‘US009748434B1 34 «2 United States Patent (10) Patent No: US 9,748,434 BI Sung et al. 45) Date of Patent: Aug. 29, 2017 (54) SYSTEMS, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR 4168998 891979 Hasegawa CURING CONDUCTIVE PASTE 4192756 A 1980 Leon om/s65 8 T1981 Mayan (71) Applicant: s 1. San Mateo, S077 A 41982 Lepeeter Bam A 61985 Gare (92) Inventors: Edward Sung, Milpitas, CA (US) 45210 A 1985 Gabis Jamies Zu-Vi Lia, Fremont, CA (US) sess A T1986 Bron S57080 4198S. Min (73) Assignoe: “Tesla, Ine, Palo Alto, CA (US) (Comtinved) (4) Notice: Suibjectto any disclaimer, the term of this FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS patent is extended of adjusted under 35 USC. 184(b) by 0 days cw 0126359 9/2008 eN lassi 72012 Appl. Nos 15/168,543 (Coutinved) Filed: May 24, 2016 OTHER PUBLICATIONS Int. cl, Beaueatne, G etal, “Epis thiafiln Si solar cells" pp 33-842, HoIL 31/18 (2006.01) ‘Science Direct, worw:eiencdiec com, Thin Solid Films SU-S13 orl. 25700 (2006.01) (Gon) 533-543 OIL. 3105 (01401) (Cominved) u crc HOLL 31/1864 (2013.01); HOLL 28/50 Primary Examiner — Asole K Sarkar (2013.01); HOME 31/0512 (2013.01) (74) Anorney, Agent, or Firm — Shun Yoo; Park (58) Field of Classitication Search Vaughan, Fleming & Dowler LLP None ‘Se application file for complete search history. on ABSTRACT (One embodiment can provide a system for curing condue- (56) References Chted ‘ive paste applied on photovoltaic structures. The system can . inci a wafer caer for caring a plaraity of photvol- MRS reel tt) ‘taic structures and a heater. The wafer carrier can include a pee eet Shrine cement tht isin cet conta! wi th photovoltaic Vena A Toth St Strctures andi substantially themsally inslating, The 358.585 A 41972 Folhaaan heater can be positioned above the wafer earrier. The heater parse A T1972 Bun an icine a heated adition surface tht does no ist Saacseo A ond Baedy 4astoo8 A $1979 Luk 8 Claims, 16 Drawing Sheets a8US 9,748,434 BL Page 2 66) References Cited m2 12003 m 32003 USS. PATENT DOCUMENTS. Br 4003, BI $2003 4612207 491986 Jansen 6537985 BL 102003 Sharia 8 Ibe 567 BL ‘2008 Aoesitst § S987 ‘6716027 B2 4008 4nn367 X S198 6747249 8262004 Soro Ribs {680882 B2 10 2008 76126 A Si9se Ssi4si1 Aoam3s2 8 IL ss 1639 Soda Aiba os as Asors62 § “Divs soasizs Sammie A 419K 6959.83 4s38083 61D) 755.368 Pred 480s 8 GIR. 79's Wiekramanayaka ASSESS A $1989 Ohm Tsou Shon 4367629 91989 Iwasa 727075 B2 92007 Bonga So2xe26 A $1990 Carlo 72782 2 92007 Skink b6r688 111990. 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Howels Saosox0 m 122014 Bi ‘22001 Chang Xo670s1 BP “32018, 6218116 BI 42001 Shin Xoso.00s b> 32015, 6217662 BI 412001 Kong Somm4 B2 S208 0202993 BL 72001 nm S087 BD 2018 6528169 BI 122001 Matsoda D.I7.670 B2 82015 Abadiaber Sse 786 B2 12002 Diet 9.447788 BY —_92018 DeGroot oMeI07 BD 22002 We 9.189864 B2 102015 Lucas 370791 BL 42002 Weaver 51208.05 82 122015. Segharan 6300810 BI 62002 Riley 2001/0080100 AL 112001 Wang (638028 B2 £2002 Kien ‘20020004309 2002 Collins 6492284 B2 102002 Kim 2nn20102859 AL €2002 Yoo 6472639 B2 102002. Nishant 2N090DI28E5 AL 1/2003 Geamarosa 6478923 BL 112002 tgarshi 20030019828 AL 12008 Kun (650.734 B2 122002. Anderson 20090188791 AL 82003 ShinyaUS 9,748,434 BL Page 3 66) 20090135979 2n0s0016956 a00so10s991 20080199279 2ooson0%917| aopsonre704 anosonro%as 20000006559 dnosooless9 aopsvogo7e1 20960124169 2npwotse970 20060191118 2080191637, doowon01ai aopsorsi038 2070011863 20070051314 2007001173 soor017s391 2007018118 aonnonsTo7s 20070249173 aon 0rsi642 aonoassas aoororsiase ow 0000881 2opso092944 20080176289 20080196757 aonworrerst aoos.00 14746 soooons7s7 aon onkis 2ooo011746 20090139570 sonoo1923s donsest ise | sor0.0003489 soin0020067| dorooetr9st soroas2607 sonoss2608 aoroonatos aorwo132778 aorote29s4 soiwo1e7s0a dorooiriais sowo1r 9 soioo1s392s aoinoresss? aow0r73279| sowwors2272 aoinor00s06 ao100813877| 20110033038 doivon9s7 por ontss 2s poLLo0676s? Soiwoisini9 2o1U0LT627| 20110217469 20110285957 2011026225 sorv0r62628 20110263070 sorvarrress 2o1v0rTT690| References Cited USS. PATENT DOCUMENTS. al att Al al a 72004 0s 5008 Sans Sams 10.2008 roanos 13006 16 i006 2006 S06 2006 82006 9006 102006 007 32007 2007 2007 32007 vou? ro2007 12007 2007 112007 108 42008 72008 ‘©2008 12008 003 3009 3000 $2000 2008 2009 12009 ian0 2010 22010 42010 42010 42010 2010 T2010 010 F010 Tio 010 02010 roanie 112010 1auio 12010 22011 220 S201 S20 2011 Sot 52011 02011 ro2011 tooit too1r Mao 12011 Hazon Us Hovinester Yoshimine e Shins Hodge Shinn Saaz Kotsyash Hrzcton Minis DongsSuk Le Zane Sabot Helwig Yoshiko Choi Hain Mires Mine Kirn Kim Ber Ber Ber Pkering Robin OIL 31022425 136299 zens, Boil 782 35912 Yoshimine Mora Ramirez ‘And hinds. Masuda Kinosh Koluyash Okeal Te vin My Sivtramalishaan Se Godot Heng eta Blinn Pomel Holden Choi Poppe ta Hines Stetazz0 Schacter Trl Rozenzon 2o1vorsiost At 2o1uinressio AL goigonreo%s Al aoidounn77t At 20120125301 AL anigmnisavs Al 20120318340 AL ao1s0171757 Al aoraredon2 Al 20140060633 AL ao1aoes29 AL a1a0naon Al midonan Al ao1a0ns7159 AL so1a0r90256 AL aoisoneese) AL 2oiso10si07 Al aoiso19ia74 ait 201590206780 At aoisans0% Al aoisuor Al 2010368356 Al* 201600000958 AL wo Mou, 32012 Sho1d $202 2003 12012 72013 102083 2014 ola S2ola S2old stoi 02014 Sols aos 72018 72015 02015 13015 1201s 2016 Rozenzon Benson Hirano Begamey Pinabast Rabe Heng Ponca Miyamoto Tuas Kiso Morad ea ajar Commo Choi ‘stcaken Morad Moore Moore HOLL 2u67109 219396, HOLL. 2840575 2571695, bsp 17067 156247 FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS ow roow0074s wv ow oN Ow ToHs00158 cw TOsr61778 DE 3053703 P 2098609 1p 244959 2 te.a89 3 HIL2S890 w 200279207 ® ao0stssoss » aonn277936 w 006080098 @ ao13149596 ® soisio7so> ke 20060117134 KR 404086 KR rolsoaoss KR 20150137810 WO ‘0072362 wo 2009020501, wo aonone0r7? wo 2010129136 a2 wo 2010129136 AS wo BULILa65 wo 2012108489 wo aonairan? wo wo wo so1aosst0 wo aoistentes (OTHER PUBLICATIONS 12012 T2014 92014 S2ols 52018 ole S192 32008 2012 sim 11999 ‘62002 $2003 102003 "32006 203 wo2044 112006 62018 2014 12018 112000 "2009 72008 2010 112010 woo ‘92012 12013 82013 S204 S201 02015 Cobian el, “Paste Adhesive Molton for Inston Caring” an 2012 “Pad printing as flim forming techaique for polymer soar cll" Krcbe FC, “Thick tilm Materials for Silicon Photovolaie Cell Manufacture” Feld, MB. an. 1997 * cited by examinerU.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 1 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 104 A + 108 110 122 120 J FIG. 1BU.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 2 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 208 FIG. 2A FIG. 2B 204 202U.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 3 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 312 306 FIG. 3A FIG. 3BUS 9,748,434 BL Sheet 4 of 16 Aug. 29, 2017 U.S. Patent ap ‘Sid ov vr Sls oor oorU.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 5 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 508 502 \ 506 FIG. 5 504 500U.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 6 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 FIG.6U.S. Patent Aug, 29, 2017 Sheet 7 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 FIG. 7A 700U.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 8 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 FIG. 7B FIG. 7¢US 9,748,434 BL v8 ‘Old ole a | i r | ! 4 0B — Tc 701 Sheet 9 of 16 TOL 008 Aug. 29, 2017 Coo 50= OE 0r 0E 0L 00) _— a a | Soe See Set See See Sed ae Se | | 50E—or Coo oe ee 50 -FOL SOL 0 0L 05 Dg U.S. Patent z08 owt+——f-—-Nig veU.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 10 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 FIG. 8BU.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 ce au cs Ge 900 Sheet 11 of 16 904 US 9,748,434 BL \ 902 910 FIG. 9AU.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 12 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 m~ 8 « |/ nad ~ ceed ciaina aed oe bt) ° 8 ~~ o es 6 9 z Ae i Me 4K load ~~U.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 13 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 a 8 eae E==S=s] ae — oe j =e) ee) ae a as) a a) a Pa) wu o a ira S ee z - g a foc or ae eos a) ee ——— A Sas) =z] ane ———— aay a ee gU.