MUSIC

in ~he

BAROQUE ERA
 MUSIC in the
BAROQUE ERA
FROM Monteverdi TO Bach

By
MANFRED F. BUKOFZER
PllOPESSOll OP MUSIC, THE UNIVERSITY OP CALIFOllNIA

New York.

w . W . NOR TON f5 COMPANY INC-

 COPYRIGHT, I947, BY
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY:p INC.
NEW YORX.:p N. Y.

PlUNTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMElUCA

POR THE PUBLISHERS BY THE VAIL-BALLOU PRESS
 IN ::M:El!v.lORY OF
ANDRE PIRRO
(z869- z943)
A Pioneer of Baroque Music
 CONTENTS

PREFACE Dll
Chapt~ On~ RENAISSANCE tI~SUS BAROQUE :MUSIC I

Disintegration of Stylistic Unity I

Stylistic Comparison between Renaissance and Baroque Music 9
The Phases of Baroque Music 16
Chap~ Two EARLY BAROQUE IN ITALY 20
The Beginnings of the Conc~ato Style: Gabrieli 20
The Monody: Peri and Caccini 25
Transformation of the Madrigal: Monteverdi 33
The Influence of the Dance on Vocal Music 38
Emancipation of Instrumental Music: Frescobaldi 43
The Rise of the Opera: Monteverdi 55
Tradition and Progress in Sacred Music 64

Chap~ Three EARLY AND MIDDLE BAROQUE IN

THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES 71
The Netherlands School and Its English Background 71
English Antecedents: the Abstract Instrumental Style 72
The Netherlands: Sweelinck 74
Germany and Austria in the 17th Century 78
Chorale and Devotional Song 79
Chorale Motet and Chorale Concertato: Schein 83
The Dramatic Conc~ato: Schutz 88
Continuo Lied, Opera, and Oratorio 97
Instrumental Music: Scheidt, Froberger. and Biber 104

Chapt~ Four ITALIAN MUSIC OF THE MIDDLE

BAROQUE lIS
The Bd-Canto Style lIS
The Chamber Cantata: Luigi Rossi and Carissimi 120
vii
Vlll Contents
The Oratorio: Carissimi and Stradella 123
The Venetian Opera School 128
Instrumental Music: the Bologna School 136

Chapter Five FRENCH MUSIC UNDER THE

ABSOLUTISM I41
The Ballet de Caur 141
French Reactions to Italian Opera 147
ComMie-Ballet and TragMie Lyrique: Lully 151
Cantata, Oratorio, and Church Music 161
Lute Miniatures and Keyboard Music: Gaultier and Chambon-
nieres 164
Music in the Iberian Peninsula, New Spain, and Colonial
America 174

Chapter Six ENGLISH MUSIC DURING THE COM-

MONWEALTH AND RESTORATION 180
The Masque and the English Opera: Lawes and Blow 180
Consort Music: Jenkins and Simpson 190
Anglican Church Music: Porter, Humfrey, and Blow 198
Henry Purcel~ the Restoration Genius 203

Chapter Seven LATE BAROQUE: LUXURIANT COUN-

TERPOINT AND CONCERTO STYLE 219
The Culmination of Late Baroque Music in Italy 219
The Rise of Tonality 219
Concerto Grosso and Solo Concerto 222
Ensemble Sonata and Solo Sonata 2,32
Opera Sma and Opera BuDa-Cantata and Sacred Music 239
Late Baroque and Rococo Style in France 247
Ensemble and Clavecin Music 247
Opera and Cantata in France 253

Chapter Eight FUSION OF NATIONAL STYLES: BACH 260

The State of Instrumental Music in Germany before Bach 260
The State of Protestant Church Music before Bach 268
Bach: The Early Period 270
Bach the Organist: Weimar 27S
Bach the Mentor: COthen 282
 Contents
Contents
.
]X
ix

Bach the
Bach the Cantor:
Cantor: Leipzig
Leipzig :191
291
Bach, the
Bach, the Past
Past Master
Master 3
00
300

Chapter Nine
Chapter Nine COORDINATION OF
COORDINATION OF NATIONAL
NATIONAL
STYLES: HANDEL
STYLES: HANDEL 306
The State
The State of
of Secular
Secular Vocal
Vocal Music
Music in
in Germany before
Germany before Handel
Handel 306
306
Handel: German
Handel: German Apprentice
Apprentice Period
Period 314
314
Italian Journeyman
Italian Journeyman Period
Period 318
318
English
English Master
Master Period:
Period: Operas-Oratorios-Instrumcntal
Operas Oratorios Instrumental

Music
Music 324
3 24

Bach and
Bach and Handel,
Handel, aa Comparison
Comparison 345
345

Chapter Ten
Chapter Ten IN BAROQUE
FORM IN BAROQUE MUSIC 35 0
35<>

Formal Principles
Formal Principles and
and Formal
Formal Schemes
Schemes 350
350
Style
Style
and
and Form
Form 36'1.
362
Audible Form
Audible Form and
and Inaudible
Inaudible Order
Order 365
365

Chapter Eleven MUSICAL THOUGHT OF THE

Chapter Eleven
BAROQUE
BAROQUE ERA 370
37<>

Code
Code of
of Performance:
Performance: Composer
Composer and
and Performer
Performer 371
371
Theory
Theory and
and Practice
Practice of
of Composition
Composition 382
382
Musical
Musical Speculation
Speculation 390
39

Chapter Twelve SOCIOLOGY OF BAROQUE

Chapter Twelve BAROQUE MUSIC 394
394
Courtly
Courtly Musical
Musical Institutions
Institutions of
of State
State and
and Church:
Church: Private
Private

Patronage
Patronage 394
394
Civic Musical Institutions:
Civic Musical Institutions: Collective
Collective Patronage
Patronage 401
401
Social
Social and
and Economic
Economic Aspects
Aspects of
of Music
Music and
and Musicians
Musicians 404
404

APPENDICES
APPENDICES
List
List of
of Abbreviations
Abbreviations 44*5
15
Checklist
Checklist of
of Baroque
Baroque Books
Books on
on Music
Music 41X77
4
Bibliography
Bibliography 433
433
List
List of
of Editions
Editions ~1
4^i
List of
List of Musical
Musical Examples
Examples 471
47 1

INDEX
INDEX 475
475
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Przein6 iJ4Il!
Facing page
PLATE
PLATE I.
i. Claudio
Claudio Monteverdi
Monteverdi 80
80

PLATE
PLATE 2.
2. Schutz among
Schiitz among his
his Choristers
Choristers 81

PLATE
PLATE 3
3. Carissimi's
Carissimi's "The Deluge"
Deluge'* II2
112

PLATE 4. The Palace

PLATE 4 Palace of
o Paris
Paris from
from len Pomo
"II Porno d'Oro"
d'Oro" II3
113

PLATE
PLATE 5
5. The Concert
Concert 208
208

PLATE 6.
PLATE 6. Entrance
Entrance of American Music
o American Music 209
209
Aeolian
Aeolian Mode

PLATE 7. The Division

PLATE 7 Division Violist
Violist 240
240
"Lucretia"
"Lucretia"

PLATE 8.
PLATE 8. Psalms in
The Psalms in an edition with
an edition with flower
flower pictures
pictures 24I
241

PLATE
PLATE 9
9. Henry
Henry Purcell
Purcell 304
304
Fran~is
Frangois Couperin
Couperin

PLAn
PLATE 10.
10. Johann
Johann Sebastian
Sebastian Bach
Bach 305
305
George
George Frederick
Frederick Handel
Handel

PLAn u. Majer's
PLATE II. Majer's "Atalanta
"Atalanta fugiens"
fugiens" 336
336

PLAn
PLATE 12.
12. Stage
Stage set by Galli
set by Galli Bibiena
Bibiena 337
337
 "PREFACE
PREFACE

T
Y I

JL
1HE E FIRST book
music
music does
music
music have
have
book in

been
been
in the

not need
does not
the English

written
written
English language
need either
language on
either apology
apology
usually
usually as
as
or
or
quick
on the
the history
history of
justification.
justification.
surveys
quick surveys of
of
of baroque
baroque
Histories
Histories
the
the entire
entire
of
of

field and if
field and if they
they specialize
specialize atat all
all they
they concentrate
concentrate as as a
a rule
rule on
on a a single
single com-
com-
poser.
poser. It
It is
is aa strange though
strange though incontestable
incontestable fact
fact that
that by
by far
far the
the great majority
great majority
of
of music
music books
books deal
deal with
with composers
composers rather rather than music. This
their music.
than their This attitude
attitude

is
is aa survival
survival of of the
the hero-worship
hero-worship that
that characterizes
characterizes the
the nineteenth-century
nineteenth-century
approach
approach to to music
music as as well
well asas the
the other
other arts.
arts. In
In a a history
history of of aa single musical
single musical
period the
period the shortcomings
shortcomings of of such
such an an approach
approach become
become particularly
particularly obvious.
obvious.
A musical
musical era era receives
receives itsits inner
inner unity
unity from
from the
the musical
musical style
style and
and can
can be be
historically
historically understood
understood only
only in
in terms
terms of
of stylistic development.
stylistic development. It
It is
is for
for this
this

reason
reason thatthat in in the present history
the present history of baroque music
of baroque music thethe stylistic
stylistic approach
approach
has
has consistently
consistently been
been adopted. Biographical information,
adopted. Biographical information, easily easily accessible
accessible

in
in musical dictionaries, has
musical dictionaries, has been
been reduced
reduced to to aa minimum in in order
order to to leave
leave

space
space for
for the
the discussion
discussion of
of stylistic
stylistic trends
trends and
and characteristics
characteristics of
of style, usually
style, usually

ignored in
ignored in the
the dictionaries.
dictionaries.

II have
have written
written this this book
book forfor the
the music
music student
student and and music
music lover with the
lover with the
aim
aim of of acquainting
acquainting him with
with a
a great period
great period of
of musical
musical history
history and
and helping
helping
him
him to to gain
gain a a historical understanding of
historical understanding music without
of music without which baroque
which baroque
music
music cannot
cannot fully be appreciated
fully be appreciated and enjoyed. If
and enjoyed. If the
the history
history of music is
of music is to
to
have
have moremore than than an an antiquarian
antiquarian interest
interest and
and significance,
significance, it
it must
must be
be seen
seen
as
as a a history
history of of musical
musical styles,
styles, and
and the the history
history of of styles
styles in
in turn
turn as as a a history
history
of
of ideas.
ideas. The ideas ideas that
that underlie
underlie musical
musical styles
styles cancan only
only bebe shown in in aa
factual
factual stylistic analysis
stylistic analysis that
that takes
takes music
music apart
apart as
as a
a mechanic
mechanic does
does a
a motor
motor
and
and that
that shows
shows how musicalmusical elements
elements are are combined,
combined, how they they achieve
achieve theirtheir

specific
specific
effect,
effect, and
and what
what constitutes
constitutes the
the difference
difference between
between externally
externally
similar
similar factors.
factors. ThisThis analysis
analysis is is at
at once
once historical
historical and "technological"
"technological" ana and
xiii
XlV
XIV Preface
Preface

takes
takes beauty
beauty for for granted.
granted. Those Those writers
writers to to whom the the description
description of of music
is
is no more than
no more than a a matter
matter of of elegant
elegant variation
variation in judiciously chosen
in judiciously chosen adjec-
adjec-
tives
tives may
may be
be shocked
shocked to
to learn
learn that
that the
the word
word "beautiful"
"beautiful" does
does not
not occur
occur in
in
this
this book.
book. My My aim
aim has
has been
been not
not the
the expatiation
expatiation on
on the
the obvious
obvious but
but the
the ex-
ex-

planation of
planation of the
the specific
specific musical
musical results
results of of baroque
baroque style. style. This
This explanation
explanation
must
must of of necessity
necessity rely rely onon words,
words, but but it it must
must be be clearly
clearly understood
understood that that
words
words cannot
cannot renderrender the the aesthetic
aesthetic experience
experience of of music
music itself,
itself, letlet alone
alone re- re-

place
place it.
it. Familiarity with
Familiarity with the
the rudiments
rudiments of
of music
music is
is assumed
assumed in
in this
this book
though
though it it is
is not
not designed
designed for for specialists
specialists nor nor has
has it it been
been written,
written, for that
for that
matter,
matter, by by a
a specialist of the
specialist of the period.period. But
But even
even the
the specialized musicologist
specialized musicologist
will
will find
find a few new facts,
a few facts, new interpretations,
interpretations, and and a a number of of hitherto
hitherto
unpublished
unpublished examples.examples. In
In the
the organization
organization of
of material
material II have
have departed
departed
from thethe usual practice by
usual practice by not
not making
making the book aa strictly
the book strictly chronological
chronological
report.
report. The main
main principle
principle of
of organization
organization is
is style
style in
in its
its various
various manifesta-
manifesta-
tions. Chapters II-IX
tions. Chapters II-IX comprise
comprise the the actual history of
actual history of baroque
baroque style. style. The
first and the
first the three
three lastlast chapters
chapters cut cut across
across thethe field
field and and complement
complement the the
subject:
subject: the
the first
first gives
gives a
a general comparison
general comparison between
between renaissance
renaissance and
and
baroque style,
baroque style, thethe three
three last
last deal
deal with
with aspects
aspects of of form,
form, theory,
theory, and and sociology,
sociology,
rarely,
rarely, if
if ever,
ever, discussed
discussed in
in histories
histories of
of music.
music. Several
Several chapters
chapters were were first
first

presented
presented publicly
publicly in in aa lecture
lecture series
series atat the
the University
University of of Chicago
Chicago in in 1945,
1945,
and forfor the
the Northern
Northern California
California Chapter
Chapter of
of the
the American
American Musicological
Musicological
Society
Society in in I946.
1946.
For reasons
reasons of of space
space thethe bibliographical
bibliographical footnotes
footnotes have have been been restricted
restricted
essentially
essentially to
to references
references to
to musical
musical reprints.
reprints. Through the courtesy of
Through the courtesy of Dr.
Dr.
Willi
Willi Ape!
Apel II was able able toto incorporate
incorporate references
references to to the
the second
second volume,
volume, as yet
as yet
unpublished,
unpublished, of of the Historical Anthology
the Historical Anthology of Music which
of Music which contains
contains many many
valuable
valuable examples
examples of baroque music.
of baroque music. It It goes
goes without
without saying saying that the
that the
material
material presented
presented in
in this
this book is
is based
based largely
largely on
on the
the special
special studies
studies listed
listed

in the bibliography.
in the Unfortunately for
bibliography. Unfortunately for the music student
the music student the the majority
majority of of
these
these books
books and articles articles is is written
written in in languages
languages other other than than English.
English. Such
Such
excellent
excellent stylistic
stylistic studies
studies as as those
those by by J.J. A.A. Westrup
Westrup (Purcell)(Purcell) and and Ernst
Ernst
Meyer (English
Meyer (English Chamber Music)
Music} are
are all
all too
too rare
rare exceptions.
exceptions. The bibliog-
bibliog-
raphy
raphy stresses
stresses style-criticism
style-criticism and includes includes only only thosethose biographies
biographies that that
consider
consider the the musical
musical stylestyle ofof the
the composer.
composer. Although
Although it it is
is the
the largest bibliog-
largest bibliog-
raphy of
raphy of baroque
baroque music ever ever printed
printed it it is
is far
far from
from being being complete.
complete. The The
inclusion
inclusion of of local
local and arclUves
archives studies
studies would
would have have doubled
doubled its its size.
size. The
The
checklist
checklist of baroque books
of baroque books on music music represents
represents a a new bibliographical
bibliographical
venture the the aim of of which has not been
has not been completeness,
completeness, but but comprehensive
comprehensive
coverage of
coverage of the
the various
various aspects
aspects of of musical
musical literature
literature in in a a given
given period,
period, the the
 Preface
Preface xv
xv
detailed
detailed study
study ofof which
which raises
raises fascinating
fascinating problems.
problems. Prolific writers like
Prolific writers like
Mattheson
Mattheson and others others appear
appear in
in the
the list
list only
only with
with their
their most
most important
important
titles.
titles. Items
Items that
that appear
appear in in aa footnote
footnote in in incomplete
incomplete form form are
are more fully
fully
cited
cited inin the
the bibliography.
bibliography. It It should
should be be noted that throughout
noted that throughout the the book
book
major
major and minor keys keys are
are differentiated
differentiated by by means
means of of small
small and
and capital
capital
letters; for
letters; for example,
example, c c and
and C standstand for
for Cminor
C-minor and and Cmajor, respectively.
C-major, respectively.
It
It is
is my
my pleasant
pleasant duty
duty toto acknowledge
acknowledge the the help
help and
and advice
advice II received
received from
from
many
many friends
friends and colleagues.
and colleagues. I
I am especially grateful to Dr. Alfred Einstein
especially grateful to Dr. Alfred Einstein
of
of Smith
Smith College
College who tooktook a a fatherly
fatherly interest
interest in
in my
my book
book and permitted
and permitted
me to to use
use some examples
examples from
from his
his rich
rich treasure
treasure of
of early baroque music,
early baroque music,
and
and toto Professor
Professor Edward Lawton Lawton of of the University of
the University of California
California who putput
his
his scores
scores ofof the
the works
works of of Gesualdo
Gesualdo and and several photostats at
several photostats at my
my disposal.
disposal.
II gratefully
gratefully recall
recall the
the assistance
assistance of of the
the following
following institutions:
institutions: thethe Music
Music
Division
Division of of the
the Library
Library of
of Congress,
Congress, New York
York Public
Public Library, Newberry
Library, Newberry
Library,
Library, British
British Museum,
Museum, Metropolitan
Metropolitan Museum of of Art,
Art, Union
Union Theological
Theological
Seminary,
Seminary, and and the
the library
library of of the
the University
University of California. Last
of California. Last but
but not
not
least
least my
my thanks
thanks gogo to
to my wife. Without
my wife. Without her her unflagging encouragement
unflagging encouragement and
and
help
help this
this book
book would not not have
have beenbeen possible.
possible.

Manfred
Manfred F.
F. Bukofzer
Bukofzer
Berkeley,
Berkeley, California
California
 CHAPTER ONE

Renaissance
Renaissance Versus Baroque Music
Versus Baroque Music
DISINTEGRATION OF STYLISTIC UNITY

W
WHEN serted
but
but was
Monteverdi in
HEN Monteverdi
serted that he did
that he

was guided
did not

guided by
his fifth
in his

not follow

by what
follow the
what he
book of
fifth book

the precepts
he called
precepts
called the
madrigals (1605)
of madrigals
of
of
the seconda
the
the
(1605) as-
old
old
as-

school,
school,
prattica. he
seconda prattica, he
spoke
spoke with
with the
the self-assertion
self-assertion of
of an
an artist
artist fully
fully conscious
conscious of
of a
a fundamental
fundamental
change in
change in the
the conception
conception of of music.
music, Monteverdi
Monteverdi was retorting in
was retorting his state-
in his state-

ment to to an
an abusive
abusive attack
attack of Artusi, in
of Artusi, in which
which this
this conservative
conservative criticcritic and
and
theorist
theorist found
found fault
fault with
with Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's treatment
treatment of of dissonance.
dissonance. By By op-
op-
posing
posing thethe second practice to
second practice to the
the first,
first, and
and byby implying
implying that that the
the standards
standards
of
of the
the old
old school
school could not be
could not be applied
applied to to the
the new,
new, Monteverdi
Monteverdi challenged
challenged
the
the whole
whole basis
basis of of the
the argument.
argument. Thus
Thus the
the eternal
eternal controversy between
controversy between
artist
artist and
and critic
critic about
about the the standards
standards of art criticism
of art criticism flamed
flamed up up in
in the violent
the violent
manner
manner that that is
is indicative
indicative of of all
all periods
periods of
of transition.
transition.

It
It was
was not
not the
the first time, nor
first time, nor was
was itit to be the
to be the last,
last, that
that the
the transition
transition from
from
one
one musical
musical era era to
to another
another was was accompanied
accompanied by
by claims
claims of
of the
the progressive
progressive
and
and counterclaims
counterclaims of of the
the conservative
conservative camp.camp. The title title Nuotle Musiche.
Nuove Musiche,
which
which became
became the the battle cry of
battle cry of the
the baroque period, has
baroque period, its parallels in
has its parallels in thethe
late
late Gothic
Gothic ars ars notla
nova (proclaimed by Philippe
(proclaimed by Philippe de
de Vitry),
Vitry), in
in the
the ars
ars notla
nova
of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance (described
(described by by Tinctoris),
Tinctoris), in in the
the goat galant of
go At galant of the
the early
early
classic
classic period, and in
period, and in the
the "modern
"modern music"
music" of of our
our own day. day. Old musicmusic oror
stile antico
stile antico waswas identified,
identified, at
at the
the time
time of
of Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, with
with renaissance
renaissance
music,
music, new musicmusic or or stile
stile moderno
modcrno with baroque music.
with baroque music.
The term
term haroco
baroco 1 had
x
had originally
originally a a derogatory
derogatory meaning
meaning that that clearly
clearly re-
re-

flects
flects the
the light
light in
in which
which former
former generations
generations have
have seen
seen the
the seventeenth
seventeenth
century.
century. The baroquebaroque was was taken
taken to be aa degenerate
to be degenerate form form of of the
the renais-
renais-

sance,
sance, another
another "dark
"dark age"
age" between
between the
the limpid cinquecento
limpid cinquecento and
and the
the classicism
classicism

11 Por history of
a history
For a of the
the term see the special
see the special issue
issue on baroque style of
baroque style of the Journal of
the lotl1Tllll of
AellAdWl and
Aesthetics Criticism V (1946),
Art Crilicism
Imtl Art no. 2.
(1946), DO. 2.
I
22 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century.century. Even Even JacobJacob Burckhardt
Burckhardt still still defined
defined in in his
his

Cic~one
Cicerone the the baroque
baroque as as "a"a corrupt
corrupt dialect"
dialect" of of the
the renaissance.
renaissance. Today Today our our
concepts
concepts have have radically changed. The baroque
radically changed. baroque is is recognized
recognized as as aa period
period
in
in its
its own right,right, with
with its
its own intrinsic
intrinsic development
development and its
its own aesthetic
aesthetic

standards.
standards. The period period covers
covers roughly
roughly the the seventeenth
seventeenth centurycentury and the the
rust
first half
half of the eighteenth century. Signs of
of the eighteenth century. Signs of the stylistic change the stylistic change became
noticeable as
noticeable as early
early as as the
the late
late sixteenth
sixteenth century,
century, and for for some time renais- renais-

sance
sance and baroquebaroque traits
traits ran
ran side
side by
by side.
side. Likewise,
Likewise, the
the new forces
forces at
at the
the
end of of the
the baroque
baroque era
era that
that led
led ultimately
ultimately to
to the
the classic
classic period appeared
period appeared
early
early inin the
the eighteenth
eighteenth centurycentury simultaneously
simultaneously with with the
the most monumental
and lasting manifestations of
lasting manifestations of baroque
baroque music. music.
The termsterms "renaissance"
"renaissance" and and "baroque"
"baroque" music music havehave been been borrowed
from artart history
history as
as convenient
convenient labels
labels for
for periods
periods which apply
apply equally
equally wellwell
to
to music history
history and other
other fields
fields of
of civilization.
civilization. The transposition
transposition to
to music
history
history of of terms
terms developed
developed in in art
art history
history has has itsits dangers if
dangers if performed
performed too too
literally.
literally. Since
Since thethe days
days of Principles of
WolfHin's Principles
of Wolfflin's Art History
of Art History attempts
attempts havehave
been made to to apply
apply hishis terminology
terminology to to music
music in in wholesale
wholesale fashion.
fashion. The
concepts
concepts of
of WoifBin,
Wolfflin, the
the linear,
linear, closed
closed form, etc.,
form, etc., are
are abstractions
abstractions distilled
distilled
from the the live development of
live development of art,
art, indeed
indeed very
very useful
useful abstractions,
abstractions, but but so so
general in
general nature that
in nature that they
they can can be be applied
applied to to all
all periods
periods indiscriminately,
indiscriminately,
although they
although they were
were originally
originally found found in in the
the comparison
comparison of renaissance and
of renaissance and
baroque. If
baroque. used as
If used as eternal
eternal principles,
principles, however,
however, they they defeat their own pur-
defeat their pur-
pose, namely,
pose, namely, the the historical
historical understanding
understanding of of one
one particular
particular periodperiod which
which
never repeats
never repeats itself
itself inin art
art oror music
music history.
history. OnlyOnly aa historical
historical terminology
terminology
able to
able to recognize
recognize the the uniqueness
uniqueness of of each
each stylistic
stylistic eraera can
can further
further suchsuch un-un-
derstanding. The application
derstanding. application of of the
the term
term "baroque"
"baroque" to to music
music has has been
been
criticized because
criticized because baroque
baroque qualities
qualities cannot
cannot be be found
found in in the
the musical
musical notes.
notes.
Indeed,
Indeed, whoever hopes
hopes to
to discover
discover baroque qualities
baroque qualities in
in music as
music as thoughthough
they were
they were aa mysterious
mysterious chemical
chemical substance
substance misunderstands
misunderstands the the meaning
meaning of of
the term
the term which
which essentially
essentially denotes
denotes the the inner
inner stylistic
stylistic unity
unity of of the
the period.
period.
That the
That the development
development of of baroque
baroque music music runsruns parallel
parallel with
with thatthat ofof baroque
baroque
and that
art, and
art, that music
music does
does not,not, asas legend
legend has has it,
it, lag
lag behind
behind the the other
other arts
arts can
can
be shown
be shown only only by by aa technical
technical analysis
analysis thatthat penetrates
penetrates the the last
last detail,
detail, not
not
by general
by general comparative
comparative abstractions.
abstractions. On the the other
other hand,
hand, the the theory
theory thatthat
the baroque
the baroque manifests
manifests itself itself soso uniformly
uniformly in in allall fields
fields that
that every
every work
work
of art
o art ofof the
the time
time is is "typically
"typically baroque"
baroque" must must be be examined
examined on on the
the merits
merits
of the
of the individual
individual case. case. There
There are are undercurrents
undercurrents of of opposed
opposed forcesforces that
that dodo
not conform to the "spirit
not conform to the "spirit of the time,"
of the time," which
which isis itself
itsdf another
another abstraction.
abstraction.
The concrete
The concrete life life of period knows
of aa period knows internal
internal contradictions,
contradictions, conflicts
conflicts of of
 Renaissance
Renaissance Versus
Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 33
prevalent and suppressed
prevalent suppressed ideas, ideas, survivals
survivals from from the the preceding
preceding and and anticipa-
anticipa-
tions of the following
tions of the following periods.
periods. In In spite
spite ofof these
these complexities,
complexities, the prevalent
the prevalent
ideas
ideas of
of an eraera stand
stand out out and
and must
must receive
receive the main attention.
the main attention. The dominantdominant
trends
trends inin baroque
baroque music
music correspond
correspond to
to those
those in
in baroque
baroque art
art and
and literature-
literature

this
this is
is an inevitable
inevitable by-product
by-product of of any
any investigation
investigation of of the period.
the period.
The change
change from renaissance
renaissance to baroque music differs from
to baroque music differs from all all other
other
stylistic
stylistic changes
changes in in music
music history
history in in one
one important
important aspect.aspect. As a rule, the
a rule, the
musical
musical style
style ofof the
the old
old school
school fell
fell into
into oblivion.
oblivion. The new style style took
took over
over
and transformed
transformed the the last vestiges of
last vestiges of previous
previous musicalmusical techniques,
techniques, so that
so that
the
the unity
unity of
of style
style in
in each
each period
period was
was assured.
assured. However,
However, at
at the
the beginning
beginning
of
of the
the baroque
baroque era era thethe old
old style
style was
was not not cast
cast aside,
aside, butbut deliberately
deliberately pre- pre-
served
served as as a a second
second language,
language, known as as the stile antwo
the stile antico of of church music.
church music.
The hitherto
hitherto unchallenged
unchallenged unity unity of of style
style disintegrated,
disintegrated, and and composers
composers
were obliged
obliged to
to become
become bilingual.
bilingual. The stile
stile antico
antico was
was fashioned
fashioned after
after

the style
the style of Palestrina,
of Palestrina, who became became the the idol
idol ofof those
those who followed followed the the
strict a-cappella
strict a-cappella stylestyle of baroque music.
of baroque music. The more more the the actual
actual knowledge
knowledge of of
Palestrina's
Palcstrina's music
music fadedfaded away,
away, the
the more
more powerful
powerful became
became the
the legend
legend of
of the
the
alleged
alleged savior
savior of of church
church music.
music.
Mastery
Mastery of of the stile antico
the stile antico became
became the the indispensable
indispensable equipment
equipment in in the
the
composer's
composer's education.
education. He was was now at at liberty
liberty to to choose
choose in in which style style hehe
wanted to to write,
write, whether
whether in in the
the moderno,
moderno, the vehicle of
the vehicle of his
his spontaneous
spontaneous
expression,
expression, or or in
in the
the strict
strict antico
antico which
which he he acquired
acquired by by academic training.
academic training.
This choice
This choice of of styles
styles was the
the first
first significant
significant step step toward
toward the
the musical
musical his-
his-

toricism that perplexes modern

toricism that perplexes modern music education. music education. Our much discussed
discussed and
often
often cursed
cursed division
division of of musical
musical instruction
instruction into into "strict"
"strict" andand "free"
"free" writing
writing
goes
goes back
back ultimately
ultimately to
to the
the distinction
distinction between
between stile
stile antico
antico and
and moderna.
moderno.
The rules
rules of of the stile antico
the stile antico were
were diligendy
diligently codified
codified by by such
such theorists
theorists as as

Bontempi
Bontempi and Fux whose
whose works
works furnish
furnish a
a drastic
drastic example
example of
of the
the contrast
contrast
between the
between the old
old and modern manner. manner. However,
However, recent recent investigations
investigations have have
shown thatthat thethe ''Palestrina
"Palestrina style"style" ofof the
the baroque
baroque actually
actually differs
differs from its its

model;
model; the the theorists eternalized in
theorists eternalized in their
their rules
rules a a fictitious
fictitious strict
strict style
style which
which
bears
bears the
the semblance
semblance of of renaissance
renaissance music,
music, but but which,
which, in in fact,
fact, is is subdy
subtly in-in-

fected with modern licenses. Although this unintentional

fected with modern licenses. Although this unintentional transformation transformation
took
took place,
place, as as itit were, behind the
were, behind the backs
backs of of the
the composers,
composers, they they continued
continued
to
to speak
speak of
of the
the stile
stile alla
alia Palestrina.
Palestrina. The tension
tension between
between the
the stile
stile antico,
antico t

however
however fictitious
fictitious it it may be,
may be, and
and the
the stile
stile maderna
moderno has
has left
left its
its mark on
baroque
baroque music
music and all
all subsequent periods.
subsequent periods. The conflict
conflict has
has been
been dealt
dealt
with
with in in various
various ways ways but but has never been
has never been completely
completely removed.
removed. Thus the the
renaissance stands
rcnaissance stands out out as the last
as the last era
era ofof stylistic unity, and
stylistic unity, and for for this reuon
this reason
44 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
itit has
has been
been glorified
glorified as as the
the paradise
paradise lost
lost of music. This
of music. This stylistic unity ex-
stylistic unity ex-

presses
presses itself
itself also
also in
in the
the self-reliant
self-reliant attitude
attitude of
of renaissance
renaissance compos;rS
composers toward
toward
musical style.
musical style. They
They took
took style
style for
for granted,
granted, whereas
whereas it
it became
became aa problem
problem
for baroque composers.
for baroque composers. The The baroque
baroque era
era is
is the
the era
era of
of style-consciousness.
style-consciousness.

Many
Many attempts
attempts have have been
been made
made to to bring
bring thethe contrast
contrast of of renaissance
renaissance and
baroque
baroque music
music down
down to a short formula. Early baroque theorists, especially,
to a short formula. Early baroque theorists, especially,
have beenbeen guilty
guilty of of aggressive
aggressive oversimplifications
oversimplifications that that served
served their
their tenden-
tenden-
tious
tious purpose
purpose at
at the
the time,
time, but
but that
that have
have unfortunately
unfortunately been
been taken
taken seriously
seriously
by
by modern historians.
historians. With the the beginning
beginning of of the
the baroque
baroque we hear hear for
for the
the
first
first time
time of elaborate classifications
of elaborate classifications of of music
music according
according to
to styles,
styles, an
an indica-
indica-
tion
tion that
that the unity of
the unity style has
of style has been
been lost.lost. The fundamental
fundamental pair pair ofof styles
styles
which underlies
underlies the the new style-consciousness
style-consciousness has has already
already beenbeen discussed:
discussed:
the stile
the stile antico
antico and moderno,
modcrno, also also known respectively
respectively as as stylus gravis and
stylus gravis and
lururians,
luxuriant, or or prima
prima and
and seconda
seconda prattica.
frattica. Another
Another distinction, emerging
distinction, emerging
later
later in in the century, divides
the century, divides the the field
field into
into church,
church, chamber,
chamber, and and theatre
theatre
music (musica
(musica ecclesiastica,
ecclcsiastica, cuhicularis,
cubicularis, theatralis).
theatralis). These
These termsterms classify
classify
music according
according to to its
its sociological
sociological function
function and and dodo not
not necessarily
necessarily imply imply
differences
differences in in musical
musical technique.
technique. It
It is
is significant that
significant that the
the main
main stylistic
stylistic
terms were not mutually exclusive.
not mutually exclusive. Church music, music, forfor example,
example, could could notnot
be categorically
be classified because
categorically classified because it it was
was composed
composed either
either in in the old or
the old or in
in
the modern style.
the numerous stylistic
style. The numerous distinctions of
stylistic distinctions of the
the time
time havehave been
been
the cause
the cause of confusion; the
of much confusion; the apparent
apparent inconsistencies
inconsistencies can can only
only be be
removed if
removed the word "style"
if the "style" isis understood
understood in in aa wider
wider sense
sense than
than the the modern,
modern,
merely technical,
merely technical, interpretation
interpretation admits.admits.
How profoundly
profoundly the consciousness of
the consciousness of style
style had
had sharpened
sharpened the the senses
senses for
for
the contrast
the contrast of renaissance and
of renaissance and baroque
baroque can can be
be seen
seen inin Berardi's Miscel-
Berardi's Miscel-
lanea Musicale
lanea (1689), where
Musicale (1689), where he he says:
says: "the"the old
old masters
masters [of[of the
the renaissance]
renaissance]
had only
had only oneone style
style and
and oneone practice,
practice, the the moderns
moderns have have three
three styles,
styles, church,
church,
chamber, and theatre style,
chamber, and theatre style, and two
and two practices,
practices, the the first
first and
and the the second."
second."
According to
According to Berardi
Berardi and and his
his teacher
teacher Scacchi,
Scacchi, the the essential
essential difference
difference be- be-
tween first
tween first and
and second
second practice
practice lay lay in in the
the changed rela~ons between
changed relations between music music
and word.
and word. In In renaissance
renaissance music,music, "harmony
"harmony isis the the master
master of of the
the word";
word"; in in
baroque
baroque music
music "the
"the word
word is
is the
the master
master of
of harmony:' This neat
harmony." This neat antithesis, antithesis,
which merely paraphrases
which merely paraphrases Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's distinctiondistinction of first and
of first and second
second
practice, touches, indeed,
practice, touches, indeed, upon
upon one one fundamental
fundamental aspect aspect of of baroque
baroque music,music,
the musical
the musical expression
expression of the text
of the text oror what
what was called, at
was called, at the
the time, erpressio
time, expressio
tlerborum. This
vcrborum. This termterm does
does not
not have
have the the modern,
modern, emotional
emotional connotation
connotation of of
"expressive
"expressive music"
music" and
and can
can more
more accurately be rendered as "musical
accurately be rendered as "musical repre- repre-
 Renaissance
Renaissance Versus
Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 55
sentation
scntation of of the
the word." The means of of verbal
verbal representation
representation in
in baroque
baroque
music were not not direct, psychological, and
direct, psychological, emotional, but
and emotional, but indirect,
indirect, thatthat is,
is,

intellectual
intellectual and pictorial.
pictorial. The modern psychology psychology of of dynamic
dynamic emotions
did not yet
yet exist
exist inin the baroque era.
the baroque era. Feelings
Feelings were
were classified
classified and stereotyped
stereotyped
in
in a set
set of
of so-called
so-called affections,
affections, each
each representing
representing a
a mental state which was
mental state was
in
in itself
itself static.
static. ItIt was the the business
business of the composer
of the composer to to make the
the affection
affection of
the music correspond
correspond to to that
that of of the
the words.
words. According
According to to the
the lucid rational-
lucid rational-
ism ofof the
the time,
time, the the composer
composer had at at his
his disposal
disposal a
a set
set of
of musical
musical figures
figures
which were pigeonholed
pigeonholed like
like the
the affections
affections themselves
themselves and were designed
designed
to represent
to represent these
these affections
affections in in music.
music.
However,
However, the the principle
principle of of the
the doctrine
doctrine of of affections
affections and figures figures was
already
already known to to the renaissance, and aa writer
the renaissance, writer of of that
that period
period refers
refers inin
particular
particular to to the
the Penitential
Penitential PsalmsPsalms of of Lasso
Lasso as as an outstanding
outstanding exampleexample
of
of powerful
powerful representation
representation of of the
the words.
words. He uses, uses, in
in this
this connection,
connection, the the
controversial term musica
controversial musica resertlata
rcscrvata which probablyprobably derives
derives its
its name from

the
the faithful observance of
faithful observance of the words. The musica
the words. musica resertlata belongs pri-
rescrvata belongs pri-
marily
marily to to the
the Netherlands
Netherlands orbit. orbit. But Italian composers also
Italian composers also developed
developed a a
refined
refined technique
technique of
of pictorial representation
pictorial representation in
in the
the Italian
Italian madrigal.
madrigal. Since
Since
both renaissance
renaissance and baroque baroque musicmusic know the representation of
the representation of words in in
music,
music, Berardi
Berardi oversimplified
oversimplified matters matters with the implication
with the implication that that it was un-
it was un-
known in in the
the renaissance.
renaissance. The two periods periods actually
actually operated
operated under the the
same principle,
principle, but they
they differed
differed fundamentally
fundamentally in
in the
the method of
of its
its ap-
ap-
plication. The renaissance
plication. renaissance favored favored the the affections
affections of of restraint
restraint and noble noble
simplicity,
simplicity, the the baroque
baroque the the extreme
extreme affections, ranging from violent
affections, ranging violent painpain
to
to exuberant
exuberant joy. joy. It It is
is obvious
obvious thatthat the
the representation
representation of of extreme affections
affections

called
called for
for a a richer
richer vocabulary
vocabulary than than had been been required
required before.
before.

