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EEE 118: Energy Conversion

Dr. Mongkol Konghirun

Department of Electrical Engineering

King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi

Chapter 2

Transformers

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2.1 Why Transformers Are

Important to Modern Life

Why Transformers Are

Important to Modern Life
1. A transformer ideally changes one ac voltage level to another
voltage level without affecting the actual power supplied.

2. Therefore, ac electric power can be generated at one central

location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long
distances at very low losses, and its voltage stepped down again
for final use.

3. In modern power system, electric power is generated at voltages

of 12 to 25 kV. Transformers step up the voltage between 110 kV
and nearly 1000 kV.

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2.2 Types and Construction of

Transformers

Types and Construction of

Transformers
Power transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores.

1. Core form
2. Shell form

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Types and Construction of

Transformers
In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations electrically
isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy currents.

The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are

wrapped one on top of the other with the low-voltage winding
innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:

1. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding

from the core.
2. It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the
two windings were separated by a distance on the core.

Types and Construction of

Transformers
Power transformers are given a variety of different names, depending
on their use in power systems.

1. Unit transformer stepped-up transformer connected to the

output of a generator into the transmission levels (110+ kV).

2. Substation transformer stepped-down transformer at the other

end of transmission line from the transmission levels into the
distribution levels (2.3-34.5 kV)

3. Distribution transformer stepped-down transformer at the end

user from the distribution levels into the final voltage at which the
power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc).

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Types and Construction of

Transformers
In addition, two special-purpose transformers are used with electric
machinery and power systems.

1. Potential transformer stepped-down transformer designed to

sample a high voltage to low secondary voltage directly
proportional to it with handling only a very small current.

2. Current transformer transformer designed to provide a

secondary current much smaller than but directly proportional to
its primary current.

2.3 The Ideal Transformer

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Sketch of an Ideal
Transformer
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and
an output winding.

Schematic Symbols and Key

Equations

a is defined as turn ratio of transformer.

In term of phasor quantities,

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Dot Convention

1. If the primary voltage is positive at

the dotted end of the winding with
respect to the undotted end, then the
secondary voltage will be positive at
the dotted end also.

2. If the primary current of the

transformer flows into the dotted end
of the primary winding, the secondary
current will flow out of the dotted end
of the secondary winding.

Power in an Ideal Transformer

Power supplied to the primary winding of transformer.

where P is the angle between the primary voltage and the primary
current.

Power supplied by the secondary winding of transformer to its load.

where S is the angle between the secondary voltage and the

secondary current.

Since voltage and current angles are unaffected by an ideal

transformer, P = S = . Both windings have the same power factor.

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Power in an Ideal Transformer

How does the power going to the ideal transformer compare to the
power coming out of the other side ?

Impedance Transformation
through a Transformer
The impedance of a device is defined as

As for transformer, the impedance of

load is given by

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Impedance Transformation
through a Transformer
The apparent impedance of the primary winding of transformer

Analysis of Circuits Containing

Ideal Transformers
The easiest way to analyze the ideal transformer for its voltages and
currents is to replace the portion of the circuit on one side of the
transformer by an equivalent circuit with the same terminal
characteristics.

This process of replacing one side of a transformer by its equivalent at

the other sides voltage is known as referring the first side of the
transformer to the second side.

How is the equivalent circuit formed ? See next example for the
solution for circuit containing ideal transformers.

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Example Problem

Example 2-1 on page 73

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2.4 Theory of Operation of Real

Single-Phase Transformers

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The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
The total flux linkage through a coil is not just N, where N is the
number of turns in the coil, because the flux passing through each
turn of a coil is slightly different, depending on the position of the
turn within the coil. However, it is possible to define an average
flux per turn in a coil as

The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
Then, Faradays law can be written as

Applying the voltage source vP(t), equation (2-17) is solved for the
average flux present in the primary winding as

This average flux is present in the primary winding of the

transformer.

What effect does it have on the secondary winding of the

transformer ?

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The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer

The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
Considering the primary winding of the transformer

Considering the secondary winding of the transformer

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The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
Referring to Faradays law, considering the primary winding of the
transformer

Considering the secondary winding of the transformer

The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
The relationship of the primary and second voltages due to the
mutual flux.