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 14 of 16 US 9,748,434 B1 noe ane -_ ae 7 Fg t fe 956 950U.S. Patent Aug. 29, 2017 Sheet 15 of 16 US 9,748,434 BL LOAD PHOTOVOLTAIC STRUCTURES ONTO A WAFER CARRIER 1002 BRING THE WAFER CARRIER TO THE VICINITY OF A HEATING ELEMENT 1004 KEEP THE PHOTOVOLTAIC STRUCTURES IN THE HEATED ZONE FOR A PREDETERMINED TIME PERIOD 1006 REMOVE THE PHOTOVOLTAIC STRUCTURES FROM THE WAFER CARRIER 1008 FIG. 10U.S. Patent Aug. 29,2017 Sheet 16 of 16 START PREPARE SEMICONDUCTOR MULTILAYER STRUCTURE 1402 METALLIZATION THE SEMICONDUCTOR MULTILAYER STRUCTURE INTO SMALLER STRIPS 1106 APPLY CONDUCTIVE PASTE 1108 PLACE STRIPS ON A WAFER CARRIER 1110 PLACE THE WAFER CARRIER UNDER THE HEATING ELEMENT 1112 INTERCONNECT THE STRINGS TO OBTAIN A PANEL 1114 FIG. 11 US 9,748,434 BLUS 9,748,434 BI 1 SYSTEMS, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR ‘CURING CONDUCTIVE PASTE, FIELD OF THE INVENTION ‘This generally relates to the fabrication of photovoltaic structures. More specifically, this disclosure is related to 2 system and method for curing conductive paste that is used {or electrical and mechanical coupling between cascaded steps DEFINITIONS. “Solar cell” or “cell” photovoltaic structure capable of ‘converting light into electrvity. cell may have any size and any shape, and may be created from a variety of materials For example, a solar cell may be a photovoltaic structure fabricated on silicon wafer or one of more thin films on @ substrate material (eg, glass, plastic, or anyother material ‘capable of supporting the photovoltaic strcture), or # com. bination thereo. A *solar cell stip." ‘photovoltaie strip.” or “strip” is a portion or segment of a photovoltaic structure, such as & Solar cell solar cell may he divided into number of strips A sirip may ave any shape and any size, The width and length of strips may be the sme or different From each other Strips may be formed by further dividing a previously divided stip. ‘A “cascade” is @ physical arangement of solar eels oF strips that are electrically coupled via electrodes on or near their edges. ‘There are many’ ways to physically connect adjacent photovoliac structures. One way is to physically ‘overlap them at or near the edges (et, one edge on the Positive side and another edge on the negative side) of ‘adjacent structures. This overlapping process is sometimes refered 10 a5 “Shingling” Two or more easeading photo- vollic structures or strips can be refered to as a “cascaded string.” or more simply as a “string.” “Finger lines,” “finger electrodes,” and “ingers” refer (0 ‘elongated, elctically conductive (eg, metallic) electrodes ‘ofa photovoliaie structure for colleting carriers A “busbar.” "bus line,” or “bus eleciode” refers to aa ‘elongated, electrically conductive (eg, metallic) electrode ‘ofa photovoltaic structure for aggregating current collected by two or more finger lines. A busbar is nsually wider than finger line, and can be deposited or otherwise positioned fywhere on or within the photovoliac strcture, 4 single Photovoltaic structure may have one or more busbars, ‘A “photovoltaic structure” ean reler to a solar cell, 3 segment, or solar ell stip. A photovoltae structure is not limited to a device fabricated by a particular method. For ‘example, a photovoltaic structure ean be a erystalline sli- ‘con-based solar cell, thin film solar cell, an amorphous silicon-based solar cell, a. poly-crysalline silicon-based solar cell, of @ strip thereof BACKGROUND Advances in photovoltaic technology, which is used 10 make solar panels, have helped solar energy gin mass appeal among those wishing (0 reduce their earbon footprint fnd decrease their monthly energy costs. However, the panels are typically fabricated manually, which isa time- ‘consuming and error-prone process. This makes it eostly to mass-produce reliable solar panels. ‘Solar panels typically include one oF more strings of ‘complete solar cells. Adjacent solar cells in a string may 0 o 2 overlap one another in a casca ‘example, continuous strings of solar ells that form a solar panel are described in US. patent application Ser. No. 14/510,008, fled Oct. 8, 2014, and entitled “Module Fab- 1 of Solar Cells with Low Resist entirety. Producing, solar panels with @ cascaded cell arrangement can reduce the resistance due to interconnec- tions between the strips, and can inerease the number of solar cells that a fit into a solar panel Fabrications of such cascaded panels can involve over- lapping edges of adjacent cells in such a way that the electrodes (busbars) on opposite sides of the overlapped cells are in contacto establish an eletecal coanection. This process is repented fora numberof saccessive cells until one string of cascaded cals is created. A number of stings are then coupled 0 each other (ether in series or in parallel) and placod in a protective frame, To furher reduce intemal resistance ofthe entire panel and to ensure that the man ‘actured panel is compatible with conventional panels, one form of the cascaded panel (as deseribed in the aforemen- tioned patent application) can include a series of solar cell strips created by dividing complete solar cells into smaller pivees (ie. the strips). These smaller strips can then be cascaded (Gdge-overlapped) to form a string. Conductive paste ean bo applied on the busbars to provide mechanical bonding and electical coupling between the overlapping busbars of adjacent strips SUMMARY, A system for curing conductive paste applied on photo- voltaic structures can be provided. The system ean inelude fa waler easier and heater. The wafer carrier can catry plurality of photovoltaic structures and ean inelude a surface flement that is in direct contact with the photovota structures, The surface element can be substantially ther ‘mally insulting. The heater can be positioned above the ‘wafer carro, and ean inl a heated radiation surface that does not diretly contact the photowoltaie structures Tn some embodiments, the surface element ean be made of polybenzimidazole (PEI) plastic In further embodiments a surface ofthe suriee element ‘an be palered such that only Traction of the surface is ia contact with the photovoltaie structures. Tn some embodiments, the surface element can include a ‘number of components separated by ai gaps to allow an individual component to expand when heated ‘In some embodiments, the temperature of the heated radiation surface ean be kept betwen 200 and 600° C. ‘In some embodiments, the heater ean include a radiation block, and the radiation surface of the radiation block ean be coated with @ substantially dark colored coating In futber embodiments, the substantially dark colored coating ean include an anodizing coating ora high-omissiv- ty cating, and the thickness ofthe dark colored coating ean be between 1 and 100 microns In further embodiments, other surfaces of the radiation block are polished or covered with layer of thermal insulation material TInsome embodiments, the radiation block ean be made of ‘material having. thermal condvetivty of at least 50 ‘wiime). Tn some embodiments, the wafer cartier an further include a base for coupling the wafer cari 48 conveyor system.US 9,748,434 BI 3 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1A shows an exemplary grid pattern on the front surface of photovoltaic structre. FIG. 1B shows an exemplary grid pattern on the back surface of photovoltaic structure. FIG, 2A shows a sting of eascaded sts. FIG. 2B shows a sie view of the string of cascaded steps. FIGS, 3A and 3B show the busbars and conductive paste before and ator, respoctvely: the conductive paste is cured, ‘seconting to an embodiment of the preset invention, TIGS. 4A and 4B show the busbars and conductive paste before and after, respectively the conductive paste is cured, soconding to an embodiment of the presen! invention, FIG. § shows an exemplary thermal curing. system, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG, 6 shows the perspective view of the heater, accon!- jing to an embodiment of the present invention TFIG. TA shows the top view of an exemplary wafer ‘cartier, according to an embodiment of the present inven= IG. 7B shows the cross-sectional view of a strip carrie along cut plane A-A, according to an embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 7C shows an exemplary placement of two adjacent,» strips on the sip carrier, according to an embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 8A shows the top view of an exemplary wafer carrier, according to an embodiment of the present inven- FIG. 8B shows the top view of an exemplary wafer carrier, according to an embodiment of the present inven TIG. 9A shows an exemplary iliae dhermal curing sys- tem, according to an embodiment ofthe present invention. FIG. 9B shows an exemplary inline thermal curing sys- tem, according to an embodiment ofthe present invention. TFIG, 9C shows the end of a wafer currer moving out of the heated region below the heater, according an embodi- meat of the present invention. FIG. 9D shows the movement of the empty wafer eater, ‘seconting to an embodiment of the preset invention TIG. 9P shows a top view of the waler carrer, according {0 an embodimeat of the preset invention, FIG. 9F shows an exemplary inline thermal curing sys- aeordng to an embodiment of the present invention, TIG. 10 shows an exemplary process for curing conduc tive piste applied onto photovoltaic structures, ia accor ‘dance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 shows an exemplary process for forming a solar panel, according 10 an embodiment. In the figures, like reference numerals refer tothe same figure elements DETAILED DESCRIPTION ‘The following description is presented to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the embodiments, ‘and is provided inthe context ofa particular application and its requirements. Various. modifictions to the disclosed ‘embodiments willbe readily apparent o those skilled inthe ft, andthe general principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments and applications without departing from the spirit and seope ofthe present disclosure. Thus, the present invention is not Iimited tothe embodiments shown, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features disclosed herein. 