Berardi's
Berardi's sweeping
sweeping distinction
distinction merely
merely echoes
echoes opinions
opinions already
already expressed,
expressed,
around 1590,
1590, by by a
a noisy group
noisy group of
of literatJ
literati that,
that, under the
the leadership
leadership of the
of the
Counts Bardi
Counts Bardi and Corsi, established
Corsi, established itself initself in Florence
Florence under the
the name of
of
Camerata.
Camcrata. ThisThis group
group basedbased itsits attack
attack on renaissance
renaissance music on the the handling
handling
of
of the
the words.
words. They They claimed
claimed that
that in
in contrapuntal
contrapuntal music the
the poetry
poetry was
literally
literally "torn
"torn to
to pieces" (lacerammto
pieces" (laccramento della
dclla poesia),
pocsia)> because
because the
the individual
individual
voices
voices sang
sang different
different words words simultaneously.
simultaneously. Words like like "heaven" and

"wave" were were frequendy

frequently depicteddepicted by by high notes and wavy
high notes wavy lines.lines. The

Camerata
Camcrata scornfully objected to
scornfully objected to this
this "pedantry"
"pedantry" and insisted
insisted that the sense
that the sense
of
of an
an entire
entire passage
passage rather
rather than
than that
that of
of a
a single
single word should
should be imitated
imitated
in music. As a
in music. a result
result of of such
such theoretical
theoretical discussions,
discussions, the the recitative
recitative was

created,
created, in in which contrapuntal
contrapuntal writing writing was altogether
altogether abandoned. In the
speech-song
speech-song of of the recitative, the
the recitative, music was
the music was completely
completely subordinated to
6
6 Music in
Music in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
the words,
the words, so so that
that the
the words
words governed
governed the the musical
musical rhythm
rhythm. and even the
place of
place of the
the cadences.
cadences. The recitative recitative was sung sung from its its very
very beginning
beginning
with aa hitherto
with hitherto unknown realistic realistic pathos
pathos and with with an affective
affective violence
violence
in which
in which thethe singer
singer resorted
resorted to to grimaces,
grimaces, acting,
acting, and the the imitation
imitation of of the
the
inflections of
inflections of natural
natural speech,
speech, like like crying
crying and gasping.
gasping. In the the eyes
eyes of of the
the
Camerata it was precisely
Camcrata it was precisely the extremely the extremely affective
affective quality
quality of
of the
the recitative
recitative

that gave
that gave itit its
its measure
measure of of distinction
distinction and and made it it superior
superior to th~ "pedantic"
to the "pedantic"
methods of
methods of renaissance
renaissance music. music. But, But, in in the
the eyeseyes ofof the
the renaissance
renaissance com-
poser, the recitative was hardly more than a ridiculous experiment which
poser, the recitative was hardly more than a ridiculous experiment
showed that
showed that itsits author
author was was "not
"not aa goodgood musician,"
musician," to to use
use thethe words by by
which Schumann characterized
which characterized Wagner. Wagner. From the the point
point of of view of of renais-
renais-
Sance composers,
sance composers, nothingnothing was was easier
easier than
than thethe composition
composition of of aa recitative
recitative
since it
since it required
required only only aa mostmost superficial
superficial familiarity
familiarity with with musical
music:al technique.
technique.
It is
It symptomatic that
is symptomatic that thethe leading
leading spirits
spirits of
of the Camerata, Bardi
the Camcrata, Bardi and Corsi, Corsi,
were, indeed, aristocratic
were, indeed, aristocratic amateurs amateurs who tried
tried their
their hands at
at composition.
composition.
Amateurs are
Amateurs are less
less likely
likely to to be
be hidebound
hidebound by by tradition,
tradition, and less less likely
likely to
to
be hampered
be hampered by by facts
facts in in the
the pursuit
pursuit of of new ideas.
ideas. The influence
infitience of of dilet-
dilet-
tanti was
tanti was as as decisive
decisive a a factor
factor in the formation
in the formation of of baroque
baroque music music as as in
in that
that
of the
of the classic style in
classic style in the
the days
days of of the
the Bach
Bach sons.
sons.
Amateurish, then,
Amateurish, then, was the the assertion
assertion of of the Camerata that
the Camcrata that renaissance
renaissance
music was unableunable to to imitate
imitate the the affection
affection of the words;
of the renaissance
words; and renaissance
theorists were quick
theorists quick to
to deny
deny this
this claim.
claim. The reason
reason why
why the
the advocates
advocates of
of
the old
the old and new schools schools couldcould not not settle
settle their issue and were
their issue unable to
were unable to
understand each
understand each other
other can be be easily
easily seen.
seen. When the
the baroque composer
baroque composer
spoke
spoke about affections,
affections, he referredreferred to to the
the extreme
extreme and violent violent ones,
ones, con-
con-
sidered improper
improper by by the
the renaissance
renaissance composer;
composer; so
so the
the whole argument
argument was was
carried out
carried out on two levels levels that
that diddid not
not even
even touch
touch eacheach other.
other.
The invention of of the recitative
recitative was intimately
intimately connected
connected with with the the birth
birth
of opera,
o opera, in in which the Camerata tried
the Camcrata tried toto resuscitate
resuscitate the the ancient
ancient GreekGreek
tragedy.
tragedy. Since opera opera was promptedprompted by by an enthusiasm
enthusiasm for for ancient
ancient music,
music,
and since
since the revival
revival of the the classics
classics passes
passes asas a a "typical
"typical renaissance"
renaissance" feature,feature,
historians of past generations
past generations have regarded
regarded the
the opera
opera asas the
the last
last flowering
flowering
of renaissance music. To follow follow the logic of
the logic of this
this specious
specious argument,
argument, opera opera
would
would come at least
at least two or three
or three generations
generations "too "too late"
late" to to fit
fit into
into the
the
picture.
picture. ItIt is
is this
this allegedly
allegedly "belated"
"belated" arrival
arrival ofof the
the opera that has
opera that has produced
produced
the unfortunate theory theory that that music lags lags behind
behind the the other arts. However,
other arts. However, the the
preoccupation
preoccupation with ancient Greek music is
is not
not an exclusive
exclusive characteristic
characteristic
of
of the
the renaissance. Medieval treatises treatises literally
literally abound with with lengthy
lengthy quota-
quota-
tions
tions from
from ancient
ancient authors
authors and religiously
religiously perpetuate
perpetuate the the reports
reports about
about
 Renaissance
Renaissance Versus
Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 7
7
the
the magical powers
magical powers of
of Greek music;
music; and
and likewise
likewise do the
the innumerable
innumerable
baroque books on music.
baroque music. Enthusiasm
Enthusiasm for for ancient
ancient musicmusic is is in
in itself
itself asas insuf-
insuf-
ficient an indication
ficient indication of of aa renaissance
renaissance attitude
attitude as as the
the desire
desire to represent
to represent
affections
affections in in music.
music. These ideas ideas cancan be observed in
be observed in medieval, renaissance,
medieval, renaissance,
and baroque
baroque music alike
alike and only
only the
the various
various methods
methods by
by which they they
were realized
realized givegive us
us the
the key
key to
to the
the specific character of each individual
specific character of each individual
period.
period.
The opera
opera serves,
serves, in in fact,
fact, as one of
as one of the
the most
most striking
striking examples
examples of the
of the
realization
realization of of extreme affections
affections in in music,
music, and thus
thus must be
be regarded
regarded as as
one of of the
the foremost
foremost innovations
innovations of of the baroque era.
the baroque era. We know of of per-
per-
formances of of Greek tragedies
tragedies in in translation
translation during during the the renaissance
renaissance in in
which music was, was, characteristically,
characteristically, restricted
restricted to polyphonic choruses.
to polyphonic choruses. None
of
of these
these revivals
revivals envisaged
envisaged the the idea,
idea, inconceivable
inconceivable at at the
the time,
time, of of setting
setting
the
the entire
entire tragedy
tragedy to
to music,
music, or,or, in
in a
a manner of
of speaking,
speaking, under
under music.
music.
The Camerata justifiedjustified thethe introduction
introduction of the continuous recitative on the
of the continuous recitative the
theory
theory that
that music
music should
should imitate
imitate the the delivery
delivery of of anan orator
orator andand his his manner
of
of moving
moving the the affections
affections of of the audience. In
the audience. In spite
spite of of Galilei's
Galilei's discovery
discovery of of
the
the hymn
hymn of
of Mesomedes,
Mesomedes, the
the first
first original
original of
of Greek music
music known at
at the
the
time,
rime, the
the nature
nature of of Greek musicmusic was a a sealed
sealed book to to the Camerata, since
the Camerata. since
its
its notation
notation could
could notnot bebe deciphered.
deciphered. In In the
the invention
invention of of the recitative the
the recitative the
chimera
chimera of of ancient
ancient music
music served
served onlyonly a a catalytic
catalytic function;
function; the the primary
primary
impulse
impulse came from the the baroque
baroque desire
desire to to represent affections of
represent affections violence.
of violence.
The composers
composers of
of the
the Camerata repeatedly
repeatedly insisted
insisted on the
the oratorical
oratorical
nature of
nature of the
the recitative-for
recitative for example,
example, Caccini,
Caccini, who called called it it "speaking
"speaking in in
music,"
music," and Peri, Peri, who admitted
admitted that tried "to
that he tried "to imitate
imitate a a speaking
speaking personperson
in song." Also
in song." Also Galilei
Galilei and Bardi Bardi maintained
maintained that that the
the musician
musician should should
learn
learn from the the orator
orator how to to move the the affections.
affections. The recitative
recitative actually
actually
fused
fused together
together the the stylized
stylized accents
accents of of natural
natural speechspeech and those those of of music.
music.
The tendency
tendency to to merge
merge the the disparate
disparate dements
elements of poetry and music
of poetry music finds
finds
its
its exact parallel in
exact paralld in the mutual assimilation
the mutual assimilation of of architecture
architecture and painting, painting,
of
of which baroque
baroque architecture
architecture provides
provides so so many
many amusing
amusing examples.
examples.
For
For the
the renaissance
renaissance composers
composers it
it was absurd
absurd to
to imitate
imitate the
the orator because
orator because
aa speech-song depended
speech-song depended on an extra-musical
extra-musical law,
law, that
that of
of speech.
speech. For them
them
the
the recitative
recitative was a a song-speech
song-speech rather rather thanthan a a speech-song.
speech-song. Zarllno,Zarlino, the the
authoritative
authoritative spokesman
spokesman of of the
the old
old school,
school, objected
objected precisdy
precisely to the fusion
to the fusion
of music and
of music and poetry. maintained in
poetry. He maintained in his
his Sopplimenti
Sopplimcnti that that the
the composer
composer
must
must indeed
indeed excite
excite the
the affections
affections of of the
the words,
words, but insisted
insisted on the
the funda-
funda-
mental
mental difference
difference between the the method of the of the orator and that
orator that of the
of the
musician. He emphasized
musician. emphasized the the fact
fact that poetry and music had distinct
that poetry distinct modes
modes
88 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
of
o imitation
imitation which
which should
should notnot bebe confused,
confused, and and that
that thethe musician
musician who
emulated
emulated the the orator
orator would become a a histrion
histrion or clown. It
or clown. It is
is amusing to
amusing to
note
note that
that Marsilio
Marsilio Ficino,
Ficino, long
long before
before Zarlino,
Zarlino, had summarized the
the renais.
renais-

sance
sance attitude
attitude inin one
one of
of his
his letters,
letters, in
in which
which he asserted
asserted that
that the
the orator
orator and
poet
poet took
took the
the musician
musician as
as their
their model-as
model as we see,
see, the
the exact
exact reverse
reverse of
of the
the
baroque
baroque position.
position.
Renaissance
Renaissance and earlyearly baroque
baroque concepts
concepts of of music stand,
stand, at at this
this point,
point,
clearly opposed.
clearly opposed. The renaissance
renaissance artist
artist saw in
in music aa self-contained
self-contained autono-
autono-
mous art,
art, subject
subject only
only to
to its
its own laws.
laws. The baroque
baroque artist
artist saw in in music a a
heteronomous art, subordinated
art, subordinated to to words and serving
serving onlyonly as
as musical
musical
means to to aa dramatic
dramatic end
end that
that transcended
transcended music.music. It It should
should notnot confuse
confuse us us
that
that both
both renaissance
renaissance and baroque concepts
baroque concepts were founded on the
the ancient
ancient
theory:
theory: artart imitates
imitates nature,
nature, and that that thethe advocates
advocates of of both
both schools
schools forti-
forti-

fied
fied themselves
themselves withwith quotations
quotations of
of identical
identical passages
passages from Plato
Plato and
Aristotle.
Aristotle. The imitation
imitation of of the
the "nature
"nature of of the
the words" formed formed only only thethe
springboard
springboard from which both both periods
periods tooktook off.
off. It
It is,
is, again,
again, the method by
the method by
which thethe theory
theory was putput into
into effect
effect which constitutes
constitutes the the difference
difference be- be-
tween renaissance
renaissance and baroque.
baroque.

violent attacks
The violent against counterpoint
attacks against counterpoint by the Camerata,
by the especially by
Camerata, especially by
Galilei,
Galilei, furnish
furnish another
another example
example of
of the
the manner in
in which
which baroque
baroque authors
authors
tried to
tried to establish
establish their
their opposition
opposition against
against the
the renaissance
renaissance period.
period. The first
first
composers of
composers of recitatives,
recitatives, Galilei,
Galilei, Peri,
Peri, and Caccin~ all
and Caccini, all attest
attest to
to the
the stimu-
stimu-
lation they
lation they received
received in in regard
regard toto the
the recitative
recitative from
from thethe musical
musical amateur
amateur
Bardi. Caccini
Bardi, Caccini tells
tells us
us himself
himself that
that hehe learned,
learned, inin the
the short
short years
years with
with
Bardi,
Bardi, more about
about music
music "than
"than in
in thirty years
thirty years of
of contrapuntal study."
contrapuntal study." It It
is true that,
is true that, at first,
at first, Caccini did
Caccini did not
not write
write inin the
the new recitative
recitative style,
style, but
but
his works clearly
his clearly disprove
disprove his
his exaggerated
exaggerated claim
claim ofof prolonged
prolonged contrapuntal
contrapuntal
study. The extant
study. extant compositions
compositions of of Galilei,
Galilei, on
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, disclose
disclose aa
skilful madrigal-
skilful madrigal- and motet-composer
motet-composer who did did not
not forego
forego the
the pleasures
pleasures
of contrapuntal
of contrapuntal fireworks
fireworks of of which
which thethe madrigalists
madrigalists werewere soso fond,
fond, and
and
which the Camerata despised.
which the Camerata despised. On the the evidence
evidence of of his
his own compositions,
compositions,
Galilei's utter
Galilei's utter contempt
contempt for for counterpoint
counterpoint reveals itself as
reveals itself as an
an academic
academic pose
pose
assumed under
assumed under the the influence
influence of of Bardi.
Bardi. Bardi
Bardi was
was also
also responsible
responsible forfor the
the
sweeping
sweeping statement
statement that
that the
the renaissance
renaissance was
was the
the age
age of
of counterpoint,
counterpoint, the the
baroque
baroque the
the age
age of
of the
the art
art of
of singing.
singing. In
In modified
modified form this distinction
this distinction hashas
survived to
survived to the
the present
present dayday inin the
the opposition
opposition of of counterpoint
counterpoint and and har-
har-
lllQny, or
mony, or polyphony
polyphony and and homophony.
homophony.
 Renaissance Versus
Renaissance Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 9
9
Bardi's definition
Bardi's definition of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance as
as the
the age
age of
of counterpoint
counterpoint pure
pure and
and
simple ignored
simple ignored an
an essential
essential part
part oof its musical
musical literature.
its literature. The contrast
contrast
between contrapuntal
between contrapuntal and and note-against-notc
note-against-note writing
writing existed
existed inin the
the renais-
renais-
sance just
sance just as as strongly
strongly as
as in
in the
the baroque.
baroque. This
This contrast,
contrast, moreover,
moreover, was
recognized by
recognized by renaissance
renaissance theorists,
theorists, and
and one
one glance
glance atat the
the masses
masses of of Josquin
Josquin
shows how consciously
shows consciously itit was employed.
employed. Actually
Actually both
both eras
eras hadhad in
in com-
com-
mon thethe conflict
conffict of
of contrapuntal
contrapuntal andand chordal
chordal textures;
textures; they
they differed,
differed, how-
how-
ever, in
ever, in its
its solution.
solution. The renaissance
renaissance solved
solved the
the problem
problem by by part-writing
part-writing-
that is,
that is, by
by aa set
set of
of balanced
balanced voices
voices ofof almost
almost equal
equal importance,
importance, regardless
regardless
of the
of the texture.
texture. Thus the the chordal
chordal and
and contrapuntal
contrapuntal sections
sections of
of aa renaissance
renaissance
composition were
composition were united
united byby the
the underlying
underlying principle
principle of of part-writing.
part-writing.
Similarly, the
Similarly, the baroque
baroque cannot
cannot bebe called
called the
the age
age ofof harmony
harmony pure pure and
and
simple.
simple. The baroque
baroque found
found the
the solution
solution of
of the
the conflict
conflict in
in a
a new inter-
inter-

penetration of
penetration of contrapuntal
contrapuntal andand harmonic
harmonic strands
strands which
which led
led finally
finally to
to the
the
fusion of
fusion of functional
functional harmony
harmony and and linear
linear counterpoint
counterpoint in in Bach's
Bach's works,
works,
the crowning
the crowning monuments of of baroque
baroque music.
music.

STYLISTIC COMPARISON BETWEEN RENAISSANCE

AND BAROQUE MUSIC
The foregoing critique of
foregoing critique renaissance and baroque
of renaissance baroque theorists
theorists and theirtheir
attempts
attempts to
to formulate
formulate the
the contrast
contrast of
of the
the periods
periods in
in a
a nutshell
nutshell makes plain
plain
why the
why the generalizations
generalizations of the time
of the time do not not give
give usus a a true picture. The
true picture.
advocates of
advocates of both
both schools
schools had theirtheir axes
axes to grind and bothered
to grind bothered little
little about
about
inconvenient
inconvenient facts.facts. It
It must
must bebe admitted, however, that
admitted, however, that their
their generaliza-
generaliza-
tions
tions contain
contain a a grain
grain of
of truth,
truth, and can
can serve
serve as
as excellent
excellent sources
sources for
for
understanding
understanding the
the trend
trend of
of prevalent
prevalent ideas
ideas that
that prompted
prompted the
the change
change from
one
one period
period to to the
the other.
other. Yet the the study
study of these sources
of these sources would be of of little
little

value if it were not complemented by a rigorous

value if it were not complemented by a rigorous stylistic analysis stylistic analysis of
of the
the
compositions
compositions themselves.
themselves. The findingsfindings of of both theoretical
theoretical and practical
practical
studies must be
studies must be checked
checked against
against each
each other
other in
in order
order to
to arrive
arrive at
at a
a genuine
genuine
understanding
understanding of
of the
the inherent
inherent traits
traits of
of either
either period.
period. In
In the
the following,
following, the the
outstanding
outstanding structural
structural features
features of
of renaissance
renaissance and baroque
baroque music will
will be
briefly
briefly submitted
submitted to to aa comparative
comparative analysis.
analysis.
The most
most striking
striking difference
difference between
between renaissance
renaissance and baroquebaroque music
comes
comes to to light
light in
in the
the treatment
treatment of
of dissonance,
dissonance, to
to which also
also Berardi
Berardi drew
attention
attention in in his
his books.
books. The dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment is is indeed
indeed the
the touchstone
of
of the
the stylistic contrast, and it
stylistic contrast, it is
is here
here that
that changes
changes in in harmony
harmony and counter-
counter-
point
point manifest
manifest themselves conspicuously. In
themselves most conspicuously. renaissance music all
In renaissance all dis-
dis-
10
io Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
sonances
sonanccs came came either
either in
in passing
passingon on the
the weak
weak beatbeator or else
else asas suspensions
suspensions on on the
the
strong beat. The harmonic result
strong beat. The harmonic result of the combination of of the combination of voices
voices was
was con-
con-
ceived
ceived as as a a conjunction
conjunction of of intervals
intervals rather
rather thanthan as as the
the unfolding
unfolding of of one
one
chord.
chord. ThisThis intervallic
intervallic harmony
harmony of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance was
was diametrically
diametrically op- op-
posed
posed to
to the
the chordal
chordal harmony
harmony of
of the
the baroque.
baroque. If
If harmony
harmony was was chordally
chordally
conceived,
conceived, it it became
became possible
possible to to introduce
introduce a a dissonant
dissonant note note against
against the the
chord
chord at at any
any time,
time, provided
provided that that thethe chord
chord as as such
such was clearly clearly outlined.
outlined.
The bass,
bass, which
which in in baroque
baroque music music supplied
supplied the the chords,
chords, thus thus enabled
enabled the the
upper
upper voices
voices to
to form
form dissonances
dissonances more freely
freely than
than before.
before. The resolution
resolution
of the dissonance
of the dissonance could could be be effected
effected by by leading
leading the the dissonant
dissonant voicevoice to to the
the
next
next chord
chord tone tone by by either
cither downward or
or upward motion. This
upward motion. This alternative alternative
illustrates
illustrates the the new melodic
melodic freedom freedom of of baroque
baroque music, music, whichwhich was was no no
longer
longer bound to to the
the renaissance
renaissance rule rule to to resolve
resolve all all dissonances
dissonances by by descend-
descend-
ing
ing motion.
It
It is
is obvious
obvious that that thethe treatment
treatment of dissonance in
of dissonance in the
the renaissance
renaissance put put
severe
severe restrictions
restrictions on the the harmonic
harmonic rhythm, rhythm, that that is,is, the change of
the change of harmony
harmony
per
per unit
unit of of time.
time. InIn aa fast
fast harmonic
harmonic rhythm rhythm the the renaissance
renaissance composercomposer could could
hardly
hardly useuse anyany dissonances,
dissonances, and and forfor this
this reason
reason all all fast
fast sections
sections in in triple time
triple time
stood
stood outout forfor the
the sparseness
sparseness of
of dissonances.
dissonances. The dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment of
of
baroque
baroque music not
not only permitted
only permitted a
a fast
fast harmonic rhythm,
harmonic rhythm, but supplied but supplied
the main technical
the technical means for for thethe affective
affective style style of of the
the recitative.
recitative. The The old old
dissonance treatment
dissonance treatment was conserved conserved in baroque music
in baroque music only only in
in the
the domain
domain
of the stile
of stile antico* Since the
antico. Since the stile
stile antico
antico was was bound
bound up up with
with church
church music,
music,
the absence
the absence of of modern dissonance
dissonance treatmenttreatment was was interpreted
interpreted by by baroque
baroque
musicians as
musicians as typical
typical of of thethe sacred
sacred style.style. Berardi
Berardi criticized
criticized renaissance
renaissance
music from
music from the the viewpoint
viewpoint of this new standard
of this standard and and declared
declared renaissance
renaissance
music to
music to bebe inferior
inferior to baroque music
to baroque music because
because therethere was,was, as as he
he says,
says, "little
"little
or no difference
or no difference in in style
style between
between aa motet motet and and aa madrigal."
madrigal." Here Here lies lies the
the
root of
root of the opposition between
the opposition between the the sacred
sacred and and the the secular
secular in in music.
music. The The
misleading idea
misleading idea that
that aa certain
certain stylestyle is in itself
is in itself more
more properproper for for the
the church
church
than any
than any other
other came
came forth
forth in in the
the style-conscious
style<onscious baroque baroque period,
period, and and thethe
same idea
same idea continues
continues to afBict us
to afflict us today.
today. Berardi's
Berardi's statement
statement of of fact
fact waswas
correct only
correct only with
with regard
regard to dissonance treatment,
to dissonance treatment, and and hishis conclusion
conclusion was was
based on
based on an an inapplicable
inapplicable standard.
standard. He He was was unable
unable to to see
see that
that the
the unity
unity of of
style in renaissance music was
style in renaissance music was the the secret
secret of its strength,
of its strength, not not its
its weakness.
weakness.
The
The baroque
baroque dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment depended
depended upon upon aa voicevoice able
able to to carry
carry
chords, and
chords, and consequently
consequently the the bass
bass received
received more more attention
attention than than ever
ever before.
before.
Indeed the
Indeed the peculiar
peculiar formform in in which
which the bass was
the bass was made made to serve the
to serve the new
new
function was as characteristic of the baroque
function was as characteristic of the baroque periodperiod as as its
its name:
name: thorough-
thorough-
 Renaissance Versus
Renaissance Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music n
II
bass, or basso continuo. The baroque
bass, or basso continue* baroque era era begins
begins and
and endsends almost
almost exacdy
exacdy
with the
with the thorough-bass
thorough-bass era. era. For
For this
this reason,
reason, Riemann
Riemann has has not
not hesitated
hesitated to to
call the
call the baroque
baroque era Gen~albass-Zeitalter. However,
era Gencrcdbass-Zeitalter. However, this this term,
term, if if strictly
strictly in-in-
terpreted, would not
terpreted, not include
include the the harpsichord
harpsichord and and organ
organ worksworks oof Bach Bach
which havehave no continue,
continuo, and and isis therefore
therefore too too restricted.
restricted. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the
presence
presence of
of the
the continuo
continuo is is aa clear
clear indication
indication of of baroque
baroque style, style, and
and its its
absence, aside
absence, aside from keyboardkeyboard works, works, is is soso exceptional
exceptional as as toto require
require aa
special note
special note by by the
the composer.
composer.
invention of
The invention of the
the continuo
continuo was was aa symptom
symptom ratherrather than
than aa cause.
cause. With
it all
it all aspects
aspects of of melody,
melody, harmony,
harmony, and and counterpoint
counterpoint appeared
appeared in in aa funda-
funda-
mentally changed
mentally changed perspective.
perspective. For For thethe first
first time
time there
there emerged
emerged in in music
music
history aa harmonic
history harmonic polarity
polarity between
between bass bass and
and soprano,
soprano, between
between harmonic
harmonic
support and
support and aa new type type of of melody
melody dependent
dependent on on such
such support.
support. ThisThis polarity
polarity
is the
is the essence
essence of of the
the monodic
monodic style. style. With the the new function
function of of "accom-
"accom-
paniment" relegated
paniment" relegated to to the
the bass,
bass, the
the melody
melody gained
gained freedom
freedom and agility. agility.
How quickly
quickly the the baroque
baroque composers realized the
composers realized the import
import of of the
the polarity
polarity
can be
can be seen
seen in in Agazzari's
Agazzari's novel novel distinction
distinction between
between fundamental
fundamental and and or-or-
namental instruments.
namental instruments. The fundamental fundamental ones ones were
were primarily
primarily the the key-
key-
board instruments
board instruments and and suchsuch others
others as as could
could be be used
used for for the
the continuo.
continuo.
ornamental ones
The ornamental ones were
were the the melody
melody instruments.
instruments. The division division of of funda-
funda-
mental and ornamental
mental ornamental function function in in the
the field
field of instruments directly
of instruments directly
paralleled the
paralleled the dualism
dualism of bass accompaniment
of bass accompaniment and melody. melody. The outermost
outermost
voices acquired,
voices acquired, in
in baroque
baroque music,music, a
a domineering position:
domineering position: bass bass and
soprano furnished the skeleton
soprano furnished the skeleton of the composition.of the composition. This
This structural
structural con-
con-
tour was
tour was the the essential
essential partpart of of the
the music,
music, the the rest
rest could
could be be filled
filled inin at the
at the

discretion
discretion of of the
the improvising
improvising continuo
continuo player.
player. It
It is
is significant that
significant that the
the
filling-in
filling-in could
could be
be left
left to
to improvisation
improvisation because
because the
the structural
structural contour
contour was
assured
assured by by thethe polarity
polarity of of the
the outer
outer voices.
voices.

The new type type ofof melody

melody differed
differed from renaissance
renaissance melodymelody mainly
mainly in in its
its

internal
internal structure
structure and its its rhythm.
rhythm. The limitations
limitations imposed
imposed on the the renais-
renais-

sance
sance composer
composer as as to
to upward
upward and downward skips skips were no longer longer valid.
valid.

The new dissonance

dissonance treatment
treatment implied
implied also
also new melodic
melodic intervals.
intervals. Chro-
matic
matic steps
steps and,and, especially,
especially, augmented
augmented and diminisheddiminished progressions
progressions were
the
the earmarks
earmarks of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque style.
style. All
All of
of these
these intervals
intervals were ex- ex-

perimentally
perimentally tested
tested in
in the
the late
late madrigal
madrigal which led
led from the the renaissance
renaissance
to
to the
the baroque.
baroque. The new intervals intervals then
then became the the stock
stock in in trade
trade of of the
the
affective
affective theatre
theatre style.
style.
The change
change of of melody
melody and and its
its interval
interval structure
structure was directly
directly bound up up
with
with thethe new harmonic
harmonic concepts.
concepts. The intervallic
intervallic harmony
harmony of of the
the renais-
renais-
12 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
sance
sancc admitted
admitted only only triads
triads and
and sixth
sixth chords
chords whilewhile all all other
other combinations
combinations
required
required suspensions.
suspensions. The polarity polarity of of bass
bass and sopranosoprano opened opened the door
to numerous novel
to novel harmonic possibilities
possibilities
which appeared
appeared to to the
the conserva-
conserva-
tives
tives of
of the
the time
time as as the
the beginning
beginning of
of chaos.
chaos. If
If the
the favorite
favorite augmented
augmented and
diminished
diminished intervals
intervals were employed simultaneously,
employed simultaneously, a
a rich
rich vocabulary
vocabulary
of
of altered
altered chords
chords resulted,
resulted, highly
highly characteristic
characteristic of of early
early baroque
baroque style.style.
Seventh
Seventh chords
chords appeared
appeared on the the strong
strong beatbeat without
without preparation.
preparation. Early Early
baroque
baroque harmony
harmony lacked lacked tonal direction, it
tonal direction, it was fullyfully occupied
occupied with the the
experimental exploration
experimental exploration of
of chordal
chordal effects
effects as
as such.
such. The experiments
experiments in in
pre-tonal harmony
pre-tonal harmony led
led finally
finally to
to a clarification in the creation
a clarification in the creation of tonality. of tonality.
Tonality
Tonality may may be be defined
defined as as aa system
system of of chordal
chordal relations
relations basedbased on the the
attraction
attraction of of aa tonal
tonal center.
center. This tonictonic formed the the center
center of of gravitation
gravitation for for
the other
other chords.
chords. It It is
is no mere metaphor
metaphor if
if tonality
tonality is
is explained
explained in
in terms
terms
of
of gravitation.
gravitation. Both tonalitytonality and gravitation
gravitation were were discoveries
discoveries of of the
the baroque
baroque
period made at
period at exactly
exactly thethe same time.time. The profound
profound effects effects of the recog-
of the recog-
nition of
nition tonality persist
of tonality persist eveneven inin the present-day search
the present-day search for for aa new and and
wider conception
wider conception of
of tonality.
tonality. In
In the
the period
period of
of tonal
tonal or
or functional
functional harmony,
harmony,
musical interest concentrated on the
interest was concentrated the regulation
regulation of of chord progressions.
chord progressions.
In renaissance music,
In renaissance harmony was
music, harmony was restricted
restricted to to the regulation of
the regulation of inter-
inter-
vallic combinations.
vallic combinations. The progressionsprogressions from anyone any one combination
combination to to any
any
other, or
other, or what in in modern terminology
terminology would be be called
called the the chord
chord progres-
progres-
sions, were dictated
sions, dictated not not by
by aa tonal
tonal or or harmonic
harmonic principle,
principle, but but byby the
the melodic
melodic
laws of part-writing.
laws part-writing. Since Since the
the individual
individual parts parts were were in in turn
turn guided
guided by by
the rules of the melodic
the rules of the melodic modes,
modes, the the intervallic
intervallic harmonyharmony was was indirectly
indirectly
governed by
governed by modality.
modality. The intervallic
intervallic harmony
harmony of of renaissance
renaissance music music was was
directed by
directed by modality,
modality, the the chordal
chordal harmony
harmony of of the
the late
late baroque
baroque by by tonality.
tonality.
The experimental
experimental harmonyharmony of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque strikingly
strikingly exemplifies
exemplifies the the
transition from the
transition the earlier
earlier to
to the
the later
later conception
conception of of harmony.
harmony. The harmony harmony
of the
of the early
early baroque
baroque was alreadyalready clearly
clearly conceived
conceived in in terms
terms of of chords
chords and and
therefore "modern,"
therefore "modern," but but itit was as as yet
yet free
free fromfrom the the directive
directive force
force of of
tonality, and thus
tonality, thus preserved
preserved aa vestige
vestige of of the
the renaissance
renaissance tradition.
tradition.
The rhythm
rhythm of of renaissance
renaissance music
music was was regulated
regulated by by an
an even
even flow
flow ofof beats,
beats,
the so-called tactus.
the so-called tactus. The movements of of the
the parts
parts and and the the various
various tempi
tempi
were strictly
were strictly bound up up with
with the
the tactus
tactus by by aa mathematical
mathematical system system of of pro-
pro-
portions, in
portions, in sacred
sacred music
music as as well
well asas inin dance
dance music.
music. Syncopations
Syncopations and and ac-ac-
cents were
cents were achieved
achieved by by duration
duration rather
rather thanthan byby dynamic
dynamic stress. stress. The
The baroque
baroque
composers did
composers did notnot altogether
altogether discontinue
discontinue this this kindkind of of rhythm,
rhythm, but but they
they
moved
moved characteristically
characteristically toward rhythmic rhythmic extremes
extremes hardly,hardly, if if ever,
ever, touched
touched
by the
by the renaissance.
renaissance. In In the
the affective
affective recitative
recitative style
style thethe music
music was was subservient
subservient
 Renaissance
Renaissance Versus
Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 13
to the spoken
to the spoken word so so that
that the
the tQ&tus became unimportant.
taetus became unimportant. A radical radical com-com-
poser like
poser like Monteverdi at at times
times discarded
discarded the the beat
beat completely
completely and pre- pre-
scribed
scribed in in his
his recitatives
recitatives an affective
affective delivery
delivery senza
scnza battuta
battuta (without
(without meas-
meas-
ure). In the
ure). the ears
ears of of the
the renaissance
renaissance composer,
composer, such such outrageous
outrageous music music had
no musical rhythmrhythm at
at all
all because
because he was
was not
not able
able even
even to
to imagine
imagine a rhythm
a rhythm
divorced
divorced from the the regularity of the
regularity of the tactus. tactus. To the
the baroque composer the
baroque composer the
newly gained,
newly gained, extra-musical
extra-musical flexibility
flexibility of of rhythm
rhythm deserved
deserved the the highest
highest
praise because
praise because it it allowed
allowed for for the
the most
most slavish
slavish representation
representation of of thethe affec-
affec-

tions.
tions. But this this isis only
only one aspect
aspect of
of baroque rhythm.
baroque rhythm. The composer
composer also also
explored
explored the
the other
other extreme
extreme in
in which
which the
lie tQ&tus
tactus was transformed
transformed to
to
mechanically
mechanically recurrent
recurrent pulsations.
pulsations. They They appeared
appeared first first in
in dance
dance music
music and
then
then alsoalso inin the
the stylized
stylized instrumental
instrumental music. music. The concerto concerto style
style ofof the
the
late
late baroque, especially, exemplifies
baroque, especially, exemplifies an
an almost
almost ruthless
ruthless exploitation
exploitation of
of beats.
beats.

Between the the extremes

extremes of of aa ree
free and a a strictly
strictly mechanical
mechanical rhythm,rhythm, all all in-
in-

termediate
termediate stagesstages of rhythm
of rhythm were used used inin baroque
baroque music.music.
With the the change
change of renaissance to
of renaissance to baroque
baroque all all elements
elements of musical
of musical
structure
structure gained
gained new specific qualities,
specific qualities, even
even if
if the
the single
single elements
elements were
were
common to to both
both styles.
styles. Since
Since the
the single
single elements
elements depended
depended on the
the structure
structure
of
of the whole, each
the whole, each one acquired
acquired a a new meaning,
meaning, as as has
has been
been shown here here
in
in the
the discussion
discussion of of dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, the the function
function of of the
the bass,
bass, melody,
melody,
harmony, and rhythm.
harmony, rhythm.
At thethe beginning
beginning of of the
the baroque period, aa novel
baroque period, novel stylistic
stylistic element
dement made
its
its appearance: idiomatic
appearance: idiomatic writing.
writing. The baroque
baroque era
era consciously
consciously developed
developed
the idiomatic possibilities
the idiomatic possibilities inherent inherent in
in the
the instrumental
instrumental and vocal
vocal media.
media.
The idiom-consciousness
idiom-consciousness of of the
the baroque
baroque era era must be be understood
understood as as another
another
aspect
aspect of
of its
its style-consciousness,
style-consciousness, and nowhere does
does the
the difference
difference between
renaissance and baroque
renaissance baroque music music come more openly openly to to the
the surface
surface than
than here.
here.
The renaissance
renaissance conception
conception of
of musical
musical structure
structure was premised upon
premised upon part- part-
writing
writing which embraced vocal vocal and instrumental
instrumental music alike. alike. ByBy its very
its very

nature this
nature this conception
conception did did not
not stress
stress musical
musical styles
styles idiomatic
idiomatic for particular
for particular
instruments,
instruments, and and consequendy
consequently the the voices
voices of renaissance music could
of renaissance could be
performed
performed vocallyvocally or
or instrumentally, or, conversely,
instrumcntally, or, conversely, instrumental
instrumental parts
parts
were often designated
were often designated "to
"to be
be played
played or
or sung" although
sung" although no words
words were
given. The fact
given. fact that
that voice
voice or or instrument
instrument were were interchangeable
interchangeable shows how
strongly
strongly the
the emphasis
emphasis rested
rested not
not on the
the medium,
medium, but on the realization of
the realization of
the
the single parts.
single parts.
Since
Since the
the structure
structure of of the
the linear
linear parts essential than
parts was more essential than the medium
in which it
in which was realized,
it was realized, the renaissance cannot be regarded
the renaissance cannot be regarded as the age
as the age ofof
the
the a-cappella
a-cappdla style"style, asas popular
popular opinion
opinion has has it. Renaissance and baroque
it. Renaissance baroque
14 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
have
have often
often been
been setset apart,
apart, one
one as as the
the age
age of
of the
the a-cappella
a-cappella idealideal and the the other
other
as
as the
the age
age ofof the
the instrumental
instrumental ideal. ideal. Like
Like every
every oversimplification,
oversimplification, this this one,
one,
also,
also, contained
contained some some truth,
truth, butbut it it imputed a
imputed a standard
standard of of medium-conscious-
medium-conscious-
ness
ness toto renaissance
renaissance music music thatthat waswas foreign
foreign toto it. That voice
it. voice and instruments
instruments
were
were interchangeable
interchangeable even
even in
in church
church music
music can
can be
be proved
proved by by innumerable
innumerable
tide pages
title pages calling
calling explicitly
explicitly for for "the"the 'live
live voice'
voice' or or instruments."
instruments." The
manner of performance was
of performance was flexible
flexible and a a matter
matter of of little
little concern
concern so so long
long
as
as the
the part-structure
part-structure was
was left
left untouched.
untouched. Renaissance
Renaissance mllsic
music allowed,
allowed,
principally,
principally, three three possibilities:
possibilities: performance
performance by by voices
voices alone,
alone, byby instruments
instruments
alone,
alone, andand byby the
the combination
combination of of voices
voices andand instruments,
instruments, the the most
most common
of
of the
the three.
three. A-cappella
A-cappella performance
performance was was only
only one
one possibility
possibility among
among others.
others.
Any
Any classification
classification of of renaissance
renaissance music music that
that does
does notnot consider
consider the the doubling
doubling
or
or replacement
replacement of of voices
voices by by instruments
instruments is is too
too narrow.
narrow.
It
It was thethe baroque
baroque composer
composer who developed developed the the idiomatic
idiomatic characteristics
characteristics
of voice
of voice and instrument,
instrument, and and it it was
was hehe who deployed
deployed them them first
first in
in the
the
concertato style
concertato style ofof the
the early
early baroque.
baroque. With his his flair
flair for
for coloristic
coloristic effects,
effects, hehe
also
also discovered
discovered the the sensuous
sensuous appealappeal of
of the
the a-cappella chorus,
a-cappella chorus, which
which would
would
be ruined if
be ruined if instruments
instruments doubled
doubled the voices. Since
the voices. Since doubling
doubling the the voices was aa
voices was
practice among
common practice among the the renaissance
renaissance composers,
composers, they obviously did
they obviously did notnot
yet fully
yet recognize this
fully recognize this appeal
appeal of the medium. The a-cappella
of the a-cappdla ideal,ideal, which
which .
finds its
finds most dignified
its most expression in
dignified expression in the
the stile
stile antico,
antico, waswas aa creation
creation of of the
the
baroque. Moreover,
baroque. Moreover, the
the term
term a-cappella
a-cappclk itself
itself was
was coined
coined in
in the
the baroque
baroque
period. The example
period. example of of the
the Sistine Chapel, so
Sistine Chapel, so often
often quoted
quoted by by historians
historians
as aa typical
as typical case,
case, is is actually
actually exceptional.
exceptional. The utilization
utilization of of the
the pure
pure
a-cappella effect
a-cappella effect represented
represented only only one one extreme
extreme of of the
the idiom-conscious
idiom-conscious
baroque, complemented
baroque, complemented by by thethe other
other extreme:
extreme: the the strictly
strictly instrumental
instrumental
idiom.
idiom.
Since stSe
Since stile antico
antico and and a-cappella
a-cappella style style were
were practically
practically identical
identical in in the
the
baroque, it
baroque, it is
is easily
easily understandable
understandable why why thethe model
model of stile antico,
of stile antico, thethe
Palestrina style,
Palestrina style, was also also seen
seen in in the
the light
light ofof the
the a-cappella
a-cappella ideal.
ideal. ItIt is
is an
an
ironic misunderstanding
ironic misunderstanding that that the effect of
sensuous effect
the sensuous of the
the a-cappella
a-cappella style,
style, for
for
which the
which the renaissance
renaissance showedshowed littlelittle interest,
interest, has
has contributed
contributed to to the
the mythical
mythical
glorification of renaissance music.
glorification of renaissance music. The modern modern controversy
controversy about about the the
a-cappella ideal
a-cappdla ideal owes
owes part part ofof itsits confusion
confusion to the powerful
to the powerful survival
survival of of
baroque ideas
baroque ideas andand prejudices.
prejudices.
The
The glowing
glowing sonorities
sonorities of of the
the a-cappella
a-cappella chorus
chorus werewere onlyonly one
one color
color on on
the rich palette
the rich of baroque idioms. The
palette of baroque idioms. The idiomatic
idiomatic possibilities
possibilities of of the
the solo
solo
voice were
voice were explored
explored in in the
the remarkable
remarkable virtuosovirtuoso singing
singing of of the
the early
early baroque,
baroque,
and then
and crystallized in
then crystallized in the refined methods
the refined methods of of the
the Italian
Italian bdbel canto. Vocal
canto. Vocal
 Renaissance Versus
Renaissance Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music I5
15
and instrumental
and instrumental ensembles
ensembles sharpened
sharpened the
the ear
ear for
for the
the difference
difference of
of vocal
vocal
and
and instrumental
instrumental idioms, consciously juxtaposed in opera, oratorio,
idioms, consciously juxtaposed in opera, oratorio, and and
cantata. After Gabrieli and
cantata. After Gabrieli and Schiitz
Schutz the the choral
choral idiom
idiom was was distinctly
distinctly divorced
divorced
from
from that of
that of the
the solo
solo ensemble.
ensemble. The The instruments,
instruments, especially,
especially, gradually
gradually
developed specific
developed specific styles,
styles, notably
notably the the violin
violin family,
family, and and toto aa lesser
lesser degree
degree
the wind
the wind instruments.
instruments. Lute Lute and and keyboard
keyboard music,music, too, too, became
became more more idio-
idio-
matic than before, and composers showed
matic than before, and composers showed great resourcefulness great resourcefulness in
in taking
taking
advantage of
advantage of the
the peculiar
peculiar aptitudes
aptitudes and and weaknesses
weaknesses of of the
the respective
respective
instruments. In
instruments. In renaissance
renaissance music music itit cannot
cannot be be decided
decided categorically
categorically on on the
the
basis of the
basis of the style
style whether
whether the the music
music waswas intended
intended for for voices
voices oror instruments,
instruments,
except for
except for lutelute andand keyboard
keyboard pieces.pieces. In In baroque
baroque music music the the musical
musical
style and, sometimes, even certain forms were bound up with
style and, sometimes, even certain forms were bound up
with thethe me-
dium in
dium in novel
novel fashion.
fashion. Nobody
Nobody can can mistake
mistake the the violin
violin character
character of of aa con-
con-
grosso by
certo grosso
certo by Vivaldi,
Vivaldi, which
which was was conceived
conceived from from the the outset
outset in in this
this me-
me-
dium.
dium.
With the
With the discovery
discovery of of idioms
idioms in the baroque,
in the baroque, new possibilities
possibilities arose
arose from
the deliberate exchange
the deliberate exchange of of idioms between different
idioms between different instruments,
instruments, or or
between instrument
between instrument and voice. This
and voice. transfer of
This transfer of idioms
idioms forms
forms one of of the
the
most
most fascinating
fascinating aspectsaspects of of baroque
baroque music.
music. Lute
Lute ornaments
ornaments could could be trans-
trans-

ferred to the harpsichord,

ferred to the harpsichord, vocal
vocal techniques
techniques could
could be
be imitated
imitated by
by the
the violin,
violin,
and
and violin
violin figuration
figuration could could appear
appear in in organ
organ music.
music. In the late
In the late baroque
baroque a a
rich
rich interchange
interchange and and interpenetration
interpenetration of of idioms
idioms can can bebe observed
observed which
reached
reached almost
almost incredible
incredible complexity.
complexity. Vocal
Vocal and
and instrumental
instrumental idioms
idioms were
not
not fixed
fixed entities; they constantly
entities; they constantly infiuenced
influenced one
one another,
another, developed
developed
analogous techniques,
analogous techniques, and the and the new idiom
idiom could
could in
in turn
turn infiuence
influence the
original one. In the late baroque, voice and instrument often
original one. In the late baroque, voice and instrument
often competed
competed on on
equal
equal terms
terms and'their
and their idioms
idioms became
became almostalmost undistinguishable.
undistinguishable. Here the the
exchange
exchange of
of idioms
idioms was
was carried
carried to
to an
an extreme
extreme that
that seems
seems to contradict
to contradict the the
principle
principle
itself.
itself. However, paradoxically
However, paradoxically enough, enough, the
the instrumental
instrumental handling
handling
of the voice
of the must be
voice must be recognized
recognized as as one
one ofof the
the vocal
vocal idioms
idioms of of the
the time.
time. The

same
same paradox
paradox can can bebe seen
seen in in baroque
baroque gardengarden architecture,
architecture, which forced forced
shrubs
shrubs andand trees
trees toto grow
grow in in geometrical
geometrical patterns
patterns or or in
in the
the shapes
shapes of of animals.
animals.

