30) to a quadratic equation.
It is also possible to get a direct expression of knowing Mach and CAS. In subsonic flow,
it can be done combining the equations (1.18), (1.19) and (1.29) that involve five variables:
VC, VE, M, and p, where p denotes (pTp). In this system of three equations, we can
use two of them to eliminate two variables (VE and p) yielding a final relation between the
other three variables (VC, M and ). It is made by the following steps:
Obtaining p/p0 from (1.18) equation (1.31):
( 1) 3.5
p 2 1 0 2 0
VC 1 1 VC 1 1 (1.31)
p0 2 p 0 7p 0
From (1.19), (VE)2 depends on p/p0 and equation (1.32):

p 2 p
( 1) / 7p 1 p 1/ 3.5
VE2
1 1 0 1 1 (1.32)
0 1 p 0 p 0

From (1.29), (VE)2 depends on and M equation (1.33):
VE2 VT2 M2a02 M2a02 (1.33)

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GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 1-21

Equating (1.32) with (1.33), solving in and substituting p/p0 by (1.31), the final
result is as a function of VC and M equation (1.34):
3.5
p 2 0
VC 1 1

p0
7p 0 (1.34)
3. 5 3. 5
2 2 0 2 2 0
M a 0 1 1 M a 0 1 1
7p 0 7p 0
Notes:
At sea level this expression yields =1 as expected, since VC = Ma0 (at sea level it is
CAS=EAS=TAS).
This expression is only valid in subsonic flow.

1.5.4 Supersonic boundary

Equation (1.29) can be used to find the EAS of transition from subsonic to supersonic
regime, putting M=1 and getting for known VE, or vice versa, solving in VE for known .
Equation (1.34) can be used to find the CAS of transition from subsonic to supersonic
regime, putting M=1 and getting for known VC, or vice versa, solving in VC for known .
Next figure 1-13 collects the transition airspeed at Mach 1 from sea level up to 50000 ft.

MACH = 1
50000
45000
40000
EAS CAS
35000
Altitude (ft)

30000
TAS
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Airspeed (kts)

Figure 1-13

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1-22 GENERALITIES AND OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

1.6 Bibliography
References for chapter 1:
1R1. D. P. Raymer.
Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach.
AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics) Education Series.
1st edition 1989 5th edition 2012.
1R2. S. A. Brandt, R. J. Stiles, J. J. Bertin, R. Whitford.
Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective.
AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics) Education Series.
1st edition 1997 2nd edition 2004.

Aircraft Design, 2017