4 Overview ‘Embodiments of the present invention can provide a system and apparatus for thermally curing conductive paste ‘sed for edge-overlapped bonding solar cell strips. More specially, the system includes a heater and a wafer carrer ‘The heater ean include a metalic block, which ean radiate heat tothe surface of solar strips, causing the conductive paste sandwiched etween overlapping busbars to be cute The radiation surface of the metallic block can be coated, anodized, or roughened to have a substantially dark color, thus increasing the radiation eliieney, The wafer carrer fan be made of materials that are resist to high temper tures and have alow thermal conxntive coelicient. In some ‘embodiments, atleast a portion of the wafer eamier ca be made of polybenzimidszole (PBI) plastic. The very low thermal conductivity of the PBI plastic can ensure that the heat emitted from the heater is mostly trapped between the Jbeater and the substrate carrer and, thus, ean eficienly eure the conductive paste Solar Panel Based on Cascaded Strips ‘As deseribod in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/563, 867, 4 solar pane! can have miltiple (eg. three) strings, cach string including cascaded strips, connected in parallel. ‘Such a multiple-parallestring panel configuration provides the same output Voltage with a reduced intemal resistance. In general, a cell ean be divided into n, strips, and « panel can contain ny strings. The numbers n; and n, ean be the ‘une or illerent, The aumber of seis ina string ean be a ew more than, a few less than, ofthe same as the number ‘of regular photovoltaic structures in a conventional single- String panel. Such a configuration can ensure that each string ‘outputs approximately the same voltage as a conventional ppancl, The a, strings can then be connected in parallel to orm a panel: As a result, the panel’s voltage output can be the same as that of the conventional single-string Pan, while the panels otal intemal resistance ean be Lin, ofthe resistance of a string. Therefore, in general, a greater n can Tead to a lower total internal resistance and, hence, more power extracted from the panel. However, a tradeoff is that fs ny increases, the number of connections required 10 interconnect the strings also increases, which increases the amount of contact resistance. Also, the greater n, is the more strips a single eell needs to be divided into, which increases the associated production cost and deereases aver- all reliability due to the larger number of strips used in @ single pane. ‘Another consideration in determining 1, is the contact resistance between the electrode and the photovoltae stme- ture on which the electrode is Tormed. The type of electrode «an dictate the number of strips. Far example, conventional silverspaste or aluminum-based electrodes typically canot produce an ideal resistance betwoen the electrode and under- lying photovollac structure. Asa result, such electrodes may oquiren, tobe smaller, rather than larger. This is because, fash, increases, the number of inter-srip connections also ‘increases, which leads to inereasod internal series resistance of eoeh string, and therefore an overall increased intemal resistance ofthe entire panel. In alton, the greater 0 i the more difficult the fabrication process is. In some embeal ‘meats of the present invention, the electrodes, including both the busbars and finger lines, can be fabricated using ‘combination of physical vapor deposition (PVD) and elee- ‘toplating of copper as an electrode material. The resulting copper electrode ean exhibit lower resistance than an al ‘mint or sereen-printd-siverpaste electrode. Conse. (quently, » smaller n, can be used to attain the benckit of reduced contact resistance per strip without incurring 100US 9,748,434 BI 5 much resistance caused by intersteip connections. In some ‘embodiments, 2, can be selected to be thee, which is less than the n, value generally needed for cells with silver-paste ‘electrodes or other types of electrodes. Comespondingy, $60 grooves can be seribed on a single cell to allow the cell 10 be divided into thrce strips Inaddition to lower contact resistance, electroplated cop= per electrades can also oer better tolerine ta microcricks, ‘which may occur during @ cleaving process. Such microo- rocks might adversely impact slverpaste-clectrode cells Plated-copper electrodes, on the other hand, can preserve the ‘conductivity across the cell surface even if there are miero- ‘racks inthe photovoltaie steuctuee. The copper eletrode’s higher tolerance for microcracks can allow one 10 use thinner silicon waters to manufacture cells. AS a result, the rooves to be scribed on a cell can be shallower than the srooves scribed on a thicker wafer, which in tur ean help increase the throughput of the scribing process. More details ‘on using copper plating to form low-resistance electrodes on ‘a photovolini structure are provided in U.S. patent appli ‘cation Ser. No. 13220,532, entitled "SOLAR CELL WITH ELECTROPLATED GRID,” fled Aug. 29, 2011, the dis- ‘losure of which is incosporated herein by reference in is ‘entirety. FIG. LA shows an exemplary grid pattern on the front surface of a photovoltaie structure, In the example shown i FIG. IA, grid 102 can include three sub-grds, such as sub-grid 104, This thre sub-grc eoafiguration can allow the Photovoltaic structure to be divided into three strips. To ‘enable caseading, each sub-grd can have an edge busbar, ‘which ean be located either at or near the edge. In the ‘example shown in FIG. 1A, cach sub-grid ean include an ‘edge busbar (Tedge” here relers tothe edge of a respective Strip) running along the longer edge of the corresponding strip and a plurality of parallel finger lines running in 2 direction parallel 0 the shorer edge of the strip. For ‘example, sub-grid 104 can include edge busbar 106, and 2 plurality of finger lines, such as finger lines 108 and 110, To fociltate the subsequent laserastisted sribe-and-cleave process, a predefined blank space (i.e. space not covered by ‘lectrodes) can be inserted between the adjacent sub-arids For example, blank space 112 can be defined to separate sub-grid 104 from its adjacent sub-grd. la some embodi- ments, the width ofthe blank space, such as blank space 112, ‘ean be between 0.1 mm and 5 mm, preferably between 0.S ‘mim and 2 mm, There isa tadeoiTberween a wider space that Jeads to 4 more tolerant seribing operation and a narrower space that leads to more effective current colletion, In 8 Tre embodiment, the width of such a blank space can be approximately 1 mm, TFIG. 1B shows an exemplary grid pattern on the back surface of a photovoltaic structure. When showing the back surface, for illustration purposes, the photovoltaic structure js assumed to be transparent. The grid pattems on the front ‘and back surfaces of the photovoltaic structure are viewed from the same viewing point, Inthe example shown in FIG. 1B, back grid 120 can include three sub-prids, such as subsarid 122. To enable cascaded and bifacial operation, the back subsgrid may correspond to the front sub-grid. More specifically, the back edge busbar can be located at the ‘opposite edge ofthe Ironside edge busbar. In the examples shown in FIGS. LA.and IB, the front and back sub-grids can have similar pattems except thatthe front and back edge bushars are located adjacent to opposite edges ofthe stip. Inaddtion, locations ofthe blank spaces in back conductive {id 120 cen contespond to locations ofthe blank spaces in front conductive grid 102, such thatthe grid Fines do not 0 o 6 interfere wit the subsequent seribe-and-cleave process. In practice. the finger line paterson the font and back sides of the photovoltae structure