Baroque composers
Baroque composers went
went aa step
step further
further in
in the
the exchange
exchange of
of idioms
idioms and
and
transposed entire
transposed entire forms, forms, with
with all
all their
their stylistic peculiarities,
stylistic peculiarities, from
from one
one
medium
medium to to another.
another. The The church
church sonata
sonata could
could bebe transferred
transferred to the keyboard,
to the keyboard,
the
the recitative
recitative couldcould become
become an an instrumental
instrumental form, form, and and thethe organ
organ prelude
prelude
could
could bebe projected
projected into
into the
the choral
choral medium.
medium. The
The transpositions
transpositions presented
presented
each
each time
time aa special stylistic problem which challenged the
special stylistic problem which challenged
the ingenuity
ingenuity of of the
the
composer.
composer. We We cannot
cannot properly
properly understand
understand the impressive
the impressive range range of musical
of musical
 Renaissance Versus
Renaissance Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music I7
17
common seems
common seems rather
rather insignificant
insignificant in in the
the light
light of of what
what separates
separates them. them. YetYet
what they
what they share are,
share are, besides
besides minor
minor traits,
traits, the
the recitative
recitative and and the the continue,
continuo,
two fundamental devices
two devices of of baroque
baroque music.
music. In In their
their artistic
artistic application,
application,
however, the
however, the differences
differences are are again
again moremore important
important than than the the similarities.
similarities.
Only
Only the
the internal
internal history
history of
of the
the baroque
baroque era
era can
can offer
offer a
a satisfactory
satisfactory ex- ex-
planation
planation of
of the
the striking developments that unfold
striking developments that unfold in the span between in the span between
Gabrieli and Handel.
Gabrieli Handel. The baroque baroque stylestyle went
went through
through several
several phasesphases that
that
not even
do not even coincide
coincide in in different
different countries.
countries. They They can can be be grouped
grouped into into
three major
three major periods:
periods: early,
early, middle,
middle, and and late
late baroque.
baroque. Although
Although the the periods
periods
actually overlap
actually overlap in
in time,
time, theythey can
can roughly
roughly be
be dated
dated as
as follows:
follows: the
the first
first

1580 to
from 1580 1630, the
to 1630, the second
second from 1630 to
from 1630 1680, and
to 1680, and thethe last
last from
from 16801680 toto
1730 These spans
1730. spans indicate
indicate onlyonly the the formative
formative periodsperiods of of the
the new concepts
concepts
with which the
with the previous
previous ones
ones may may run run parallel
parallel for for some
some time.
time. It It must also
must also
be clearly
be clearly understood
understood that that the
the dates
dates apply
apply only
only to to Italy,
Italy, from
from which
which baroque
baroque
music received
music received its its main impulses.
impulses. In In the
the other
other countries,
countries, the the respective
respective
periods began
periods began about
about tenten or
or twenty
twenty yearsyears later
later than
than in in Italy.
Italy. Thus it it becomes
becomes
understandable that
understandable around 1730,
that around 1730, when Italy
Italy had
had already
already turned
turned to the
to the
style galant, Germany brought
style galant, Germany brought baroque baroque music
music to
to its
its consummation.
consummation.
A short characterization of
short characterization the three
of the three periods
periods will will serve
serve to elucidate their
to elucidate their
important differences with regard to style. In
important differences with regard to style. In early baroque style early baroque style two ideas
ideas
prevailed: the
prevailed the opposition
:
opposition to to counterpoint
counterpoint and the the most
most violent interpretation
violent interpretation
of the words,
of the realized in
words, realized in the
the affective
affective recitative
recitative in in free rhythm. With it
free rhythm. it

appeared
appeared an
an extraordinary
extraordinary desire
desire for
for dissonance.
dissonance. The harmony
harmony was experi-
experi-
mental
mental and and pre-tona~
pre-tonal, thatthat is,is, its
its chords
chords were not not yet yet tonally
tonally directed.
directed. For

this
this reason
reason the the power
power to to sustain
sustain a a longer
longer movement was lacking, lacking, and in in
consequence
consequence all all forms
forms were
were on a a small
small scale
scale and sectional.
sectional. The differenti-
differenti-

ation
ation of of vocal
vocal and instrumental
instrumental idioms idioms began,
began, vocal
vocal music being
being in in the
leading position.
leading position.
The middle
middle baroque
baroque period
period brought
brought above above all the bel-canto
all the bel-canto style style in the
cantata
cantata andand opera,
opera, andand with
with it it the
the distinction
distinction between aria aria and recitative.
recitative.

The single
single sections
sections of of musical
musical forms forms beganbegan to to grow
grow and contrapuntal
contrapuntal
texture
texture was
was reinstituted.
reinstitutcd. The modes modes were were reduced
reduced to to major
major and minor,
minor, and
the chord progressions
the chord progressions were
were governed
governed by by aa rudimentary
rudimentary tonality which
tonality
restrained
restrained the the free
free dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment of of the early
the early baroque.
baroque. Vocal Vocal and and
instrumental
instrumental music music werewere ofof equal
equal importance.
importance.
The latelate baroque
baroque style style is
is distinguished
distinguished by by a u11yfully established
established tonality
tonality
which
which regulated
regulated chord
chord progressions,
progressions, dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, and the formal
formal
structure.
structure. The contrapuntal technique
contrapuntal technique culminated in the
the u11
full absorption
absorption of of
tonal
tonal harmony.
harmony. The forms forms grewgrew to to large
large dimensions.
dimensions. The concerto styleconcerto style
IS
18 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
appeared and with it the emph::.sis on mechanical rhythm. The
appeared and with it the emphasis on mechanical rhythm.
The exchange
exchange
of idioms
of idioms reached
reached its its highest
highest point.point. VocalVocal music was dominated by
music was dominated by
instrumental music.
instrumental music.
These phases
These phases of of the
the baroque
baroque style style must
must be be kept
kept in in sight
sight if if the
the gap
gap between
between
Monteverdi
Monteverdi and
and Bach
Bach is
is to
to be
be discussed.
discussed. It
It might
might be
be argued
argued that,
that, in
in view of
view of
the stylistic differences within the
the stylistic differences within the baroque era, baroque era, there
there is
is no need
need to
to retain
retain

the larger
the larger termterm "baroque
"baroque era" era" at at all.
all. However,
However, the the comparison
comparison of of renais-
renais-
sance and
sance and baroque
baroque musicmusic has has shown
shown that that thethe baroque
baroque era era as as aa whole
whole
differs from
differs from the the renaissance
renaissance era era much more more fundamentally
fundamentally than than early,
early,
middle, and late baroque
middle, and late baroque styles styles do
do among
among themselves.
themselves. In
In spite
spite of
of their
their

particular qualities, the three styles are

particular qualities, the three styles are linked together by
linked together by the
the inner
inner unity
unity
of the
of the period
period whichwhich comes
comes to to light
light only
only in in aa comparison
comparison on aa higher higher level.
level.
It should
It should also also bebe noted
noted that that thethe distinction
distinction of of the
the three
three stylistic
stylistic groups
groups
within the
within the baroque
baroque is is made
made eveneven more
more complex
complex by by the
the national
national styles
styles which
which
cut across the styles of
cut across the styles of the period. the period. The recognition
recognition of
of national
national styles
styles by by
baroque writers
baroque writers further
further illustrates
illustrates their
their style-consciousness.
style-consciousness.
question of
The question of renaissance
renaissance versus versus baroque
baroque has has beenbeen discussed
discussed so so far
far on
the basis
the basis of of aa comparative
comparative analysis.analysis. There
There remain,
remain, however,
however, some char-
char-

acteristics
acteristics of
of the
the baroque
baroque that
that do
do not
not fall
fall into
into this
this category. They
category. They are are
incomparable with
incomparable with the
the renaissance
renaissance because
because they they are are unique.
unique. greatA great variety
variety
of
of forms, techniques, and
forms, techniques, and idioms
idioms was was created
created in in thethe baroque
baroque era for the
era for the
first
first time
time in music history,
in music history, providing
providing a
a fund of
of musical
musical material
material that
that has
has
survived
survived in in various
various transformations
transformations to to the
the present
present day. day. The baroquebaroque saw
the
the first development
first development of
of the
the opera,
opera, the
the oratorio,
oratorio, and the
the cantata;
cantata; and the the
creation
creation of of the
the solo
solo sonata,
sonata, the the trio
trio sonata,
sonata, and the the chamber duet. duet. It It was

the
the ageage ofof thethe prelude
prelude and fugue, fugue, the
the chorale
chorale prelude,
prelude, and the
the chorale
chorale
fantasy.
fantasy. It It instituted
instituted the the important
important forms forms of of the
the concerto
concerto grossogrosso and the the
solo
solo concerto.
concerto. The baroquebaroque reached
reached the
the first
first peak
peak in
in the
the history
history of
of opera
opera in in
the
the works of of Scarlatti
Scarlatti and Handel, the first
Handel, the first peak of peak of the
the concerto
concerto in
in the
the
works of of Vivaldi
Vivaldi and Bach, Bach, and the the first
first peak
peak of of the
the oratorio
oratorio in in the
the works of of
Handel.
Handel. The baroque baroque created
created the
the unique
unique dramatic
dramatic ~on~ertato
concertato style
style of
of which
Gabrieli,
Gabrieli, Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, and Schutz Schiitz werewere the the leading
leading masters.
masters. It It represents,
represents,
finally,
finally, in
in the
the works of
of Bach,
Bach, the
the greatest period
greatest period of
of organ
organ music, and like-
music, like-

wise
wise the
the greatest period of Protestant
greatest period of Protestant church music. church music.
The heritage
heritage of of baroque
baroque music has has been so so stupendous
stupendous that that itit has,
has, time
time
and again,
again, been a
a challenge
challenge to
to later
later generations.
generations. The recognition
recognition of
of the
the
greatness
greatness of
of baroque
baroque music has
has developed slowly,
developed slowly, beginning beginning in
in piecemeal
piecemeal
fashion
fashion at at the end of of the
the classic
classic period.
period. It It rose
rose during
during the the romantic
romantic period,period,
paradoxically,
paradoxically, by by way
way of of misunderstandings,
misunderstandings, and has has assumed
assumed impressive
impressive
 Renaissance Versus
Renaissance Versus Baroque
Baroque Music
Music 19
19
proportions today
proportions today inin the
the revival
revival of of baroque
baroque music.
music. The
The relevancy
relevancy of of this
this
revival to
revival to our
our musical
musical life
life should
should notnot bebe explained
explained as as the
the result
result ofof a freak
a freak
coincidence, nor
coincidence, by the
nor by the fact
fact thatthat industrious
industrious musicologists
musicologists have have happened
happened
to unearth
to unearth suchsuch music.
music. ItIt isis significant
significant that
that modern
modern composers,
composers, consciously
consciously
and unconsciously,
and unconsciously, return
return to to formal
formal and
and technical
technical devices
devices of of the
the baroque
baroque
style
style and
and make
make them
them serve
serve a
a new
new function
function in
in modern
modern music.
music.
It must
It must be be pointed
pointed out,
out, however,
however, thatthat the
the modern revival
revival of of baroque
baroque
music is
music is limited
limited almost
almost exclusively
exclusively to to works
works inin late
late baroque
baroque style,
style, and thethe
music historian
music historian cannot
cannot helphelp wondering
wondering whether
whether aa new legendlegend is is in
in the
the
making which
making which mistakes
mistakes the
the latelate baroque
baroque style
style for
for baroque
baroque music
music in in general.
general.
It is
It is devoutly
devoutly to to be
be wished
wished that that the
the qualities
qualities ofof early
early baroque
baroque music,
music, soso
frequently
frequently obscured
obscured by touched-up performances,
by touched-up performances, will
will receive
receive their
their well-
well-
deserved attention.
deserved attention. Whether or or not
not the
the new legend
legend ofof baroque
baroque music will will
stand in
stand in the
the way
way ofof aa more
more enlightened
enlightened evaluation
evaluation cannot yet
cannot yet be decided.
be decided.
However this
However this may
may be,
be, the
the revival
revival ofof Handel
Handel operas,
operas, and
and the
the controversies
controversies
about the
about the "correct"
"correct" performance
performance of of Bach,
Bach, demonstrate
demonstrate thatthat baroque
baroque music
has ceased
has ceased toto be
be merely
merely aa historical
historical issue.
issue. It
It has
has become aa living
living force
force inin the
the
music of
music of our
our day.
day.
 CHAPTER <TWO

Early Baroque in Italy

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ConCCTtatO STYLE! GABRIELI

turn of the sixteenth century discloses a bewilder-
at the

ing diversity of conflicting techniques, styles, forms, and terms

MUSIC which always characterizes a period of transition in music
history. This diversity was gathered into a more unified style in the works
of three pre-eminent composers who decided the future course of music:
Giovanni Gabrieli, the master of church music; Monteverdi, the most
universal composer of the early baroque; and Frescobaldi, the genius o

keyboard music.
The first intimations of a stylistic change can be discerned in the Venetian
school during the latter half of the sixteenth century. The music for double

chorus, or cori spezzati, was brought to fame (not invented, as it is frequent-

ly claimed) by Willaert, choirmaster at San Marco, the architecture of which
lent itself singularly well to such experiments. He introduced into music
the elements of space and contrast, and the fashion of echo effects which
was become an important device in the hands of baroque composers.
to
The composition into two opposing bodies o
spatial organization of a
sound was accentuated by the use of instruments together or in alternation
with the voices. Whereas the colla-parte
practice of the renaissance per-
mitted that instruments substitute for or double vocal parts, a new practice

appeared under the name of conccrtato or concerto, a term that became the
veritablewatchword of early baroque music. The term, probably derived
from conccrtarc =
to compete, had at first various connotations and
usually
referred to competing or contrasted
groups, or, most important, to the
combination of voices and instruments. It occurred
sporadically through-
out the sixteenth century, but served as a title first in the Concerti . . .
per
stromcnti (1587) by Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli. In the
tfoci et
preface
to his Penitential Psalms (1583) Andrea Gabrieli
prescribed the use of
instruments and voices "together and
separately," but in both collections
the particulars of the combination were left to the discretion of the
per-
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy
21
21
former,
former,in inkeeping
keepingwith withthe ad-libitum tradition
thead-libitum traditionof ofthe
therenaissance.
renaissance.Toward Toward
the end of
theend of the
the century the term became fashionable,
fashionable, as foras for example in the
century the term became example in the
Intermedii et
lntermedii et Concerti,
Concerti, edited
edited by Malvezzi (1591), and in
by Malvezzi (1591), and in three collectionsthree collections
with the
with the favorite
favorite title
ecclesiastici, one one with
with works
works by Andrea
tide Concerti
Concerti ecclesiastici,
by Andrea
Gabrieli and other
Gabrieli and
composers (1590),
other composers (1595),
(1590), another
another by by Banchieri
Banchieri and
(1595), and the
the
third by
third Viadana (1602).
by Viadana (1602).
Malvezzi,
Malvezzi, who who gave
gave in in his
his collection
collection an an unusually
unusually precise and illuminat-
precise and illuminat-
ing
ing account
account of of the music for
the music for the
the wedding
wedding festivities
festivities of
of Ferdinand
Ferdinand of of Medici,
Medici,
recorded
recorded notnot only
only the
the colorful,
colorful, varied
varied vocal
vocal and instrumental combinations,
and instrumental combinations,
but
but even
even thethe embellishments
embellishments that that the the performers
performers had had improvised.
improvised. The
The
music
music ranged
ranged from instrumentally
from instrumentally accompanied
accompanied solo solo songs
songs to to polychoral
polychoral
compositions
compositions for instruments and voices.
for instruments voices.1 Instrumental
1
Instrumental ensemblesensembles were were
called
called here
here "concerto"
"concerto" or or even
even "concerto
"concerto grosso."
grosso." In
In his
his Concerti
Concerti ecclesi-
ecclesi-
astici for
for double
double chorus BanchieriBanchieri supplied
astici supplied a a rudimentary
rudimentary organ organ score
score for
for
the
the first
first chorus
chorus only.only. The fact
fact that
that there
there was
was an
an organ accompaniment
organ accompaniment
justified
justified in
in itself
itself the
the title
title concerto,
concerto, and and allall works
works with with aa chordal
chordal accompani-
accompani-
ment were
ment were called concertato style" with the general implication of
called "in concertato style" with the general implication of
"modern style."
"modern style." It It is
is symptomatic, however, that
symptomatic, however, that the concertato style
the concertato style
developed first in
developed first in the many-voiced
many-voiced compositions
compositions of
of the
the Venetian
Venetian school
school
where
where the of instruments
aid of
the aid instruments was needed needed first.
first. In In the
the early
early concertato
concertato *2 aa
stylistic differentiation
stylistic differentiation betweenbetween instrumental
instrumental and and vocal
vocal writing
writing did did notnot yet
yet
exist. It took
exist. It took aa composer
composer of of eminent
eminent genius genius like like Gabrieli
Gabrieli to to realize
realize thethe
possibilities inherent
possibilities inherent in in the
the new medium.
Giovanni Gabrieli (I557-16I2) received
Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612) received his his musical
musical education
education from from hishis
uncle Andrea
uncle Andrea in in Venice,
Venice, probably
probably served
served for for aa time
time in in Munich
Munich under under Lasso,
Lasso,
and, when
and, when onlyonly twenty-seven
twenty-seven years years of of age,
age, became
became organist
organist at at San
San Marco,
Marco,
after he
after he had-brilliantly
had-brilliantly passed passed thethe severe
severe tests
tests thatthat every
every applicant
applicant to to the
the
coveted position
coveted position had had to to take.
take. Only
Only comparatively
comparatively few few of of Gabricli's
Gabrieli's worksworks
appeared in
appeared in print
print during
during his his lifetime,
lifetime, notably
notably Part Part II of of the
the Sacrae
Sacrae
Symphoniae (1597)
Symfhoniae (1597) containing containing vocal
vocal and
and instrumental compositions
instrumental compositions for for
six to sixteen voices. A
six to sixteen voices. A definite stylistic
definite stylistic change
change can can be be observed
observed in in his
his later
later
works, all
works, all printed
printed posthumously
posthumously in 1615, asas ifif by
in 1615, by secret
secret agreement.
agreement. They They
comprisePart
comprise PartIIIIof ofthe
theSacrae
SacraeSymphoniae
Symphoniae (six (sixto nineteenvoices),
tonineteen voices), Canzoni
Canzoni
et Sonate
et (three to
Sonate (three to twenty
twenty voices),
voices), and and Reliquae
Reliquae Sacrorum
Sacrorum Conccntum.
Concentum.
The
Thelast
lastcollection
collectionpresents
presentsworks worksby byGabrieli
Gabrieliand andHassler,
Hassler,who whomaintained
maintained
1
Examples in
1Examples in Kinkeldcy,
Kinkeldey, Orgel
Orgel und
unaKlavier; Goldschmidt, Studicn,
KJa1lier; Goldschmidt, Schneider.
Stuaien, I;I; Schneider,
Anfiingedes
Anfange aesBasso
Basso Continue;
Continuo;and and Haas,
Haas, Auffukrungspraxis,
AuOuhrungspraxis, 119.II9.
2
Althoughthere
2Although thereexists definiteififtenuous
existsaadefinite tenuousrelation
relationbetween
between the
theearly
earlyand
and die
thelate
late
baroquemeaning
baroque meaningof of"concerto,"
"concerto."ititseems advisableininview
seemsadvisable viewof
ofthe
theimportant
importantstylistic dif-
stylisticdif-
ferences totoretain
ferences retain the
theform
formconcertato
concertatofor for early
earlybaroque
baroquecompositions
compositionsand
and totoreserve
reserve
theother
the otherterm
termfor
forthe
theconcerto
concertoproper.
proper.
22 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
aa lifelong
lifelong friendship
friendship thatthat began
began during
during their
their years
years ofof study
study with Andrea
Gabrieli,
Gabrieli, and who died died inin the
the same year.
year.
In
In his
his earlier
earlier works
works Gabrieli
Gabrieli showed himself himself a a consummate master master of of the
the
magical
magical effects
effects of
of many~voiced
many-voiced texture.
texture. With an
an uncanny
uncanny sense
sense for
for color
color he
wrote for
for as
as many
many as
as seven
seven or
or eight
eight real
real voices,
voices, interwoven
interwoven in
in infinite
infinite variety.
variety.
He combined choruses
choruses of of different
different registers,
registers, thus
thus heightening
heightening the the element
of
of space
space with
with that
that ofof color.
color. Although
Although instruments
instruments were not not specified,
specified, the
the
extreme
extreme range
range of
of the
the compositions
compositions from the
the low C to
to the
the high
high of' made
a"
them necessary,
necessary, eveneven if if they
they had not not been
been implicitly
implicitly prescribed
prescribed in in the
the
Concerti
Concerti ofof 1587.
1587. A report
report of
of the
the time
time 3
3 specifically
specifically mentioned the
the "grand
"grand
harmony"
harmony" that that was brought
brought aboutabout byby the
the mixture
mixture of of voices
voices and instruments
instruments
in
in the
the Venetian
Venetian church
church service.
service. The earlyearly works preserved
preserved the the even pulse
even pulse
of
of renaissance
renaissance music;
music; and in in the
the harmonic
harmonic and melodic melodic progressions
progressions also also

there
there were onlyonly occasional
occasional hints
hints of
of the
the future
future break
break with
with the
the renaissance
renaissance
tradition.
tradition.

Gabrieli's
Gabrieli's later works, composed
later works, composed probably after 1600,
probably after 1600, breathe
breathe a revolution~
a revolution-
ary spirit
ary affecting
spirit affecting all
all aspects
aspects of
of composition:
composition: dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, melodic
melodic
design, rhythmic
design, rhythmic flow, Bow, the
the attitude
attitude toward
toward the
the words,
words, and the
the disposition
disposition of of
vocal
vocal and instrumental
instrumental parts.parts. The composer
composer now seized
seized upon
upon the
the words
words
with aa fervor
with fervor and intensity
intensity of of affection unprecedented in
affection unprecedented in sacred music. In
sacred music. In
the motet Timor ct
the motet et Tremor (Ex. (Ex. 1 a) "fear
i a) "fear and
and trembling"
trembling" is represented in
is represented in

Ex.
Ex. I.a. Gabrieli: Timor et
Giovanni Gabrieli:
r.a. Giovanni et tremor.
tremor.
~~
Ti mor
mor et tre
et trl! mar
moT
11

.., ... m r-~'" ....__ ,.11'*..... w

- Ti
Ti _ - ~ mJt et
et

Ti - mor
1 tre - - - - - mor~ tre -
A ~ I
=== " 1-

Tl - - mor let 'tre- ~

ti [moa

mor

8 Pirro,
*Pirro, Schuttz. 19.
ScJiiitz, 19.
 Early Baroque in
Early Baroque in Italy
Italy 23
23
graphic
graphic fashion
fashion with literally
literally "breathtaking"
"breathtaking" rests, jagged figures,
rests, jagged figures, descend-
descend-
ing
ing sixths,
sixths, augmented
augmented "false"
"false" intervals,
intervals, and
and strong
strong dissonances;
dissonances; this
this music
music
violates
violates nearly
nearly all
all rules
rules of
of sixteenth-century counterpoint.
sixteenth-century counterpoint. The beginning is
beginning is

based on aa contrast
based contrast motive characterized
characterized by closely juxtaposed
by closely juxtaposed notes
notes of
of
very
very long
long and very
very short time value.
short time value. The nervous
nervous and
and discontinuous
discontinuous rhythm
rhythm
of
of these
these motives is is totally at
totally at variance
variance with the continuous
with the continuous flow
flow of the old
of the old
style.
style. The motet Exattdi
Exaudi deus
deus (1565) by
(1565) by Andrea Gabrieli
Gabrieli (Ex. I
i
(Ex. b) b) shows
by
by comparison
comparison the
the restraint
restraint with
with which
which aa true renaissance composer
true renaissance composer setset the
the
words. 4
same words.'

Ex. I.b. Gabrieli: Timor

i.b. Andrea Gabrieli: Timor et
ct tremor.
tremor.

- - -
- -- t
.. tI TI - - mOl
mor eet tIe
tie - mot
mor

lOll
TI
Ti mor ~t
et It: blr_ 'V
tre
l'
- tor
. mor
- Tl
Ti -- mar
I
mor
. et
et Ira
tre

~ 1-
-
;;
TI . .ror et t1e
tie .
- . mot

The radical
radical stylistic
stylistic change
change inin the
the works
works ofof Giovanni
Giovanni Gabrieli
Gabrieli can also be
also be

observed
observed if
if his
his two settings
settings of
of 0O lesu
Jesu mi dtllcissime
dulcissime are
are compared:
compared. '
5
In
In Part
Part
II of the Sar:rae
of the Sacrae Symphoniae
Symphoniae the the text
text is
is conservatively
conservatively treated
treated asas double-
double-
shorus; in Part II it appears again, set
shorus; in Part II it appears again, set this time inthis time in modern fashion with
fashion with
contrast
contrast motives.
motives. The invocative
invocative gesture
gesture of the beginning
of the beginning contains rhythmic
contains rhythmic
and melodic
melodic tensions
tensions unknown to to renaissance
renaissance composers.
composers. Contrast
Contrast motives
motives
with
with their
their intricate
intricate and crotchety rhythms represent
crotchety rhythms represent one of
of the
the character-
character-
istics
istics of
of the conccrtato style.
the concertato style. They
They appeared first in
appeared first in the
the madrigal
madrigal of of the
the
late
late sixteenth
sixteenth century
century and were then then transplanted
transplanted to to sacred
sacred music by by
Gabrieli.
Gabrieli. He conferred
conferred on the the playful
playful and experimental
experimental motives of
of the
madrigal an
madrigal an affective profundity not
affective profundity not dreamed of of before.
before.
With regard
regard to
to dissonant
dissonant combinations,
combinations, too, Gabrieli
too, Gabrieli ventured
ventured boldly
boldly
into
into uncharted
uncharted regions,
regions, asas can
can be be seen
seen in his insistent
in his use of
insistent use of "false"
"false**

intervals-that
intervals that is is melodic
melodic dissonances
dissonances not tolerated in
not tolerated in renaissance music.
renaissance music.
He underlined
underlined significant
significant words by
by diminished
diminished fourths,
fourths, tritones,
tritones, and
augmented
augmented triads
triads which appear usually
appear usually in
in first
first inversion.
inversion. This chord-form,
chord-form,
which
which presents
presents the
the diminished
diminished fourth
fourth between the the upper
upper voices,
voices, became a a

commonplace, if
commonplace, if not
not a hackneyed, device
a hackneyed, device inin the
the pre-tonal phase of
pre-tonal phase of baroque
baroque
,4 Compare
Compare also
also Lasso's
Lasso's motet
motet on these words, CE 19>
these words. 19, 673.
673.
Winterfeld, Gabriel;
a5 Winterfeld, m,
122, and Chorwt!1'k,.
Gabrieli III, 122, Chorwcrk 10. 10.
24 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
harmony
harmony to to which
which the works of
the works of Monteverdi, Frescobald~ and Schlitz
Monteverdi, Frescobaldi, Schutz attest.
attest

The favorite
favorite place
place for
for sharp
sharp dissonances
dissonances was
was the
the cadence.
cadence.
Gabrieli's
Gabrieli's latelate works
works contain
contain specific
specific directions
directions as as to
to the
the combination
combination of of
voices
voices and and instruments
instruments althoughalthough they they do do notnot appear
appear very very consistendy.
consistently.
Several
Several compositions
compositions are
arc scored
scored for
for voices
voices and
and instrumental
instrumental ensembles,
ensembles,
consisting
consisting of
of violins,
violins, cornetti
cornctti (wooden trumpets), trombones,
(wooden trumpets), trombones, bassoons, bassoons,
and
and bass
bass viols
viols inin highly
highly coloristic
coloristic combinations.
combinations. In In Suscipe
Suscipe clementissime
ckmcntissimc
aa six-voice
six-voice chorus
chorus stands
stands against
against a
a second
second chorus
chorus for
for six
six trombones;
trombones; and inin

o gloriosa virgo
gloriosa virgo he
he combined
combined three
three choruses
choruses in
in the
the bass
bass register
register which
set
set aa modd
model for for similarly
similarly somber
somber compositions
compositions of of Monteverdi
Monteverdi and, and, especially,
especially,
Schutz. Each
Schiitz. Each chorus
chorus was was aa self-contained
self-contained unit unit that
that could
could bebe placed
placed separately
separately
in the
in the various
various lofts
lofts andand galleries
galleries of
of the
the church.
church.
The magnificent
magnificent twdve-voice
twelve-voice motetmotet In Ecclesiis 8 calls
In Ecclesiis* calls for
for anan orchestra
orchestra
of three cornati,
of three cornctti, viola,
viola, and
and two
two trombones,
trombones, and and contrasts
contrasts a a full
full chorus
chorus oror
cappella
cappclla with
with a
a solo
solo quartet.
quartet. Here
Here Gabrieli
Gabrieli took
took the
the first
first step
step toward
toward aa
differentiation
differentiation between
between choral choral and
and solosolo ensemble,
ensemble, fully fully devdoped
developed by by later
later

baroque composers.
baroque composers. The end
end of
of the
the composition
composition should
should be
be noted
noted as
as one
one
of
of the
the rare
rare occasions
occasions where where he he tentatively
tentatively differentiated
differentiated the
the choral
choral idiom
idiom
from
from intricate soloistic concertato
intricate soloistic concertato sections
sections that that could
could be performed only
be performed only
by trained
by trained virtuosi.
virtuosi.

The instruments
instruments sometimes
sometimes doubled
doubled the voices at
the voices at the
the octave
octave and some- some-
times
times moved independently
independently in in aa concerted
concerted ensemble.
ensemble. The technique
technique of of
extensive
extensive doublings
doublings in in highest
highest and
and lowest
lowest registers
registers waswas first
first suggested
suggested by by
the
the mixture
mixture stopsstops of of the
the organ
organ which
which Gabrieli
Gabrieli transferred
transferred to to the
the vocal
vocal
setting.
setting. In
In compositions
compositions without
without specified orchestration,
specified orchestration, the
the sdection
selection of
of
instruments
instruments was was left
left to
to the
the arranger
arranger who made his his choice
choice according
according to to the
the
clefs,
clefs, as
as we learn
learn from
from a a detailed
detailed account
account in Praetorius' Syntagma
in Praetorius' Syntagma Musi-
Musi-
cum. In In compositions
compositions for for three
three and
and eveneven fourfour choruses
choruses Gabrieli
Gabrieli achieved
achieved
vibrant
vibrant sonorities
sonorities and sweeping sweeping color color effects
effects thatthat remind
remind one one of of the
the
monumental paintingspaintings of
of Tintoretto.
Tintoretto. The motets
motets were
were punctuated by
punctuated by
ritornelli,
ritornelli, and joyful
joyful refrain
refrain passages
passages on Alleluia
Alleluia in
in a
a livdy
lively triple meter,
triple meter,
as
as indicated
indicated by by the proportio tripla.
the proportio tripla. Repetitions
7
T
Repetitions of of words,
words, so so ridiculed
ridiculed by by
the Camerata.
the Camerata, served,
served, likelike the
the sudden
sudden changeschanges in
in tempo
tempo and
and the
the contrast
contrast

HAM, no.no. 157;

157; also
also in Wintcrfcld, op.
in Wmter:feld, op, cit.
cit.

meaning of
rr The meaning of the
the proporlio mpJa
proportio tripla has been frequently
has been frequently misunderstood
misunderstood by by mod-
mod-
ern conductors,
ern conductors, as
as for example in
for example in the recording of
the recording In eroesiis
of In by Gabricli.
ecclesiis by Gabrieli. The
The
change
change to triple
triple meter
meter always
always coincides
coincides with
with an
an accelerated
accelerated tempo because the
tempo because the three
three
of the new meter take
beats of
beats take only the same
only the same time
time as two beats
the two
as the of the
beats of the preceding
preceding
meter.
meter.
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 25
motives, the
motives, the purpose
purpose ofof emphatic
emphatic intensification.
intensification. Gabrieli's
Gabrieli's style
style was
was on
on
the whole
the whole still
still contrapuntal,
contrapuntal, although the
although the many-voiced settings tended
many-voiced settings tended
toward aa chordal,
toward chordal, though
though not yet tonal,
not yet tonal, conception
conception of
of voice-leading.
voice-leading. With
With
the increase
the increase of
of voices
voices the
the harmonies
harmonies became
became more
more and
and more
more static,
static, but
but
they were
they were vivified
vivified by
by cascades
cascades ofof figuration
figuration and
and coalesccnt
coalescent imitations
imitations
within aa stable
within stable chord.
chord. This
This neatly
neatly imitative
imitative "miniature"
"miniature" or
or "open"
"open" work,
work,
one of
one of the
the main
main devices
devices of
of the concertato, presents
the conccrtato, presents in
in spite
spite of
of its
its contra-
contra-
puntal appearance
puntal appearance an
an essentially
essentially rhythmic
rhythmic sham-polyphony.
sham-polyphony.
fervor of
The fervor of word interpretation
interpretation breathed
breathed thethe mystic
mystic and
and aggressive
aggressive
spirit
spirit of
of the
the counter-reformation
counter-reformation which
which overwhelmed
overwhelmed the
the faithful
faithful with
with
gigantic structures,
gigantic structures, be
be it
it in
in architecture, painting,
architecture, painting, or
or music.
music. The nervous
nervous
sensibility of
sensibility of Gabrieli's
Gabrieli's novel
novel style
style inspired
inspired only
only aa few
few kindred
kindred Italian
Italian
composers
composers to
to continue
continue his
his path, notably
path, notably Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, and
and among lesser
among lesser
figures Bernardi, Capello,
figures Bernardi, Capello, Giovanni
Giovanni Bassan~
Bassani, and
and Leoni.
Leoni. The true
true heir
heir to
to
Gabrieli was
Gabrieli was his
his greatest
greatest German disciple,
disciple, Schutz,
Schiitz, and
and it
it is
is not
not without
without
symbolic significance
symbolic significance that
that Gabrieli
Gabrieli on
on his
his deathbed
deathbed bequeathed
bequeathed his his sealing
sealing
ring
ring to
to him as
as if
if he
he had
had a
a premonition
premonition that
that this
this pupil
pupil would
would carry the
carry the
torch that
torch that he
he had
had lighted.
lighted.

MONODY: PERI AND CACCINI

The emergence
emergence of
of the stile rapprcsentativo
the stile rappresentatiuo or recitative about
or recitative the year
about the year
r600 has
1600 has often
often been
been regarded
regarded as
as the
the most
most important turning point
important turning point in
in the
the
entire
entire history
history ofof music.
music. The deliberate
deliberate renunciation
renunciation of of polyphonic
polyphonic style
style
set
set an
an end
end toto the
the renaissance
renaissance and brought
brought to the fore
to the fore aa new principle: the
principle: the
solo
solo melody
melody with
with a
a chordally
chordally conceived
conceived accompaniment.
accompaniment. Doni,
Doni, one of
the
the theorists
theorists ofof the
the new style,
style, called
called it
it monodia
monodia in
in analogy
analogy to
to the
the music of
of
the
the Greeks
Greeks which the the opera
opera had ostensibly
ostensibly revived.
revived. However,
However, the change
change
was
was not
not entirely
entirely so
so abrupt
abrupt asas is
is commonly
commonly assumed. Solo Solo singing
singing with lute
lute

(or
(or viol)
viol) accompaniment
accompaniment was was aa well-established
well-established practice practice in
in the renais-
renais-

sance,
sance, as
as shown
shown in
in the
the collection
collection of
of Bossinensis
Bossinensis (1509, printed by Petrucci)
(1509, printed by Pctrucci)
and
and inin numerous
numerous laterlater publications
publications in in Italy,
Italy, France,
France, England,
England, Spain,
Spain, and
Germany.
Germany. These These solo
solo songs
songs should
should not not be be regarded
regarded as as monodies because

the
the style
style of
of accompaniment
accompaniment was,
was, at
at least.
least potentially,
potentially, polyphonic.
polyphonic. The
early examples
early examples of
o solo
solo singing
singing lacked
lacked both
both the
the harmonically
harmonically conceived
melody to carry
melody and and the supporting bass,
the supporting bass, designed
designed from the the outset
outset to carry har-
har-

monies.
monics. Likewise
Likewise absent
absent were the the affective approach to
affective approach to the words and

the
the virtuoso
virtuoso embellishments.
embellishments. Only Only the
the aggregate
aggregate of
of these
these characteristics
characteristics

makes solo song a monody.

makes solo song a monody. While While it
it is
is true
true that
that the
the renaissance
renaissance musicians
26 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
knew solosolo song,
song, they
they hadhad no monodic style; however, it
style; however, it is
is within
within the
orbit
orbit ofof the
the solo
solo song
song of the renaissance
of the renaissance that monody waJ
that monody wa first experimen-
first experimen-
tally
tally approached.
approached.
Monody
Monody counts among the
counts among the fewfew musical innovations in
musical innovations in which theorytheory
antedates
antedates practice.
practice. It
It was a
a creation
creation of
of learned
learned intellectuals,
intellectuals, the
the Camerata
in
in Florence.
Florence. The first manifesto of
first manifesto of the
the monodic style style isis contained
contained in in the
Dialogo della
Dialogo delta mtlsica
musica antica
antica e e della moderna (1581)
della moderna (1581) by by Vincenzo Galilei,Galilei,
the
the father
father ofof the
the astronomer
astronomer Galileo.Galileo. The emphatic
emphatic praise
praise of of Greek music
and the
the equally
equally emphatic
emphatic condemnation
condemnation of of counterpoint
counterpoint heraldherald thethe change
change
with regard
with regard to
to music
music and
and word.
word. Caccini
Caccini says
says in
in a
a passage,
passage, based
based on Plato,
Plato,
that
that the
the composer
composer had to to start
start with
with the
the consideration
consideration of of "word,
"word, rhythm,
rhythm,
and then
then tone,
tone, not
not the
the other
other wayway around."
around." It It is
is amusing
amusing that that Greek music,music,
completely
completely unknown at
at the
the time,
time, served
served merely
merely as
as a
a foil
foil for
for the
the new af-
af-

fective
fective approach.
approach. In
In his
his first
first experiments
experiments with
with monody
monody Galilei
Galilei set
set two
strikingly
strikingly expressive
expressive texts,
texts, the
the lament
lament ofof U golino from the
Ugolino the Divine
Divine Comedy
Comedy
and aa passage
passage from
from thethe lamentations
lamentations of of Jeremiah.
Jeremiah. The music is is not
not extant,
extant,
but we know that
but that it was greeted
it was
greeted withwith a a mixture
mixture of of enthusiasm
enthusiasm and ridicule.ridicule.
The most active
active musical
musical members of the Camerata
of the Camerata were,were, besides
besides thethe Roman
gendeman<omposer Cavalieri,
gentleman-composer Cavalieri, Peri
Peri and Caccini, both, significandy,
Caccini, both, significantly, virtu- virtu-
oso
oso singers.
singers. In
In their
their operas
operas the
the recitative
recitative assumed
assumed its
its definitive
definitive form,
form, and
the basso
the basso continuo
contintto appeared
appeared for for the
the first time. These represent
first time. represent the the main
technical
technical devices
devices ofof the monodic style.
the monodic style.