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The Voltage Ratio across a

Transformer
In a well-designed transformer, M >> LP and M >> LS , the ratio
of the total primary voltage the total secondary voltage is
approximately

The smaller the leakage fluxes of the transformer are, the closer the
total transformer ratio approximates that of the ideal transformer.

The Magnetization Current in

a Real Transformer
When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current
flows in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is
open-circuited.

This current consists of two components:

1. The magnetization current iM, which is the current required to

produce the flux in the transformer core.

2. The core-loss current ih+e, which is the current required to

make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses.

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The Magnetization Current in

a Real Transformer
Ignoring for the moment the effects of leakage flux, the average flux
in the winding is given by

For a given magnetization curve of transformer core, the

magnetization current in the primary winding can be constructed in
Figure 2-11(b).

The Magnetization Current in

a Real Transformer

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The Magnetization Current in

a Real Transformer
Notice the following points about the magnetization current:

The Hysteresis and Eddy Current

(Core-loss Current)in a Real
Transformer
Assume that the flux in the core is sinusoidal. Since the eddy
currents are proportional to d/dt, the eddy current is largest when
the flux is passing zero. The total core-loss current is typically
shown.
Comments:

1. The core-loss current is nonlinear

because of the nonlinear effects
of hysteresis.

2. The fundamental component of

the core-loss current is in phase
with the voltage applied to the
core. This implies the
resistive characteristics.

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The Hysteresis and Eddy Current

(Core-loss Current)in a Real
Transformer
The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation
current of the transformer.

The Current Ratio on a Transformer

and the Dot Convention
Now suppose that a load is connected to the secondary winding of
the transformer.

A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a

positive magnetomotive force , while a current flowing out dotted
end produces a negative magnetomotive force.

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The Current Ratio on a Transformer

and the Dot Convention
Thus, the net magnetomotive force producing the net flux in the
core is finally as

In the well-designed transformer core, the reluctance is very small

(nearly zero) until the core is saturated.

Assumptions for Converting a Real

Transformer into the Ideal
Transformer

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2.5 The Equivalent Circuit of a

Transformer

Major Items to be Considered.

The major items to be considered in the construction of accurate
model of transformer.

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of

a Real Transformer
Copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer core. They are modeled by placing a
resistance on both windings, RP and RS.

Leakage fluxes: much of leakage flux path is through air. The

primary and secondary leakage fluxes are expressed as

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of

a Real Transformer
These leakage fluxes produce the voltages as

As a result, the leakage flux will be modeled by primary and

secondary leakage inductors.

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of

a Real Transformer
Core excitation effects :

- The magnetization current im is a current proportional to the

applied voltage and lagging by 90o. So, it is modeled by a
reactance XM connected across the primary voltage source.

- The core-loss current ih+e is a current proportional to the applied

voltage and in phase. So, it is modeled by a resistance RC
connected across the primary voltage source.
The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2-16.

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of

a Real Transformer

To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is normally

necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single
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voltage level.

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of

a Real Transformer

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Approximate Equivalent
Circuits of a Real Transformer
Typically, the excitation current is small current compared to the load
current of transformer.

Thus, the excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the

transformer. As a result, the equivalent circuit can be approximated
as shown in Figure 2-18(a) and (b).

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Approximate Equivalent
Circuits of a Real Transformer
In some applications, the excitation branch may be neglected
entirely without causing serious error as shown in Figure 2-18(c) and
(d).

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model
The component values in the transformer model can be extracted by
open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

In the open-circuit test, the primary winding is connected to a full-

rated voltage.

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model
To calculate the RC and XM, firstly, the conductance of core-loss
resistor and susceptance of the magnetizing inductor are given by

Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and
the total excitation admittance is

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model
In the short-circuit test, the secondary terminals of the transformer
are shorted circuit, and the primary terminals are connected to a
fairly low-voltage source.

The input voltage is adjusted until the current in short-circuited

winding is equal to its rated value.

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model
Since the input voltage is so low during the short-circuit test,
negligible current flows through the excitation branch.