may be the same or diferent Inthe examples shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the finger line pattems ean include continuous, non-broken loops. For ‘xample, as shown in FIG. 1A, finger lines 108 and 110 can ‘both include coanected loops. This type of “looped” finger line pattem can reduce the likelihood of the finger lines peeling away from the photovoltaic structure after Tong use Optionally, the sections where parallel lines are joined ean be wider than the rest of the finger lines to provide more durability and prevent peeing. Patems other than the one shown in FIGS, 14 and 1B, sueh as un-looped straight ines fr loops with different shapes, are also possible. To form a cascade string, cells or strips (ea a result of a seribing-and-cleaving process applicd 0 a regular square cell) can be cascaded with their edges overlapped. FIG. 2A shows asiing of eascaded strips, In FG. 2A, stips 202,204, and 206 can be stacked in such a way that step 206 an 'partally overlap adjacent strip 204, which can also partially overlap (on an opposite edge) strip 202, Such string of strips can form a pattern that is similar to roof shingles. Each strip can ince top and bottom edge busbars located at opposite edges of the top and bottom surfuees, respoctively. Strips 202 and 204 may be coupled t0 each other via an edge busbar 208 located at the top surface of strip 202 and an edge busbar 210 foested at the bottom strlace of sip 204, To establish electeical coupling, sieips 207 and 204 can be placed in such a way that bottom edge busbar 210 is placed on top of and in direct contact with top edge busbar 208, FIG. 28 shows a side view ofthe string of cascaded strips. Inthe example shown ia FIGS. 2A and 28, the strips can be part ofa G-inch quae photovoltaic structure, with each strip bhaving a dimension of approximately 2 inches by 6 inches. ‘To reduce shucing, the overlapping between adjacent scips should be kept as small as possible. In some embodiments, ‘he single busbars (both atthe top and the bottom surfaces) can be placed at the very edge of the trip (as showin FIGS. 2A and 2B). The same cascaded pattern can extend along an cntie row of strips to form a serially connected string. Conductive Paste Curing System ‘When forming a solar panel, adjacent strips may be onde together via edue busbars. Sueh bonding can be ‘important to ensure thatthe electrical connections have high electrical conductivity and do not fail mectanically when ‘the solar pane s put into service. One option for bonding the ‘metalic busbars can include soldering. For example, the surface of the edge busbars may be coated with a thin layer fof Sn. During a subsequent lamination process, heat and pressure can be applied to cure sealant material betwocn photovoltaic structures and he front and back eovers of the Solar panel, The sume heat and pressure can also solder together the edge busbars that are in contact, such as edge Inushars 208 and 210, However, the rigid honding berwoen the soldered contacts may lead to cracking ofthe thin strips Moreover, when in service solar panels often experience ‘many temperature eyeles, and the thermal mismatch between the metal and the semiconductor may ereate srue- tural stress that ean fea to fracturing, "To reduce the thermal or mechanical stess, it can be preferable to use a bonding mechanism that is sufficiently HTexible and can withstand many temperature cycles, One ‘way to do so is to bond the strips using flexible aesive that is eletrically conductive. For example, adbesive (oF paste) can be applied on the surface of top edge bushar 208 of strip 202 (shown in FIG. 24). When strip 204 is placed 10US 9,748,434 BI 1 partially overlap with strip 202, bottom edge busbar 210 ea be bonded o top exe busbar 208 bythe adhesive, which ean be cured at an elevated temperature. Different types of ‘conductive adhesive of paste can be wsed to bond the bushars. In ono emboxtiment, the condctive paste can inchide a conductive metalic eore surrounded by a resin. When the paste is applied to a busbar, the metalic care ‘establishes an electrical connection with the busbar while the resin that surtounds the metallic core funetions 28 an adhesive. In another embodiment, the conductive adbesive may be in the form of a resin that includes a number of suspended conductive particles, such as Ag or Cu particles ‘The conductive particles may be costed with a protective layer. When the paste is thermally cured, the protective layer ‘can evaporate 1 enable electrical conductivity between the ‘conductive particles suspended inside the resin In some embodiments, the overlapping busbars can have the shape of a rectangular prism, and the conductive paste ‘can applied to the surlae of at least one ofthe busbar. Once the conductive paste is cured under heat, the two overlap- Ping busbars will be bonded to cach other. PIGS. 3A and 33 show the bushars and conduetive paste hefore and afer, respectively the conductive paste is cured, according ton ‘embodiment of the present invention. More specifically FIG. 3A shows that droplets of conductive paste (eg. ‘droplets 302 and 304) ean be deposited on busbar 306, ‘which is part of photovoltaic structure 300. FIG. 3B shows that photovoltaic structures 300 and 310 can be bonded (© ‘each other when busbar 312 overlaps with busbar 306 and the conductive paste droplets are cured, In some embodiments the overlapping bushars can have ‘complementary overlapping profiles and ean interlock when, stacked, FIGS. 4A and 42 show the busbars and conductive paste before and afer, respectively, the conductive paste is ‘cured, according to an embodiment ofthe present invention, FIG. 4A shows that seamented busbars 402 and 412 belong- ing to photovoltaic structure 400 and 410, respectively, have ‘complementary topology profiles, Conductive paste droplets (ex, droplets 404 and 406) can be applied on segments of busbar 402 and exposed surface of photovoltaic strmctore 4400, FIG. 42 shows that photovoltaic stactares 400 and 410 ‘ean be boned f0 each other when busbars 402 and 412 interlock and the conductive paste droplets are cured. More specifically, segments of the busbar of one photovoltaic ructure ean be bonded via the cured paste tothe exposed surface ofthe other photovoltaic structure eat can he used to cure the conductive paste. In con= ventional approaches, eascaded strips (with paste applied and busbars overlapped) canbe placed ina convection oven, However, the heating efficiency of such approaches is typi- cally low, because most of the beat may escape to the ‘environment. For example, when the strips are placed inside ‘2 convection oven, « majority ofthe hea is used to heat up the air in the oven. In addition, sir mast be circulated 0 ‘ensure that there is effetive and even convection occurring ‘on the strips. An uneven airflow ean result in temperature ‘non-uniformity on the strips. High airflows can cause the strips to shift positon, resulting in incorect string geometry. ‘On the other hand, although low aieflows do not shift the strips, they ean lead to low heating efficiency; which ot only wastes energy but ean also Tead to extended heating time. ‘The longer heating time ean reduce the throughput of the ‘entire fabrication system, Moreover, long-time exposte of the photovoltsie structures to high temperatures ean also ‘damage the photovoltaic structures Tn another conventional approach, cascaded strips can be placed one by one, or in groups, on a heating surface. While 0 o 8 the strips are being placed on the sures, the surface must remain cooler than the temperature required fr curing the pases oerwse the paste may eur prematurely, before all bf the strips have been placed onto the surface. To circum ‘ent this, one may koep the surface relatively cool nd only beat it up afer all ofthe strips have heen placed. Becaase ‘hese heating surfaces usally have large thermal masses, heating up ad cooling down cam take a long time, this reducing the thoghpot of the fabscation system. In ah tion, heating and cooling of & lage thermal mass an consume & lage amount of energy. and can cause krge ermal siteses to Be applied Wo the Wo "To rdooe to time noded for curing the condvetve paste ana wo reduce enemy usogs, system tht can eflectvely localize the heat to cue the conductive paste canbe pro- Vid. FG. § shows an exemplary ternal ering sytem accor to an embodiment ofthe present invention, Ther thal curing system S00 can include’ walee camer S02 for aurying solr cell sts (eg, tps 04 and $06) and beater £08, In some embodiments, heater S08 can be placed near the surface of the srps wi is radiation surface Taing the rips. More specifically, heater S08 docs na have direct lisical contact withthe sola cell stip. The radiation Surlace of heater