The basso
basso continuo
continuo or or thorough-bass,
thorough-bass, easily the most
easily the most successful
successful system
system
of
of musical
musical shorthand
shorthand everever devised,
devised, outlined
outlined a a chordal accompaniment by
chordal accompaniment by
aa figured
figured bass
bass line,
line, the realization of
the realization of which was left left to
to improvisation.
improvisation. It It

required
required at
at least
least two players,
players, one
one to
to sustain
sustain the
the bass
bass line
line (string bass,
(string bass, or
or
wind instrument)
instrument) and the the other
other for
for the
the chordal
chordal accompaniment
accompaniment (keyboard
(keyboard
instruments,
instruments, lute,
lute, theorboe,
theorboe, and the popular guitar).
the popular guitar). Frequendy,
Frequently, however,
however,
there were more than than two fundamental
fundamental instruments;
instruments; massed
massed ensembles
ensembles inin
fact
fact characterize
characterize thethe early baroque
early baroque continuo
continuo practice.
practice.
roots of
The roots of the
the continuo
continuo accompaniment
accompaniment lie lie in
in the
the organ
organ scores,
scores, such
such
as
as we have met with Banchieri.
BanchierL The organ doubled whatever
organ doubled whatever happened happened
to be the lowest
lowest part
part inin a a polyphonic
polyphonic composition.
composition. The primitive
primitive organ
organ
score consisted
consisted of this
this composite
composite bass
bass line
line and the
the highest part
highest part and
and natu-
natu-
rally
rally needed no figures.
figures. The slavishly doubling
slavishly doubling bass, bass, known as
as basso
basso
seguente,
seguentc, can be
be traced
traced back
back well
well into
into the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century.
century. Unlike the
Unlike the
basso
basso seguente
seguente,l the
the continuo was essentially
essentially
an instrumental support that
instrumental support that
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy 27
did
did not necessarily
necessarily double the the lowest
lowest voice but furnished
voice but furnished a a foundation
foundation of of
sustained harmonies to
sustained to it.
it. The transition
transition from
from thethe basso
basso seguente
seguente to to the
the
thorough-bass
thorough-bass can be be seen
seen in the Concerti
in the Concerto of Viadana who restricted
of Viadana restricted the the
figures
figures ofof the bass
bass toto accidentals
accidentals and and who
who depended
depended more
more on
on the
the old
old
polyphonic style
polyphonic style than on the the monody.
monody. The evolution
evolution of the basso
of the basso continu(J
continuo
was a slow process
was a slow process in in which many
many composers participated and
composers participated and diddid not
not re-re-
sult
sult from
from thethe ingenuity
ingenuity of of Viadana
Viadana alone,
alone, as the early
as the early German theorists
theorists
assumed who drew their their information
information exclusively
exclusively from
from Italian
Italian sources.
sources.
The realization
realization ofof the bass called
the bass called for
for diminutions
diminutions of of the
the ornamental
ornamental in- in-
struments which lent lent "beauty
"beauty to
to the
the concerto,"
concerto," as
as Agazzari puts
Agazzari puts it. it. He
gave
gave as
as the
the main reason
reason forfor the
the adoption
adoption of of the
the continuo
continuo thatthat it was con-
it was con-
venient and highly
highly suitable
suitable forfor the
the recitative in stile
recitative in stile modemo.
moderno. The care care
with which the bass
with bass was figured
figured varies
varies greatly
greatly from
from fully figured
fully figured partsparts
over sparse
sparse figuration
figuration to to completely unfigured basses
completely unfigured basses that
that vex
vex modern
editors.
editors. Not by any
by any means does
does an
an unfigured
unfigured continuo
continuo imply that
imply that the the bass
bass
should not be realized;
should not be realized; itit merely leaves
merely leaves the the entire
entire responsibility
responsibility to to the per-
the per-
former,
former, as as occurs
occurs regularly
regularly in in the
the Italian
Italian opera
opera of of the
the middle
middle baroque.
baroque.
Italian
Italian composers
composers were generally
generally far far laxer
laxer in this respect
in this respect than
than their
their Ger-
Ger-
man and French colleagues.
colleagues.

embellishments in
The embellishments in the
the continuo realization were
continuo realization were only part of
only part the
of the
general practice
general practice of
of improvised ornamentation,
improvised ornamentation, the
the vocal
vocal form
form of
of which
which
was known at at the
the time
time as gorgia.8 A monody
as gorgia? would remain
monody would remain a bare skeleton
a bare skeleton
were it
it not
not for
for the
the affective
affective delivery
delivery of
of the
the singer
singer and his
his embellishments,
embellishments,
which
which served
served here
here not
not merely
merely an an ornamental
ornamental butbut aa structural
structural function.
function.
The ornamental
ornamental diminutions
diminutions of of contrapuntal
contrapuntal compositions,
compositions, which notice-notice-
ably
ably increased
increased toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the renaissance,
renaissance, adumbrated the
the heavily
heavily
embellished
embellished baroque
baroque style.
style. The ornaments
ornaments thatthat Malvezzi
Malvezzi recorded
recorded for the
for the
Intermedii Concerti in
Intermedii ee Concerti in Florence
Florence illustrate the virtuoso
illustrate the virtuoso performance of
performance of
madrigals by
madrigals by such
such famous
famous singers
singers as as Vittoria Archilei who also
Vittoria Archilei also sang
sang
the
the title
tide role in Euridice.
role in Euridice. It It is
is significant
significant that
that the
the music of the intermedii
of the intermcdii
was composed
composed not not only
only byby masters
masters of of the
the madrigal
madrigal like Marenzio, but in
like Marenzio, in
part
part also
also by
by the
the creators
creators of
of monody.
monody.
In
In the
the lengthy
lengthy introduction
introduction to to the Ntlolle Musiche
the Nttove Musiche Caccini
Caccini gave
gave a a survey
survey
of
of the gorgia practice
the gorgia not without
practice not without vainly
vainly exaggerated
exaggerated claims
claims asas to
to his
his own
part in
part in the
the "invention"
"invention" of of the
the ornaments,
ornaments, manymany ofof which he merely
merely bor-
bor-
rowed from r~nce treatises on diminution.
renaissance treatises diminution. The ornaments may may bebe

Examples in
88 Examples in Goldschmidt,
Goldschmidt, Lehre von tIer
Lchrc 1Ion dcr vo\dcn Omamenlik,.
1Iol{lIle" Ornamcnti^.
28 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
divided
divided intointo five
five groups:
groups: x) i) the passaggi or
the passaggi or scale
scale passages,
passages, in in wide use
during the renaissance;
during the renaissance; 2) 2) the
the accenti
acccnti which consisted
consisted in
in breaking
breaking up up the
full
full length
length of of the
the note
note byby ports
ports de voix or
de voi:/ portamento, beginning
or portamenti, beginning usually
usually
aa third
third below
below the the written
written note;
note; 3)
3) the
the esclamatione,
csclamatione, the
the attack
attack and release
release

of
of aa tone
tone by by means of
of dynamic
dynamic nuances
nuances like
like increase
increase and decrease
decrease on a
sustained
sustained note;
note; 4)4) the
the groppo,
groppo, our
our modern trill;
trill; and 5)
5) the
the trillo,
trillo, a rapid
rapid
measured
measured tremolo
tremolo on the the same note,
note, not
not to to be
be confused
confused with with what we
call
call trill
trill today.
today. In In addition
addition to to these
these stereotyped
stereotyped ornaments,
ornaments, characteristic
characteristic

figures,
figures, such
such as
as the
the Lombard rhythm
rhythm J^. f^ n. n.,
further
further enhanced t ,
the
the
affective
affective style
style of
of singing
singing by by their
their sobbing
sobbing effect.
effect.

The accumulation
accumulation of of intricate
intricate embellishments
embellishments so so strongly
strongly affected
affected thethe
rhythm that the music could no longer be performed
rhythm that the music could no longer be performed strict in
in strict time.
time. Whereas
the
the ruffled
ruffled rhythms
rhythms of of Gabrieli's
Gabricli's contrast
contrast motives
motives were still still based
based on an
even
even beat,
beat, thethe monody destroyed
monody destroyed the
the continuity
continuity of
of the
the beat
beat and thus
thus ar-
ar-

rived
rived at
at what we call call the
the tempo
tempo rubato.
rubato. It
It is
is highly significant
highly significant that
that Caccini
Caccini
actually
actually called
called forfor the
the tempo rubato by
tempo rubato by thethe name of sprezzatura (non-
of sprezzatura (non-
chalance),
chalance), a a term
term that
that has
has been frequendy
been frequently misunderstood.
misunderstood.99 In In a model
a model
recitative of
recitative the Nuove Musiche
of the Musiche (Ex. 2) Caccini
(Ex. 2) Caccini made precise precise indications
indications
where and how ornaments
where ornaments should
should be be applied.
applied. At a
a parlando section
parlando section hehe
Ex. 2. Caccini:
Ex. Den. dove
Monody Deh,
Cacdni: Monody dove son.
son.
~fC"St;.
decresc. 6scl. sptrttosa
ttcL SP'!!!OSIZ ncl
escl ptll
piit ~fN
vira

Deh. deh do V~ 50D fug. gl II deb do - ve son spa. rl

"
SCI
~
,11,
. C/ I 11
" ~sc

oJ
II rl'o( . chi pe qua.I1~1lJ fa i to >iOn ce . ner o-ma p . 1 Au. re

-II"
J 41
41 .tll 11 fto
,
." ts**a mt**r<, (test /arelluxdo con spmxttxrn trilln

u
au fe dl vi 1M ch'u. fa - fe p... re.gri. De In que-sta pUt'e in quel . la

11 110 14

prescribed "not
prescribed "not in
in strict
strict time,
time, as if speaking
as if speaking in
in music
music with
with the
the above
above men-
men-
tioned rubato!'
tioned The recitative
rubato." The recitative cadences,
cadences, which
which always
always emphasized
emphasized the
the
f
Winterfeld,
Wintcrfdd. Gabricli, Haas B,
Gabrieli, Haas B, and
and Dorian,
Dorian, History
History of
of Music
Music in
in Performance give
Pe1formance give
an erroneous
an erroneous explanation
explanation ofof the
the term.
term.
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque in Italy
in Italy 29
divisions of
divisions of the
the text
text by conspicuously slow note-values
by conspicuously slow note-values and
and stereotyped
stereotyped
suspensions of
suspensions of the
the fourth,
fourth, time
time and
and again
again interrupted
interrupted the Bow of
the flow of the
the
declamation and
declamation and gave
gave itit aa very
very sluggish
sluggish pace.
pace.
monodic style
The monodic style varied
varied between
between two
two extremes:
extremes: itit appeared
appeared either
either as
as aa
recitative with
recitative with aa static
static bass
bass that
that amounted
amounted practically
practically to
to aa scries
series of
of pedal
pedal
points, or
points, as aa song-like
or as song-like melody
melody with
with aa more
more vivid
vivid bass
bass line.
line. The first
first was
typical of
typical of the
the emphatic
emphatic style
style of
of the
the opera
opera from
from which
which the stil~ rappresen-
the stile rappresen-
tativo (theatrical
tativo (theatrical oror actor's
actor's style)
style) derived
derived its
its name.
name. Peri
Peri waswas the
the first
first to
to
handle the
handle the pedal-point basses in
pedal-point basses in masterly
masterly fashion.
fashion.

Although monody
Although monody was
was established in
established in the
the opera,
opera, the
the main
main stream
stream of of
musical
musical life flowed
life Bowed through
through the the innumerable
innumerable collections
collections ofof monodies
monodies that that
publishers threw
publishers threw on the the market.
market. The operaopera reached
reached only
only thethe small,
small, ifif
select, audiences
select, audiences at at the
the courts.
courts. How quickly
quickly monody
monody gained
gained aa foothold
foothold
in musical life
in musical life can
can be
be inferred
inferred from
from the
the fact
fact that
that many
many singers,
singers, dilettanti,
dilettanti,
and women suddenly
and emerged as
suddenly emerged as composers
composers of of monodies.
monodies.
Luzzaschi's Madrigali p~
Luzzaschi's Madrigdi per cantare cantar~ ~
e sonar~
sonare for
for one
one to three voices
to three (I60I).
voices (1601),
although composed
although composed in in aa conservative style, arc
conservative style, are characteristic
characteristic of of the trend
the trend
toward few-voiced
toward composition. His
few-voiced composition. His collection
collection marks the the transition
transition from
polyphony to
polyphony to monody.
monody. The solo solo madrigals
madrigals arcare accompanied
accompanied by by a fully
fully
written-out harpsichord
written-out harpsichord part part which doubles the voice
doubles the voice part
part except for
except the
for the
written-out gorgia.
written-out gorgia.
10
10 Aside
Aside from the
the opera,
opera, monodies
monodies proper began
proper began with
with
Caccini's Nuov~ Musich~
Caccini's Nuove Musiche (1602).11
(1602) .
n This
This famous publication
publication opens
opens a long
long
procession
procession of
of similar
similar collections
collections of
of which only
only the
the outstanding
outstanding ones are
are
here
here listed
listed byby title:
tide:
12
12 Megli (1602),
Megli (1602), Brunetti,
Brunetti, Rasi
Rasi (1608),
(1608), India,
India, Peri
Peri
(Vari~
(Vane Musich~,
Musiche, 1609),
1609), Bellanda, Bencdetti (16n),
Bellanda, Benedetti Rasi (Muska
(1611), Rasi (Musica di di camera
~ chiesa, 1612),
e chiesa, Pace (1613),
1612), Pace Saracini (1614),
(1613), Saracini (1614), Marco da Gagliano,
Gagliano, F alconieri
Falconicri
(1616),
(1616),
Giovanni
Giovanni Steffani,18
Steffani,
18
Belli,
Belli, Filippo
Filippo Vitali,
Vitali, Monteverdi (Seventh
(Seventh
madrigal book,
madrigal book, 1619),1619), Landi,
Landi, Grandi (Cantad~
(Cantade ~d
ed A.ri~,
Arie, 1620),
1620), Tarditi,
Tarditi,
Frescobaldi (.A.ri~,
Frescobaldi 1630),
(Arie, 1630), and Ferrari.
Ferrari. Most of
of these
these composers published
composers published
their works in
their works in Florence,
Florence, the the center
center of the early
of the early monodic style,
style, or
or in
in Venice.

10 Examples in
10 Examples in Kinkeldey
Kinkeldey SIMG IX; IX; GMB no.
no. 166; Wolf, Music of
166; Wolf, of Earlier
Earlier Times,
Times,
no. 48.
no. 48.
11 The imprint gives the
11 The imprint gives the yearyear 1001
1601 according
according to
to the
the old
old calendar.
calendar. For examples
examples see
sec
ICMI,
ICMI, 4 4 and
and HAM no. no. 184-
184.
12 See the bibliographical list
12 See the bibliographical list of of monodic
monodic publications
publications in
in Ambros-Leichtentritt.
Ambros-Leichtcntritt,
Geschichte
Geschichte derder MusiJe
Musi% IV,
IV, 777.
777. For
For emendations
emendations and additions
additions see
see Eugen
Eugen Schmitz,
Schmitz,
Tahrbud,
Jahrbuch Peters,
Peters, I9II, 35 if.
1911, 35 f.
reprinted by
1S Steffani's ADetti am
1lSteffani's orosi (1618)
Affetto amorosi (1618) have
have been
been reprinted by Chilesotti,
Chilesotti, Biblioteca
Biblioteca di
raritD musicali III.
rarita musical; III.
30 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
The third,
third, though
though more conservative
conservative center center was Rome with Cifra, Cifra, Fres-Fres-
cobaldi,
cobaldi, Quagliati,
Quagliati, and Vitali.
Vitali. The collections
collections were, were, of course,
of course, most un-
un-
even
even with
with regard
regard to to musical
musical value;
value; thethe pre-eminent
pre-eminent mastersmasters were Peri, Peri,
Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, Grandi,
Grandi, Saracini,
Saracini, and the the Roman Frescobaldi.
Frescobaldi.
Although
Although Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) was not associated associated with the the
early monody, his dramatic
early monody, his dramatic genius gave genius gave it
it the
the spark
spark that
that turned it
it into
into
living
living music.
music. He was was taught
taught in in the
the severe
severe school
school of of Ingegneri
Ingegneri and acquired
acquired
here
here the
the respect
respect for
for polyphonic part-writing
polyphonic part-writing that
that he never
never entirely
entirely forsook
forsook
throughout
throughout his
his life.
life. He served
served first
first as
as string player
string player and singer
singer at
at the
the court
court
of
of Mantua (after 1590)
(after 1590) and from 1613
1613 to
to his
his death
death he held
held the
the position
position of of
greatest
greatest prestige
prestige in in Italy,
Italy, that
that of of chapel
chapel master
master at at San Marco in in Venice.
Venice.
Aside
Aside from the Orjeo all
the Orfeo all his
his printed
printed secular
secular music
music was published
published in in only
only
nine
nine madrigal
madrigal books
books and a
a few smaller
smaller collections.
collections. His non-operatic
non-operatic mono-
dies
dies appeared
appeared in in his
his late madrigal books,
late madrigal books, especially
especially the the seventh
seventh and eighth.
eighth.
The expressive power of
expressive power of his monodic style
his style became proverbial through
proverbial through
his Lamento d'Arianna,
his d'Arianlla,14 14
published at
published at the time as
the time as an independent monody.
an independent monody.
The seventh
seventh madrigal
madrigal book
book contains
contains among
among other
other monodies
monodies the
the Partenza
Partenza
amorosa and the famous "love
the famous "love letter,"
letter," toto be
be sung
sung in in free tempo and
free tempo and speech
speech
rhythm,
rhythm, senza
senza battuta.
battuta. They
They are
are distinguished
distinguished by by an
an austere
austere and impas-
and impas-
sioned tone, noble
sioned tone, noble declamation,
declamation, and somber inflections inflections of of the key note
the key note by by
the lower major
the major second,
second, characteristic
characteristic of of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's recitative
recitative begin-
begin-
nings. In Con che
nings. che soavitb
soavita he he combined
combined the the monody
monody with with aa concertato
concertato ac- ac-
companiment
companiment of
of three
three instrumental
instrumental choruses
choruses which
which demonstrate
demonstrate in
in their
their
strikingly sensuous
strikingly sensuous effect
effect his
his superb
superb sensesense of of color.
color.
Peri was perhaps
Peri perhaps the the only
only oneone ofof the
the early
early monodists
monodists who could could com- com
pare
pare with
with Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's solemn
solemn monodic style.
style. The affective
affective handling
handling of of
lugubrious subjects
lugubrious subjects was recognized
recognized by by Bonini
Bonini as
as the
the peculiar
peculiar talent
talent of
of
Peri whose immovable pedal
Peri pedal basses
basses setset the
the model for for Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. One
of the
of the most radical
radical composers
composers of of monodies
monodies was was thethe gentleman-composer
gentleman-composer
Saracini; strongly
Saracini; strongly under
under thethe spell
spell ofof Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, he he surpassed
surpassed him him in in the
the
Unconventional use
unconventional use ofof dissonances.
dissonances. Only Only aa dilettant
dilettant would
would showshow so so little
little
concern about
concern about thethe accepted
accepted standards
standards of of harmony.
harmony. His His works
works abound
abound in in
experimental clashes,
experimental clashes, cross-relations,
cross-relations, and appoggiature,
appoggiature, soundedsounded not not only only
in succession
in succession butbut even
even simultaneously.
simultaneously. In In the
the monody
monody Tu parti (Ex. 3)
parti (Ex. 3)
he imaginatively
he imaginatively expanded
expanded the the Phrygian
Phrygian cadence
cadence on on ahi
ahi lasso
lasso byby aa simul-
simul-
14 GMB
H GMB no. 177. No references
no. 177. references to
to reprints will be
reprints will be given if the
given if the works
works ofof the
the com-
com.
poser have
poser have appeared
appeared inin aa complete
complete edition.
edition. For
For these
these consult
consult the
tr.e list
list of
of editions
editions in the
in the
appendix. Recently
appendix. Recendy an an anonymous
anonymous Lamento
LAmento d'Erminia
d'Erminia has
has been
been found
found (in
(in aa manu-
manu.
script also containing
saipt also containing Arianna's
Arianna's lament)
lament) which
which Torrefranca
Torrefranca and
and Bonaccorsi
Bonaccorsi (Inedito,
(Inedito,
Rome, 1944,
Rome, 1944. no. 2.) ascribe
no. 2) ascribe to Monteverdi.
to Monteverdi.
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 31
taneous cross-relation
taneous (b against
cross-relation (b against bb flat)
flat) which
which almost
almost obliterates
obliterates the
the under-
under-
lying
lying chord
chord progression. Monteverdi rarely
progression. Monteverdi rarely went went to
to such
such extremes, but
extremes, but
even he
even he could
could not
not avoid
avoid aa certain
certain monotony
monotony for
for which
which the
the recitative
recitative was
was
openly reproved
openly reproved byby Mazzocchi
Mazzocchi and and della
della Valle.
Valle. Another
Another fault
fault ofof the
the
recitative was
recitative was its
its lack
lack of
of formal
formal distinction.
distinction. Whereas
Whereas on on the
the opera
opera stage
stage
action
action and vivid
and vivid rendition
rendition mitigated
mitigated the
the monotony
monotony andand made
made up
up for
for the
the
amorphous structure,
amorphous structure, it
it soon became apparent
soon became apparent that,that, if
if performed
performed in
in the
the
chamber, the
chamber, the recitative
recitative needed some formal
needed some formal clarification.
clarification.

Ex.
Ex.

~O

...
3. Saracini: Monody
3. Saracini:

Tn par
par .
-
Tu parti.
Monody Tu parti.

ti;- m par-ti
to par-tl abl
afai las
las - ... ~. abilas
_ -
...
su!

(I)
ar -
Three methods
Three methods of of achieving
achieving musical
musical coherence
coherence can can bebe found in in the
the early
early
monodic literature.
monodic literature. The first first consisted
consisted of of recurrent
recurrent refrain
refrain sections
sections or or
repetitions,
repetitions,
as
as appear
appear in
in Caccini's
Caccini's celebrated
celebrated Amarilli
Amarilli 15
111 and
and in
in the
the Lamento
d'Arianna. The second
d'Arianna. second method
method introduced
introduced snatches
snatches of of imitation
imitation between
between
bass
bass and
and melody,
melody, which
which not
not only integrated
only integrated the
the parts
parts but
but also
also freed
freed the
the
bass from
bass from the rigid pedal-point
the rigid pedal-point style. It represents the first encroachment
style. It represents
the first encroachment
of polyphonic
of polyphonic devices
devices on the monody
on the monody and can can bebe found more frequently
frequently
in
in sacred than in
sacred than in secular
secular monodies.
monodies. The third third and most characteristic
characteristic

method
method was was what
what maymay be be called
called strophic
strophic variation.
variation. Here the same bass

was retained for

was retained for every every stanza
stanza while
while progressive variations
progressive variations of of the melody
melody
created the impression of a through-composed
created the impression of a through-composed composition. Although composition. Although
the
the recurrent
recurrent bassbass could
could be be slightly
slightly varied,
varied, it it guaranteed
guaranteed practically
practically the
same
same harmony
harmony for
for each
each strophe.
strophe. The first
first statement
statement of
of a strophic
strophic variation
should
should notnot bebe mistaken
mistaken for for the
the "theme" of of subsequent
subsequent variations
variations because
because
all strophes stood
all strophes stood on
on the
the same
same level.
level. On the
the other
other hand,
hand, the bass cannot
be regarded as a true ostinato
be regarded as a true ostinato because because it
it still
still lacked distinctive
distinctive rhythm
rhythm
and
and the
the easily
easily
recognizable
recognizable profile
profile of
of a
a ground
ground bass.
bass. The strophic
strophic variation
variation

holds
holds a a place of its own halfway
place of its halfway between theme and variation variation and the the

ostinato
ostinato bass.
bass.

Nearly all
Nearly all monodic
monodic collections
collections contained
contained at at least
least a fewfew strophic
strophic varia--
varia-

tions. Caccini divided his

tions. Caccini divided his Nuove Nuotle Musiche into
into twelve madrigals
madrigals and ten
ten

ane.
one. All
All compositions of the first group are
compositions of the first group through-composed, in keeping
are through-composed, in keeping
with
with the tradition of
the tradition of the
the madrigal.
madrigal. UponUpon closer
closer examination
examination most most ofof the
the

111 GMB
no. I73.
"GMBno. 173.
32 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
arie
one turn
turn out
out to be
to be strophic
strophic variations.
16
variations.16 In
In Grandi's
Grandi's musically
musically most at-
at-

tractive
tractive Cantade
Cantade ed Arie the
ed Aric the "cantatas"
"cantatas" are
are strophic
strophic variations,
variations, the
the "arias,"
"arias/*
however, strophic
however, strophic continuo
continue songs.
songs. Grandi presented
presented in
in his
his strophic varia-
strophic varia-
tions
tions as
as many
many as
as nine
nine more or
or less
less free
free statements
statements of
of the
the bass,
bass, above
above which
ease (Ex. Although Cae-
17
the mdody
the melody could unfold with
could unfold with remarkable
remarkable ease (Ex. 4).1'1
4). Although Cac-

Ex.
Ex. +
4. Alessandro
Alcssandro Grandi:
Grandi: Strophic
Strophic variation (cantata) Apre
variation (cantata) Aprc l'huomo.
I'huomo.
,

C: :> rI:;t~ :-;&.; Ii E;E_: EI: ; I

I.

-I r

~ :-~~~: ;wl; ;;11.:::;:!1~

. s."
t: poi

.".
l
cbe non piu

.1

".
r

II-
ur
lat

.".
tell pa -see

I'" Q1IIIIte po - ScI. 1;05 tien trls . tQ.e men di. co ~'a .tl.c~ morti

~ .........

cini Frescobaldi called

cini and Frescobaldi called strophic
strophic variations
variations simplyarie,
simply arie, Grandi's
Grandi's term
term
cantata
cantata soon found acceptance
acceptance in in the
the collections
collections ofof Berti,
Berti, Turini
Turini (both
(both
I~),
1624), Rovena,
Rovetta, and Sances.
Sances. The emergence
emergence of the term
of the term was not not without
without
significance
significance since
since these
these -variations
variations did
did indeed
indeed foreshadow
foreshadow the the chamber
chamber
cantata,
cantata, especially
especially if
if instrumental ritornelli
ritornelli separated
separated the
the single
single statements.
statements.
Such ritornelli
ritornelli occur often
often inin the
the collections
collections of of Peri, Monteverdi, and
Peri, Monteverdi, and
18
Berti.18
Berti. The very
very first
first "madrigal"
"madrigal" of Monteverdi's seventh book,
of Monteverdi's seventh book, the
the
monody
monody T empro la
Tcmpro cctra, is
la cetra, is cast
cast in
in form of of a
a fourfold
fourfold strophic variation,
strophic variation,
preceded and concluded by
preceded by an instrumental
instrumental sinfonia.
sinfonia. Between
Between each
each state-
state-

ment of thethe bass a ritornello,

ritornello, taken from the the second
second part
part of
of the
the sinfonia,
sinfonia,
intervenes. The whole represents
represents a a diminutive
diminutive chamber
chamber cantata
cantata toto which
which
many parallels
many parallels can be
be found in
in the
the monodies
monodies of
of the
the time.
time.
lf
11 See
Set GMB no.no. 1120
172, and Riemann HMG 2:2. 2:2, 25-
25.
1T
1'1' For another example
example see
see Lavignac
Lavignac E ll:5,
11:5, 3395.
3395-
**
18 Example in
Example in Adler HMG. 437.
HMG,
437.
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy 33
33
The strong
strong trend toward the the chamber
chamber cantata
cantata was
was also manifested in
also manifested in
dramatic
dramatic dialogues
dialogues in
in which two singers
singers alternated
alternated in recitative style
in recitative style or or
even joined in
even joined in short duets.
duets. The dialogues also
dialogues also were
were often punctuated by
often punctuated by
ritornelli or "toccatas,"
ritornelli or "toccatas," as Quagliati
as Quagliati called them, which
called them, which consisted
consisted at times
at times
of
of nothing
nothing more
more than a section
section for
for continuo
continue alone.
alone. Pastoral
Pastoral or
or moral
moral sub-
sub-
jects familiar
jects familiar from the madrigal
madrigal and lauda
lauda literature,
literature, like
like Tirsi
Tirsi e
e Filii
Filli
(Megli,
(Megli, Bellanda),
Bellanda), Tirsi
Tirsi e
c Clori
Clori (Monteverdi),
(Monteverdi), Anima e Corpo Corpo (Bel-
(Bel-
landa),
landa), Anima e c Caronte
Carontc (Barbarino),
(Barbarino), Anima ed
ed Amort:
Amorc (Grandi),
(Grandi), or or
even Adone,
Adone, Venae
Venere t: Pastore (Grandi)
c Pastore (Grandi) now invaded the monodic
invaded the monodic style, style,
and
and even
even inin strict
strict solo
solo songs
songs the
the composers hinted at
composers hinted at the
the dialogue
dialogue byby means
means
of playful
playful echoes.
echoes. In all
all phases
phases of
of baroque
baroque music
music the
the echo
echo had
had an
an important
important
dramatic,
dramatic, and even structural,
structural, function.
function.

TRANSFORMATION OF THE MADRIGAL: MONTEVERDI

Toward the the end of of the

the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century twotwo factors
factors impinged
impinged on the the
madrigal style:
madrigal style: on the
the one
one hand, the simple rhythm and
hand, the simple rhythm and chordal texture chordal texture
of
of the
the dance
dance song,
song, the villanella, and
the villanella, and canzonettaj
canzonetta; and and onon the
the other hand,
other hand,
deliberate
deliberate harmonic experimentsexperiments that that destroyed
destroyed thethe balance
balance of of voices
voices and
and
led
led toto the
the polarity
polarity of of bass
bass and
and soprano.
soprano. Both
Both factors
factors precipitated
precipitated the
the dis-
dis-

integration
integration of
of the
the madrigal proper.
madrigal proper. Only Only the
the last
last stage
stage of
of its
its development,
development,
represented
represented by by the
the latest
latest period
period of of Marenzio,
Marenzio, and and byby the works of
the works of Gesualdo
Gesualdo
and Monteverd~
Monteverdi, belongsbelongs to
to the
the history
history of
of baroque
baroque music.
music. In
In this
this phase
phase
the dramatic
the dramatic and expressive
expressive tendencies,
tendencies, always latent in
always latent in the
the form, were
form, were
pushed to
pushed to affective
affective extremes.
extremes. TheseThese reveal
reveal a a conception
conception of of dissonance
dissonance no
longer
longer consistent
consistent with renaissance ideas,
with renaissance ideas, asas Monteverdi
Monteverdi recognized
recognized when
he spoke
he spoke of
of the
the seconda
scconda prattica
prattica in
in music.
music. He and
and his
his follower,
follower, the theorist
the theorist
Berard~
Bcrardi, insisted
insisted on the the fact
fact that
that the
the new dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment was the the
essence
essence of of the
the new style.style.
Unlike
Unlike the the monodists
monodists Monteverdi
Monteverdi approached
approached his his stylistic
stylistic crisis through
crisis through

the
the madrigal.
madrigal. Like the the Camerata,
Camerata, he he laid
laid down the the axiom of of the
the dominance
of
of the
the words over over the
the harmony
harmony (see (see the
the postscript
postscript to to his
his Scherzi
Scherzi musical.),
musical?),
but it
but it led
led to
to aa diametrically
diametrically opposed
opposed result
result because
because he applied
applied it
it to
to polyph-
polyph-
ony,
ony, not
not against
against it,
it, as
as the
the Florentines
Florentines did.
did. Monteverdi thus
thus appears
appears as as a
Janus-faced composer
Janus-faced composer between
between two eras,
eras, conservative
conservative with regard
regard to
to the
the
preservation
preservation of
of polyphony
polyphony in
in principle,
principle, but
but revolutionary
revolutionary with regard
regard to
its transformation in
its transformation practice.
in practice.
The fundamental turn turn from intervallic
intervallic to to chordal
chordal harmony,
harmony, from pro- pre-
pared to
pared to unprepared
unprepared dissonance,
dissonance, took place around 1600.
took place 1600. Dissonances,
Dissonances,
notably
notably sevenths
sevenths and ninths, ninths, needed preparation, if
needed no preparation, justified by
if justified by affective
affective
34
34 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
words such
words such as as crudo,
crtido, acerbo,
acerbo, lasso,
lasso, and
and all all the
the other
other household
household words of o
the madrigal vocabulary.
the madrigal vocabulary. The chromaticism
chromaticism of
of the
the earlier
earlier madngal
madrigal had
had
paved the
paved the way
way for for melodic
melodic dissonances,
dissonances, but even the
but even the daring
daring and highly highly
chromatic
chromatic madrigals
madrigals of
of Cipriano
Cipriano de
de Rore
Rore and
and the
the startling
startling enharmonic
ventures
ventures of of Marenzio
Marenzio were were couched
couched in terms of
in terms of triads
triads and the traditional
the traditional
dissonance
dissonance treatment.
treatment. It It is
is only
only in
in the
the works
works of
of the
the Prince
Prince Gesualdo di
di
Venosa (c. (c. 1560-1614)
1560-1614) that that the
the madrigal
madrigal went through through its its crisis.
crisis.

This
This singularly
singularly individual
individual composer
composer was was passionately interested in
passionately interested in
radical
radical harmonic
harmonic experiments
experiments which,
which, though
though still
still prompted
prompted by by affective
affective

words, actually
words, became an
actually became an end
end inin themselves.
themselves. Gesualdo
Gesualdo tracedtraced each
each nuance
of
of the
the text
text so
so slavishly that the entire
slavishly that the entire musical
musical fabric
fabric fell
fell into
into small
small fractions
fractions

of
of diffuse
diffuse musical
musical ideas.
ideas. The lack lack of
of musical
musical continuity
continuity was reinforced
reinforced
by
by two distinct
distinct textures,
textures, thethe one
one characterized
characterized by by an interplay
interplay of rapid
of rapid
motives
motives inin the
the simplest
simplest triadic
triadic harmony,
harmony, and the
the other
other by
by extreme
extreme harmonic
combinations,
combinations, paralleled
paralleled only
only in in the
the modern music music of of our
our own day. day. The
contrast of textures corresponded
contrast of textures corresponded to Gesualdo's to Gesualdo's two manners of
of textual
textual
representation: notions
representation: notions of of space
space and and movement were were depicted
depicted by by vivid
vivid
rhythmic
rhythmic motives,
motives, whereas
whereas affective
affective notions
notions were were set set with
with melodic
melodic and
harmonic chromaticism.
harmonic chromaticism. He did did notnot omit
omit any any of of the
the rhythmic
rhythmic and
harmonic figures,
harmonic figures, musical
musical similes,
similes, and intellectual
intellectual contrivances
contrivances that the
that the
madrigalists
madrigalists had made famous. famous. His His advanced
advanced dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment re- re-

sulted
sulted from the the cumulative
cumulative effect effect ofof passing
passing notes notes employed
employed simulta-simulta-
neously
neously inin the
the different voices, and extreme
different voices, extreme melodic
melodic steps,
steps, including
including even even
such exacting
exacting intervals
intervals as
as diminished
diminished octaves
octaves (Ardita Zanzaretta,
(Ardita Zanzaretta, sixth
sixth
madrigal
madrigal book).
book). In In the
the absence
absence of of aa direct
direct key-feeling
key-feeling Gesualdo
Gesualdo experi-
experi-
mented with the the limitless
limitless possibilities
possibilities of of pre-tonal
pre-tonal harmony.
harmony. It It is, however,
is, however,

symptomatic
symptomatic that that his most outlandish
his most outlandish chord chord progressions
progressions involved
involved con- con-
sonant chords,
chords, and that his pungently
that his pungently dissonant
dissonant combinations
combinations were,
were, as as aa
rule,
rule, achieved
achieved by suspensions.
by suspensions. He clung
clung to
to contrapuntal part-writing,
contrapuntal part-writing, even
even
if
if worn thin
thin by experimentation. Of his
by harmonic experimentation. his six
six books
books of of madrigals
madrigals 19
19

the first
first four
four showed the the gradual
gradual complication
complication of of the
the harmonic
harmonic idiom, idiom,
but only the last
only the last two presented
presented unprepared
unprepared combinations
combinations more frequently.frequently.

