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Chap 5

Probability: the relative likelihood of occurrence of any given outcome of event

Rules:

a. Converse Rule determines the probability that something will not occur.
b. Addition Rule determine cumulative probability by adding probabilities
c. Multiplication rule probability of successive outcomes

Probability distribution has a mean known as an expected value

Normal curve perfectly symmetrical, sometimes referred as a bell-shaped curve, unimodal, 100% of
the cases in a normal distribution falls under a normal curve.

Z score indicates direction and degree that any raw score deviates from the mean in sigma units

Chap 6

Sampling allows researchers to generalize to overcome the condition of being unable to measure an
entire population

Two types of sampling methods:

a. Non-random samples
b. Random samples every member of the population has the same chance of being included

Variations of Simple Random Sampling

a. Systematic every nth member, no table of random numbers needed


b. Stratified divide the population into homogenous subgroups; similar to non-
random quota, Distinct stratified samples are random
c. Cluster or Multistage samples drawn in clusters

Three main types of non-random sampling:

a. Accidental or convenience
b. Quota sample drawn in proportion to the population
c. Purposive logic, common sense, or judgement used to choose representative sample

Sampling error difference of the mean/SD of a sample and a population

Sampling distribution of means approximates a normal curve

Mean of sampling distribution of means equals the true population mean

Standard deviation of a sampling distribution of means is smaller than the SD of the population
Sample mean is more stable than the scores that compromise it.

Chap 7

Null Hypothesis there is no statistically significant difference between sample means of two groups

Research Hypothesis a true population does exist

Sampling distribution provides basis for testing hypothesis between sample means

Alpha value level of probability where decisions can be made with confidence

Chap 8

ANOVA test for more than two groups, yields an F ratio

Mean Square - value of sums of square grows as variation increases, value also increases with sample
size

The larger the F ratio, the more likely it is to be statistically significant

Tukeys HSD (Honesty Significant Difference) with three or more samples, we need to determine
where the difference lies. Only makes sense after a significant F ratio has been identified

Two-way analysis of variance occurs when two factors or independent variables evaluated together in
the same experiment.

Requirements for using the F ratio:

a. A comparison between three or more independent means


b. Data at the interval level of measurement
c. Random sampling techniques
d. A normal distribution
e. Equal variances assumed

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