S08 can emit heat (as indicated by the ‘azagged aevows), which can be wansfere to and absorbed bythe strips and, hence inirety heat up the conducive pase sandvicha Between the edge-verlapped strips. fer being heated fora conan time period, the contve paste can be cured, mechanically bonding the edge-overiapped Strips to each othr AIL three modes of est tanaer, including condvetion, convection, and ealiaton, can play © ‘len transrring the heat from heater S08 tothe tps ed then to the conductive paste. Among them, radiation plays ‘he most important le. Le. a majority ofthe heat can be teansfred via radiation, Convection i limited to natural convection, and conduction is Timited to the condstion through the air gap bnsen heater 808 andthe surface ofthe Strips. Compared with dirstcontact-based esting. this heating mrangement can provide higher thought immproveelicincy. and prevent damage othe strips. Com: pated with convection-oven-based heating, this beating rangement can provide better beating uniformity aid higher droughput, and can significantly improve eficieny. HIG. 6 shows the pespective view ofthe hese, accor. ing w© an embodiment ofthe present invention. Heater 600 can inclide rdiaton block 602 and a number of eartidge hosters (ot shown in the drassing), Ration Boek 602 ean be made of @-mutedal with high thermal conductivity Including metallic materials (e9,alusinum and copper) aml ceramic muterials (ex. slicon carbide). In some embodiments the thermal conductivity of the material frm: ‘ng radiation block 602 can be el to oF greater than 50 Wn). Materials wih elatively low thermal eonductivi suchas sails tel andalumina, may also be se slg asthe thermal design of the hestr can compensate forthe Jow themal conductivity Inthe example shown ia FIG. 6, radiation block 602 is shaped asa rectangular prism. Other shapes can also be possible, suc as cubical o elindseal Radiation block 602 can iocade a numberof voids extend Jng from one side of radiation block 62 othe other. In same embodiments, canridge heaters, which area type of heater ant ean be shaped like rods, canbe inserted into the voids of raaton block 602 to het radiation block 602 to high temperature. These cartridge haters canbe coupled to an txtemal power source. The amount of Beat provided by these cartridge hesters can be contelled via One oe moreUS 9,748,434 BI 9 ature sensors (not shown in FIG. 6). For example, the system can be configured to maintain the temperature of radiation block ata predetermined value, In some embadi- ‘ments, the temperature of radiation block 602 canbe kept at a value Between 200 and 600° C., preferably between 250 tnd 350°C Inthe view shown in FIG. 6 front surface 604 of radiation block 602s the surface facing the strips and can radiate heat tothe strips. Although the entire body’of radiation biock 602 jis heated and all surfaces of radiation block 602 can radiate hat to the environment, only heat radiated out of surface 604 can be use for curing the conductive paste on the photovoliaie structure, To increase the amount of heat radi ‘ated out of surface 604, in some embodiments, surface 604 ‘can be anodized to have a datker (almost black) color to increase its emissivity. On the other hand, to reduce the amount of heat radiated trom other surfaces, all other furfices are polished lo be mimorlike to reduce their ‘emissivity. Altemativel. all other surfaces can be covered oF ‘outed with layer of thermal insulation material to reduce 2 their emissivity: In general, radiation block 602 can be ‘configured in such a way that only one surface has high ‘emissivity and all other surfaces are effectively insulated. In addition to anodizing, other methods can also be used to increase the emissivity of surface 608. For example, surface 604 can be roughened. Alternatively, surface 604 ca be coated with a thin layer of radiation-absorbent material (RAM) costing, For example, an aluminum radiation block cean have its radiation surface costed with a layer of “Tufkam® (ropistered trademark of General Magnaplate Cor- poration of Linden, N.J}) coating. The thickness of the ‘coating ean be between I and 100 microns. In alternative ‘embodiments, a high-emisivty coating. which c silicone-ceramie based, black pigmented coating, c tused to coat radiation surlace 604, The high-emissvity ‘outing can have a thickness between 1 and 100 mierons. In conventional high-temperature settings, metallic oF raphite wafer carriers are often used 0 support waters de to their heat-resistant capability, However although they are not easily damaged by heat, they are also good heat con- ‘ductors. After being transfered from the radiation block to the strips located on the water eaters, a portion ofthe heat ‘ean escape via the waler camer due to its good heat ‘conductivity, This ean reduce the heating elliciency and, hence, can prolong the ime needed for curing the paste. To ‘overcome this problem, instead of metal oF graphite, the wafer carsier can be made ofa plastic or ceramic material that i heat-resistant and has Tow thermal conductivity FIG. 7A shows the top view of an exemplary wafer carrier, according to an embodiment of the present inven- tion, Wafer carrier 700 can include a hase 702 and a number ‘of sirip caries, such as strip cariers 704, 706, and 708, Base 702 is notin coalaet with the photovoliac structures and ean be made of materials with good thermal condue- tivity, such as metal. In one embodiment, base 702 can be made of stainless steel, The base of wafer carrier 700 can be used (0 couple wafer carier 700 10 a conveyor system, ‘which can transport the photovoltaic structures from one processing station to the next ‘The strip eariers ean be configured to carry the strips that are precisely aligned such that the busbars of adjacent strips ‘overlap with conductive paste sandwiched in between, robotie system withthe assistance ofa vision system can be tied to place an align the strips. detailed description of| the robotic system and the vision system ean be found ia USS. patent application Ser. No. 14/866,766, etitled “SYS- TEMS AND METHODS FOR CASCADING PHOTO: 0 o 10 VOLTAIC STRUCTURES," filed Sep. 25, 2015, the disclo- sure of whick is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, ‘Because the strip carriers are in ditset contact with the heatod strips, t reduce heat oss, the strip carriers can be sade of a plastic material that is heat-resistant and has ow thermal conductivity. In some embodiments, the strip car ers can be made of polyhenrimidazole (PBI plastic. Com- pared with other plastic materials, PBI plastic can provide a ‘number of superior thermal properties, incl high ther ‘mal resistance, very Tow heat conductivity, and very low thermal expansion coeflicent. In addition, PBI plastic ean also provide superior mechanical peopertios over other ins- Joting materials, making it an ideal candidate for forming the strip earners, ‘addition to choosing a material with low thermal ccondoetivty to form the stip carriers, in some embod rents, the geometry of the strip carries is also carefully designed to further reduce the heat loss. In the example shown in FIG. 7A, the surface of the siip carriers ean be pattemed. More specifically, each rectangle (eg., rectangle 722) ona strip cartier indicates a raised boss. FIG. 7B shows the crose-sclional view of a strip carter along ext plane AA, according to an embodiment of the present investion, ‘When a strip is placed on the strip camer, only the ridges (eats ridges 732 snd 734) are in coatact with the sip. This ‘way, instead of having the entire back surface of the strips in contact with te step carries, only a portion ofthe back surface of the strips is in contact with the strip cartier. In some embodiments the foal size ofthe top surface of the Fidges can be between 10 and 30% the sizeof a stip carrce, The reduced contact area ean reduce the amount of heat being transferred from the strips to the strip caries. ln addition (othe pattern shown in FIG. 7A, other patterns are also possible. For example, instead of rectangular, shapes of the indentations can include square, triangular, circular, half circular, oval, or any other regular or iregular shapes. ‘In some embodiments, the stip carriers ean be designed in such a way that each srip cari ean support and cary a single strip. For example, strip carrier 704 can support one strip, and strip cance 706 can support an adjacent strip. The ‘ize ofthe stip cariers can be defined hased on the size of the strip. More specifically, eacl strip carer ean be designed to be smaller than the stip to allow a wap to exist between (Wo adjacent slip carriers For slsips that were obiained by dividing standard siinch square waters, the Tength of the stip can be roughly six inches, whereas the ‘wih