Monteverdi diddid not

not emulate
emulate Gesualdo's radical chord
Gesualdo's radical progressions but,
chord progressions but,
in his
in his later
later works, surpassed him in
works, surpassed in the
the freedom
freedom ofof dissonance treatment.
dissonance treatment.
Like Gesualdo
Gesualdo he approached
approached the
the new style
style step
step by
by step.
step. While the first
While the first

four books
books of madrigals merely
madrigals merely hinted
hinted at
at the
the future,
future, the
the turn
turn became
became
10
18 Examples in ICMI.
Examples in ICMI, 14;
14; GMB no. 167; Torehi
no. 167; Torch! AM IV;
IV; HAM no.
no. 161.
161.
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque in Italy
in Italy 35
35
obvious in Cruda
obvious in Cruda Amarilli
Amarilli (c. 1600), which
(c. 1600), which achieved
achieved notorietynotoriety by by thethe
vitriolic criticism
vitriolic criticism itit provoked
provoked in in LArtusi
L'Artzesi overo overo delle
delle imperfettioni
imperfettioni della della
moderna musica.
moderna Monteverdi countered
musica. Monteverdi countered Artusi's Artusi's objections
objections to to unprepared
unprepared
dissonances with
dissonances with thethe reference
reference to to the
the "second
"second practice."
practice." He He defiantly
defiantly put put
the contested
the contested madrigal
madrigal at at the
the head
head of of his
his fifth
fifth madrigal
madrigal book (1605) and
book (1605) and
promised to
promised to expound
expound his his views
views in in aa treatise
treatise withwith the
the pointed
pointed title title Seconda
Seconda
Prattica overo
Prattica overo delle
delle perfettioni
perjettioni della della moderna
moderna musicaz
musica-a promise promise that that he he
unfortunately
unfortunately did
did not
not keep.
keep.
The new
The new harmonic
harmonic approach
approach to to the
the madrigal
madrigal whichwhich made made unprepared
unprepared
dissonances possible inevitably obliterated
dissonances possible inevitably obliterated the equivalence the equivalence of
of voices and
voices and
thus exploded
thus exploded the the madrigal
madrigal from from within.within. The The continuo
continuo explodedexploded the the
madrigal from
madrigal from without.
without. Both Both factors
factors were were responsible
responsible for for thethe structural
structural
transformation of
transformation of thethe form
form to to what
what may may be be called
called the the concertato
concertato or con~
or con-
tinuo madrigal.
tinuo madrigal. Monteverdi
Monteverdi used used the the continuo
continuo for for the
the first
first time
time in in his
his
fifth book,
fifth book, in in which
which all all madrigals
madrigals have have aa continuo, 20
continuo,20 though though it is o~
it is ob-
ligatory
ligatory only
only for
for the
the last
last six.
six. Optional
Optional use
use of
of the
the thorough-bass
thorough-bass typical
was typical
of the
of the transition
transition period.
period. Many
Many times times composers
composers "revised"
"revised" their their early
early works
by adding
by adding aa continuo
continuo in in order
order to to bring
bring them them up up to
to date,
date, as as Monteverdi
Monteverdi did did
when his his fourth book was reprinted
fourth book was reprinted (1613). (1613). The added part
part was usually
usually
nothing more
nothing more thanthan a seguente that
basso segttente
a basso that diddid not
not substantially
substantially alter alter thethe
old
old madrigal
madrigal texture.
texture.
In
In the
the continuo
continuo madrigal
madrigal properproper the the musical
musical structure
structure depended
depended on the
harmonic support
harmonic support of
of the
the instrumental
instrumental part,
part, and
and on such
such polyphonic
polyphonic featuresfeatures

as had survived from the

as had survived from the old madrigal.old madrigal. The fusion
fusion of
of these
these elements re-
re-

sulted
sulted inin the
the typical
typical texture
texture of of thethe continuo
continuo madrigal:
madrigal: an imitative,imitative, open~ open-
work
work andand airy dialogue
airy dialogue
of
of voices
voices that
that were no longer
longer bound to
to form a a
complete harmony
complete harmony by by themselves.
themselves. Like
Like the
the old
old madrigal,
madrigal, the continuo
madrigal
madrigal favored
favored five five voices,
voices, but but with
with the the general
general trend
trend to to the few-voiced
few-voiced

concertato, those
concertato, those forfor two
two or or three
three voices
voices alsoalso became fashionable. These
fashionable. These
few-voiced
few-voiced continuo
continuo madrigals,
madrigals, also also known
known as as chamber
chamber duet duet and and chamber
chamber
trio,
trio,
combined
combined two
two or
or three
three highly integrated
highly integrated voices
voices in
in the
the same
same register
register
with a continuo.
with a continuo. The The trio
trio setting
setting of
of the
the chamber
chamber duet
duet must
must be
be regarded
regarded
as
as one
one ofof the
the happiest and most influential
happiest and most
influential innovations
innovations of of baroque
baroque music. music.
As
As aa collection
collection by Rossi (1602) continuo mad~
Salomone Rossi
by Salomone (1602) shows,
shows, the the continuo mad-
rigal arose almost coincidentally with
rigal arose almost coincidentally
with monodic
monodic publications.
publications. It It flourished
flourished

throughout
throughout the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the century, especially
century, especially in
in Venice
Venice with
with Grandi
Grandi
and Rovetta; in Rome, where
and Rovetta; in Rome, where the old madrigal the old madrigal survived
survived longer
longer than
than per~
per-

20The
20 The continuo
continuo of
of all
all but
but the
the last
last six madrigals has
six madrigals has been omitted in
been omitted in the
the complete
complete
edition.
edition.
36 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
haps any other center, with Anerio, Sances, and
haps any other center, with Anerio, Sances,
and Tarditi;
Tarditi; and and in in other
other
places with Agazzari,
pkces with Agazzari, Rasi, Pace,
Rasi, Pace, and
and Priuli.
Priuli. The
The last
last two
two may
may be
be singled
singled
out as
out as especially
especially talented
talented composers
composers of of concertato madrigals, but
concertato madrigals, but none
none in in
the above
the above list
list runs
runs aa close
close second
second to to Monteverdi.
Monteverdi.
In his
In his first
first continue
continuo madrigal,
madrigal, Ahi Ahi come
come aa un un vago
lIago sol (fifth book,
sol (fifth book,
no. 8), Monteverdi
no. 8), Monteverdi seized
seized with
with marvellous
marvellous assuredness
assuredness on
on the
the possibilities
possibilities
of the
of the trio
trio setting
setting andand the the contrast
contrast between
between delicate
delicate solos
solos andand full
full choral
choral
sections. The
sections. The soloistic
soloistic nature
nature of of the
the few-voiced
few-voiced sections sections can can be be inferred
inferred
from the
from the intricate
intricate part-writing
part-writing and and thethe written-out
written-out gorgia. gorgia. TheThe interpene-
interpene-
tration
tration of
of monodic
monodic and
and madrigalistic
madrigalistic features
features came
came naturally
naturally to
to Monte-
Monte-
verdi because he arrived
verdi because he arrived at at the
the continuo
continue through
through the
the madrigal.
madrigal. How close
close

the seemingly
the seemingly unrelated
unrelated fields fields were
were for demonstrated in his fasci-
for him isis demonstrated in his fasci-

nating arrangement
nating arrangement of
of the
the Lamento
Lamento d'Arianna
d'Arianna as aa five-voice
as five-voice madrigal
madrigal
(sixth book)
(sixth book)
which
which gives revealing
gives revealing hints
hints as
as to
to his
his own realization
realization of the
of the
celebrated monody.
celebrated monody.
Instruments were
Instruments were usedused frequently,
frequently, eithereither for for sinfonie
sinfonie and ritornelli,
ritornelli, or or
for the
for the concertato accompaniment of
concertato accompaniment of the
the voices,
voices, as as for
for example
example in in A
ques'lolmo (seventh book). The seventh
quest' olmo (seventh book).
seventh book, book, not not accidentally
accidentally entitledentitled
"Concerto," presents,
"Concerto," presents, aside
aside from
from the
the monodic cantatas,
cantatas, expansive
expansive con- con-
tinuo madrigals
tinue madrigals for for four
four to
to six
six voices,
voices, and chamber duets and trios
trios in a
in
sparkling concertato style. Not aa single
sparkling concertato style. single madrigal
madrigal in in the
the old
old sense is rep-
sense is rep-
resented
resented here.
here.
The chamber
chamber duets
duets fallfall into
into two
two categories.
categories. The one betrays betrays itsits derivation
derivation
from
from the the monody
monody by by its
its declamatory
declamatory rhythm rhythm and its
its static
static basses.
basses. The
other is written
other is written in a in a much steadier
steadier rhythm
rhythm on aa sequentially
sequentially running bass
running bass
of
of obviously
obviously instrumental
instrumental origin; origin; it it occurs
occurs so so frequently
frequently with Monteverdi
that
that itit can almost be
can almost be taken
taken as as his
his trademark.
trademark. The chamber duets duets of of the
the
Florentine, Venetian,
Florentine, Venetian, and Roman monodists parallel
parallel and sometimes even
antedate
antedate those
those of of Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. Brunetti's
Brunetti's EuterpeEuterpe (1606)(1606) contains
contains a a very
very
early
early example
example of of the form (Ex.
the form (Ex. 5),
5), and others can be found
and others can be found with with PeriPeri
(Varie
(Varie Musiche)
Musiche), , Caccini
Caccini (Fuggilotio)
(Fuggilotio) ,
, Quagliati
Quagliati (Sfera
(Sfera armoniosa)
armoniosd), ,
Belli,
Belli, Giovanni
Giovanni Valentini,
Valentini, Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi, and and Sances.
Sances. Some Some of of these
these pieces
pieces
were
were onlyonly nominally
nominally duets duets and and stood
stood closer
closer to to monody
monody than than to to the
the con-
con-
tinuo
tinuo madrigal
madrigal because
because they
they called
called for
for aa soprano,
soprano, and
and a
a bass
bass that
that merely
merely
doubled
doubled the the continuo.
continue. .
The
The Roman
Roman composer
composer Quagliati
Quagliati made made the the unique,
unique, thoughthough hardly
hardly suc- suc-
cessful,
cessful, attempt
attempt to
to bridge
bridge the
the gap
gap between
between monodic
monodic and
and madrigal
madrigal litera-
litera-

madrigals (1608)
21
ture
ture with
with hybrid
hybrid madrigals (1608) 21 thatthat could
could be be performed
performed either either as as
21 See
See the
the example AM
21 example in
in Einstein,
Einstein, AM VI.
VI. Wi.
TIS.
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque in
in Italy
Italy 37
37
continuo madrigals
continue madrigals or
or else as monodies.
monodies. Eager
else as Eager toto satisfy
satisfy both
both thethe con-
con-
servative and
servative and the
the progressive
progressive taste,
taste, Quagliati
Quagliati lost
lost in
in these
these "double-duty"
"double-duty"
madrigals the
madrigals the concertato texture of
concertato texture of the
the parts
parts without
without gaining
gaining the
the flexibility
flexibility
of the
of the monodic
monodic style.
style. He
He neatly
neatly contrasted
contrasted the
the choral
choral performance
performance (musica
(musica
pima)
piena) with
with the
the solo
solo performance (musica tlota),
performance (musica vota), fully fully aware
aware of
of the
the pos-
pos-
sibilities of
sibilities of the
the vocal
vocal medium. The first
medium. The first explicit
explicit document
document illustrating
illustrating the
the
Ex.
Ex. 5. Brunetti:
5. Brunetti: Chamber
Chamber duct AmoT /io
duet Amor lio non.
non.
A mor* a*io non tl ere - do An - -
gel che mi rajl

furore la mor t~'1 rI

,,. 1.1_1
o

'1
0
. $CO

..,
0 g. ~o&. fa morott.e'l rI - seo

.- _.. - -
polarity between concertato
polarity between
concertato and a-cappella
a-cappella performance
performance in in secular
secular music
music
was
was Domenico
Domenico Mazzocchi's
Mazzocchi's madrigal
madrigal book of of 1638
1638 containing
containing both con- con-
tinuo
tinue and
and a-cappella madrigals. In
a-cappclla madrigals.
In the
the preface
preface thethe composer
composer rather
rather dif-
dif-

fidently advocated a-cappella performance

fidently advocated a-cappella performance
and,
and, symptomatically,
symptomatically, we find
find

here,
here, for
for the
the first time in
first time in print, symbols for
print, symbols
for such choral idioms as as crescendo
crescendo
and decrescendo. The
and decrescendo. The fact
fact that
that the
the madrigals
madrigals appeared
appeared in score for
in score for study
study
purposes,
purposes,
not
not for
for actual
actual performance,
performance, discloses
discloses that
that Mazzocchi
Mazzocchi sang
sang the
the
swan
swan song of the old madrigal. From now
song of the old madrigal. From
now on on it held an
it held an essentially
essentially anti-
anti-

quarian interest,
quarian interest,
characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the stile antico in
stile antico in secular
secular music.
music. Cenci
Cenci
also
also pleaded in his madrigals (1647) for for a-cappella
a-cappella singing.
singing. Mazzocchi
Mazzocchi and and
pleaded in his madrigals (1647)
Cenci
Cenci diddid not
not yet use the term "a
yet use the term
"a cappella,"
cappella," which originated
which originated in chUIch
in church
music,
music, but
but they
they
advocated
advocated an
an a-cappe1la
a-cappella ideal
ideal in
in conscious
conscious opposition
opposition to to

the concertato ideal.

the concertato ideal. .

The
The Madrigali Guen-ieri
Madrigali Guerrieri et Amorosi (eighth
et Amorosi (eighth book,
book, 1638)
1638) acquaint
acquaint
us with the fully developed
us with the fully developed concertato
concertato style
style of
of the
the matUIe
mature Monteverdi.
Monteverdi.
Considerable to li~ht in passa~es
Considerable progress in dissonance treatment
progress in dissonance
treatment cQme$
comes to light in passages
38 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
with simultaneous
with simultaneous cross-relations,
cross-relations, not not otherwise frequent in
otherwise frequent in his
his harmonic
vocabulary.ss 22 Monteverdi enriched the concertato style by an important
vocabulary. Monteverdi enriched the concertato style by important
innovation:
innovation: the stile concitato
the stile concitato (style(style of of agitation)
agitation) in in which he he turned
turned
the
the measured
measured tremolo
tremolo of the gorgia
of the gorgia to to dramatic
dramatic effect.
effect. As the the title
title of
of the
the
madrigal
madrigal book suggests,
suggests, thethe first
first part
part of of the
the collection
collection deals with terror,
deals with terror,
ire,
ire, and bellicose
bellicose affections,
affections, represented
represented by by exclusively
exclusively triadic melodies
triadic melodies

and fanfare
fanfare motives
motives in in rapidly repeated
rapidly repeated notes.
notes. In
In its
its vocal
vocal form the
the
stile
stile concitato
concitato waswas characterized
characterized by by a
a Rossini-like
Rossini-like parlando;
parlando; it
it gained,
gained,
however, its
however, its greatest and
greatest and trulytruly elemental
elemental forceforce as as orchestral
orchestral tremolo,
tremolo, ever ever
since
since Monteverdi
Monteverdi the the favorite
favorite (and(and by by now rather
rather threadbare)
threadbare) device device forfor
dramatic
dramatic agitation.
agitation. The principle
principle of
of the
the stile
stile concitato
concitato was so
so simple
simple and
so
so devoid
devoid ofof harmonic
harmonic interest
interest that
that only
only a a composer
composer of of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's imag- imag-
ination
ination could
could make something
something of
of it.
it. Sometimes
Sometimes he
he presented
presented a a single triad
single triad
for
for more than
than thirty measures
thirty measures in
in a
a measured
measured tremolo
tremolo or
or in
in other
other rhythmic
rhythmic
patterns.
patterns.
Although
Although the the string tremolo occurred
string tremolo occurred even even before Monteverdi in
before Monteverdi in the
the
sonatas
sonatas ofof Marin~
Marini, Usper,
Usper, and Riccio,
Riccio, he
he was the
the first
first to
to realize
realize its
its dramatic
dramatic

possibilities. His Combattimento

possibilities. Combattimento di di Tancredi
Tancredi e e Clorinda (composed 1624,
Clorinda (composed 1624,
published
published in
in the
the eighth madrigal
eighth madrigal book) book) is
is noteworthy
noteworthy not
not only
only for the
for the
introduction
introduction of the stile
of the stile roncitato
concitato and and such
such other
other dramatic
dramatic devices devices as as
pizzicato and morendo.
pizzicato morendo, but but primarily
primarily for for its
its form.
form. The tragic tragic story,
story, based
based
on the
the famous passage
passage from Tasso,Tasso, is is related
related by by a a testo
testo or or narrator,
narrator, and is is

articulated
articulated by by an orchestral
orchestral concitato
concitato accompaniment
accompaniment that
that depicts
depicts the
the
prancing
prancing of of the
the horses
horses and the the battle
battle noise
noise in in aa highly
highly stylized,
stylized, yetyet un-un-
cannily suggestive
cannily suggestive manner.
manner. At climactic
climactic points
points the
the actors
actors themselves
themselves begin
begin
to
to sing in stile
sing in stile rappresentatitlo.
rappresentativo. With the the Combattimento
Combattimento Monteverdi Monteverdi es- es-

tablished
tablished the
the secular
secular oratorio;
oratorio; itsits partly narrated
partly narrated and pardy partly enacted,
enacted, semi-
semi-
operatic
operatic performance
performance is clear testimony
is clear testimony to the all-embracing
to the all-embracing influence
influence of of
the
the opera
opera on other
other vocal
vocal forms.
forms.

THE DANCE ON VOCAL MUSIC

THE INFLUENCE OF TIm

Beside
Beside the
the higher
higher forms ofof vocal art music
vocal art music we find,
find, in
in the
the early
early baroque
baroque
period, less
period, less demanding
demanding types,
types, all
all in
in varying
varying degree
degree affected
affected byby dance
dance
music.
music. The unpretentious
unpretentious canzonettas
canzonettas and villanellas
villanellas of
of the
the late
late renais-
renais-
sance,
sance, which had found in
in Gastoldi
Gastoldi and Vecchi their most
Vecchi their most spirited
spirited masters,
masters,
had never seriously
seriously been
been touched by polyphonic writing.
by polyphonic writing. The addition
addition ofof

example CE vm.
22
!Ill Sec
See for
for example 242 where a
VIII, 242 a simultaneous
simultaneous cross
cross relation
relation appears to the
appears to the
words
words dclorosi guai
do/orosi gum (painful
(painful wails).
wails).
 Early Baroque in
Early Baroque in Italy
Italy 39
39
the continuo
continue transformed the the canzonetta
canzonetta to to thethe continuo
continue song, the vogue
song, the vogue
of
of which continued to to the
the end of of the seventeenth
the seventeenth century. century. The favorite
favorite
medium of of the
the continuo
continue song
song was the the trio
trio setting in which the voices were
setting in which the voices were
no longer
longer bound by by the
the melodic
melodic restrictions
restrictions of of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century.
century.
The strophes
strophes were usually separated by
usually separated by ritornelli,ritornelli, written
written on
on typical in-
typical in-
strumental basses
basses in brisk
brisk rhythms.
rhythms. With the
the trend
trend toward
toward monody
monody solo
solo
songs
songs also
also became popular,
popular, sharing
sharing withwith the the monodic
monodic style only the com-
style only the com-
bination
bination forfor voice
voice and continuo,
continue, but but not
not its its affective
affective character.
character. Continuo
Continue
songs
songs can be found even with with Caccini
Caccini and and Peri Peri under
under a a confusing
confusing variety
variety
of traditional
traditional names,
names, such as as canzonetta,
canzonetta, villanella, madrigal, or
villanella, madrigal, or aria.
aria.

Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, whose early early canzonettas
canzonettas still
still reflect
reflect the
the renaissance
renaissance tradition,
tradition,
published
published numerous continuo
continuo songs,
songs, mostly
mostly for for two
two voices,
voices, in in his
his Scherzi
Scherzi
musicali (1607)
(1607) and in in his
his later
later madrigal
madrigal books. books. The strongly
musicali strongly rhythmic
rhythmic
character
character of of these
these compositions
compositions points points toward
toward the the French
French chanson;
chanson; the the
rigidly
rigidly maintained verse
verse patterns
patterns may may be
be a
a reflection
reflection of
of the
the tiers
vcrs mesure
with which Monteverdi came in
with in contact
contact duringduring his his stay
stay inin France.
France. He
expressly
expressly acknowledged
acknowledged his debt
his debt to to French
French music music notnot only
only inin the
the preface
preface
to
to the Scherzi but also
also in the designation
in the designation canzonetta
canzonetta alia alla francese.
francese.
One of thethe most intriguing
intriguing patterns
patterns of the dance
of the dance song
song was was the ~emiola
the hemiola
rhythm,
rhythm, an old
old feature
feature of
of the
the Burgundian chanson, faithfully
Burgundian chanson, faithfully preserved preserved
in baroque
in baroque music.
music. It
It consists
consists ofof aa more or or less
less regular
regular alternation
alternation between
between
3/4
3/4 and 6/8, or 312 6/4
6/8, or 3/2 and 6/4 time,
time, not
not indicated
indicated by by the
the meter
meter signature. Since
signature. Since
six units
six units in
in aa bar
bar can
can always
always be be felt
felt as
as either
either 33 xx 2 or or 2 xx 33 beats,
beats, the
the hemiola
hemiola
should not
should not be
be misrepresented
misrepresented as as syncopation.
syncopation. In In his
his drinking
drinking song song Dami-
gelZa
gella Monteverdi
Monteverdi consistently
consistently alternated
alternated between
between 6/8
6/8 and
and 3/4
3/4 onon the
the basis
basis
of the
of the following
following text
text pattern:
pattern:

'-' '-' ='-' ='-' ==

......... ......, ....., '-' = f f I ~) J f J f I (~) J J ' f f I (~) J f J f I G) J J '
hemiola rhythm
The hemiola rhythm is often
is often obscured
obscured by
by the
the signature
signature C which
which
in early
in early baroque
baroque music
music had not
not yet
yet necessarily
necessarily aa metrical,
metrical, but
but rather
rather aa
mensural meaning.
mensural meaning. It
It signified
signified merely
merely that
that the
the beats
beats were
were divided
divided by
by two,
two,
but it did
but it did not
not determine
determine the
the number ofof beats
beats in
in the
the measure.
measure. The harmonic
harmonic
rhythm and the
rhythm the cadences
cadences must
must be
be carefully
carefully examined
examined in
in order
order to
to establish
establish
whether the
whether the piece
piece moves in
in duple
duple or
or triple
triple meter.
meter. Modern editors
editors have
have
often neglected
too often
too this precaution
neglected this precaution with
with the
the result
result that
that they
they have
have over-
over-
looked upbeats
looked upbeats and
and forced
forced triple
triple meter
meter into
into the
the straitjacket
straitjacket of
of 4/4-
4/+23 Mon-
23 Mon-

28
ta Nearly half of
Nearly half all the
of all Scherzi musicdi
the Scherzi musicali have been incorrectly
have been barred by
incorrectly barred by Malipiero,
Malipicro,
the editor of
the editor of the
the complete edition which
complete edition which leaves
leaves much
much toto be desired with
be desired with regard
regard to
to
accuracy. The
accuracy. The mistakes
mistakes are
are not
not always
always so
so obvious
obvious as
as that in Lidia
that in Lidia spin*
tpina (CE
(CE X, 56)
X, 56)
40 Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
teverdi's
teverdi's canzonetta Amarilli (Ex.
canzonetta Amarilli (Ex. 6)6) illustrates
illustrates the
the hemiola alternation
alternation
of 3/2
of 3/2 and 6/4
6/4 time.
time. The bouncing repeated
bouncing repeated notes
notes at
at the
the end of
of each phrase,
phrase,
and the
the dissonant
dissonant cadences
cadences with
with parallel
parallel seconds
seconds oror !chappe
6chafpi notes
notes belong
belong
to
to the
the stock
stock in
in trade
trade of
of the
the continuo
continue song.
song.

Ex. 6.
Ex. 6. Monteverdi: Canzonetta Amari/Ii
Monteverdi: Canzonetta Amarilli onae.
onde.

.1\ ,,;;;;;;;;;;;;- I _I ~J"l ...

..,
A:..., rll - I: ILODde '":nu sa Ie fi':~ l=r dl ~~)f 1"Jo.~
r

The canzonetta
canzonetta style
style increasingly
increasingly affected
affected both
both the
the monodic and the
the
concertato
conccrtato literature.
literature. In
In the
the few-voiced
few-voiced collections
collections a1l
all transitional
transitional stages
stages
between the
between the plain
plain dance
dance song
song and the
the monody
monody can
can be
be observed.
observed. In
In these
these
compositions
compositions relics
relics of
of short
short imitative
imitative sections
sections in
in madrigal
madrigal style,
style, affective
affective

recitative passages,
recitative passages, and
and snatches
snatches ofof dance-like melodies were fused
dance-like melodies fused together
together
within
within a a single composition, e.g.
single composition, e.g. Monteverdi's Eri gia.
gti?* This
Monteverdi's Eri 24 This juxtaposition
juxtaposition
of
of recitative
recitative and canzonetta
canzonetta anticipated the future
anticipated the future distinction between
distinction between
recitative and aria
recitative aria in
in the
the opera.
opera. The influence
influence of
of canzonetta
canzonetta style
style can
can also
also
be
be felt
felt in
in certain
certain ground
ground basses
basses of
of the
the chamber cantata.
cantata. In
In contrast
contrast to
to the
the
stagnant
stagnant basses
basses of
of the
the strophic
strophic variations, they betrayed
variations, they betrayed their
their closeness
closeness toto
the
the dance by by aa lively rhythm, concise
lively rhythm, concise melody,
melody, and sequential
sequential structure,
structure,
as can be
as can be seen
seen in
in Monteverdi's canzonetta Amor che
Monteverdi's canzonetta chc deggio far. 21
deggio far?*

Aside from thethe freely

freely invented
invented ground basses of
ground basses of the
the chamber cantata,
cantata,
certain
certain traditional bass melodies,
traditional bass melodies, some of
of which went back
back to renaissance
to renaissance
26
music,
music, 28 served
served as
as the basis for
the basis for vocal
vocal and instrumental
instrumental variations
variations or
or fur-
fur-
nished the
nished the harmonic foundation
foundation for
for the
the improvised singing
improvised singing of
of popular
popular
which must be barred, in
be barred, spite of
in spite of its
its C signature,
signature, in
in 3/4
3/4 time
time with
with upbeat.
upbeat The edition
edition
illustrates
illustrates better
better than
than any
any other
other example
example the pitfalls of
the pitfalls of editing
editing old
old music.
music. It
It shows that
shows that
person of
even aa person of unquestioned
unquestioned musicianship
musicianship fails to grasp
fails to grasp the
the musical essentials if
musical essentials if
confronted with patterns
patterns not
not familiar
familiar from later
later styles.
styles.
Riemann, who was the
Riemann, the first to draw attention
first to attention to to the
the conBict
conflict between
between meter
meter signa-
signa-
ture and rhythm,
rhythm, pressed his point
pressed his tried to
point when he tried force it
to force it also
also on
on music that lacks
music that lacks
regularity of
the regularity of beat,
beat, such as
as the
the monody
monody and the the opera
opera recitative.
recitative. The ostensible
ostensible 5/4
5/4
time that Leichtentritt (Ambros, GesdlicAte
Leichtentritt (Ambros, aer Musit IV,
Geschichte dcr Musi\, IV, 563) reads into
563) reads into Monte-
Monte-
verdi is due to a misinterpretation
verdi is misinterpretation of of the
the hemiola.
hemiola. Real
Real 5/4
5/4 and 7/87/8 time
time does,
does, how-
ever, occur with
ever, occur with Giovanni
Giovanni Valentini
Valentin!.
:t"'CE X. 80.
**CEX,8o.
11\ CE VII,
VII, 182-
182.
Einstein, SIMG xm Gombosi.
26
See Einstein,
28 Sec (1912), 4440
XIII (1912), 444, and RMI 41
41 (1937),
(1937), 163;
163; Ras-
Gombosi, Ras-
Sffgna Musicalc VII
sepa. Musicale VII (I934}.I4-
(1934), 14.
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque in Italy
in Italy 41
(ottfJ1le rime),
poetry (pttavc
poetry rime), described
described in
in Calestani's Modo di cantar
Calestani's Modo cantar ottave oi
(1617).
ottafle (1617).
The most
The most frequently
frequently usedused basses
basses included
included the passamezzo antico,
the passamezzo antico, the
the
romanesca, the
romanesca, folia, the
the jolia, passamezzo moderno,
the passamezzo moderno, and
and the ruggiero, the
the ruggicro, the first
first
three of
three of which
which were
were obviously
obviously closely
closely related (Ex. 7).
related (Ex. 7).

Ex.
Ex. Traditional ground-bass
,. Traditional
7.
ground-bass melodies.
melodies.
Pallllamt'ZZlJ antico
Passamrzzo antic!o
'II i
.^
"t i
-
*
I
I I I II! "
"II* I
"i
I" I j )
* I

*i

Romant'll"B

.'
Roraanesca
0' Q'
.Jh I 'I II' I lij J~ I J
Folia
Folia

'ii I'" I
II
I
. I
i
U
el [1M -
I
I I
Passamezzo modvrno

I. ..
Ruglno
Ruggiero .
'II UrJrl . tltr I- r 1.( r" 1-: J 11 r - 13
The basses
basses were
were only only skeletal
skeletal melodies
melodies each note of
each DOte of which appeared
appeared
on
on the
the first
first beat
beat of of every
every measure
measure or or every
every other
other measure,
measure, thus guiding
guiding
the succession of
the succession of harmonies.
harmonies. In In each
each statement
statement ofof the variation
variation melody
melody
and
and bass
bass were
were strongly
strongly varied
varied by figuration.
by figuration. Since
Since this
this variation
variation technique
technique
combined in
combined in singular
singular fashion
fashion elements
elements of of the
the strophic
strophic variation
variation and of

the basso ostinato, it cannot

the basso ostinato, it cannot easily easily be
be classified.
classified. In view of
of the fact
fact that the

harmonic
harmonic scheme
scheme was was thethe only
only stable
stable element,
element, the procedure
the procedure may may be be
called
called a a variation
variation on on ostinato
ostinato harmonies.
harmonies.
The
The long
long list
list of
of early
early baroque composers
baroque composers who wrote vocal variations on
ostinato harmonies
ostinato harmonies includes
includes Caccini,
Caccini, India,
India, Cifra,
Cifra, Dognazzi,
Dognazzi, Domenico
Mazzocchi, Monteverdi,
Mazzocchi, Monteverdi, Landi, Landi, Giovanni
Giovanni Steffani,
Steffani, Filippo
Filippo Vitali,
Vitali, Mila-
nuzzi, Frescobaldi, and Sances.
nuzzi, Frescobaldi, and Sances. Caccini's Caccini's romanesca
romanesca in
hi the
the Nuofle
Nuove Musiche
Musiche
and
and that
that of
of Landi
Landi 2T represent
2T
represent thethe florid
florid type
type ofof variation
variation thatthat called
called for
for aa
solo virtuoso. In
solo virtuoso. In Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's four four variations
variations on the romanesca (seventh
on the (seventh
book)
book) the
the freely
freely
treated
treated bass
bass supports
supports an
an exceptionally
exceptionally fine
fine concertato
concertato duet
with skilfully
with skilfully handled
handled dissonances.
dissonances. The
The folia
folia occurs
occurs in
in the
the vocal
vocal collections
collections

of
of Steffani
Steffani andand Milanuzzi.
Milanuzzi.
AA more
more recent
recent group
group of ground basses
of ground basses appeared around 1600
appeared around 1600 under
under the
the

name of
name of ciacona
ciacona (chaconne)
(chaconne) or or passacaglia.
passacaglia. They
They consisted
consisted of of concise
concise and
and
often
oftensequentially constructed
constructed ideas.
ideas. Unlike
Unlike the
the melodies
melodies of the passamezzo
of the passamezzo
sequentially
27 Riemann
Ricmann HMG 2:2, HMG
Sf 2:2, 91.
91.
42 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
family
family thethe chaconnes
chaconnes were were unquestionably
unquestionably strict
strict ostinato basses, relent-
ostinato basses, relent-

lessly repeated a great

lessly repeated a great many many times
times throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire composition
composition with
little
little or
or nono melodic
melodic variation.
variation. Transpositions
Transpositions of of the
the ground
ground bassbass occurred
occurred
only exceptionally
only exceptionally in
in early
early baroque
baroque chaconnes.
chaconnes. Although
Although obviously
obviously instru-
instru-

mental
mental in in nature,
nature, they
they could
could serve
serve equally
equally well
well as
as the
the basis
basis for
for a
a continu-
continu-
ously
ously varied
varied vocal
vocal melody.
melody. The chaconne
chaconne basses
basses moved in in triple meter and
triple meter
were governed by the interval
were governed by the interval of of the
the fourth.
fourth. The archetype
archetype was the
the descend-
descend-
ing
ing tetrachord
tetrachord in in its
its three
three forms:
forms: minor,
minor, major,
major, oror chromatic,
chromatic, of of which
the
the chromatic
chromatic was was the
the latest
latest to
to be
be used
used extensively.
extensively. A fourth
fourth type
type consisted
consisted
of
of aa sequence
sequence of
of fourths
fourths and
and a
a cadence
cadence formula
formula (Ex. 8).
(Ex. 8). Other basses
basses com-
bined
bined the
the four
four types,
types, varied
varied the
the rhythms,
rhythms, inverted
inverted the
the direction
direction of
of the
the in-
in-

tervals,
tervals, oror used
used lively
lively figuration.
figuration.

Ex.
Ex. 8.
8. Chaconne
Chaconne bass patterns.
bass patterns.

&k It.sr.1a:!!:
i * r
1.
1. -ou- .
A' . . ho'
.<. t^. 2.
. ''2. A' <&<. o' S.
3.
jUi** r jx
A f2 bo
I,* Q
.

'I:
VL_ I kiiI s ill?'.
i rt I
i
I IS ijl'l!
i I

r
IT
r Ier
1

i
Ir
S _I 11

4.
4.
'Zt 'Vries IVe IAe I; III I J -II

It is striking
It is striking that
that no early
early baroque
baroque theorist
theorist is
is known to to have
have commented
on the
the widespread
widespread use
use of
of chaconne
chaconne basses.
basses. The composers
composers often used the
often used the
terms
terms chaconne
chaconne and passacaglia indiscriminately
passacaglia indiscriminately and modern attempts
attempts to to
arrive at
arrive at aa clear
clear distinction
distinction areare arbitrary
arbitrary and historically
historically unfounded.!8
unfounded. 28
Although
Although it it seems
seems certain
certain that
that the
the chaconne
chaconne was an exotic exotic dance
dance of the
of the
Spanish
Spanish colonies,
colonies, its
its musical
musical origin
origin and its
its name have
have not
not yet
yet been
been satis-
satis-

factorily
factorily elucidated.
elucidated. The first
first type
type of
of bass
bass may
may have
have been
been originally
originally thethe
discant of
discant the romanesca beginning,
of the beginning, which in
in turn
turn became a bass itself.
a bass itself.
The minor form of of the
the tetrachord
tetrachord (the
(the first type) appeared
first type) preferably in
appeared preferably in

28
28 The Haruartl Diaionary
Harvard Dictionary of Mresic proposes
oj Music proposes an
an equally
equally arbitrary, but perhaps
arbitrary, but perhaps
useful. distinction
useful, distinction according to which the
according to the term chaconne
chaconne would be
be reserved
reserved for
for osti-
osti-
nato harmonies,
nato harmonies, the
the term passacaglia
passacaglia for ground basses.
for ground basses. It
It should be noted,
should be noted, however,
however,
that
that the
the early baroque qsage
early baroque tjsage
seems
seems toto favor
fovor exactly
exactly the
the opposite
opposite distinction. Most
distinction. Most
chaconnes adhere to to the
the four types of
four types of basses
basses mentioned
mentioned above,
above, whereas
whereas the passa-
the passa-
caglia
caglia has often
often no recognizable ostinato, but
recognizable ostinato. but merely
merely recurrent
recurrent rhythmic patterns and
rhythmic patterns and
harmonies.
harmonies, asas for
for example the Cmto
example the Partite sopra
Cento Partite sopra Passacaglio
Passacaglio by
by Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi (TAM
(TAM
V).
**
In middle and latelate baroque
baroque music
music the
the chaconne
chaconne often
often assumed
assumed thethe characteristic
characteristic
rhythm of
dotted rhythm saraband in
of the saraband in contrast
contrast with the smooth
with the smooth ternary rhythm of
ternary rhythm the
of the
passacaglia
passacaglia themes,
themes, but difference in
but there was no difference the technique
in the technique ofof variation.
variation. The
first boo~
first. book of Frescobaldi's
Frescobaldi's Toccate
Toccate tl'[ntauolatura
d'lntavolatura (1637)
(1637) contains
contains a piece remarkable
a piece remarkable
for its dissonances
for lts dissonances and for the fact
for the fact that
that the
the composer
composer consistently
consistently alternates between
alternates between
passacaglia. In this
chaconne and passacaglia. this case
case neither one has
neither one has aa clearly
clearly stated
stated ground
ground bass.
bass.
The reason
The reason why Frescobaldi took pains
Frescobaldi took pains toto designate
designate the
the parts as chac:onne
parts as chaconne and passa-
and passa-
caglia respectively is
caglia respectively Is obscure.
obscure.
 Early Baroque in
Early Baroque in Italy
Italy 43
43
mournful pieces
pieces and plaints,
plaints, as
as for
for example
example in in Monteverdi's pathetic
Monteverdi's pathetic
2*
Lamento della Ninfa 29
della Ninfa which carries
carries the significant remark: to be sung
the significant remark: to be sung
"not in strict time,
"not in strict time, but according
according toto the
the affection."
affection." Equally
Equally noteworthy
noteworthy is is

his highly
his highly imaginative
imaginative chamber duet duet Ze{firo torna? which
Zeffiro torna,30
Q
which Schutz
Schiitz later
later

arranged in
arranged in a contrafactum
contrajactum setting.
setting. It
It is
is built
built on
on the
the fourth
fourth type,
type, also
also used
used
for
for vocal chaconnes by Frescobaldi, Sances, Negri, Manelli,
by Frescobaldi, Sances, Negri, Manelli, and
and Ferrari.
Ferrari.
31
31

In these variations
variations the voice moved with
the voice striking independence; its
with striking independence; its phrase phrase
divisions
divisions often
often overlapped
overlapped those
those of
of the bass and
the bass and lent
lent to
to the
the setting
setting a
a flowing,
flowing,
if
if complex,
complex, continuity.
continuity.

Vocal dance music was also incorporated in

also incorporated in the
the stage
stage ballets
ballets of
of the
the
period
period which,
which, fashioned
fashioned after
after the
the French
French ballet
ballet de
de cour,
coitr, were
were transplanted
transplanted
to
to Italy
Italy by
by Rinuccini, the first
Rinuccini, the first librettist
librettist of
of the
the opera.
opera. In In contrast
contrast toto the
the
spectacular
spectacular intermezzi
intermezzi of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance these
these ballett;
balletti had a
a continuous
continuous
plot,
plot, or
or at
at least
least dramatic
dramatic episodes,
episodes, and
and were
were composed
composed in in monodic stylestyle
and interspersed
interspersed with
with instrumental
instrumental and and choral dances. The ballets
choral dances. ballets began
began
intrada and were concluded
with an intrada concluded by by aa retirada
retirada forfor the
the dancers;
dancers; they
they
contained,
contained, of
of course,
course, a
a great
great deal
deal of
of dance
dance music
music for
for the
the stage, which,
stage, which,
however,
however, did did not
not fall
fall into
into the
the stereotyped
stereotyped patterns
patterns of of the
the social ballroom
social ballroom

dance.
dance. Of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's numerous balletsballets only
only a a few have come down to to us.
us.

The Ballo
Ballo delle Ingrate (eighth
delle Ingrate (eighth madrigal
madrigal book),
book), thethe grisly plot of
grisly plot of which
may
may havehave prompted
prompted some remarkable
remarkable dissonance
dissonance in in the
the music,
music, leans
leans
heavily,
heavily, in
in its
its somber
somber recitatives
recitatives and
and pathetic choruses,
pathetic choruses, toward the
the opera.
opera.
The pastoral
pastoral dialogue
dialogue Tirsi
Tirsi ee Cion
Clori (seventh
(seventh book)
book) is is rounded off off by
by a
choral dance. The ballo
choral dance. hallo for
for Emperor
Emperor Ferdinand III (eighth
III (eighth book)
book) presents
presents
after
after the "entrata" strophic
the "entrata" strophic variations
variations in in monodic style.
style. Its
Its imposing
imposing ballet
ballet

for .five
for five voices
voices and
and two instruments,
instruments, a a masterpiece
masterpiece of of choral
choral variations
variations on a

recurrent, slightly
recurrent, slightly varied
varied bass,
bass, eloquently bespeaks Monteverdi's
eloquently bespeaks Monteverdi's most
mature concertato style.
mature concertato style.

EMANCIPATION OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC: FRESCOBALDI

Three
Three general
general principles
principles govern
govern the
the instrumental
instrumental music of
of the
the early
early
baroque:
baroque: multisectional
multisectional structure
structure with
with regard
regard to
to form,
form, extensive
extensive variation
variation

29 CE VIII, 288.
28 VIII, 288.
80 CE IX, 9. The text
10 IX, 9. text of
of this
this duet
duet is
is not
not identical
identical with
with the
the sonnet by Petrarch
sonnet by that
Petrarch that
Monteverdi set in
Monteverdi set in his sixth book
his sixth book of
of madrigals.
madrigals. Only the first
Only the first words are
are the
the same:.
same.
81 Riemann
11 Riemann HMG 2:2,
2:2, 64.
64.
44
44
Music in
Music in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
with regard
with regard to to melodic
melodic procedure,
procedure, and and polarity
polarity between
between bass bass and and upper
upper
voices with
voices with regard
regard to to texture.
texture. The The advent
advent of of the thorough-bass
the thorough-bass brought brought
only
only
to
to completion
completion
what
what had
had lain
lain latent
latent in
in the
the dance
dance music
music of
of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth

century: a running and patterned bass

century: a running and patterned
bass above
above whichwhich the the parts
parts could
could freely
freely
unfold. This
unfold. This principleprinciple of
of the
the trio
trio setting
setting was
was generally
generally adoptedadopted in
in instru-
instru-

mental music.
mental music. Sequential
Sequential bass bass patterns
patterns were were so so prominent
prominent that, that, were
were itit
not for
not for the
the transpositions
transpositions to the various
to the various degrees
degrees of of the scale,
the they would
scale, they would
actually
actually
have
have become
become ground
ground basses.
basses. Such
Such quasi-ostinato
quasi-ostinato basses
basses form
form one
one
of the most important
of the most important resources
resources of
of baroque
baroque music.
music. Wherever
Wherever static,
static, motion-
motion-
less basses
less basses appear
appear in in instrumental
instrumental music music of of the
the period
period theythey are are borrowed
borrowed
from the
from the monodic
monodic style style and
and attest
attest to to the
the lively
lively interchange
interchange between in-
between in-
strumental and
strumental and vocal
vocal idioms.
idioms.
The immense
The immense variety variety of of instrumental
instrumental music music can can be be reduced
reduced to to three
three
categories: (1) dance
categories: (i) dance music, (2)
music, (2) idiomatic
idiomatic instrumental
instrumental forms
forms of
of rhapsodic
rhapsodic
character, and
character, and compositions
compositions on cantus firmus,
on aa cantus firmus, and (3) (3) forms
forms derived
derived
originally
originally
from
from vocal
vocal models.
models. Baroque
Baroque dance
dance music
music consisted
consisted of
of dances
dances
that had
that had survived
survived from from thethe renaissance
renaissance and new types types added in in the
the course
course
of the seventeenth
of the seventeenth century. century. We learn
learn from the
the dancing
dancing masters
masters Arbeau
Arbeau and
and
Caroso not only that a
Caroso not only that a great varietygreat variety of
of dance
dance and step patterns
step patterns was often
often

covered
covered by by the
the same name, 82
same name, 82 but also that
but also that the the pavane
pavane and galliarde
galliarde had had gone
gone
out
out of
of fashion.
fashion. Although
Although they they had ceased
ceased to
to be
be social
social ballroom dances or or
halli
bdli they persisted
they persisted as
as stylized
stylized dance
dance music characterized
characterized by complex
by complex me-
lodic
lodic structure
structure and and sophisticated
sophisticated texture.texture.