Then, the voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the

series elements both primary and primary-referred secondary sides
in the circuit.

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Determining the Values of

Components in the Transformer
Model

There is no easy way to split the series impedance into primary

and secondary components. Fortunately, such separation is not
necessary to solve normal problems.

These same tests may also be performed on the secondary side of

the transformer if it is more convenient to do so because of voltage
levels or other reasons.
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Example Problem

Example 2-2 on page 92

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2.6 The Per-Unit System of

Measurements

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Motivations
Calculating or solving circuits containing transformers can be quite
tedious operation because of the need to refer all the different
voltage levels on different sides of transformer in the system to a
common level.

Thus, there is another approach to solving circuits containing

transformers which eliminates the need for explicit voltage-level
conversions. This method is known as the per-unit (pu) system
of measurements.

In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedance,

and other electrical quantities are measured as a decimal fraction
of some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit
basis by

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Per-Unit System
In a single-phase system, a base apparent power and voltage are
initially selected at a specific point in the system. Then, other base
quantities can be computed.

The base value of voltage changes at every transformer according

to its turn ratio.

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Example Problem

Example 2-3 on page 95

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2.7 Transformer Voltage

Regulation and Efficiency

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Voltage Regulation
The full-load voltage regulation (VR) is a quantity that compares
the output voltage of the transformer at no load with the output
voltage at full load.

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The Transformer Phasor

Diagram
To determine VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the
voltage drops within it.

The phasor diagram is used to determine the effect of the

impedances and the current phase angles on the transformer
voltage regulation.

By applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the equivalent circuit in

Figure 2-18(b), the primary voltage can be found as

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The Transformer Phasor

Diagram

Vs < Vp/a

VR > 0

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The Transformer Phasor

Diagram

Vs < Vp/a

VR > 0

Vs > Vp/a

VR < 0

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The Transformer Phasor

Diagram

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Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a device is defined by

There are three types of losses in a transformer:

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Transformer Efficiency
To calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just
add the losses from each resistor and apply equation (2-67). Since
the is given by

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Example Problem

Example 2-5 on page 103

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2.8 Transformer Taps and

Voltage Regulation

Transformer Taps
Distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to
permit changes in the turn ratio of the transformer after it has left
the factory.

Such an arrangement provides for adjustments up to 5% above or

below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer.

The taps on a transformer permit the transformer to be adjusted in

the field to accommodate variations in the local voltages.

A tap changing under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage

regulator is used to automatically keep the system voltage
constant through the high-impedance lines to loads.

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2.9 The Autotransformer

The Autotransformer
The less expensive autotransformer compared with two full-
winding transformer is used to change voltage level by only a small
amount.

Common Series
winding winding Step-up
autotransformer

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The Autotransformer
Step-down autotransformer

The Autotransformer
From Figure 2-32(b), the voltages and currents in the coils are related by

Voltages in the coils are related by

Currents in the coils are related by

Step-up autotransformer

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Voltage and Current Relationships in

an Autotransformer
Voltage on the high side of the autotransformer is given by

Voltage and Current Relationships in

an Autotransformer
Current relationship between two sides of autotransformer is found by

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The Apparent Power Rating

Advantage of Autotransformers
Not all power travelling from the primary to the secondary in the
autotransformer goes through the windings. Considering the step-up
autotransformer in Figure 2-32(b).

Input apparent power to the autotransformer is given by

Step-up autotransformer

The Apparent Power Rating

Advantage of Autotransformers

The ratio of the apparent input and output power to the

apparent power actually travelling through its windings
is

Step-up autotransformer

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Variable-Voltage Autotransformer

The Internal Impedance of an

Autotransformer
In addition to the disadvantage of electrical isolation loss, there is another
disadvantage compared to conventional transformer.

The effective per-unit impedance of an autotransformer is smaller by a

factor equal to the reciprocal of the power advantage of the
autotransformer connection.

The reduced internal impedance of an autotransformer can be a serious

problem in some applications where the series impedance is needed to
limit current flows during power system faults (short circuits).

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EEE 118: Energy Conversion

Dr. Mongkol Konghirun

Department of Electrical Engineering

King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi

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