of each strip ean be less than two inches (e.., between 15 and 1.7 inches). ‘As shown in FIG. 7A, gap 712 can exist between stip carriers 704 and 706, and gap 714 ean exist between strip carriers 706 and 708. Inserting & wap between adjacent strip carriers can be important, because the stip carriers can expand under high temperature. Note that, although the ‘thermal expansion coeiient of PBI plastic is very low, it can tll be higher than that ofthe stainless steo base. Henec, to prevent bowing, it can be desirable to allow the strip catrers to expand. In the design shown in FIG. 7A, instead ‘of having a continuous strip carrier carry multiple strips, separate strip carers with gaps in between are used to carry ‘the multiple steps. The with of the gap can be beaween 2 And 10 mim, preferably between Sand 8 mm. “The way the strips are placed on wafer cartier 700 can also play an important role in the curing process. FIG. 7C shows an exemplary placement of two adjacent strips on the strip carries, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Strips 742 and 744, shown in different atehUS 9,748,434 BI un pattems, are place adjacent to each other, For illustrat purposes, in FIG. 7C, strips 742 and 744 are shown as ‘eansparent to reveal the strip eariers beneath, To maintain the positon of the strips, each strip carrer can include @ number of vacuum-holding holes, such 3s holes 746 and 748. In the example shown in FIG. 7C, the right edge of stip 72 overlaps withthe left edge of strip T44. This ca resll in the overlapping ofthe cesponding bushars (not shown in the drawing) of strips 742 and 74, In some embodiments, strips 742 and 744 can be placed in such a way that dit ‘overlapping edges (he erosthatehed region shown ia FIG. 7C) ae positioned above the gap between the two adjacent strip cariers. In other words, the edges are not supported by the stip carriers directly. Compared with other arange- ‘ments, such as having the overlapping edges on top ofa strip ‘carter, this arrangement can be beneficial 10 the curing of the conductive paste. Both strips are pulled down against the strip carrier by means of vacuum. Inthe overlapped region, the edge that ison the hotiom will deflect slightly down. ‘wards, while the edge that s on the top sill delet slightly upwards, because they are ying to occupy the same space. “This allows both edges to be leally parallel to each other forming the best geometry for bonding. If the overlapped region were directly supported by the strip carter, the bottom edge would be ft, while only the top edge would doflect upwards. The two edges would no longer be parallel but form an angle, which is not the ideal bonding geomet. ‘The conductive paste typically can eure better when it is heated under pressure In addition tothe example shown in PIG. 7A, the wafer cartier can have other forms. FIG. BA shows the top view of fan exemplary wafer carrier, acconting to an embodiment of the present invention, Wafer carier 80 can include a base S02 and a number of strip caries, each of which can be designed 10 carry a single strip. Unlike the strip caries shou in FIG. 7A, in FIG. 8A, each strip carr ean include multiple separate plastic pieces. For example, strip carrier ‘810 can include plastic pieces 812, 814, and 816. Using smaller picees of plastic to construct the strip cartier can Fedluce material cost. More specifically, this can allow dif- ferent plastic materials to he used to form strip carrier. Ia the example shown in FIG. BA, the center piece ofa strip ‘carrier can be made of PBI plastic, whereas the two side pieces can be made of a different plastic material, which cua have less deal thermal properties but ean cost less than the PBI, Similar to what's shown in FIG. 7A, the rectangles ia ‘each plastic piece indicate indentations, and the circles, indicate vacuum-holding holes. To match the conductivity of the sie pieces to that ofthe centerpiece, one ean pattern the side pieces in such a way that a smaller portion of a side piece isin direct contact with the back surface ofthe strip. TIG. 8B shows the top view of an exemplary water cartier, according to an embodiment of the present inven- tion, Wafer career 860 can he simile to wale carrce 80, and ean include thre strip carers, with each strip carrier including three separate plastic pieces. For example, strip ‘carrier 860 can include side pieces 862 and 866 and center PBI pieee 864. Center piece 864 can include the vacuu hhokling holes for holding down the strip. Inthe example shown in FIG. 8B, each plastic piece ofa step cartier ean be round six inches long and about 0.5 inch wide. The gap berwoen the plastic pieces within the same strip carier can be about 0.1 inch ‘Returning to FIG. , inthis example, the thermal curing system inclodes one heater and one wafer camer, both of which can remain stationary during the curing process. The 0 o 12 distance between the radiation surface ofthe heater and the Strips on the waler carrier canbe kept between 2 and 20 rn. Bringing. the radiation surface closer to the strips can ‘increase the heating efficiency and shorten curing time. Howover, if the radiation suraee is too elose to the stip surface, the high temperatare may damage the photovoltaic Structure. In addition, a very short heating time may cause the conductive paste to be heated unevenly. In some embodi- ‘ments, the temperature of the heater ean be maintained at around 300° C., the distance between the radiation surface and the stip surface can be about 5 mm, and the wafer carrier can be mide of PBI plastic. In such scenarios, the conductive paste can be cured in about 60 seconds In other word, the oveclapping strips can be bonded alter being placod under the heater for about 60 seconds. Ifthe strips are removed before the required ime for curing the paste may ‘ot be sufliciently cured, which can resulting in poor bond- ing quality: On the other band, keeping the strips under the heater longer ean reduce the overall system throuahpat and ‘an potentially damage te strips. In some embodiments, the tedge-overlapped strips ean be heated fora duration between 10 and 100 seconds, depending on the temperature and thermal design ofthe heater, as well as the thermal design of the wafer earrer. A well-designed system that can efficiently heat the strips without damaging the photovotsie junetions can rece the Time needed for curing the conducive paste 10 2 period between 25 and 60 secon FFor ange seale manufocturing 1o increase drought, a inne thermal curing system ean be used. In an inne curing system, the wafer carrer along with the strips ean be placed ‘ma conveyor system and move wader maltiplehesters. FIG. 9A shows an exemplary inline thermal curing. system, according to an embodiment of the presen invention. Ili thermal curing system 900 can include conveyor syste 902, which earsies waler carrier 904, and a number of haters, such as heaters 912, 914, 916, and 918, A number ‘of photovoltaic strips ean be held on the surface of wafer carrer 904 by a vactum-hokding mechanism, The surface of ‘wafer carrier 904 can be made of PEI plastic, which is 2 ood heat insulator. The strips have been aligned to each other sich that their comesponding edge husbars overlap. Sandwiched between the overlapping busbars is the to-be- ced conductive paste During operation, conveyor system 902 can fist move wales carer 914 under later 912 and then remain stlion- ary 0 allow wafer carer 904 to stay under heatee 912 for 1 predetemnined time. For example, wafer carier 904 ean say under heater 912 for about 15 seconds. Subsequently, conveyor system 902 can move in diretion indicated by anrow 910 and mave wafer eater a positon unde heater 914. Once wafer carrier 914 isin position, conveyor system 902 can stop again for a predetermined time. The same process ca repeat unl conveyor system 902 moves wafer Carrer 904 to & position under last heater 918 and remains there for a predetermined time period. Subsequently, the bonded strips ean be removed from wafer earier 904 and carried by conveyor system 902 toa next processing tation. ‘Wafer carer 904 can be brought back to starting point of inline thermal curing system 900 to carry a new set of strips. In some embodiments, conveyor system 902 can be conlig- ‘ured in such away that wafer eater 994 can stay under eae hater for an equal amount of ime. The total heating time of the strips, forthe example showen in FIG. 9A, can then be four times the time the strips spent under each individual ‘eater By carefully programming conveyor sysiem 902, one ‘an ensure thatthe otal eating time of the strips can be sulicent to cure the conductive paste. For example iftheUS 9,748,434 BI 13 strips spend about 15 seconds under each heater, the total heating time can be roughly 