Social
Social dances
dances were,
were, of of old,
old, performed
performed in in pairs,
pairs, the the "stepped
"stepped dance" dance" in in aa
moderate
moderate dupleduple meter
meter and and the
the "leapt dance" in
"leapt dance" in aa nimble tripletriple meter;
meter; occa-
sionally
sionally
a
a third
third dance
dance followed
followed in
in a
a still
still faster
faster tempo.
tempo. Musically,
Musically, the second
dance
dance waswas only a
a rhythmically
only rhythmically varied
varied transformation
transformation of the first.
first. The basic

pair, which may be called aa "varied

pair, which may be called
"varied couple,"
couple," formedformed the the nucleus of what
later
kter became
became the the variation
variation suite.
suite. The
The oldest
oldest varied
varied couples,
couples, thethe passamezzo
passamezzo
and saltarello,
and sdtardlo, and and the
the pavane
pavane and
and galliarde,
galliarde, were
were succeeded
succeeded by
by the
the more re- re-

cent
cent allemande
allemande and and courante
courante or or corrente.
corrente. OtherOther typestypes of
of the
the time
time included
included
the brando (=
the branda French branle)
(= French branle) in in duple
duple meter,
meter, the saraband in
the saraband in triple
triple meter,
meter,
and
and the canario in
the canario in compound
compound meter meter withwith dotted
dotted notes.notes. The
The distinguishing
distinguishing
characteristic
characteristic of of these
these dances
dances was was not not their melody but
their melody but their
their typified
typified
rhythmic pattern.
rhythmic pattern. The
The same
same melody
melody served
served in
in the
the varied
varied couple
couple for
for both
both
allemande
allemande and courante. The
and courante. The polacca
polacca and
and its con'ente
its corrcntc by
by Marini
Marini (1629),
(1629),
composed
composed for for chamber
chamber ensemble
ensemble in in the
the favorite
favorite trio trio setting,
setting, clearly
clearly illus-
illus-

82
&2 For discussionof
Foraa discussion ofthe individual dances
theindividual dances and
and their
their steps
steps see Sachs, World
see Sachs. World Hislory
History
of the
of the Dance.
Dance.
 Early Baroque in
Early Baroque in Italy
Italy 45
45
trate
tratc the
the melodic identity
identity and rhythmic contrast in
rhythmic contrast in a
a typical varied couple
typical varied couple
(Ex. 9).
(Ex.9).

Ex. 9. Marini: Varied couple Polacca and Corrcntc.

Polacca

Corrente

In
In dances
dances forfor keyboard
keyboard instruments
instruments the the variation
variation was was also
also applied
applied to to the
the
single
single dance,
dance, each
each section
section of of which
which was repeated in
was repeated in the
the manner
manner of of the
the
English virginalists
English virginalists with
with ornamental
ornamental variations,
variations, as
as the
the works
works by
by Picchi
Picchi
show.
show.sS88
Dance music
music waswas written
written forfor every
every conceivable
conceivable medium,
medium, for for anan
ad-lihitum
ad-libitum combination
combination of of strings, especially
strings, especially violins.
violins. This
This newcomer among
among
the instruments was
the instruments was particularly
particularly appropriate
appropriate for for the
the dance
dance because
because of of its
its

penetrating sound. Also

penetrating sound. wind ensembles
Also wind ensembles (cornetti.
(cornctti, flutes, recorders, and
flutes, recorders, and
bassoons) or
bassoons) or keyboard
keyboard instruments,
instruments, lutes,
lutes, and
and guitars
guitars were
were used. Nearly
used. Nearly
all
all composers
composers listed
listed below
below in
in connection
connection with
with the
the sonata
sonata published dance
published dance
music
music along
along with
with their
their canzonas
canzonas and
and sonatas.
sonatas. The innumerable
innumerable dance
dance col-
col-

lections
lections ofof the
the time
time either
either presented
presented the varied couples
the varied couples in in their
their proper
proper
order,
order, oror lumped
lumped allall dances
dances of of the
the same
same type together, leaving
type together, leaving thethe selection
selection

to
to the
the discretion
discretion of of the
the player.
player. The latter
latter practice
practice shows that that the
the dance
dance
suite
suite was
was not
not yet
yet conceived
conceived as
as a
a cyclic form;
cyclic form; there
there was actually
actually no
no generic
generic
name for
name for aa dance
dance collection.
collection. The termterm "suite"
"suite" diddid not yet exist
not yet exist and the term
the term
sonata da
sonata da camera
camera was was not
not restricted
restricted toto dance
dance music.
music. The latterlatter term,
term, al-al-

ready
ready used
used in
in Merula's
Merula's Sonate
Sonate concertate
conccrtatc da
da chiesa
chiesa e
c da camera (1631),
(1637),
had
had nono formal
formal implication,
implication, but but aa purely
purely functional
functional one.one. Da camera de- de-
noted "fit
noted "fit for
for the
the chamber,"
chamber," as
as distinct
distinct from
from "fit
"fit for
for the
the church."
church." Dances
were the
were the only
only type
type of
of instrumental
instrumental musicmusic notnot tolerated
tolerated in in the
the church.
church.
A set
set of
of sectional
sectional variations
variations on on bass
bass melodies
melodies like like the
the monicha.
monicha, ruggiero,
ruggicro,
tenori
tenori dada Napoli.
NapoK, and and the passamezzo group,
the passamezzo group, was fittingly
fittingly called partita, aa
called partita,

term that became

term that became synonymous
synonymous with
with suite
suite not
not before
before the
the late
late baroque
baroque
period.
period. Such
Such instrumental
instrumental bass
bass variations
variations and also
also the
the various
various strict
strict

88
I I TAM V, 90; Chilesotti,
V, go; di ranta
Bibtioteca tli
Chilesotti, Biblioltl mudcati n.
rariti musicali II, HAM, no.
no. IS4 b.
154 b.
46 Music in
11usic in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
chaconnes
chaconnes belonged
belonged largely
largely toto stylized
stylized dance
dance music.
music. Written
Written for
for one
one or
or
two concerting instruments,
concerting instruments, they they formed
formed an
an important part
important part of
of early
early
baroque
baroque chamber
chamber music.
music. The elevated
elevated atmosphere
atmosphere isis suggested
suggested byby the
the
contrapuntal
contrapuntal interplay
interplay ofof the
the parts
parts and thethe exacting
exacting demands on on violin
violin
technique.
technique. The sonatas
sonatas byby Buonamente (1626)(1626) contain
contain a
a number ofof varia-
varia-
tions,
tions, not
not always
always identified
identified as
as to
to their
their origin,
origin, for
for example
example Cavaletto
Cavaletto zoppo
zoppo
(Ex. 10),
(Ex. 10), which turns
turns out
out to
to be
be based
based on the passamezzo antico.
the passamezzo S4 Buona-
antico?* Buona-

Ex. ro.
Ex. ro. Buonamente:
Buonamente: Variations
Variations Carla/etto
Cavaletto zappo.
zoppo.

C!"; :I:' ~:::= I:'!!id

\ \ \ v , i i . t i . . J. N

'^444

c: ~~f)l: :rtf :crrtt 1:",0 ;rrrr rf

c:nJJ:;;t:I:nJJJI,: a=
mente's
mente's partita,
partita, which becomes
becomes progressively
progressively more lively and difficult.
lively and difficult,
clearly
clearly illustrates the light-handed
illustrates the light-handed dialogue
dialogue of of the
the instrumental
instrumental concertato
concertato
and the
the integration
integration of the bass
of the bass into
into the
the trio
trio setting.
setting.
Unlike the vocal
Unlike vocal variations,
variations, each
each section
section ofof the
the partita
partita stricdy maintained
strictly maintained
fixed
fixed patterns
patterns of
of figuration,
figuration, such
such as
as dialogue
dialogue in
in complementary rhythms,
complementary rhythms,
triplets, upbeat motives,
triplets, upbeat motives, and scale
scale passages,
passages, which
which for
for the
the entire
entire era fur.
era fur-
nished an inexhaustible
nished reservoir of
inexhaustible reservoir of patterns. Also
patterns. Also Merula's chaconne for
Merula's chaconne for
BS
two violins
violins Sli (built
(built on the
the fourth
fourth chaconne type) and
chaconne type) and the
the variations
variations onon
the romanesca or or the ruggiero by
the ruggiero by Salomone
Salomone Rossi,86
Rossi,
86 Merula,8T
Merula, Buonamente,
87
Buonamente,
Marini,
Marini, and Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi deployed
deployed them with with great
great imagination.
imagination. ItIt should
should
be noted that
that the
the ternary rhythm
ternary rhythm of
of the
the romanesca
romanesca was
was often
often disguised
disguised
by
fay the mensural signature
signature C. Both Marini's romanesca for
Marini's romanesca for violin 88
violin 88
w canzonetta Dolci mm
mid sospiri
.. The ritomello 52) is
ritornello to Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's canzonetta Dolci sospiri (CE X, 52)
(CE X s is also
also
based on the
based the passameflzo
passamezzo antico.
antico.
ali Riemann HMG 2:2,
85
2:2, 12,3-
123.
80 ib. 88
**ib. 88 and 94-
94,
aT Example
Example inin oeM.
ST
OCM.
also HAM.
88
sa Torcbi
Torch! AM VII. 13; also
VII, 13. no. 199-
HAM, DO. 199.
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 47
47
and Frescobaldi's
and Frescobaldi's highly
highly florid
florid keyboard
keyboard variations
variations 39 are incorrectly
39 are incorrectly barred
barred
in
in modern editions.
modern editions.
dance music for
The dance for chamber
chamber ensembles
ensembles andand for
for keyboard
keyboard was was far
far sur-
sur-
passed
passed in
in quantity
quantity byby the
the dance
dance collections
collections for
for lute
lute and
and guitar which, like
guitar which, like

the sheet-music
the sheet-music of of our
our day,
day, contributed
contributed most most to
to the
the dissemination
dissemination of of popular
popular
dances. The Spanish
dances. Spanish fashion
fashion in in Italy
Italy brought
brought aa speedy
speedy victory
victory of
of the
the
noisy guitar
noisy guitar over
over the
the dignified
dignified lute.
lute. The simplified
simplified guitar
guitar notation
notation which
which
indicated in
indicated in shorthand
shorthand fashion
fashion aa setset ofof about
about aa dozen
dozen chords
chords byby single
single
letters is,
letters is, perhaps,
perhaps, thethe most
most striking
striking symptom
symptom of of the
the change
change toto chordal
chordal
thinking. This
thinking. This primitive
primitive tablature,
tablature, introduced
introduced by by Montesardo (1606), re-
Montesardo (1606), re-
placed the
placed the tradition
tradition ofof the
the polyphonic
polyphonic punteado playing by
punteado playing by the
the chordal
chordal
strumming, the
strumming, the rasgueado playing, which
rasgueado playing, which enabled
enabled the
the dilettanti
dilettanti of
of modest
modest
ambition to
ambition to play
play aa continue
continuo or or the
the latest
latest dance
dance hit
hit in
in aa few
few easy
easy lessons.
lessons.

rhapsodic forms
The rhapsodic forms of
of instrumental
instrumental music,
music, the
the toccata,
toccata, intonazione,
intonazione,
and prelude
and prelude or preamble, were
or preamble, were essentially improvisatory solo
essentially improvisatory music. They
solo music. They
represented
represented the
the first
first really
really idiomatic
idiomatic forms
forms of
of keyboard
keyboard and
and lute
lute music.
music.
Toccatas for
Toccatas for ensembles
ensembles of of wind
wind instruments,
instruments, like the introduction
like the introduction to to
Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's Orieo, were survivals
Orfeo, were survivals ofof an
an earlier
earlier practice.
practice. The toccatatoccata oror
"touch piece" was
"touch piece" was characterized
characterized by by rhapsodic
rhapsodic sections
sections withwith sustained
sustained
chords,
chords, rambling
rambling scale passages, and broken
scale passages, broken figuration
figuration over powerful pedal
over powerful pedal
points
points which
which abruptly
abruptly alternated
alternated with
with fugal
fugal sections.
sections.

Giovanni
Giovanni Gabrieli
Gabrieli and Diruta,
Diruta, the
the author
author of of the
the important
important organorgan method
Transilvano, were
Il Transiltlano,
// were in in their
their toccatas
toccatas still
still dependent on the
dependent the model of of
Andrea Gabrieli
Gabrieli and Merulo.Merulo. The new style style appeared
appeared first with the
first with the
Neapolitans
Neapolitans Trabaci
Trabaci 40 40 and Mayone and, above all, with the greatest genius
and Mayone and, above all, with the greatest genius
of
of Italian
Italian organ Frescobaldi (1583-1643)'
organ music, Frescobaldi
music, (1583-1643). This eminent pupil pupil of
Luzzaschi
Luzzaschi made of the toccata
of the toccata a
a vehicle of great
vehicle of great affective
affective tensions.
tensions. What
used
used toto be
be a
a mere
mere alternation
alternation of of chordal
chordal and fugal fugal textures
textures in in the
the toccatas
toccatas

of
of Merulo
Merulo became
became in in the
the hands
hands of
of Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi a a calculated
calculated dramatic
dramatic con-con-
trast,
trast, enhanced
enhanced by
by the
the experimental
experimental dissonances
dissonances or
or durezze
durczze that
that dis-
dis-

tinguish
tinguish his
his keyboard style.
keyboard style. His
His toccatas
toccatas had several
several functions:
functions: they
they
supplied
supplied music
music forfor the
the Mass (the (the elevation
elevation of of the
the host)
host) and otherother liturgical
liturgical
occasions;
occasions; they
they served
served as as rhapsodic
rhapsodic preludes
preludes to to larger
larger pieces,
pieces, or or were com-
positions
positions of
of considerable
considerable length
length in
in their
their own right.
right. The introductory
introductory toc
toc-

catas
catas or intonazione were designed
or intonazione designed to
to set
set the
the pitch
pitch for
for the
the singers.
singers.

uTAM IV, 20.

*TAMIV, 20.
AM m,
40 Torchi
Torchi HI, 365.
365, and TAM V.
V.
48 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
As organist
organist at at St.
St. Peter's
Peter's in in Rome,
Rome, Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi cultivated
cultivated also also the
the oldold
form of of organ improvisation
organ improvisation on a
a Gregorian
Gregorian cantus
cantus firmus.
firmus. Throughout
Throughout
the
the baroque
baroque period
period thethe organ
organ alternated
alternated withwith the choir in
the choir in the
the so-called
so-called

altanatim
altcrnatim practice
practice which assigned assigned to to the
the organ
organ an important
important liturgical
liturgical
function.
function. The sections
sections of of the
the chant
chant forfor which
which thethe instrument
instrument substituted,
substituted,
notably
notably the alternate verses
the alternate verses ofof the
the psalms
psalms andand the
the magnificat,
magnificat, were known
as
as versets.
versets. The versets treated the chant
versets treated the chant with with considerable
considerable latitude;
latitude; they they
varied strict cantus-firmus
varied from strict cantus-firmus settings
settings with
with running
running counterpoint
counterpoint to to fugal
fugal

paraphrases
paraphrases of of the
the plainsong
plainsong in in motet
motet style.
style. Frescobaldi's
Frescobaldi's thoroughly
thoroughly con- con-
trapuntal approach,
trapuntal approach, which
which may
may have
have been
been reinforced
reinforced by
by a
a visit
visit to
to Flanders
Flanders
in his
in his youth,
youth, is is best
best exemplified
exemplified by by the Fiori Musicdi
the Fiori Musicali (1635),
(1635), a a strictly
strictly
liturgical
liturgical collection,
collection, the the severity
severity of
of which so
so much impressed
impressed Bach that
that he
he
copied it in
it in its
its entirety in
in spite of
of the
the difference
difference in
in religious denomination.
denomination.
copied entirety spite religious
Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi presented
presented here here organ
organ musicmusic for three Masses
for three Masses in in form of of
cantus-firmus settings
cantus-firmus settings andand free
free toccatas, ricercars, and capriccios.
toccatas, ricercars, capriccios. He trans- trans-
formed thethe traditional counterpoint by
traditional counterpoint by a highly sensitive
a highly chromaticism, aa
sensitive chromaticism,

brilliant keyboard
brilliant technique,
keyboard technique, and an affective
affective tempo
temp o rubato.
rubato. In his
In his preface
preface
he exhorts
exhorts the performer to
the performer to "find
"find outout the
the affection
affection of of the passage" before
the passage" before
playing
playing it,
it, to
to vary
vary the
the tempo
tempo "in
"in the
the madrigal
madrigal manner,"
manner," to
to give
give the
the rapid
rapid
passages
passages relief
relief by phrasing,
by phrasing, and
and to
to retard
retard the
the cadences.
cadences. In
In its
its lack
lack of
of tonal
tonal
direction the
direction the iridescent
iridescent harmonic
harmonic language
language of of Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi can can bebe com-
com-
pared with
pared with that
that of Gesualdo. In
of Gesualdo. spite of
In spite of the
the rich
rich harmonies
harmonies there there was
was little
little
modulation because
modulation because the the "wolf
"wolf note"
note" of of the
the mcantone
meantone tuning tuning ruledruled out out
keys
keys with
with numerous accidentals.
accidentals.

fugal forms
The fugal forms that
that originated in the
originated in the imitation
imitation of
of vocal
vocal models
models con-
con-
stituted the
stituted the core
core of
of the
the instrumental
instrumental music
music of
of the
the time;
time; they
they were
were the
the
ultimate sources
ultimate sources for
for the
the future
future development
development of
of both
both fugue
fugue and
and sonata.
sonata. The
motet and the
motet the French chanson
chanson served
served as
as prototypes
prototypes for
for the
the ricercar
ricercar and
and
the (canzon da
the canzona (canzon da sonar)
sonar) respectively.
respectively. Both
Both forms
forms finally
finally merged
merged inin
call fugue
what we call fugue today,
today, after
after the
the fugal
fugal procedure
procedure had
had crystallized
crystallized in
in late
late
baroque music.
baroque music. At the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the baroque
baroque era
era instrumental
instrumental music
music
fully emancipated
had become fully emancipated from
from vocal
vocal music.
music. Ricercar
Ricercar and
and canzona,
canzona,
instrumental compositions
now instrumental compositions in
in their
their own right,
right, were
were no
no longer de-
longer de-
pendent on the
pendent the intavolation
intavolation of
of vocal
vocal settings.
settings. While
While they
they retained
retained the
the
multisectional structure
multisectional structure of
of their
their models,
models, the
the absence
absence of
of text
text made new
methods of
methods of formal
formal extension
extension necessary.
necessary. Here again,
Here again, the
the answer
answer was
was varia-
varia-
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 49
49
tion; if
tion; if consistently applied
consistently applied ititled
ledtoto the
thevariation
variation riccrcar
ricercar and
and the
thevariation
variation
canzona.
canzona.
The strictly
The strictly fugal
fugal ricercar,
ricercar, which
which was
was characterized
characterized by
by concise
concise themes
themes
in long
in long note
note values
values as
as used
used in
in the
the motet,
motet, could
could be
be either
either polythematic
poly thematic or
or
monothematic. The
monothematic. The first
first type
type consisted,
consisted, like
like its vocal
its vocal model,
model, of of asas many
many
sections as
sections as there
there were
were themes;
themes; each
each one
one was
was stated
stated in in aa short
short fugal
fugal ex-
ex
position,
position, but
but with
with occasional
occasional recurrences
recurrences of
of the
the first
first theme
theme in
in augmenta
augmenta-
tion or
tion or diminution,
diminution, as as suggested
suggested by by the
the original
original meaning
meaning of of the
the term
term
riccrcar =
ricer-car = to to seek
seek again.
again. The
The second
second type,
type, often
often designated
designated as sopra un
as sopra un
soggetto,
soggetto, was
was the
the variation
variation ricercar
ricercar which
which subjected
subjected its
its theme
theme to
to extensive
extensive

variation in
variation in two
two distinct
distinct manners.
manners. In In the
the first,
first, the
the theme
theme itself
itself was
was modified
modified
rhythmically
rhythmically and
and melodically
melodically and
and stated
stated in
in as
as many fugal expositions
many fugal expositions as as
there were
there were variations.
variations. In In the
the second,
second, the
the theme
theme was was kept
kept relatively
relatively concon-
stant, but
stant, but was
was combined
combined successively
successively with
with new counter-subjects.
counter.subjects. The latter latter
type
type came
came closest
closest to
to the
the monothematic
monothematic fugue
fugue of
of the
the Bach era.
era. Both
Both types
types
of variation ricercar were established by Frescobaldi;
of variation ricercar were established by Frescobaldi; he continued
continued in
in his
his

early works the tradition of the poly thematic ricercar, represented by

early works the tradition of the polythematic ricercar, represented by
Giovanni Gabrieli
Giovanni Gabrieli andand Merulo,
Merulo, butbut gave
gave distinction
distinction to to the
the form in in his
his later
later
collections 41
collections 41 byby his
his imaginative
imaginative variation
variation technique
technique and his
his new harmonic
vocabulary. The theme
vocabulary. theme of of his memorable ricercare
his memorable ricercare cromatico
cromatico (Ex. (Ex. II)
n)
which
which appears
appears
with
with various
various countersubjects
countersubjects seems to
to defy
defy in
in its
its bold
bold in
in-

tervallic
tervallic progressions
progressions any any constriction
constriction ofof aa mode or key. key.

Ex.
Ex. II. Frescobaldi: Ricercare
ii. Frcscobaldi: Eicercare cromaJico.
cromatico.

ilL I,., 1M 1 trl Ie 11 J ~ J I ~ JIIF ?'! J I: B

Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi made
made no no clear
clear distinction
distinction between ricercar
ricercar and
and fantasia,
fantasia, a a
term
term that
that at
at the
the time
time did
did not
not yet
yet have
have the
the connotation
connotation of a rhapsodic
of a rhapsodic free
free

form,
form, but
but merely implied
merely implied the
the freedom
freedom from
from a
a vocal
vocal model. The
model. The same
same lax
lax-

ness of
ness of terminology
would
terminology cancan also
also bebe seen
seen in
in aa number
number of of ricercars
ricercars which
which would
more properly be called
more properly be called toccatastoccatas or
or intonazione
intonazione because
because of
of their
their non
non-
imitative
imitative texture.
texture. Although
Although thethe ricercars
ricercars appeared
appeared in collections for harpsi.
in collections for harpsi-
chord
chord oror organ they betrayed
organ they betrayed their
their organistic
organistic style
style by
by pedal
pedal points
points in
in the
the

bass
bass or
or aa middle
middle voice.
voice.
Ricercars
Ricercars were also printed
were also in part' books for
printed in part books
for chamber
chamber ensembles
ensembles or or even
even
for
for voices;
voices; asas the designation da
the designation da cantar
cantor 0o sonar
sonar indicates
indicates the line of de
the line of dc-

41The
Q. threefugues,
Thethree pnnted in Torchi AM
fugues, printed in Torch!
AMm.
III,245
245 under
under the name of
thename of Frcscobaldi.
Frescobaldi,
arc
arespurious.
spurious.
50
50 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
marcation
marcation between
between vocal
vocal and
and instrumental performance was
instrumental performance was as yet rather
as yet rather
fluid.
fluid. A special, but inferior, kind of ricercar for two or three texdess voices
special, but inferior, kind of ricercar for two or three textless voices
without
without continuo
continue was
was used
used for
for didactic
didactic purposes
purposes as
as vocalizations
vocalizations for
for singers
singers
(Metallo, I624).
(Metallo, 1624). It
It was
was a
a survival
survival of
of the
the old-fashioned
old-fashioned hicinium
bicinium of
of the
the
renaissance
renaissance and
and should not be
should not be confused
confused with
with the
the modern chamber duet.duet.

The canzona
canzona differed
differed from
from the the ricercar
ricercar inin its
its sprighdy
sprightly themes
themes which
which
favored
favored tonetone repetitions,
repetitions, typically
typically "pianistic"
"pianistic" figuration,
figuration, and the the stereo-
stereo-

typed Jn J
typed J J} J rhythm rhythm of
of the
the chanson
chanson beginning.
beginning. Less
Less rigidly
rigidly contra-
contra-
puntal
puntal than
than the
the ricercar,
ricercar, it
it contained
contained several
several contrasted
contrasted sections
sections of
of imitative
imitative
and
and chordal
chordal texture.
texture. The earlyearly baroque
baroque composers,
composers, especially
especially Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi,
pushed
pushed this
this contrast
contrast to
to such
such an
an extreme
extreme point
point that
that the
the canzona
canzona fell
fell into
into a a
variegated quilt pattern
variegated quilt pattern of
of ten
ten or
or more sections
sections in
in varying character, tempo,
varying character, tempo,
and
and texture.
texture. The nervous
nervous discontinuity
discontinuity of of these
these "quilt
"quilt canzonas"
canzonas" waswas dia-
dia-

metrically
metrically opposed
opposed to to the
the even
even flow
flow ofof the renaissance canzona.
the renaissance canzona. The can- can-
zonas
zonas by by Merulo,
Merulo, Banchieri,
Banchieri, Mayone,
Mayone, Trabaci,
Trabaci, and
and Cifra,
Cif ra, published
published before
before
IOOO,
1620, tended
tended to to be polythematic and
be polythematic and those
those ofof Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi alsoalso followed
followed at at

first
first the
the same
same trend.
trend. However,
However, Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi gavegave new perspective
perspective to to the
the
form
form by by the
the introduction
introduction of of variation.
variation. In In the variation canzona
the variation canzona thethe con-
con-
trasted
trasted sections
sections were unified by
were unified by the
the variation
variation of of a a single
single theme,
theme, as
as in the
in the
variation
variation ricercar.
ricercar. Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi separated
separated the
the sections
sections by expressive adagio
by expressive adagio
cadences
cadences in in free
free tempo with written-out
tempo with written-out trills
trills and presented his
and presented his themes
themes in in
many
many imaginative
imaginative transformations
transformations (Ex. I2).
(Ex. 12).

Ex. 12. Frcscobaldi:

Ex. 12. Frescobaldi: Thematic transformations of
Thematic transformatioDS of Capriccio
Capriccio sOfJ1'a
sopra unun soggetlo,
soggctto, 1624-
1624.

,,, r r PIr u tW IF' 1'*18 r r r Ir a r r F r I~D

,,, ) nJ lJ IJpJ) ." .EiJ ra nir IF In f If r r r r I
Lrj '
I
'H r If r r I[ r r'r ,J lin I ) 4}J UJ lien Ir Ff riB
Although countersubjects
Although countersubjects in in double
double counterpoint
counterpoint were
were not
not uncommon
uncommon
in
in the
the canzona,
canzona, it
it was on the written in
the whole written in a
a light-footed
light-footed style and
style and not
not
by
by accident
accident were its
its themes sometimes
sometimes derived
derived from
from popular songs. Can-
popular songs. Can-
zonas
zonas contrived
contrived onon such artifices
artifices as
as the
the solmisation
solmisation hexachord,
hexachord, a a clever
clever
obhligo
obbligo and
and an ostinato
ostinato motive
motive with
with rapid counterpoint,
rapid counterpoint, were
were called
called "ca-
"ca-
priccios."
priccios." A partita
partita and a capriccio by Frescobaldi,
capriccio by Frescobaldi, -both
both based on the rug-
based on the rug-
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy 551I
giero. clearly
giero, clearly show the difference
difference between
between a set of
a set of formal variations and
formal variations and aa
fanciful
fanciful contrapuntal treatment of
contrapuntal treatment of the
the same
same subject
subject.
.422
Canzonas for for chamber ensembles
ensembles appeared
appeared frequently
frequently under under the the tide
title

"sinfonia" or "sonata."
"sonata." These forms forms did did notnot essentially
essentially
differ
differ from
from the
the
canzona; they began,
canzona; they began, however, however, not
not necessarily
necessarily in
in fugal style,
fugal style, but but in
in a
a stately
stately
chordal
chordal manner. The many-voiced many-voiced ensemble
ensemble canzonas
canzonas reached reached their highest
their highest

development in
development in Venice where sumptuous polychoral compositions for
sumptuous polychoral compositions for
two to choruses in
to four choruses in a resplendent orchestration
a resplendent orchestration were were used used forfor occasions
occasions
of
of state.
state. The many-voiced
many-voiced canzonas
canzonas were
were written
written for
for solo
solo ensembles.
ensembles. The
modern "orchestral" reinforcement of
"orchestral" reinforcement of one part by
one part by a
a great
great number of
number of
players,
players, was not
not yet
yet in
in general
general use,
use, and
and when it it occurred
occurred it it was
was especially
especially
marked a a cori.
cori, asas in
in Banchieri's Moderna armonia
Banchieri's Moderna armonia (1612).(1612). Giovanni
Giovanni Ga- Ga-
brieli's canzonas and sonatas
brieli's sonatas called
called for
for as
as many as
as twenty-two
many twenty-two voices
voices and
and his
his
sonata Pian
famous sonata Plan e Forte 408
c Forte 4S
contrasted
contrasted two two choruses
choruses in in echo
echo manner.
manner.
Besides
Besides Gabrie1i
Gabrieli a a host
host ofof composers
composers wrote wrote in this brilliant
in this brilliant style,
style, notably
notably
Merolo,
Merulo, Guami,
Guami, Massaini,
Massaini, Banchieri,
Banchieri, Viadana,
Viadana, Canale,
Canale, Mortuo,Mortaro, Merula,
Merula,
and Frescobaldi.
Frescobaldi. Most of of these
these names are represented iIi
are represented in the
the Raveri
Raveri col-col-

lection
lection (Venice,
(Venice, 1608) 1608) which
which contains
contains among
among other
other remarkable
remarkable com-
com-
positions
positions one for for sixteen trombones. The modernists
sixteen trombones. modernists among among thesethese com-
44
posers, such
posers, such as Frescobaldi
as Frescobaldi and Grillo,
Grille, leaned
leaned toward
toward the the quilt
quilt canzona.
canzona.
The ensemble
ensemble canzonas
canzonas were were significant
significant also also from the the formal point of
formal point of
view,
view, because
because they they sometimes
sometimes anticipated
anticipated in
in their
their echo
echo technique
technique the
the
principle 45 by Gabrieli so clearly
principle of of the
the concerto.
concerto. An eleven-voice
eleven-voice canzona
canzona U by Gabrieli so clearly
sets a
sets a "tutti"
"tutti" in in rondo
rondo fashion
fashion against
against a a highly
highly figurative
figurative "concertino"
"concertino" of of a a
few instruments
instruments that that it
it may be
may be called
called the
the first
first realization
realization of of the
the concerto-
concerto-
grosso
grosso principle.
principle. Another
Another canzona
canzona 46 in which Gabrieli assigned the
48 in which Gabrieli assigned the echo
echo
optionally
optionally to
to the
the organ,
organ, foreshadows
foreshadows the
the solo
solo concerto.
concerto.

By far
By far the
the most
most important
important group
group was formed by by the
the few-voiced
few-voiced canzonas
from which the vast literature
the vast literature of of the
the baroque
baroque sonata-the
sonata the term is is merely
merely
an abbreviation
abbreviation for for ctm%on
canzon da sonar-took
da sonar took its its origin.
origin. The few-voicedfew-voiced
sonatas
sonatas called
called forfor from one one toto four
four melody
melody instruments
instruments and continuo. continue.
While the the many-voiced
many-voiced canzonas
canzonas hardly
hardly needed their
their optional hasso
optional basso se- sc-

pente.
guentc, the
the few-voiced
few-voiced sonatas
sonatas were based
based in
in principle
principle on a dualistic
dualistic setting
setting
that
that could
could not not dispense
dispense withwith thethe continuo.
continue.
The terminology
terminology of the sonata
of the literature has
sonata literature has created
created considerable
considerable COD- con-

42 TAM
42 TAM IV. 38 and ']0.
IV, 38 70.
48 GMB no. I4B.
41 GMB no. 148.
44 Ricmann
"Riem,ann HMG 2:20
2:2, 1:27.
127.
41 1M
48 II, uS
IMli, 118.
... 1M
4 IM II, 180.
II, 180.
52 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
fuBion.
fusion. According
According to to the
the most
most consistent
consistent usageusage the the sonatas
sonatas were dis.- dis-

tinguished
tinguished by by the
the number of of essential
essential parts,
parts, including
including the the continuo,
continue, as as
sonatas
sonatas a due, due, a a tre,
tre, a a quattro.
quattro. Since,
Since, however,
however, the the continuo
continuo was often often
taken for for granted,
granted, the the sonata
sonata a a due
due was also also called
called solo
solo sonata,
sonata, a a term
term that
that
has a misleading
misleading connotation
connotation today.
today. And while
while the
the sonata
sonata for
for two orna-
orna-
mental instruments
instruments was known usually usually as as trio
trio sonata
sonata or or sonata
sonata a a tre,
tre, the
the
corresponding
corresponding vocal vocal form was inconsistently
inconsistently termed termed chamber duet, duet, ob-
ob-
viously
viously because
because of of the
the difference
difference in in medium between between the the upper
upper partsparts and
and
the
the bass.
bass. The performance
performance even even added
added to to the
the confusion
confusion because
because the the con-
con-
tinuo
tinuo required
required at
at least
least two players,
players, so
so that
that the
the "solo
"solo sonata"
sonata" called
called for
for
three,
three, the trio
the trio sonata
sonata forfor four
four players.
players. ItIt must be be remembered that that the
the num-
ber of structural
structural partsparts inin baroque
baroque chamber music music diddid not
not coincide
coincide withwith the
the
number of of performers,
performers, and that
that the
the continuo
continuo was
was always
always understood, so
understood, so
much so so that
that thethe exceptional
exceptional sonatas
sonatas for
for violin
violin solo
solo without
without accompani-
accompani-
ment were always always expressly
expressly marked senza senza continuo.
continuo.
Stylistically,
Stylistically, the the sonata
sonata stood
stood between two influences,influences, the the dance
dance and the
and the
monody,
monody, and booth both in in conjunction
conjunction rapidly displaced
rapidly displaced what
what had
had survived
survived of
of
the original
the original canzona elements.
elements. The sonata
sonata developed
developed the
the virtuoso
virtuoso idiom
idiom
of the violin,
of violin, the brilliant tone
the brilliant tone of which supplanted
of which supplanted the the soft
soft timbre
timbre of the
of the
viol family,
viol family, better suited
better suited to a
to polyphonic than
a polyphonic than a dualistic setting.
a dualistic Only the
setting. Only the
agile cornetto
agile cornetto could rival the
could rival the newcomer.
newcomer.
Violinistic idioms
Violinistic idioms were conspicuous
conspicuous especially
especially in in the
the sonatas
sonatas for for one
one
violin and continuo,
violin continuo, first first written
written by by Fontana
Fontana 47 I630) and
(d. 1630)
41 (d. and thethe resource-
resource-
ful Biago
ful Biago Marini (I597-I667), probably
Marini (1597-1667), probably the the pupil
pupil of of the
the former.
former. These
These
two were soon followed
two were soon followed by Frescobald~ Farina,
by Frescobaldi, Farina, Buonamente,
Buonamente, Nicolaus Nicolaus aa
Kempis and
Kempis and others.
others. The virtuoso
virtuoso character
character of of the
the solo
solo violin
violin sonata
sonata made
made
itself felt
itself felt not
not only
only in in the
the fiery
fiery scale
scale passages,
passages, the the wide
wide skips,
skips, thethe use
use of
of
high positions,
high positions, rarely rarely used
used in
in ensemble
ensemble music,
music, but
but especially in the astonish-
especially in the astonish-
ing transfer
ing transfer of of vocal
vocal idioms
idioms to to the
the violin.
violin. In In Marini's
Marini's sonatas
sonatas we find find static
static
basses, Lombard rhythms,
basses, rhythms, recitative-like
recitative-like passages,
passages, and and gorgia
gorgia ornaments
ornaments
such as
such as the
the trillo
trillo or
or tremolo
tremolo thatthat clearly
clearly bespeak
bespeak the the influence
influence of of the
the monody.
monody.
The tremolo,
tremolo, which appeared appeared firstfirst in
in the
the sonatas
sonatas of of Marini,
Marini,4s 48 Usper, and
Usper, and
Riccio, and
Riccio, and slightly
slightly later
later also
also with
with Buonamente,
Buonamente, Possenti,
Possenti, Giovanni
Giovanni Valen- Valen-
tini, and Merula,
tini, and Merula, was frequently only
frequently only suggested
suggested by by the
the characteristic
characteristic term term
affetti. In spite
atJetti. In spite of of the
the absorption
absorption of of monodic
monodic elements
elements the the sonatas
sonatas retained
retained
an essentially
an essentially instrumental
instrumental style style byby virtue
virtue of of the
the continuous
continuous rhythm rhythm of of
*7
in Isdin
Example in
47 Example Biago Uarini,
Iselin Biago Marini, Appendix;
Appendix; Wasielewski, lnstrumentaisiitze,
Wasielewski, Instrumentdsatze,
XIII; HAM
XIII; 197.
no. 197.
no.
48GMB
"GMB 182 and
no. 182
no. 183.
and 183.
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 53
53
the solo
the solo passages,
passages, upbeat
upbeat patterns,
patterns, idiomatic
idiomatic figuration,
figuration, and
and such
such violinistic
violinistic
features as
features as double
double and triple
and triple stops,
stops, pizzicato,
pizzicato, col
col legno,
legno, and
and use
use of
of har-
har-
monics. These
monics. These technical
technical resources
resources were
were turned
turned by Farina to
by Farina to playful
playful pro-
pro-
grammatic
grammatic purposes;
purposes; he
he liked
liked to
to simulate
simulate animal
animal sounds
sounds (crowing,
(crowing, cater-
cater-

wauling, and
wauling, and barking)
barking) onon the
the violin.
violin. Multiple
Multiple stops,
stops, called
called by Marini aa
by Marini
modo di
modo di lira
lira after
after the
the polyphonic
polyphonic playing
playing of
of the
the viol,
viol, were
were cultivated
cultivated more
more
in the
in the northern
northern countries
countries than
than in
in Italy,
Italy, and
and their
their use
use in
in the
the music
music of
of
Marini possibly
Marini possibly reflects German
reflects German influence.
influence.
The trio
The trio sonata,
sonata, the
the classic
classic medium
medium of of baroque
baroque chamber
chamber music,
music, was es-
was es-
tablished in
tablished in the
the Sinjonie
Sintonie ee Galiarde
Galiarde (1607)
(1607) by
by Salomone
Salomone Rossi
Rossi Ebreo
Ebreo
(Ex. 13) and
(Ex. 13) and was
was extensively
extensively cultivated
cultivated by
by Marini
Marini (Affetti
(ADetti musicali, 1617)
musical;, 1617)
and aa great
and great many
many other
other composers,
composers, notably
notably Belli,
Belli, Riccio,
Riccio, Turini,
Turini, Merula
Merula
(1637), Usper,
(1637), Usper, Bernard!,
Bernardi, Ottavio
Ottavio Grandi,
Grandi, Possenti,
Possenti, Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi, and
and Buo-
Buo-
namente.
namente.

Ex.
Ex. I3. Salomone
13. Salomone Rossi:
Rossi: Trio
Trio Sonata,
Sonata, 1607.
I60'].

t
Violins

In
In the
the trio
trio sonata
sonata violinistic
violinistic virtuosity
virtuosity was
was less
less pronounced
pronounced than than inin the
the
solo sonata
solo sonata andand most
most was
was made
made of
of a
a spirited
spirited concertato
conccrtato dialogue
dialogue in
in com-
com-
plementary
plementary rhythmic
rhythmic patterns,
patterns, in
in which
which the
the bass
bass increasingly
increasingly participated.
participated.
The
The trio
trio setting for a duet of strings in the
setting for a duet of strings hi
the same
same range
range was
was most
most common,
common,
but
but the
the duet
duet was
was extended
extended toto include
include aa string
string bass,
bass, trombone,
trombone, or or bassoon
bassoon
which
which doubled
doubled the
the continuo
continue only
only at
at cadence
cadence points,
points, but
but otherwise
otherwise main-
main-
49
tained an independent
tained an independent virtuoso
virtuoso figuration,
figuration, as
as in
in the
the sonatas
sonatas of
of Castello;"
Castdlo.
Frescobaldi's
Frescobaldi's canzonas contain an
canzonas contain an unusual
unusual violin
violin sonata
sonata in in which
which the the

49Haas, Auffunrungspraxis, I67.

68 Haas, Auffuhrttngspraxis, 167.
54
54 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
written-out spinet
written-out spinet part,
part, largely
largely independent
independent of of the
the continue,
continuo, supplies
supplies the the
second voice.
second voice. 50
50

The formal
The formal characteristics
characteristics of of the
the canzona
canzona held held true
true in in the
the solo
solo and
and trio
trio
sonata only
sonata only with
with some
some modifications.
modifications. The The sections
sections of of the
the trio
trio sonata
sonata fre-fre-
quently
quently coincided
coincided with
with the
the contrast
contrast of
of imitative
imitative and
and chordal
chordal textures,
textures, but
but
in the
in the solo
solo sonata
sonata imitative
imitative texture
texture was
was less
less prominent.
prominent. The
The thematic
thematic trans-
trans-

formation of
formation of the
the variation
variation canzona
canzona appeared
appeared in in the
the sonata
sonata literature
literature lessless
often, and
often, and when
when it it did,
did, less
less consistently
consistently than than in in the
the keyboard
keyboard canzona.
canzona.
variegated structure
The variegated structure of of the
the quilt
quilt canzona
canzona prevailed
prevailed only only in in the
the first
first
three decades
three decades of of the
the century,
century, afterafter which
which aa process
process of of clarification
clarification set set in.
in.
The initial
initial fugal
fugal section
section was was often
often preceded
preceded by by aa chordal
chordal introduction,
introduction, aa
feature that
feature that became
became aa fixture
fixture in in the
the church
church sonata,
sonata, but but thethe very
very common
term da
term da chicsa
chiesa of of the
the tide-pages
title-pages had, had, until
until about 1650, hardly
about 1650, hardly aa formal
formal
significance, merely
significance, merely affirming
affirming the
the fact,
fact, now often
often forgotten,
forgotten, that
that the
the sonatas
sonatas
were church
were church music.
music. The main main aim aim of of the
the composer
composer was contrast contrast effected
effected
by changes
by changes in in tempo,
tempo, texture,
texture, and and melodic
melodic content.
content. The order of the
order of the sec-
sec-
tions defies
tions defies aa valid
valid generalization;
generalization; all all that
that can
can be be stated
stated is is that
that the
the sections
sections
were not
were not all
all of the same
of the same weight,
weight, and that that there
there was was always
always at at least
least one
fugal section,
fugal section, and
and a
a slow
slow one
one in
in stylized
stylized dance
dance rhythm.
rhythm. Marini
Marini sometimes
sometimes
wrote only
wrote three movements and
only three and Salomone
Salomone Rossi Rossi accidentally
accidentally antici-antici-
pated the
pated the form
form of of the
the late baroque church
late baroque church sonatasonata in in his
his sonata
sonata La Mo-
derna.
dcrna.
Sonatas
Sonatas for for three
three and and four
four melody
melody instruments
instruments and continuo continuo merelymerely
expanded
expanded the
the dualistic
dualistic setting by placing
setting by placing a
a trio
trio or
or a
a quartet
quartet against the
against the
continuo.
continuo. These
These works emphasized closely
works emphasized closely spaced spaced sonorities
sonorities in
in the
the high
high
register
register withwith frequent
frequent part part crossings,
crossings, a a technique
technique the the opera
opera composers
composers
transferred
transferred to to the
the overture.
overture. Gabrieli
Gabrieli seems
seems to to have
have set set the
the model,
model, as as he diddid
in
in so
so many
many other
other cases,
cases, in
in aa sonata
sonata for
for three
three violins,51
violins,
51
his
his only
only work based
based
on the
the dualistic
dualistic continuo
continuo setting.
setting. AlsoAlso Ross~ Fontana, Mar~
Rossi, Fontana, Marini, Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi,
and Giovanni
Giovanni Valentini
Valentini published
published sonatassonatas of of this
this kind
kind in in their
their collections.
collections.

The valuable
valuable canzonas
canzonas and sonatas sonatas of of Valentini
Valentini includeinclude a a noteworthy
noteworthy
"enharmonic
"enharmonic sonata"sonata" with with many
many distant modulations.52
distant modulations.
52 In the sonatas for
In the sonatas for
four
four violins
violins the
the instruments
instruments were were often
often paired
paired into
into rivalling
rivalling groups
groups that that
alternated
alternated in in the
the manner of of a a miniature
miniature concertino
concertino with with solosolo passages
passages in in
virtuoso
virtuoso style,
style, as can be
as can be seen
seen in in the
the works of of Usper,58
Usper, Fontana,
58
Fontana, Castello,
Castello,

ib. 173.
toi/;.
10
173.
n51 OCM;
OCM; also
also in Gabncli In.
Winterfdd, Gamel;
in Winterfeld, IIL
"OCM.
OCM.
Example in Einstein,
11 Example in
I. Einstein, Krmscnmlll' Festschrift, 19I8,
Krctzschmar Festschrift. 1918, 26.
26.
 Early Baroque
Early in Italy
Baroque in Italy 55
55
Bernardi, Buonamente,
Bernard!, Buonamente, and and Neri.
Neri.u
54 These composers transposed the con-
These composers transposed the con-
certo elements
certo dements of of the
the many-voiced
many-voiced Venetian
Venetian canzona
canzona to
to the
the few-voiced
few-voiced
medium in
medium in aa highly
highly successful
successful fashion.
fashion. Their
Their works
works furnish
furnish the
the tenuous
tenuous
link between
link between the
the ensemble
ensemble canzona
canzona and
and the
the concerto
concerto proper
proper of
of the late
the late
baroque period.
baroque period.

THE
THE RISE
RISE OF
OF OPERA:
OPERA: MONTEVERDI
MONTEVERDI

The music
The music of
of the
the opera,
opera, which
which combined
combined all
all the
the styles
styles thus
thus far
far discussed,
discussed,
cannot compare
cannot compare in quantity-and
in quantity sometimes even
and sometimes even in
in quality
quality-with the
with the
vocal and
vocal and instrumental
instrumental chamber
chamber music
music of
of the
the period.
period. The
The rise
rise of
of the
the opera
opera
can only
can only be
be understood
understood in
in view
view of
of its literary
its literary background,
background, the the intermezzo
intermezzo
and the
and the pastoral
pastoral drama;
drama; in in both
both forms
forms music
music was was anan important
important component.
component.
intermezzo or
The intermezzo or intermedium,
intermedium. the the main form form of of renaissance
renaissance entertain-
entertain-
ment, was
ment, was aa musico-dramatic
musico-dramatic insertion
insertion in in the
the spoken
spoken dramas performed performed at at
courtly
courtly occasions.
occasions. The detailed
detailed description
description of
of the
the intermedii
intcrmcdii in
in Florence
Florence
by Malvezzi
by Malvezzi (1591)(159I) gives
gives usus aa good
good ideaidea of of the
the form.
form. The main difference difference
between opera
between opera andand intermezzo
intermezzo lay lay in in the
the function
function of of music.
music. The latter
latter

presented madrigals,
presented madrigals,
motets,
motets, instrumental
instrumental music,
music, and ballets
ballets as
as self-
self-

contained
contained musical forms and
musical forms and thusthus kept
kept drama and music
music apart.
apart. The dis-
dis-

tinction
tinction between
between musical
musical and
and literary
literary forms
forms clearly
clearly comes to
to light
light in the
the
65
practice of first reciting
practice of first reciting and
and then singing
then singing the
the poetry.55
poetry. Poetry, stage
Poetry, stage sets, sets,
machines,
machines, ballet,
ballet, and
and music
music werewere allall on equalequal footing.
footing. ManyMany characteristic
characteristic

features
features of of the
the intermezzo,
intermezzo, particularly
particularly the the invisible
invisible orchestra,
orchestra, the massed
instrumental
instrumental ensembles,
ensembles, and
and the
the spectacular
spectacular machines,
machines, were retained in in

early opera. However,

early opera. However,
in
in contrast
contrast to
to the
the intermezzo,
intermezzo, the opera permeated
opera permeated
the
the drama
drama with with music
music byby means
means of of the
the continuous
continuous recitative.
recitative. Although
Although the the

spoken drama thus lost its identity as

spoken drama thus lost its identity
as aa literary form, the subordination of
literary form, the subordination of

music
music to to the
the word
word gave
gave the
the drama
drama in in turn
turn an an unprecedented
unprecedented importance importance
over
over the
the music.
music. While
While the
the intermezzo
intermezzo juxtaposed
juxtaposed drama
drama and
and music,
music, thethe

opera blended them as

opera blended them as a drama
a drama in
in music
music or
or dramma
dramma in
in musica.
musica. It
It was
was exactly
exactly
this
this baroque
baroque mixture
mixture of of artistic
artistic mediamedia that that prompted
prompted the the oft-repeated
oft-repeated
objections against the "impossible form
objections against the "impossible
form of of art."
art."

Rinuccini
Rinuccini fashioned
fashioned his his first
first libretto
libretto afterafter thethe mood
model of of the
the pastoral
pastoral
drama. Not
drama. Not by by accident
accident do
do several
several early operas
early operas carry carry the
the title
title farlola
favola pastorale
pastorale
and
and interpret the classic mythologies and
interpret the classic mythologies
and heroic
heroic tragedies
tragedies in in the
the pastoral
pastoral
spirit
spirit
of
of the
the madrigal.
madrigal. The
The history
history of
of the
the opera
opera opens
opens with
with the
the performance
performance
Wasidewski, ltUtrumentaisit;:e.
""Wasidewski, Instrumentalsatze, .
* 5Rubsamen, Walter.
15 Rubsamen, Walter. Literary Sources of Secular Music in
Literary Sources of Secular Music in ltoly
Italy (1943).
(1943)* University
University
of California
of Publications in
California Publications in Music
Music I.I, I.
i, 32.
32.
56 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
in
in Florence
Florence of of Rinuccini's
Rinuccini's DafncDafne (I597?),1I6
(1597 ?), composed
56
composed by Peri (1561-1633).
by Peri (1561-1633).
The music
music is lost, save two pieces in very primitive style by
is lost, save two pieces in very primitive style by the
the amateur
amateur
Count
Count Corsi
Corsi (in (in whose
whose house
house the the memorable
memorable premiere premiere took place) and two
took place)
by
by Perl,
Peri, one
one of
of which
which is
is a
a recitative.
recitative.
57 The first complete opera to
5'l first complete opera to survive survive
was Peri's
was Peri's Euridice
Euridicc (likewise
(likewise on
on a
a libretto
libretto by Rinuccini), staged during the
by Rinuccini), staged during the
festivities
festivities for
for the
the marriage of
marriage of Henry Henry IV of
of France
France and
and Maria
Maria of
of Medici in
in
1600.
1600. The composer
composer himself
himself sang sang thethe role
role ofof Orfeo.
Orfeo. The librettolibretto was set set in
in
the same
the same year
year also
also by
by the
the ambitious
ambitious Caccini,
Caccini, who by
by obscure
obscure machinations
machinations
succeeded
succeeded in in having
having sections
sections of of his
his own musicmusic sungsung atat the
the first
first performance.
performance.
Throughout
Throughout the
the baroque period composers
baroque period composers frequently frequendy collaborated
collaborated in
in operas
operas
-it was the
it was the rule
rule inin the
the intermezzo-but
intermezzo but this this early
early instance
instance of of it was hardly
it hardly
intentional
intentional on on thethe part
part of of Peri.
Peri. Both
Both Peri
Peri and Caccini
Caccini published
published their their own
versions
versions of of the
the opera
opera in
in 1600.
1600. Cacclni's
Caccini's unabashed
unabashed jealousy
jealousy of
of Peri,
Peri, which
transpires
transpires with
with amusing clarity
amusing clarity from
from the
the prefaces
prefaces of
of his
his publications, casts
publications, casts

serious doubts on his insistent

serious doubts on his insistent boasts boasts of
of being
being the
the "inventor"
"inventor" of
of the
the new
monodic
monodic style,style, and
and on his belated
on his belated assertion
assertion that that hehe had also also composed
composed a a
Dafne. aa claim
Dafnc, claim not not confirmed
confirmed by by the
the early
early historians
historians of
of the
the Camerata
Camerata circle.
circle.

The two
two compositions
compositions of Euridice are
of Euridice strikingly similar
are strikingly similar not not only
only in in the
the
general application
general application of
of monody,
monody, but
but also
also with
with regard
regard to
to musical
musical form.
form. Both
Both
are marked by
are by a a radical purism of
radical purism of style,
style, typical
typical of of the
the Florentine
Florentine reformreform
ideas.
ideas. InIn no no other
other operatic
operatic work does does thethe continuous
continuous recitative
recitative so so ex-
ex-
clusively
clusively dominate
dominate the
the sc~e, although
scene, although even
even Florentine
Florentine purism
purism could
could not
not
rule out closed
rule out closed forms altogether. In
forms altogether. In the
the careful
careful observance
observance of of speech
speech rhythm,
rhythm,
key
key scheme, and modulation the two scores are at times in complete agree-
scheme, and modulation the two scores are at times in complete agree-
ment.
ment. Similarly,
Similarly, both both scores
scores depart
depart fromfrom the recitative style
the recitative style at the same
at the same
places,
places, both
both set
set the
the prologue
prologue as
as a
a strophic
strophic aria,
aria, and
and both
both use
use corresponding
corresponding
refrain choruses.
refrain choruses. The bass bass of of the
the recitative
recitative is is written
written predominandy
predominantly in the
in the
slow
slow pedal-point
pedal-point style,style, the
the dramatic
dramatic purpose
purpose of
of which
which is
is attested
attested by
by Peri.
Peri. He
stated
stated in
in the
the preface
preface that
that hehe sustained
sustained the bass even
the bass even against
against the the dissonances
dissonances
of
of the
the singer,
singer, and and moved it it "according to
"according to the the affections"
affections" whenever
whenever they they
made aa change
change of
of harmony necessary.
harmony necessary. This
This remark
remark discloses
discloses how seriously
seriously
the
the Florentine
Florentine took took the merging of
the merging of word and and music.
music. A similarsimilar statement
statement
can
can bebe found
found in in the preface to
the preface to Caccini's
Caccini's N uotle Musichc.
Nuovc Musiche.
The rigid
rigid pedal
pedal basses
basses of of Perl,
Peri, who established
established this this technique,
technique, far far surpass
surpass
in
in their
their dramatic
dramatic impactimpact thosethose of of his
his rival.
rival. On the other hand,
the other hand, Caccini's
Caccini's

Peri himself
**
date bas
18 The date has not been definitely
not been definitely established.
established. Peri gave it
himself gave it as
as 159+ For
1594. For
list of
a list of operas
operas see
see Riemann HMG 2:2, 273, and
2:2, 273, and Loewenberg,
Loewenberg, Annals of
Annals of Opera.
Opera.
IT Sec: Ghisi, Alll!
See Ghisi, Ponti tIl!lllJ music bas
Monodia. Corsi's music has been reproduced in
been reproduced
57
Atte Fonto della Monoaia. in fag.
fac-
simile in
simile Wotquenne, Catalogue
in Wotquennc:, Catalogue tIl!de IIJ
Cprsi's
la Bibliotheque au
Bibliolhequt: du C01lSen/fIkJire de Bruzelkl.
Conservatoire al! Bruxellcs,
AnuZl! 1.
Annexe 1901, 46.
1, 1901. 46.
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy 57
57
bass
bass line
line isis more varied.
varied, and his his florid
florid melodic
melodic ornamentation
ornamentation shows shows that that
more often than not the virtuoso
more often than not the virtuoso singer
singer gotgot thethe better
better of of the
the dramatic
dramatic
composer.
composer. This differencedifference will will become
become clear clear if if two
two representative
representative scenes scenes
58
are
are compared.
compared,liS such as as the
the entrance
entrance of of Dafne
Dafne who who relates
relates the
the death
death of the
of the
heroine-one
heroine one of the the climactic
climactic "messenger
"messenger scenes"
scenes" that
that became
became extremely
extremely
popular in
popular in the
the operas
operas to to come.
come. At no no place
place are there strictly
are there periodic melodies
strictly periodic melodies
in
in the
the canzonetta
canzonetta style; style; and strophic
strophic songs,
songs, too,
too, are
are extremely
extremely rare, being at
rare, being at
variance
variance with the dogma of
the dogma of the
the continuous
continuous recitative.
recitative. The The few refrain
few refrain
choruses
choruses are, are, in
in both
both operas,
operas, preceded
preceded by by aa rudimentary
rudimentary strophic variation.
strophic variation.
The choruses
choruses of of the
the shepherds
shepherds seem
seem to
to have
have been
been written
written with
with a
a deliberately
deliberately
anti-contrapuntal
anti-contrapuntal intent. intent. Only
Only at at a
a few
few places
places is the recitative
is the recitative punctuated
punctuated by by
aa musical
musical refrain,
refrain, as as in
in Orleo's
Orfeo's plaint
plaint in in the underworld. The perpetual
the underworld. perpetual
slow
slow recitative
recitative cadences
cadences which which emphasize
emphasize each each lineline ofof the
the text
text inevitably
inevitably
adduce aa monotonous effect, effect, relieved
relieved only
only by by Peri's
Peri's attempt
attempt to to evolve
evolve
melodic
melodic figures
figures for
for questions
questions and
and exclamations.
exclamations. .
The staging
staging of Euridice in
of Euridice in Florence prompted. in
Florence prompted, in the
the same year. the
same year, the
perormance
performance in in Rome of of the
the "sacred
"sacred representation"
representation" Anima Anima ec CorpoCorpo by by
Cavalieri.
Cavalieri. Its Its allegorical
allegorical subject
subject and
and semi-operatic
semi-operatic staging staging set
set the
the work
work
apart
apart from the the secular
secular opera.
opera, though
though it it shares
shares itsits most
most important
important principle:
principle:
the
the continuity
continuity of
of the
the music.
music. Textual
Textual relations
relations to
to the
the lauda,
lauda, on the other
on the other
hand,
hand, point
point toward the oratorio.
toward the oratorio, at at this
this time
time notnot yetyet anan established
established form. form.
hybrid work has
The hybrid has aroused
aroused a a good
good deal deal ofof controversy
controversy as as to its classi-
to its classi-

fication
fication which,
which, however,
however, seems seems much less less important
important than than thethe analysis
analysis of of
the
the disparate stylistic
disparate stylistic traits
traits that
that make it
it a
a hybrid.
hybrid. Created
Created for
for the
the Jesuits,
Jesuits, it it

was
was oneone ofof the
the many attempts
many attempts of
of the
the counter-reformation
counter-reformation to
to salvage
salvage from
secular
secular artart forms
forms all all those
those features
features thatthat lent
lent themselves
themselves to to the
the promotion
promotion of of
the ecclesia
the ecclesia militans.
militant. CouldCould the the unmistakably
unmistakably secular secular style
style ofof the opera be
the opera be
applied
applied to to aa sacred
sacred subject?
subject? ThisThis vital
vital question
question was was answered
answered by by Cavalieri
Cavalieri
whose
whose work proved,proved, as
as the
the preface affirms.
preface affirms, that
that the
the modern style
style "can
"can also
also

move to to pious
pious affections."
affections."
Peri
Peri politely
politely named CavalieriCavalieri as the first
as the first composer
composer of of monody
monody thoughthough he
admitted
admitted that that his
his own was was of of aa different
different style.
style. Indeed,
Indeed, Peri'sPeri's affective
affective tonetone
is conspicuously
is conspicuously absent
absent in
in the
the music
music of
of Cavalieri
Cavalieri who may.
may, at
at best,
best, claim
claim
temporal
temporal but but not
not artistic priority in
artistic priority in the genesis of
the genesis of the
the stile
stSe rappresmtatiflo.
rapprcscntativo.
Anima ee Corpo
Anima Corpo has has a a rather
rather drydry recitative,
recitative, and.
and, unlike
unlike the the Florentine
Florentine opera,
opera,
numerous choruses,
numerous written in
choruses, written in aa primitive
primitive chordal
chordal style.
style. One of of its
its few

musically
musically arresting
arresting features
features is is the
the fact
fact that
that strophic
strophic variation
variation is is applied here
applied here
sometimes
sometimes to to the
the choral
choral sections.
sections.

* Riemann HMG 2:2, IB9; Adler

":Riemann 2:2, 1895 Adler HMG 418;
4185 and
and Haas B
B 36.
36,
58
58 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The lineline of of allegorical
allegorical plays
plays withwith music
music was continuedcontinued by by Agazzari's
Agazzari's
Eumelio (1606)
Eumelt'o Kapsberger's Apotheosis
(1606) and Kapsberger's Apotheosis 01 of St.
St. Ignatius
Ignatius which open open
the
the long
long listlist of
of spectacular
spectacular pageants
pageants and school school dramas
dramas thatthat thethe industrious
industrious
Jesuits
Jesuits performed
performed at at their Seminars in
their Seminars in Rome and later later alsoalso in in other
other
Catholic
Catholic parts parts of
of Europe.
Europe. Another
Another venture
venture in
in Rome was Quagliati's
Quagliati's Carro
Carro
di
di ledelta d'amore (1606),
fedelti d'amore (1606), staged
staged entirely
entirely on wheels wheels after
after thethe model of of the
the
Thespian
Thespian cart. cart.

After
After the the establishment
establishment of of the
the opera
opera in in Florence,
Florence, Mantua came to to the
the
fore
fore with the the performance
performance of
of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's Orleo (1607)
Orfeo (1607) in
in the
the Accademia
Accademia
degZi
degli Invaghiti.
Invaghiti. The dramatic dramatic genius
genius of of Monteverdi
Monteverdi that that had expressed
expressed
itself
itself hitherto
hitherto in in the
the medium of of madrigals,
madrigals, finally finally found
found its its most congenial
congenial
form in in this
this opera,
opera, unquestionably
unquestionably the the first
first masterpiece
masterpiece of of operatic
operatic history.
history.
Its
Its stylistic complexity
stylistic complexity sets
sets it
it sharply
sharply apartapart from all
all earlier
earlier operas.
operas. Accept-
Accept-
ing radical stile
ing the radical stile rappresentativo
rappresentativo of of the
the Florentines
Florentines and infusing infusing it it with
with
his
his intense
intense pathospathos Monteverdi
Monteverdi realizedrealized at at the
the same time time the the dramatic
dramatic
possibilities of
possibilities of the closed musical
the closed musical forms,
forms, the the strophic
strophic aria,
aria, thethe dance
dance song,song,
the chamber duet, duct, the madrigal, and the
the madrigal, the instrumental
instrumental interlude,
interlude, which which
the Camerata had discarded. discarded. In In spite
spite of of their adherence to
their adherence to strictly musical
strictly musical
laws these forms were made subservient
laws these subservient to the drama.
to the drama.
The lavish
lavish orchestration
orchestration which called called for for more
more than three dozen
than three dozen instru-
instru-
ments has has aroused
aroused the the misconception
misconception that that thethe Orfeo
Orfeo was
was revolutionary
revolutionary with with
regard
regard to
to orchestration.
orchestration. Yet
Yet a
a specific
specific orchestration
orchestration was
was prescribed
prescribed only only
exceptionally
exceptionally at
at a
a few dramatically important
dramatically important places. places. With its massed
its massed

ensembles the
ensembles Or/eo merely
the Orfeo merely continued
continued the the tradition
tradition of of thethe intermezzo;
intermezzo;
transferred itit even
Monteverdi transferred even toto the
the realm
realm of of the
the continue,
continuo, as as can
can be be seen
seen
in the
in the tremendous
tremendous accumulation
accumulation of of fundamental
fundamental instruments,
instruments, typical typical of of the
the
early baroque
early baroque continuo
continue practice. Actually therefore,
practice. Actually therefore, the orchestration the orchestration
represents aa rather
represents rather conservative
conservative feature
feature and, and, paradoxical
paradoxical though though it it may
may
sound, the
sound, the useuse ofof the
the traditional
traditional closed
closed forms
forms constitutes
constitutes the the revolutionary
revolutionary
dement in
element in the
the opera.
opera.
Compared
Compared with
with Rinuccini's Euridice, Striggio's
Rinuccini's Euridice, Striggio's libretto
libretto of of the Orleo
the Orfeo
appears as a
appears as a monumental work.
work. The first two
first two acts
acts are
are pastoral,
pastoral, the the next
next twotwo
infernal; the
infernal; the last
last act
act shows Orfeo's
Orfeo's ascent
ascent to to heaven
heaven with
with Apollo
Apollo appearing
appearing
deus ex
as deus
as ex machina.
machina. Originally
Originally the the poet
poet had
had provided
provided aa stark
stark tragic
tragic ending,
ending,
presenting
presenting Orfeo's
Orfco's death
death through
through the
the raving bacchantes;
raving bacchantes; the
the temperate
temperate
heroic finale
heroic finale that
that Monteverdi
Monteverdi set set to
to music
music may may have
have been
been suggested
suggested by by the
the
composer himself who
composer himself who is known to
is to have
have made made significant
significant changeschanges in in his
his
librettos, and
librettos, and whose
whose letters,
letters, like
like those
those of of Mozart,
Mozart, are are documents
documents of of supreme
supreme
dramaturgical interest.
dramaturgical interest.
 Early Baroque in
Early Baroque in Italy
Italy 59
59
The pastoral
pastoral and infernal
infernal spheres
spheres are
are sharply profiled
sharply profiled in
in Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's
music by
music by coloristic
coloristic means;
means; thethe infernal
infernal regions
regions are
are overshadowed
overshadowed by by somber
somber
choruses in the low register,
choruses register, dark brass instruments, and the reedy and
dark brass instruments, and the reedy and
nasal
nasal regal serving as
regal serving as continuo
continuo instrument.
instrument. The firstfirst climax
climax occurs
occurs in Act n
in Act H
after
after profuse
profuse choruses and pastoral pastoral songs
songs in
in the
the famous
famous messenger
messenger scene
scene in
in
which Euridice's death is is reported. The second
reported. second climax
climax is is Orfeo's
Orfeo's invocation
invocation
of
of Charon,
Charon, Possente
Possentc spirto,
sptrto, an unforgettable
unforgettable monument to
to the
the power
power of of
music on a subject
subject that
that quite fittingly held a peculiar fascination
quite fittingly held a peculiar fascination for the for the
librettists
librettists ofof the
the early
early opera.
opera.
Monteverdi manifested
manifested his his overpowering
overpowering musico-dramatic
musico-dramatic insight insight in in the
the
broad pull
pull toward unity which pervade
unity which pervade the
the scenes
scenes or
or even
even acts.
acts. The entire
entire
first act is
first act is organized as
organized as a a large
large structure
structure byby two
two choruses
choruses and and an an inter-
inter-
mediate ritornello,
mediate ritornello, bothboth ofof which are are later repeated in
later repeated in reversed
reversed order,
order, and and
then followed by
then followed by a threefold
a threefold strophic
strophic variation
variation for for chorus
chorus punctuated
punctuated
by an imitative
by imitative and dissonant
dissonant ritornel1o.
ritornello. The extension
extension of of the principle
the principle
of
of strophic
strophic variation
variation to to the
the chorus goes far
chorus goes far beyond
beyond Cavalieri's
Cavalieri's modestmodest
attempts in
attempts in this
this direction
direction and in in fact represents such
fact represents such aa novel feature that
novel feature that itit
has frequently
has escaped
frequently escaped detection.
detection. The chorus
chorus rarely participates
rarely participates in
in the
the
resembles, in
action and resembles, in its
its contemplative function,
contemplative function, that that of the Greek
of the
tragedy; it is either set
tragedy; it is either set as many-voiced concertato,
as many-voiced concertato, or or cast
cast in one of
in one of the
the forms
forms
of few-voiced chamber music.
of music. For For dramatic
dramatic reasons
reasons Monteverdi
Monteverdi fused fused in in
startling manner elements
startling elements of the monodic
of the monodic and and the
the many-voiced
many-voiced style; style; for
for
example, the
example, the recitative
recitative of of the
the messenger
messenger is is literally
literally taken
taken up up later
later asas a
chorus refrain
chorus refrain in in five-part
five-part harmonization
harmonization which which parallels
parallels Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's
polyphonization of
polyphonization of the d'Arianna. A remarkable
the Lamento d'Arianna. remarkable anticipation
anticipation of of
the beginning
the beginning of of Arianna's
Arianna's lament
lament can can be
be found
found in in the
the Orfeo
Orfeo (Ex. 14) and,
(Ex. 14) and,

!!": . ,.......
Ex.
Ex.
f.
14- Monteverdi:
14. Monteverdi: Excerpt
ahi
Excerpt from Orfeo.
lassyia
Or/eo.
pd-n
spen-ti

~:.'f:T:
P>" =

among the
among the many
many forward-looking
forward-looking details,
details, aa hint
hint of
of the
the stole
stile concitato
concitato on
the
the "fury" 5d
word "fury" 159 may be mentioned.
may be mentioned.
particular interest
Of particular interest is
is the
the distribution
distribution ofof recitative
recitative and closed
closed musical
musical
forms. All
forms. All highly
highly dramatic
dramatic events,
events, such
such as
as the
the rescue
rescue and the
the subsequent
subsequent
loss of
loss of Euridicc
Euridice are
are composed
composed as
as recitatives
recitatives in
in heated
heated affective harmonies
affective harmonies
over
over static basses, and,
static basses, and, whenever
whenever dramatically
dramatically necessary,
necessary, Monteverdi
Monteverdi did
did
69 CE XI, 125.
"0220,125.
60
60 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
not hesitate
not hesitate to to set
set the
the characters
characters against
against oneone another
another by by violent
violent and abrupt abrupt
key changes
key changes for
for which
which the
the messenger
messenger scene
scene furnishes
furnishes memorable examples.
examples.
The main vocal vocal forms
forms are are the
the strophic
strophic song,
song, often
often strongly
strongly affected
affected by by the
the
canzonetta style,
canzonetta style, and
and thethe strophic
strophic variation.
variation. Either
Either one one may
may appear
appear with with
ritornelli between
ritornelli between the the stanzas.
stanzas. OnlyOnly in in Orfeo'8 piece de
Orfeo's fiice de r6sistance
resistance Possente
Possentc
spino,fJO
spirto* aa masterpiece
masterpiece of of fivefold
fivefold strophic variation, do
strophic variation, do instruments
instruments
actually support
actually support the
the singer-in
singer in the
the first
first four
four variations
variations in
in aa vivacious
vivacious con-
con-
cerlato
ccrtato dialogue,
dialogue, and
and in
in the
the final
final one
one in
in simple
simple chords.
chords. The score
score preserves
preserves
this aria in
this aria in two
two versions,
versions, the the one
one without
without embellishments,
embellishments, the the other
other with
with
all
all the
the coloratura
coloratura ornaments
ornaments of of the gorgia illustrating
the gorgia illustrating the the art
art of
of singing
singing of of
the
the time
time better than any
better than any theoretical
theoretical discussion.
discussion. There
There are are nono da-capo
da-capo ariasarias
in
in the
the entire
entire opera,
opera, the the only
only hint
hint at at a
a return
return occurring
occurring in in a
a short
short canzonetta,
canzonetta,
the
the ternary phrase
ternary phrase structure
structure of
of which
which can
can hardly
hardly be
be called
called a
a da
da capo proper.
capo proper.
More thanthan a a dozen
dozen independent
independent instrumental
instrumental interludes
interludes are
are skilully
skilfully
integrated
integrated into into thethe drama,
drama, four four of of which
which recur
recur at at strategic moments,
strategic moments,
sometimes
sometimes even even in in changed
changed orchestration.
orchestration. The linking-together
Unking-together of of scenes
scenes
by
by the
the same music has
same music been compared,
has been compared, though though notnot tootoo happily,
happily, with with thethe
Wagnerian leitmotiv
Wagnerian leitmotiv technique,
technique, the psychological nature
the psychological nature of of which
which is is worlds
worlds
apart
apart from Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. The numerous numerous ritornelli
ritornelli ofof the
the arias
arias andand dance
dance
songs,
songs, which give ample
give ample room for
for ballets,
ballets, move in
in steady rhythms
steady rhythms and
and at
at
times
times in in typical
typical hemiola
hemiola patterns,
patterns, not
not recognized
recognized by by the
the modern editors
editors of
of
the Orleo
the Orfco score.
score. The harmonies
harmonies of of the
the instrumental
instrumental sections
sections are are free
free from
from
the
the chromatic
chromatic ventures
ventures of of the
the vocal
vocal style,
style, but
but display
display sharp
sharp clashes
clashes between
between
stern
stern harmonic
harmonic progressions
progressions and the passing tones
the passing tones or or appoggiature
appoggiature of of the
the
melody.
melody. The stark stark simplicity
simplicity of of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's instrumental
instrumental style style can
can best
best
be described
be described as as elemental.
elemental. It It involves
involves nothing
nothing moremore thanthan a a change
change of of
orchestration
orchestration or or the
the sudden entry entry of
of aa new continuo
continue instrument, used
instrument, used with with
profound effect
profound effect in
in the messenger scene.
the messenger scene.
Transcending
Transcending the narrow ideals
the narrow ideals of of the
the Florentine
Florentine purists Monteverdi in
purists Monteverdi in
his
his Orleo
Orfco set set the
the future
future course
course of of the
the opera.
opera. His nextnext work, Arianna (1608),
work, Arianna (1608),
is lost
is lost except
except for for the celebrated lamento
the celebrated lamento which provoked many
which provoked many imitations;
imitations;
Monteverdi himselfhimself arranged
arranged it not only
it not only asas a
a madrigal,
madrigal, but but also
also as
as a a sacred
sacred
contrafaaum.
contrafactum. Peri Peri was chosenchosen to to compose
compose the
the recitatives
recitatives for
for Ariannr.;-a
AriannctVi
significant choice in
significant choice in view of of the stylistic affinity
the stylistic between the
affinity between the two
two composers.
composers.
The resounding
resounding successsuccess of the Or/eo,
of the Orfeo, which
which made its its composer famous
composer famous
with
with oneone stroke, reflected in
is reB.ected in its
its influence
influence on on subsequent
subsequent operas,
stroke, is operas, especially
especially
Gagliano's
Gagliano's Dafne Dfljne (160])
(1607) 61 and Belli's
61
Belli's Or/eo Dolente.fJ2 Using
Orfeo Dolente Using a a revised
revised

10 CE XI,
60
XI, 84-100.
84-100.
61 Eitner
81 Eitner PAM 10, see
PAM 10, see also Einstein.
also Einstein, SAort History. Example
Short History. Example 24-
24.
62 Riemann HMG
IS Ricmann HMG 2:2, 2:2, 288.
288.
 Early Baroque
Early Italy
in Italy
Baroque in 61
61
version of
version of Rinuccini's
Rinuccini's Gagliano composed
Dafne Gagliano
Dafnc composed the
the fight
fight with
with the
the dragon
dragon
as aa choral
as choral
ensemble with
ensemble with synchronized
synchronized action,
action, minutely
minutely prescribed
prescribed in
in the
the
highly illuminating preface
highly illuminating preface to
to the
the opera. Gagliano
opera. Gagliano was
was very
very fond
fond of
of dis-
dis-

sonant cadential
sonant cadential formulas
formulas and
and simultaneous
simultaneous cross-relations (Ex. 15)
cross-relations (Ex. IS) which
Ex.
Ex. 15. Marco da Gagliano:
15. Gagliano: Duet
Duet from Dafne
from Dafnc.
fI I
:
OJ
nOD vil
non vII prp
pre gioancor
- gl'!jlDcor sf .
sa ra ~te~
ster-mi liar eru r I~-~e
r' Xcoswr

remained
-
remained exemplary
exemplary for
for middle
-
middle baroque
baroque composers
composers as
as late
late as
as PurcelL
Purcell.
Certain sections
Certain sections in
in Belli's
Belli's Orfeo surpassed Monteverdi
Orfeo surpassed in harmonic
Monteverdi in harmonic bold-
bold-
ness, but
ness, but neither
neither Belli
Belli and
and Gagliano,
Gagliano, nor
nor Francesca
Francesca Caccini,
Caccini,6s
63 the daughter
the daughter
of the
of the singer,
singer, and
and the
the Bolognese
Bolognese Giacobi
Giacobi were
were able
able to
to sustain
sustain in
in their
their operas
operas
the
the dramatic
dramatic function
function of
of the
the music
music as
as firmly
firmly as
as had
had Monteverdi.
Monteverdi.

Mter the
After the flowering
flowering of of the
the opera
opera in in Northern
Northern Italy Italy the
the leadership
leadership passed
passed
after
after 1620 to to Rome,
Rome, andand nearly
nearly twenty
twenty years
years later
later toto Venice.
Venice. It It is customary
is customary
to divide
to divide thethe early
early operas
operas into
into three
three groups,
groups, the
the Florentine
Florentine recitative
recitative opera,
opera,
the Roman chorus
the chorus opera,
opera, and the
the Venetian
Venetian solo
solo opera.
opera. The last
kst two terms
terms
describe only external,
describe only external, if
if conspicuous,
conspicuous, traits
traits important
important less
less in
in stylistic than
stylistic than
in
in sociological respect. The chorus
sociological respect. chorus formed also
also an integral part
integral part ofof
Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's Or/eo Orfeo and its its presence
presence or or absence hardly suffices
absence hardly suffices to define
to define
the
the difference
difference between
between the the types.
types. In In the
the sumptuous
sumptuous Roman opera opera thethe
dramatic
dramatic importance
importance of
of the
the recitative
recitative was weakened by
by a shift
shift ofof emphasis
emphasis
from
from thethe drama
drama to to the
the grand
grand musical
musical spectacle,
spectacle, and not not byby accident
accident did the
display
display
of
of vocal
vocal virtuosity
virtuosity become an end in
in itself,
itself, as
as can be
be seen in the
in the

spectacular
spectacular opera
opera La Galatea
Galatea 64
64 by
by the
the castrato-composer
castrate-composer Loreto Vittorio
Vittori.

The
The recitative
recitative gradually
gradually yielded
yielded its its structural
structural function to to arias,
arias, elaborate

but
but static
static choruses,
choruses, ballets,
ballets, and dance songs. The appearance
dance songs. appearance of of a-cappella
a-cappella
madrigals
madrigals in
in the
the opera
opera is a
is a telling
telling sign
sign of
of the Roman conservatism.
Domenico
Domenico Mazzocchi
Mazzocchi frankly
frankly admitted
admitted in in the
the preface
preface to to his
his opera
opera Catena
d' Adone (1626)
d'Adonc (1626)
w
65 that
that he
he inserted
inserted arias "to break
arias "to break the
the tediousness
tcdiousness of the
recitative";
recitative"; as as aa result
result the
the recitative
recitative reached
reached only only atat times the the affective
affective

heights of
heights of the
the Florentine
Florentine opera
opera and adumbrated occasionally
occasionally even the secco
sceeo
recitative of the middle
recitative of the middle baroquebaroque bel-canto
bel-canto style.
style.

68 See
88 See her ballet La Lib~azione
her ballet di Ruggi~o
Ubcrazionc di Ruggiero in
in VIL
SCMA VII.
e* Excerpts in Goldschmidt Studien,
84 Excerpts in Goldschmidt Studien, I,
I, 273.
273.
8& ib. 155.
62 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
Landi's
Landi's important
important operaopera Sant'
Sant' Alessio
Alessio (1632)
(1632) 88 was performed in
was pedormed in the
6e
the
new
new theater
theater ofof the
the Palazzo
Palazzo Barberini
Barberini withwith sets
sets by
by Bernini.
Bernini. It It belonged,
belonged,
with
with Erminia
Erminia 67 by by Michelangelo
6<r
Michelangelo Rossi,Rossi, toto the
the numerous
numerous operas
operas on on sacred
sacred
subjects, very
subjects, very characteristic
characteristic of
of Rome,
Rome, where
where the
the aristocratic
aristocratic clergy
clergy served
served as
as

the
the main
main patron
patron of
of music.
music. Significantly,
Significantly, Landi's
Landi's librettist
librettist was
was the
the Marchese
Marchese
Rospigliosi,
Rospigliosi, thethe future
future Pope
Pope Clemens
Clemens IX. IX.
The
The sinfonie
sinfonie in in Sant'
Sant' Alessio
Alcssio** 88-actually
actually canzonas
canzonas for for the
the sonorous
sonorous
combination
combination of of three
three violins
violins and
and aa heavily
heavily reinforced
reinforced continuo-mark
continue mark an an
important step
important step in
in the
the evolution
evolution of
of an
an independent
independent operaopera overture.
overture. Landi
Landi
framed thethe action
action by by big
big eight-voice
eight-voice choruses
choruses which
which displayed
displayed pompous
pompous
polyphony.
polyphony. His His recitatives,
recitatives, written
written partly
partly in in a a remarkable
remarkable pathetic
pathetic
Florentine style,
Florentine style, partly
partly inin a
a tentative
tentative secco
secco style,
style, were
were frequently
frequently interrupted
interrupted
by
by duets,
duets, trios,
trios, and
and novel
novel ensemble
ensemble recitatives.
recitatives. Among
Among the the ensembles
ensembles the the
mournful
mournful triotrio on
on thethe death
death of of St.
St. Alexis
Alexis deserves
deserves special
special notice
notice for
for its
its

combination
combination of poignant harmonies with great flexibility of line. As in
of poignant harmonies with great flexibility of line. As in
most Roman operas,
most operas, comic
comic scenes
scenes with
with dance
dance songs
songs and
and ariettas
ariettas inin can
can-
zonetta
zonctta style
style were
were scattered
scattered throughout
throughout the the acts,
acts, in
in keeping
keeping withwith thethe idea
idea
of entertainment. In
of entertainment. In these
these episodes
episodes the
the stereotyped
stereotyped comic
comic servants
servants of
of the
the
commedia dell' arte were
dell'artc were first
first introduced
introduced intointo the
the opera.
opera. With their parlando
their parlando

sections
sections and their
their flippant
flippant dialogue
dialogue theythey anticipate
anticipate with
with amazing
amazing clarity
clarity
the
the tone
tone of
of the
the future
future op opera
era buDa
buffa (Ex. 16).
(Ex. 16).