60 seconds, which can be sulicent to cure dhe conductive paste, given that each heater js kept at about 300° C In some embodiments, the heaters (e., heaters 912-918) ‘can he configured ta have different temperatures. More Specifically, the temperature of the front (left side in FIG. 9A) heater (eg. heater 912) cam be lower than that of the ‘ones atthe back (eg, heaters 916 and 918). The temperature ‘ean rise sequentially from the front heaters to the back heaters, For example, heater 914 can have a higher tem- perature than heater 912, healer 916 can have a higher temperature than heater 914, and heater 918 can have higher temperature than heater 916, This Way, when strips om ‘waler carrier 904 are moving along with conveyor system ‘902, they ean pass through heating zones with increasing temperatures, thus preventing the strips fom suffering thet= sal shock, ‘The implementation of conveyor system 902 ean make it possible for parallel curing of mulliple groups of strips More specifically, when wafer carrier 904 is moved. from heater 912 to heater 914, a dlfeent wafer career carrying @ different group of strips can be positioned under heater 912, ‘and both groups of strips ean be then heated simultaneously. This process ean repeat with conveyor system 992 simulta neously moving multiple groups of strips under the multiple heaters, increasing the system throughput fourfold FIG. 9B shows an exemplary inline thermal curing sys- tem, according to an embodiment ofthe present invention. In FIG, 9B, inline thermal curing system 920 can include ‘conveyor system 922, which carries wafer carrier 924, and extended heater 926, Extended heater 926 can he much larger in size than individual heaters 912-918 shown in FIG. ‘94, thus allowing many more strips to be heated simulta neously. The bottom surlace of heater 926, which can be the radiation surface of Beater 926, can include a number of divided sections (eg, section 928). Altomatively, extended heater 926 can include multiple sections (e.g, radiation blocks) placed inside a same physical enclosure. These inutile sections can also be configured to have diferent temperatures 10 allow photovoltaic strips to go through heating zones with increasing temperature when moving slong conveyor system 922 inthe direction shown by arow 930, During fabrication, wafer carier 924 can start from & location ontside ofthe area below extended heater 926, Ia the example shown in FIG. 9B, wafer carrier 924 ean start from a location to the left of extended heater 926. robotic ‘arm (not shown in FIG, 9B) ean pick up a set of photovoltaic strips and place the strips on wafer cartier 924. The strips ‘can be arranged in such a way that adjacent strips overlap at the edge. In some embodiments, the abotie arm ean pick up ‘and arrange three strips cach time, Once a set of stipe is placed on walercariet 924, conveyor system 922 can move Wafer carer 924 to place the front portion of wafer carrier ‘24 under extended heater 926, as shown in FIG. 9B. In some embodiments, conveyor system 922 can continue 10 ‘ave until the last overlapping edge of the set of strips is under extended heater 926, indicated by dashed line 932. ‘Conveyor system 922 ean then pause for a predetermined time (e2, between 10 and 15 seconds) to allow the set of strips and, thus, conductive paste sandwiched between the ‘overlapping edges 10 be heated by’ extended heater 926. ‘While conveyor system 922. remains stationary, the robotic arm can lay another set of strips (eg. strip set 934) ‘onto wafer carrie 924, The new set of strips can he aranged to be ede-overlapped with the set of strips that was already 0 o 14 ‘on wafer carrier 924 to form a longer string. After conveyor system 922 has remained stationary forthe predetermined ‘ime, conveyor system 922 can move forward again to place the newly laid set of strips under extended heater 926 for hating. This proces ean repeat itself until a desired number ‘of strips has Boon Ini onto water carrier 924 and has mowed ‘through extended heater 926. The total amount of time that ‘set of strips remains under extended heater 926 (ie, the ‘otal amount of heating time) canbe determined based on the temperature setting of extended heater 926. Por example, if the temperature of extended heater 926 is set fo be a around 300° C., the total amount of time used 10 move a setofseips jrom one end of extended hester 926 to the other end of extended heater 926 can be roughly 60 seconds. Considering that conveyor system 922 may pause multiple times the duration within which a particular set oF strips re ‘under extended hester 926, the time duration foreach pause fan be determined based on the total hetting time aad the ‘numberof pauses. For example, iit takes conveyor system 922 Tour pauses in onder to mave a particular st of scips from one end of extendod heater 926 to the other end, cach pause may last for about 1S seconds. FIG. 9C shows the end ff a waler cartier moving ot of the heated region below the heater, according to an embodiment of the present inveation. ‘Once all strips fora sting have been moved out of the heated region Under the extended heater, meaning. that the conductive paste has been cured to mechanically bond the strips together, the entire string can be removed from the ‘wafer carrier In some embodiments robotic arm ean pick ‘up the string and tnsfer it to the next processing, station (ea, the panel assembly station). Morcover, the extended heater can move up to be further away from the conveyor system in order to reduce the amount of heat radited onto the conveyor system. This is because the conveyor system is currently not covered by the waler carrier having s hea insulating surface, Moving the extended heater funher away from the conveyor system ean also make it easier fr loading ‘and unloading of a wafer carrer. In some emboxtimens, faftr the removal of the string, the conveyor system can reverse its dioetion to move the empty wafer carice hack to the other end of the extended heater to allow new strips to be loaded onto the wafer carrer and moved into the heated zones. In alterative embodiments, the conveyor system can fontinue to move in the same direction with another wafer carrer being placed onto the begianing end ofthe extended heater FIG. 9D shows the movement ofthe empiy wafer carries, according to an embodiment ofthe present invention. Aer the phorovoliac sting has heen removed from wafer carrer 924, conveyor system 922 reverse its moving ditection (indicated by arow 936) to move empty wafer carrier 924 back to the left side of extended heater 926. In addition, extended heater 926 can move up to a predetermined loca tion, In some embodiments the distance between the radia- tion surface of extended heater 926 and the top surface of ‘conveyor system 922 can be between 10 and 20mm. On the return ip, Wafer carrer 924 does not need fo pause ‘Wafer carer 924 can he much lager than wafer cartier 904 and can camry a relatively lange numberof photovoltaic strips. In some embodiments, wafer carrer 924 can be configured to cary an entire string of photovoltaic structures for a solar pane. For example, wafer carier 924 can hold between 15:and 40 strips. The surface of wafer carrie 924 can be covered by multiple segments of PBI (which ean be similar fo PBI segments 814 and 864, shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, respectively) to ensure thatthe carted strips are ‘thermally isolated from the base of wafer carrer 924, IG.US 9,748,434 BI 15, ‘9E shows a top view of the wafer carrer, accord ‘embodiment of the present invention. The surlace of wafer ‘cartier 940 can be covered with a number of PBI segments, such as PRI segments 942 and 946, An air gap ean exist between adjacent PBI segments to allow individual PBT segments to expand when heated, thus preventing. wafer carrier 940 from surface warping. Tn the examples shown in FIGS. 9A.9D, the conveyor system operates in a stop-and-go fashion, which can be less ‘deal because a slop-atd-go conveyor may be prone ‘mechanical failure, To overcome this problem, in some ‘embodiments, the conveyor system can be configured 10 ‘move continuously. FIG, 9F shows an exemplary inline thermal curing system, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Inline thermal curing system 950 can Include conveyor system 982, which carries wafer carrier ‘954, and single continuous heater 956. Heater 956 can ‘extend aloag the length of conveyor system 952, Wafer ‘cartier 984 can include an insulation surface that can be mace of PBI plastic segments, similar o waler carrier 940 shown in FIG. 9E, The insulation surface ean be in direct ‘contact with photovoltaic strips caried by wafer carrer 984, ‘During operation, a number of strips that make an entire string can be laid onto water carier 984 before wafer carrier ‘954 is sent fo the heated region under heater 956, For ‘example, ia string includes 21 sts, all 21 sips will be Jaidin an edge-overiapping lashion onto te surface of water ‘cartier 954, Heater 956 can be mainigined at an initial position tht is relatively far away (eg., between 10 and 20 ‘em) from the surface of conveyor system 982, Subsequent 10 all the strips having been loaded onlo wafer camer 954 heater 986 can move down to be close to the strice of ‘conveyor system 982, and conveyor system 982 can start to move wafer carrier 984 1 the right t be below heater 986. In some embodiments, when waler cartier 934 is at last parially below heater 956, the distance between the radia- tion surface of eater 956 and the photovoltaic strips carrer ‘on wafer carrier 954 ean be between 2 and 10 mm, prefer ably between 2 and 5 mm. The relatively small distance ‘ensures good heating efieieney. Beeause heater 956 extends long the direction in which conveyor system 952 moves, photovoltaic strips carried by wafer cartier 924 can be heated by heater 986 while moving along with conveyor system 952, The length of heater 96 aad the moving speed ‘of conveyor system 952 can determine the total amount of time a stip spends undemeath heater 956, As discussed previously, the amount of ime a stip spends underneath heater 956 should be suficiently Tong to ensure that con- ‘ductive paste applied on the strip can be cured. In some ‘embodiments, it may take a strip about 60 seconds to travel tom one end of heater 956 to the other ead. In the example shown in FIG. 9A, the size of each heater ‘can be comparable to the size of the waler carrie. Hence, ia FIG. 9A, the thermal curing system may be used to bond, ‘each time, a group of strips ited onto a single wafer carrier to fom shoner strings. For example, each shor string may have three strips. The shorter strings ean later he bonded to ‘each other to form a longer string. On the other hand, in the ‘examples shown in FIGS, 9B.9F, the hester and the wafer ‘eater can be much longer. More specifically the wafer ‘carrier can be Tong enough to carry a larger number of steps, ‘whic ean be bonded simultaneously to forma longer string. For example, the longer string ean have between 15 and 40 strips. Being. able to form longer strings directly from individual strips can inerease the systems throughput TIG. 10 shows an exemplary process for euring conduc- tive piste applied onto photovoltaic structures, ia accor 0 o 16 dance with an embodiment ofthe present invention. During ‘operation, photovoltaic stuetuees applied with conductive paste can be loaded onto a wafer earie (operation 1002). The wafer carrie can inchide a surface that is in direct, cconiaet with the photovoliaie strictures, and such a surface fan be made with thermally insulating and heat-resistant materials. In some embodiments, the surface of the wafer carrer can be made of PBI plastic Subsequently, the wafer cartier along with the photovol- taie structures can be brought to the vicinity of a heater (operation 1004), The heater can include 2 radiation surface that can efficiently radiate heat in a particular droction. la some embodiments, the radiation surface can be configured to ridiate heat ina dowawanl direction, andthe wafer carrer can be brought to a location undemeath the radiation su face. In further embodiments, the distance between the radiation surface and the wafer carrier can be between 2 and 10 mm to allow efiient heating, The water carer andthe shotovoliie structures ean remain inthe heated zone under the radiation surface for a predetermined time period to ensure proper curing of the conductive paste (operation 1006). The photovoliaic structure can remain stationary or move along a conveyor system while being heated. After the condoetive paste is cured, the photovoltaic structures ean be removed from the wafer earier (operation 1008). FIG. 11 shows an exemplary process for forming a solar panel, according (o an embodiment. During fabrication, Semicondictor multilayer structure ean be prepared (oper- ‘ion 1102). The semiconductor molilayer struetuze can include the base the emitter, the surface field layer, and one ‘or more transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layers. The ‘semicondictor multilayer can also optionally ince quan- ‘um tunneling barrier (QTB) layers on one or both sides of the base layer. The semiconductor multilayer structure can thea go through a metallization process, whieh ean form 3 ‘metalic grid on both surfaces ofthe semiconductor mi layer structure (operation 1104). Different: metallization techniques can he used to form the metallic grids. Por ‘example, an electroplating process that uses a warcbased plating mask ean be sed to form the metallic grids ‘Subsequently, the photovoltaic structure ean optionally be Aivided into smaller strips (operation 1106), and conductive paste can be applied on an edge busbar of each strip or photovoliic sircture (operation 1108). A number of sitips an be placed onto a specially designed wafer carrier having ‘heat insulation surface, with adjacent strips overlapping at the edges (operation 1110), As a result, the edge busbars of the adjacent strips overlap and the conductive paste is sandwiched between the overlapping busbar. The specially designed wafer carier can then be placed ‘under a heater that radiates heat foe predetermine time to cere the conductive paste operation 1112), Note that the ‘wafer earier may remain stationary or may move along @ conveyor system during the conductive-pastecuring pro- ‘cess. In some embodiments the hester ean include a raia- tion block having a temperature of about 300° C., and the wafer canter can be placed under the radiation block for at least 60 seconds. The curing of the condvetive paste ean result inthe formation of strings. Finally, the strings ean be interconnected to form a panel (operation 1114). In goneral, embodiments of the present invention ean provide a novel conduetive-paste-curing system. The novel system relies on radiation for feat transfer, which can provide better heating uniformity. The efficiency of the System can be improved by the novel design af the radiation block and a water carier with an insulation surface, TheUS 9,748,434 BI 17 throughput ofthe system can be improved by imple a conveyor system lor inline operation. “The foregoing descriptions of various embodiments have ben presented only for purposes of illustration and deserip- tion, They are not intended to be exhaustive or to Timit the present invention tothe forms disclosed. Accordingly, many ‘modifications and variations will be apparent o procttioners stilled in the art, Additionally, the above disclosure is aot Jnended to limit the present invention. ‘What is claimed is: 1. A method for curing conductive paste applied 1 two ‘adjacent photovollac structures, the mithod comprising placing the ‘wo adjacent photovoltaic structs. on ‘wafer carier, wherein the tWo photovoltaic structures are coupled in a cascaded manner by a condu paste, where two adjacent edges ofthe two photovol- {aie structures overlap, wherein the wafer carrier inclades a surface element thats in direct contact with the photovoltaic stractures and is substantially ther- mally insulating, and wherein the wafer carier is placed on a conveyer, and conioling movement of the conveyor to position the ‘wafer carer to a vicinity of a heating block sch that 4 heated radiation surface of the heating block radiates heat to the photovoltaic structures fora predetermined duration to eure the conductive paste ning 18 2. The method of cian 1, wherein the surfiee element of the water carrier is made of polybenvimidzole (PBI) plas tie, 3. The method of claim 1, whersin the surface element includes a number of components separated by ai gaps 10 allow an individl component ta expand when heated. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the heated radiation surface is. maintained at predetermined temperstore between 200 and 600° C., and wherein the predetermined duration is botwoen 25 and 60 seconds 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the heated radiation surface of the heating block is coated with a substantially ark colored coating 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the substantially dark colored coating includes an anodizing coating or a h emissivity coating, and wherein a thickness of the dark colored coating is between 1 anid 100 microns 7. The method of claim 8, wherein other surfaces ofthe ating lock are polished or covered witha layer of therm insulation material. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the heating block is ‘made of a material having a themnal conduetvity of atleast 50 Wark).