Ex. 16.
Ex. Comic duet
Landi: Comic
16. Landi: duet from San( Alessio.
from San? Alusio
, . .... I.. 'T . '"
.... -
41, t.~4r. J 4t~. 011; 4kk1I,df..rWl,dlrkll,dlori r.;JI!!
dl,dl rWl, 011-
.~ p'P J II.II
l,dl-rl,U, dl.

history of
The history of the
the Venetian
Venetian opera
opera began
began with
with the
the opening
opening of of the
the first
first
commercial opera
commercial opera house in 1637.
house in 1637. The
The composers
composers ofof the
the first
first Venetian
Venetian opera,
opera,
Manelli and
Manelli and Ferrari,
Ferrari, were
were Romans who who continued
continued at at first
first the
the stylistic
stylistic
tradition of
tradition of the
the Roman
Roman opera.
opera. During
During its
its early
early phase
phase the
the Venetian
Venetian opera
opera
was
was far from
far from being
being aa solo
solo opera;
opera; its
its numerous
numerous choruses
choruses served,
served, as
as in
in the
the
Roman opera,
Roman opera, aa decorative
decorative rather
rather than
than aa dramatic
dramatic purpose.
purpose. It
It isis most
most re-
re-
grettable that all of Monteverdi's operas between the Or/eo and
grettable that all of Monteverdi's operas between the Orfeo and the
the two
two
surviving Venetian
surviving Venetian works
works are
are lost.
lost. They
They would
would throw
throw light
light on
on the
the striking
striking
Msa&
ill. 202, also Torchi
202, also Torchi AM
AM V.
V
, ill. 258
"#.258.
HAM
68
HAM no. Riemann HMG
208; Riemann
DO. 208; HMG 2:2,
2:2, 255 and 263.
255 and 263-
 Early
Early Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy 63
stylistic
stylistic change
change evinced in in both
both the the Ritorno d'Ulisse 8S& (1641)
Eitorno d'Ulisse and the In-
68t
(1641) and the In-
coronazione di Poppea
coronazione di Poppea (1642).
(1642). It It is
is quite possible that
quite possible that Monteverdi
Monteverdi wrote wrote
them under the stage-work Lt:
the influence of of his
his pupil Cavalli
Cavalli whose
whose first
first stage-work Le
pupil
Nozze di di Teti e e Peleo (1639)
(1639) united
united Monteverdian
Monteverdian and
and novel
novel features.
features.
How far far the
the mutual give give and take take between
between master
master and and disciple went can-
disciple went can-
not be decided as long
not be decided as long as as Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's first first Venetian
Venetian work, work, Adone.
Adone, re- re-
mains undiscovered.
undiscovered.
The change
change in in Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's style, style, already
already commented
commented upon upon byby Doni
Doni
(1640),
(1640), was most apparent
apparent in
in a
a new differentiation
differentiation of
of the
the recitative
recitative style.
style.
The continuity
continuity of
of the
the recitative
recitative was broken up by cantabz1e
broken up by cantabilc sections or re-
sections or re-

frains
frains in triple
triple meter marking
marking the the incipient
incipient stage
stage of of the
the division
division between
between
aria
aria and recitative
recitative which was developeddeveloped in in the
the bel-canto
bel-canto style.style.
The recitative
recitative
was also
also loosened up up by rapid
by rapid tone
tone repetitions
repetitions and
and parlando
parlando sections
sections alia
alia

Rossini,
Rossini, put put either
either to
to dramatic
dramatic use
use in
in form of
of the
the stile
stile concitato, as in Nero's
concitato, as in Nero's
69
rage, 89 or
rage, or toto comic effect,
effect, asas inin Ira's parodistic lament.
Iro's parodistic lament.To 70 Monteverdi in-
Monteverdi in-
serted
serted scenes
scenes like
like the flirtation of
the flirtation the page
of the page and the damsel (Poppea),
the damsel (Poppea), and and
Iro's
Iro's antics with excessively
antics with excessively sustained
sustained notes notes (Ritorno)
(Ritorno) to
to give
give comic
comic relief
relief

to
to the tragic action,
the tragic action, in in Shakespeare's
Shakespeare's manner. manner. In In hishis tragic recitatives
tragic recitatives
Monteverdi maintained his
Monteverdi maintained his customary intensity with
customary intensity undiminished
with undiminishcd
power-for
power example in
for example in Ottavia's
Ottavia's movingmoving farewell
farewell to to Rome in which her
in which her
71
failing
failing voice
voice is
is depicted
depicted in
in highly
highly realistic
realistic manner.'ll
manner. The musical
musical unifica-
unifica-
tion of
tion of the
the drama reaches
reaches its peak in
its peak in scenes like the
scenes like the drawing
drawing of of the
the bow
(Ritorno),
(Ritorno), or
or the
the marital
marital dispute
dispute between
between the
the ambitious,
ambitious, unfaithful
unfaithful Pop-
Pop-
pea and her
pea her husband.
husband. In In the
the latter
latter scene Monteverdi contrasted
scene Monteverdi contrasted the the charac-
charac-
ters by
ters by means of of two interlocked
interlocked strophic
strophic variations
variations with ritornello.72
with ritorncllo. 72 The

outstanding aria
outstanding aria form,
form, the the strophic
strophic variation,
variation, stillstill prevailed,
prevailed, but but inin all
all
closed forms
closed forms the the bass
bass was less less static
static than
than in Or/eo and more highly
in Orfeo highly or-Of-
ganized by
ganized by rhythmic
rhythmic patterns,
patterns, as as can
can be be seen
seen inin Penelope's
Penelope's great great final
final aria
aria
with aa five-voice
with five-voice ritornello.
ritornello.
important novel
An important novel trait
trait of of the
the late
late operas
operas is is the
the appearance
appearance of of arias
arias
on short
on short chaconne
chaconne basses. passionate duet
basses. The passionate duet finale
finale of of Poppea
Poppea and Nero,Nero,
the drink
the drink duetduet of of Poppea,
POppea,18 78
and two
and two duets
duets from
from the Rjtorno all
the Ritorno all depend
depend
lisa Thc
e8a The authenticity
authenticity of this work has
of this has been
been questioned
questioned by
by Vogel,
Vogel, Ricmann,
Riemann,
Kretzschmar, and,
Kretzschmar, and, recently
recently again,
again. by
by Benvenuti, (Monteverdi). However,
Paoli (Monteverdi).
Benvenuti, and Paoli However,
Goldschmidt (SIMG
Goldschmidt (SIMG IV,
IV, 671;
671; X,
X, 570) (StzMW 9)
570) and Haas (StzMW 9) have adduced evidence
evidence
that seems
that seems to
to confirm
confirm Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's authorship.
authorship.
88 CE XIII, 81.
WCEXIII, 81.
70 XII, 170,
10 CE XII, 1']0, 175.
175-
71 XIII, 229.
11 CE XIII, 22!).
72
'12 CE XIII,
XIII, 95.
95.
"CE 14i.
XIII. 146.
'1'1 CE XIII,
64 Music
Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
to
to aa greater
greater oror lesser
lesser degree
degree onon chaconne patterns. Comparatively
chaconne patterns. Comparatively litde
little

use
use is
is made of of independent
independent instrumental music,
instrumental music, and such modest pieces
such modest pieces
as
as occur
occur are
are obligated
obligated to to the
the dance
dance style.
style. The overture
overture to to Poppea
Poppea consists
consists

merely
merely of
o a a varied
varied couple
couple in in stylized
stylized rhythmic
rhythmic transformation.
transformation.
The two
two last
last operas
operas show Monteverdi
Monteverdi not
not only
only far
far removed from the the
polyphonic style
polyphonic style of of his
his youth,
youth, but
but also
also greatly
greatly at
at variance
variance with his
his earlier
earlier

dramatic
dramatic style. With his restless and searching
style. With his restless searching spirit
spirit he
he set
set out in his
out in his late
late

years
years on
on the
the road
road to
to the
the bel-canto
bel-canto style
style the
the fulfilment
fulfilment of
of which he
he was
was not
not
destined
destined to
to see.
see.

TRADITION AND PR.OGRESS

PROGRESS IN SACR.ED
SACRED MUSIC

The sacred
sacred music
music of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque went went through
through a a stylistic
stylistic crisis
crisis

that
that the
the rise
rise of
of the
the affective
affective modern style style had
had precipitated.
precipitated. This
This crisis
crisis was
was
reSected in
reflected in the
the momentous struggle struggle between
between tradition
tradition and progress,
progress, be- be-
tween stile antico
tween stile antico and
and moderno.
moderno. The traditional
traditional vocal
vocal polyphony
polyphony was
securely anchored in
securely anchored in sacred
sacred music
music and could could not
not bebe overthrown
overthrown by by aa group
group
of
of enthusiasts
enthusiasts like the Camerata.
like the Camerata. Yet Yet thethe impact
impact of
of the
the modern style
style was
felt
felt immediately.
immediately. The stylistic unity
stylistic unity of
of sacred
sacred music
music was split
split into
into aa con-
con-
servative and
servative and a progressive branch
a progressive branch and and gave way
gave way to
to a
a style-conscious
style-conscious his- his-

toricism
toricism which made the the composers
composers bilingual.
bilingual. The lack. lack ofof restraint
restraint in the
in the
modern secular
secular style
style was viewed
viewed with with suspicion
suspicion by by the
the church,
church, and al- al-

though
though Cavalieri
Cavalieri transferred
transferred the
the recitative
recitative to
to sacred
sacred music
music in
in the
the very
very
year in
year in which it it was definitely established,
definitely established, objections
objections against
against "theatrical"
"theatrical"
music inin the
the church
church persisted
persisted forfor aa long
long time. Nevertheless, the
time. Nevertheless, vigorous
the vigorous
and affective
affective spirit
spirit ofof the
the baroque
baroque soonsoon asserted itself in
asserted itself in the
the liturgy
liturgy also,
also,
forming
forming a a strange contrast with
strange contrast with the
the official
official objectivity
objectivity of
of the
the liturgy
liturgy of of
our
our day.
day.
In
In sacred
sacred music five five styles
styles can
can be distinguished: (I)
be distinguished: (i) the monody, (2)
the monody, the
(2) the
few-voiced or small
few-voiced or small concertato,
concertato, (3) (3) the
the many-voiced
many-voiced or grand concertato,
or grand concertato,
(4)
(4) the "colossal
"colossal baroque,"
baroque," and (5) the stile
(5) the stile antico.
antico. Cavalieri's mediocre
Cavalieri's mediocre
recitatives in
recitatives in Anima e e Corpo
Corpo are,
are, as
as far
far as
as is
is known,
known, the
the earliest
earliest monodies.
monodies.
The sacred
sacred recitatives
recitatives thatthat Caccini
Caccini supposedly
supposedly composed
composed are not extant.
are not extant.
Viadana's Concmi
Concerto ecclesiastici
ecclesiastid a a I-4
1-4 rlOci
voci (1602)
(1602)
7* adopted the monodic
T4 adopted the monodic
style
style only
only externally;
externally; theythey cannot
cannot be be considered
considered as as monodies
monodies proper.
proper. TheThe
preface
preface stated
stated that
that itit was highly unsatisfactory to
highly unsatisfactory to sing only
sing only one
one voice
voice of
of a a
polyphonic
polyphonic motet with
with the
the organ supplying
organ supplying the
the other
other parts.
parts.
This
This was
was aa
T*
Examples in
T6 &amples in Schneider,
Schneider, .AlIfiinge
Anfange ties
des Basso continue; WoIf,
Basso continuo; Wolf, Music
Music of Earlit:r
of Earlier
Times, no.
Times, 52; Arnold,
no. 52; Arnold, The.An
The Art of Accompaniment, II,
of .Accomf1/miment, 21-.33; HAM no.
II, 21-33; no. 185.
185.
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque in Italy
in Italy 65
widespread practice
widespread practice during during the
the transition
transition period
period that
that sought
sought to
to give
give to
to the
the
old style
old style thethe semblance
semblance of of the
the monody.
monody. Viadana's
Viadana's motets motets were were works
works of of
transition that
transition that owed
owed their
their importance
importance to to the
the factfact that
that he
he substituted
substituted for for the
the
makeshift of
makeshift of the basso scguente
the basso seguente an an obligatory
obligatory continuo.
continuo.
The true
The true monody
monody forced forced its its way
way into
into sacred
sacred musicmusic only only after 1610 and
after 1610 and
can be
can be recognized
recognized in in titles
titles such
such as AfJetti amorosi
as Affctti amorosi spirituali
spirituali (Quagliati).
(Quagliati).
Significantly enough,
Significantly enough, we we meet
meet withwith thethe affective
affective style less frequently
style less frequently at at
first in
first in strictly
strictly liturgical
liturgical compositions
compositions with with Latin Latin text,
text, than
than in in devotional
devotional
compositions with
compositions with Italian
Italian words.
words. It It is
is again
again the the universal
universal Monteverdi
Monteverdi who
furnishes one
furnishes one ofof the
the earliest
earliest examples
examples of of true
true monody
monody in in liturgical
liturgical music
music
and,
and, in
in addition, examples
addition, examples of
of all other styles
all other styles of of church
church music, except
music, except the the
colossal baroque
colossal baroque the the compromising
compromising attitude attitude of of which
which was was not not congenial
congenial
to him. His first
to him. first collection
collection of of church
church music
music in in modern style style was published
published
in Mantua (1610).
in (1610). Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, only only two
two publications
publications have have come down
to us
to us from his his Venetian
Venetian period,
period, the Selva morah
the Sclva spirituole (1641)
morale ct: spirituals (1~1) and
a collection
a collection containing
containing psalms psalms and
and a
a Mass, printed posthumously
Mass, printed posthumously in in 1650.
1650.
The liturgical
liturgical collection
collection of of 1610 is characterized
1610 is characterized by by a
a baffling variety
baffling variety of of
styles that Monteverdi
styles that Monteverdi contrasted
contrasted with with cool deliberation. It
cool deliberation. contains the
It contains the
complete
complete service
service for
for vespers
vespers with
with psalms, antiphons,
psalms, antiphons, a hymn,
hymn, and the
the
magnificat.
magnificat. The antiphons, antiphons, traditionally
traditionally composed
composed as as polyphonic
polyphonic motets, motets,
were
were supplanted
supplanted here
here by monodies,
by monodies, set
set iJ
a la
la modt:
mode with much virtuoso
virtuoso
gorgia
gorgia on on significant
significant words.
words. He indulged indulged also also inin echo
echo effects
effects withwith puns
puns
such as
such as gaudio.-aUdio.
gaudio-audio, to to which he he was partial
partial also also inin Orleo.
Orfeo. All this this 0c-
oc-

curred,
curred, it
it must
must be
be repeated,
repeated, in
in liturgical
liturgical music;
music; no Gregorian
Gregorian chants were
used because the
used because the monodic
monodic style style made the the treatment
treatment of of a ~antus firmus
cantus firmus
impractical if not impossible.
impractical if not impossible.
The only
only form in
in which the
the chant was ab-
sorbed
sorbed by by thethe modern
modern style is illustrated by Viadana's
style is illustrated by
Viadana's experimental
experimental mass
compositions 75 with gorgia ornaments for solo voice and organ
compositions
Til with gorgia ornaments for solo voice organ continuo,
continuo,
and
and Banchieri's
Banchieri's directions
directions for for the
the accompaniment
accompaniment of
of the
the chant by
by a con-
tinuo,
tinuo, a
a practice
practice
that
that survived
survived to
to the
the days
days of
of Haydn
Haydn and Mozart,
Mozart, and in
in
the form of the Gregorian "harmonization,
the form of the Gregorian "harmonization,** It even
even to
to the
the present.
present.
Liturgical
Liturgical monodies
monodies became became very common in
very common in the
the first
first third
third of of the
the cen-
cen-
tury. Alessandro Grandi, aa pupil
tury. Alessandro Grandi, pupil of of Gabrie1~
Gabrieli, must be be singled
singled out out asas aa mas-
mas-
ter
ter whose
whose contributions
contributions to to the
the monodic
monodic motet motet and and thethe sacred
sacred solo solo cantata
cantata

can
can well
well be be compared
compared with those of
with those of Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. His His Motetli
Motttti IZa voce voce sola
sola

(1628) show the influence of the recitative in

(1628) show the influence of the recitative
in emphatic repetitions of words
emphatic repetitions of words
and
and declamatory
declamatory contrast
contrast motives,
motives, but
but the
the static
static bass
bass lines
lines areare enlivened
enlivened
by
by iInitative
imitative sequences
sequences which
which tie
tie both
both voices
voices together.
together. Such
Such compromise
compromise
,. Wagner, Gescmchte
Geschichte der
dcr Messe,
75 Peter
Peter Wagner. Messc, Appendix.
Appendix.
66
66 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
between
between contrapuntal
contrapuntal and monodic principles
principles was more typical
typical of
of monodic
church
church music
music than
than were
were adaptations
adaptations of
of the
the radical
radical Florentine
Florentine recitative
recitative

which were
were sometimes
sometimes bodily
bodily transferred
transferred to
to church
church music in
in form ofof
contrafacta.
contrajacta.
The monodic
monodic church
church composers
composers fellfell into
into two groups,
groups, of
of which the
the first,
first, in-
in-

cluding
cluding Grandi,
Grandi, Casati,
Casati, Turini,
Turini, Pace,
Pace, Donati,
Donati, Saracini,
Saracini, Bellanda,
Bellanda, was in
in
varying degree
varying degree under
under the
the spell
spell of
of the
the Florentine
Florentine monodists
monodists or
or of
of Monteverdi.
Monteverdi.
The other
other was formedformed byby Roman composers,
composers, notably
notably Durante who pre- pre-
scribed
scribed inin his
his Aric devote (1608)
Arie devote (1608) the crescendo in
the crescendo in Caccini's
Caccini's manner,
manner, Bonini,
Bonini,
Severi,
Severi, Kapsberger,
Kapsberger, the the prolific
prolific Tarditi,
Tarditi, Agazzari,
Agazzari, Quagliati Graziani.Te
Quagliati and Graziani.
76

Whereas the the first

first school
school leaned
leaned toward unrestrained text
toward unrestrained text interpretation
interpretation by by
means of of expressive gorgia, carefully
expressive gorgia, carefully indicated
indicated dynamics,
dynamics, and frequent
frequent
tempo
tempo changes,
changes, the the Roman school
school showed a a marked proclivity
proclivity toward
toward
vocal
vocal virtuosity, especially
virtuosity, especially in
in the
the rather
rather dry
dry motetti
motctti passeggiati of Kaps-
passeggiati of Kaps-
77
berger
berger and Severi.
Severi. 77 One of the most
of the most memorable displays of vocal
displays of vocal fire-
fire-

works was the the rendition

rendition byby the
the castrato
castrato Vittori of Domenico Mazzocchi's
Vittori of Mazzocchi's
plaint of
plaint of the
the repentant
repentant Magdalen. transported the
Magdalen. He transported the audience
audience by by the
the
realistic sobs
realistic sobs ofof his
his singing, which strikingly
singing, which strikingly correspond
correspond to to the
the mixture
mixture of of
devotion and erotic
devotion erotic realism that we find
realism that find inin certain
certain sculptures
sculptures of
of Bernini.
Bernini.

The few-voiced concertato with

few-voiced conccrtato with or WIthout instruments
or without instruments represents
represents one
one
of the
of the favorite forms of
favorite forms of sacred
sacred music.
music. Its texture
Its texture waswas characterized
characterized byby the
the
open
open work or
or the
the concertato
conccrtato interplay of the voices, be it in the
interplay of the voices, be it in the chamber chamber
duet or
duet or trio,
trio, dialogue,
dialogue, or
or cantata.
cantata. The Catholic
Catholic church
church cantata
cantata exactly
exactly par-
par-
alleled the
alleled the secular cantata in
secular cantata its flexible
in its flexible form,
form, itsits rondo
rondo structure,
structure, and
and its
its
instrumental ritornelli.
instrumental ritornelli. Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's vespers
vespers contain
contain several
several noteworthy
noteworthy
specimens with
specimens with aa written-out
written-out organ pan giving
organ part giving us an authentic
us an authentic picture
picture
of the
of the modest continue
continuo practice
practice ofof the
the early
early baroque
baroque period.
period. An early
early
example
example of
of the
the juxtaposition
juxtaposition of
of solo
solo and
and tutti
tutti in
in the
the concertato
conccrtato occurs
occurs in
in
the second part
the second part of Balestra's
of Balestra's motet Salve aeterni
motet Salve aeterni (Ex.
(Ex. 17),
17), published
published in in
Bonometti's Parnassus Musicus
Bonometti's Parnassus Musicus (Venice, 1615). The moderate
(Venice, 1615). moderate useuse ofof
affective intervals
affective gorgia figures,
intervals and gorgia figures, the
the integration
integration of of bass
bass and
and melody,
melody,
the relatively
and the relatively steady
steady rhythm
rhythm dearly
clearly distinguish
distinguish thethe sacred
sacred style
style of the
of the
piece from secular
piece parallels.
secular parallels.

rs A
T*
A bibliographical
bibliographical list
list of
of the
the sacred concertato in
sacred conccrtato Italy from
in Italy from 1600
r600 to r630 can
to 1630 be
can be
found in Adrio,
in .4nfingl! dcs
Adrio, An]angc tIl!S gcisthchcn
gl!istltckl!n Konzcrts.
Kon:r:i!rls.
TT
Examples in
17 Examples Kuhn, Die
in Kuhn, Die Vcrzierungstynst.
Vl!Tzierungskunst.
 Early in Italy
Baroque in
Early Baroque Italy
Ex. 17. Balestra:
Ex. 17. Balestra: From the Conccrtato motet
the Concertato motet Sa/tie
Salve aekrni.
aeUrni.

i
Sua vis-si

MI

,"
, eJ
-
-
- Ii um,O lop.. pe-nl-ien-il nm, o !:(ex Cl'r tan
--
- ti um, odnsViii

~"
I -
I T.m
u -lOr

AG - !l-bus PlV-l'ee til

-..;;::;
~ \1J1.ctn-tl um ~~
OJ' :~ ~~.rec- ~
eJ
cen-t1-um U dOlt\ObI-CI'n - II-UUl, 0

I , I I
.
I r- r r
. I

In the grand concertato the gigantic combinations of Gabrieli were re-

In the grand conccrtato the gigantic combinations of Gabrieli were re>
duced
duced to
to smaller
smaller dimensions.
dimensions. The contrast
contrast between
between instrumental vocal
instrumental and vocal
idioms,
idioms, and
and also
also that between solo
that between solo ensemble
ensemble and chorus,
chorus, notnot yet
yet clearly
clearly
observed
observed inin Gabrieli,
Gabrieli, became more pronouncedpronounced with
with Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. He a-
ex-

perimented
perimented with
with all
all the
the elements
elements of
of the
the grand
grand concertato
conccrtato and even tried
tried

to combine
to combine themthem with
with thethe traditional
traditional use of cantus
use of cantus (irmus.
firmus. InIn his vespers,
his vespers,

designated
designated as
as sopra
sopra cant,
cantt ferm"
jermi, the
the psalm
psalm tones
tones are
are set
set with amazing
amazing re-
re-

sourcefulness.
sourcefulness. In In the
the psalm
psalm Domintls
Dominus ad
ad adiutlandum
adiuvandum a
a six-part
six-part chorus
sustains
sustains aa D-major
D-major chord
chord in in simple
simple declamatory fashion while six
declamatory fashion six instru-
instru-

ments
ments dress
dress up
up the
the static
static chord
chord with
with a a dazzling
dazzling network of of short-winded

imitations
imitations that
that are
are made to to serve
serve a a purely
purely coloristic
coloristic purpose. Also in
purpose. Also the
in the

ten-voice Nisi
ten-voice Nisi Dominus
Dominus for
for two
two choruses
choruses he
he made imaginative
imaginative use
use of the
the

open
open work
work andand supported
supported the the structure
structure by plainchant in long
by the plainchant
the in long note
note

values.
values. The
The formidable "sonata" Sanda
formidable "sonata" Sancta Maria,
Maria, noteworthy
noteworthy for for its
its sumptu-
sumptu-
ous
ous orchestration, presents
orchestration, presents a
a psalmodic
psalmodic cantus
cantus (irmus.
firmus, repeated
repeated in
in varied
varied

rhythmic shapes
rhythmic shapes by a by a unison
unison chorus.
chorus.

The cantus
The firmus treatment
cantus firmus treatment all all but disappeared in
but disappeared in the grand concertllltJ
the grand conccrtato
68 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
after
after Monteverdi.
Monteverdi. His His Venetian
Venetian followers,
followers, Pellegrini,
Pellegrini, Grandi,
Grandi, Merula,
Merula,
Rovetta,
Rovetta, Usper,
Usper, Donati,
Donati, and even even such
such late
late composers
composers as as Neri
Neri and Mon-
ferrato, were too
ferrato, were too much concerned
concerned withwith textual
textual representation
representation to to be
be re-
re-

stricted
stricted by
by the
the shackles
shackles of
o aa cantus
cantus firm us.
firmus. Only
Only intonations
intonations and short
short
quotations
quotations of of the
the chant
chant were sometimes
sometimes presented
presented inin contrapuntal
contrapuntal fashion.
fashion.
In
In the
the absence
absence ofof cantus
cantus firmus
firmus other
other constructive
constructive methods intruded
intruded into
into
church
church music,
music, notably
notably thethe ostinato,
ostinato, and the
the strophic
strophic variation.
variation. This
This practice
practice
is
is illustrated
illustrated by
by Merula's
Merula's chaconne
chaconne Mass,
Mass, and by by Donati's
Donati's set
set of
of fifteen
fifteen
motets
motets on thethe same bassbass (1629).
(1629). The Masses
Masses could
could no longer
longer be
be designated
designated
by
by the
the plainchant
plainchant or or the
the model from which they they had formerly
formerly been
been derived,
derived,
but
but received
received their
their titles
tides from the
the special
special occasion
occasion for
for which they
they were
were com-
com-
posed.
posed. The dependence
dependence of of the
the music on the the word manifested
manifested itself
itself in
in the
the
fact
fact that
that the
the declamatory rhythm
declamatory rhythm of
of the
the word usually generated
usually generated the
the rhythm
rhythm
of
of the
the contrast
contrast motives.
motives.

While Venice was the the center

center of of progress
progress in in sacred
sacred music,
music, Rome was the
was the
bulwark of
of traditionalism.
traditionalism. The followers
followers of of the
the Roman school school such
such as as
Paolo Agostini,
Paolo Abbatini, Benevoli,
Agostini, Abbatini, Benevoli, Domenico and Virgilio Mazzocchi,
Virgilio Mazzocchi,
Massaini, and Crivelli
Massaini, took over
Crivelli took over the polychoral style
the polychoral style of the Venetian
of the Venetian school,
school,
but expanded
but expanded it it to
to unprecedented
unprecedented dimensions
dimensions in in compositions
compositions for for four,
four,
six, sometimes even
six, and sometimes even twelve
twelve and more choruses choruses thatthat have
have justly
justly been
been
called the
called the "colossal
"colossal baroque"
baroque" in in analogy
analogy withwith the
the architecture
architecture of of the
the time.
time.
colossal baroque
The colossal baroque attempted
attempted to to graft
graft the
the polychoral
polychoral techniques
techniques of of the
the
grand concertato
grand concertato on the the stile
stile antico. resulting hybrid
antico. The resulting hybrid style
style was
was typical
typical
of the
of the Roman conservatism.
conservatism. The profusion
profusion of of vocal
vocal and
and instrumental
instrumental means,
means,
the innumerable
the innumerable echos,
echos, solos,
solos, and tuttis,
tuttis, reflected
reflected thethe pomp
pomp of of the
the church
church
ritual in
ritual in the
the counter-reformation,
counter-reformation, but but the
the affective
affective spirit
spirit of
of the
the Venetian
Venetian
conspicuously lacking.
concertato was conspicuously
concertato lacking. The inner inner fervor
fervor of of Gabrieli
Gabrieli waswas ex-ex-
ternalized to
ternalized to technical
technical virtuosity.
virtuosity. It It is
is symbolic
symbolic for for thethe subordination
subordination of of
the liturgy
the liturgy to the display
to the display ofof glamour
glamour that that the
the chorus
chorus no no longer
longer had
had itsits
traditional place
traditional place near
near the
the altar,
altar, but
but was
was distributed
distributed in in the
the lofts
lofts and
and bal-
bal-
conies that
conies that baroque
baroque church
church architecture
architecture supplied
supplied in in abundance.
abundance. Rarely Rarely
again have
again have music
music and architecture
architecture been been as as closely
closely associated
associated as as inin the
the
baroque period
baroque period where
where space
space as as such
such became
became an an essential
essential component
component of of
musical structure.
musical structure.
Benevoli's polychoral
Benevoli's polychoral Mass
Mass forfor fifty-three
fifty-three parts,
parts,78 commissioned for
'18 commissioned for the
the
inauguration
inauguration of
of the
the Salzburg cathedral, bears testimony to
Salzburg cathedral, bears testimony to the stupendous the stupendous
DTOe X (voL 20).
TI DTOeX(voL2o).
 Early Baroque
Early Baroque inin Italy
Italy 69
facility of spatial dispositions and,
facility of spatial dispositions
and, atat the
the same
same time,
time, thethe inflation
inflation of
of
essentially modest music to mammoth dimensions.
essentially modest music to mammoth dimensions. It is written It is written for
for two
two
eight-voice choruses, each with a continuo, and six instrumental ensembles,
eight-voice choruses, each with a continue, and six instrumental ensembles,
two for
two for strings,
strings, one
one for
for wood
wood winds,
winds, andand three
three for
for brass
brass instruments.
instruments.
Floridensembles
Florid ensembles forfor the
thesoloists,
soloists, carefully
carefully marked
marked asas "solo"
"solo" are
areset
setagainst
against
choral ripieno sections, usually,
choral ripieno sections, usually, though though not
not always, distinguished
always, distinguished by by
chordal texture.
chordal The Mass
texture. The Mass isis held
held together
together by
by aa master
master continue
continuo which
which
readily
readily discloses
discloses how
how simple
simple the
the underlying
underlying chord
chord progressions
progressions actually
actually
are. As
are. As aa matter
matter of
of course
course thethe colossal
colossal baroque
baroque made
made eveneven more
more extensive
extensive
use of
use of octave
octave doublings
doublings than
than the
the Venetian
Venetian model.
model. This
This practice
practice constituted
constituted
a definite break with the tradition
a definite break with the tradition of
of renaissance
renaissance music
music and
and was
was specifically
specifically
approved by Viadana and other theorists of the time.
approved by Viadana and other theorists of the time.

The colossal
The colossal baroque
baroque represented
represented the the concession
concession of of Roman
Roman tradition-
tradition-
alism to
alism to the
the modern
modern trend. trend. The staunchest
staunchest conservatives
conservatives among among the the com-
com-
posers perpetuated a
a living
living tradition
tradition of
of renaissance
renaissance music under
under the
the name
name
posers perpetuated
of stile antico,
of stile antico, aa term
term thatthat inin itself
itself implied
implied the the awakening
awakening of of aa historical
historical
detachment from
detachment from the currentthe current stile
stile concertato.
concertato. In
In the
the struggle between
struggle between
tradition and
tradition progress the
and progress the old
old style
style became
became more and more the symbol
the symbol of of
churchliness;
churchliness; thisthis connotation
connotation was was originally
originally foreign
foreign to to renaissance music music
and
and could
could only arise in conscious reaction to
only arise in conscious reaction
to the
the modern style. style. As early
early
as Agazzari, Palestrina
as Agazzari, Palestrina was
was raised
raised to
to the
the dignity
dignity of
of an infallible
infallible model
model.
Palestrina's
Palestrina's direct
direct emulators
emulators and and successors,
successors, Felice
Felice and Giovanni Anerio, Anerio,
Giovanelli,
Giovanelli, Soriano,
Soriano, Nanino,
Nanino, and Allegri, and also
and Allegri, also such later masters as
such later masters as

Pier
Pier Valentini
Valentini and and Simonelli
Simonelli slowlyslowly transformed
transformed their their model
model by by applying
applying
the harmonies
the harmonies and
and accentuating rhythms
accentuating rhythms of
of the
the time
time which
which distinguish
distinguish the
the

stile antico from the

stile antico from the real real Palestrina
Palestrina style.
style. The
The works
works of
of Palestrina,
Palestrina, Lasso,
Lasso,
and
and other
other composers of the old school were were now
now printed
printed in in "enriched"
"enriched" form form
composers of the old school
with
with continuo,
continue, and famous pieces
and famous like the
pieces like
the Marcellus
Marcellus Mass were subjected
Mass were subjected

to various
to various arrangements. Allegri's
arrangements. Allegri's
celebrated
celebrated Miserere
Miserere for
for double
double chorus,
chorus,
long a well-guarded
long a well-guarded
secret
secret of
of the
the Sistine
Sistine chapel,
chapel, belonged
belonged to
to the
the declamatory
declamatory
chordal
chordal type of falso-bordone, very popular during the
type of falso-bordone, very popular during
the renaissance.
renaissance. Its Its

magical effect on the audience

the audience was was due
due not
not to
to the
the composition as
as such
such but
but
magical effect on composition
to was care-
to its
its rendition
rendition with
with improvised embellishments, a
embellishments, a custom
custom that that was care-
improvised
fully preserved to
fully preserved
to the
the time
time ofof Mozart
Mozart and and even
even of of Mendelssohn,
Mendelssohn, both of both of

whom
whom wrotewrote them
them down down from from memory.
memory. Burney'sBurney's storystory thatthat Emperor
Emperor
Leopold ~Iof Austria, who
who received
received the
the composition
composition as
asa aspecial
special favor
favor from
from
Leopold of Austria,
Rome,
Rome, was was disappointed with the music, may well be true because the
disappointed with the music, may
well be true because the
70 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
"essentials,"
"essentials," namely
namely the the ornaments,
ornaments, were were not
not written
written down.
down. The excessive
excessive
ornamentation,
ornamentation, the
the sustained
sustained chordal
chordal effects,
effects, the
the wide
wide range
range of
of dynamics,
dynamics,
and
and thethe essentially
essentially harmonic
harmonic approach
approach to to polyphony
polyphony were typical typical traits
traits ofof
the stile
the stile antico
antico thatthat demonstrated
demonstrated the the baroque re-interpretation
baroque re-interpretation of
of renais-
renais-

sance
sance music
music as as clearly
clearly as as the
the parading
parading with learned cantus
with learned firmus treatment,
cantus firmus treatment,
contrapuntal
contrapuntal stunts,stunts, puzzles,
puzzles, and and colossal
colossal canons.
canons. PierPier Valentini
Valentini proved proved
his
his learned
learned showmanship
showmanship in in aa canon
canon forfor ninety-six
ninety-six voices
voices which Kircher Kircher
admiringly
admiringly printedprinted in in his Musurgia.
his Musurgia.

The progressives
progressives of
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth and and eighteenth
eighteenth centuries,
centuries, Monte-
Monte-
verdi, Turini, Landi, Cifra,
verdi, Turini, Landi, Cifra, Schiitz, Schu.tz, Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti,
Scarlatti, Durante, Lotti,
Durante, Lotti,
and Marcello
Marcello alsoalso wrote
wrote in in stile
stile antico
antico with
with skill
skill and taste.
taste. It
It was not not aa sign
sign
of
of creative
creative eclecticism,
eclecticism, but but a a natural
natural outgrowth
outgrowth of of the
the polarity
polarity of of styles
styles
which
which prevailed
prevailed throughout
throughout the the baroque period. Monteverdi
baroque period. Monteverdi showed showed his his

complete
complete mastery
mastery of of the prima frattica
the prima prattica inin his polyphonic Mass on motives
his polyphonic motives
of
of a motet by
a motet by Gombert which resuscitated resuscitated the the old
old parody
parody or or paraphrase
paraphrase
Mass,
Mass, by by this
this time
time an
an almost
almost extinct
extinct form.
form. It
It survived
survived in
in the
the baroque era
baroque era
only
only in
in such
such isolated
isolated examples
examples as
as Bernardi's
Bernardi's Mass
Mass on
on Arcadelt's
Arcadelt's famous
famous
madrigalll
madrigal bianco ee dolce
// bianco cignO.T9
dolce dgno.
The discovery
discovery of of choral
choral sonorities
sonorities in in the essentially vocal
the essentially stile antico
vocal stile antico
formed the the logical complement to
logical complement the discovery
to the discovery of of instrumental
instrumental idioms idioms in in
the concertato style.
the concertato style. Not by by coincidence
coincidence did did the
the a-cappella
a-cappella idealideal originate
originate
in the
in the realm
realm of of the stile antico.
the stile antico. The term term "cappella"
"cappella" whichwhich denoted
denoted with with
Gabrieli merely aa vocal
Gabrieli merely vocal or or instrumental
instrumental tutti, tutti, acquired
acquired now the the special
special
meaning "not
meaning "not accompanied
accompanied by by instruments"
instruments" in in pointed
pointed opposition
opposition to to the
the
concertato style.
concertato style. Symptomatically,
Symptomatically, this this meaning
meaning of of the
the term
term originated
originated only only
in the
in the first
first decades
decades of of the
the seventeenth century. A collection
seventeenth century. collection of of Masses
Masses by by
Ghizzolo (Venice, 1619),
Ghizzolo (Venice, composed parte
1619), composed parte aa cappdla,
cappella, parte
parte da da concerto,
concerto, is is
one of
one of the
the earliest
earliest examples
examples of of the
the deliberate
deliberate juxtaposition
juxtaposition of of the
the two
two styles.
styles.
Curiously enough,
Curiously enough, the the a-cappella
a-cappella performance
performance did did not
not necessarily
necessarily preclude
preclude
organ continuo,
an organ continuo, which which was, was, however,
however, often
often onlyonly optional.
optional. Monteverdi,
Monteverdi,
too, contrasted
too, contrasted in in his Mass (1650)
his Mass (1650) andand inin the Selvaa morale
the Selv morale a-cappella
a-cappella with with
accompanied concertato sections,
accompanied concertato sections, while Turin~ Landi,
while Turini, Landi, and and manymany others
others
observed the
observed stile antico
the stile antico in in strict
strict a-cappella
a-cappella Masses,
Masses, thusthus designated
designated on on
the tide-page.
the tide-page.
It is
It is not
not surprising
surprising that that the
the a-cappella
a-cappella ideal,
ideal, once
once discovered,
discovered, shouldshould havehave
been attached
been attached in in retrospect
retrospect to to renaissance
renaissance music.
music. ThisThis interpretation
interpretation has has
persisted
persisted to
to the
the present
present day,day, but
but whenever
whenever we refer
refer to
to the
the renaissance
renaissance as as
a
the "a-cappella
the period"
a-cappella period" we unwittingly apply
unwittingly apply aa baroque
baroque term term with
with ques-
ques-
tionable implications.
tionable implications.
"DTOe
ftDTOe XXXVI (vol. 69).
(vol. 69).
 CHAPTER THREE
[HAPTER'THREE

Early
Early and
and Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque tn
in the
the

Northern
Northern Countries
Countries

THE
THE NETHERLANDS
NETHERLANDS SCHOOL AND ITS
SCHOOL AND ITS ENGUSH
ENGLISH
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND

I
TN
N THE
I
THE formation
Her
formation of

JL monody.
monody. The
of the

Her influence
the baroque
baroque style Italy represented
influence was

The other
was decisive
other pole
pole was
represented only
decisive primarily
only one

primarily in
was England.
England. Her
one pole.
style Italy
in thethe development
development of
Her influence was decisive in
influence was
pole.
of vocal
decisive
vocal
in

the
thedevelopment
development of of an
an abstract
abstractinstrumental
instrumental style style which
which spread
spread from
from Eng-
Eng-
land
land to
to the
the Netherlands
Netherlands and
and from
from there
there all
all over
over Europe.
Europe. In
In England,
England, as in
as in

all other non-Italian countries, the new

all other non-Italian countries, the new style emerged style emerged almost
almost imperceptibly.
imperceptibly.
The
Thegreat
great
schools
schools of
of the
the madrigalists,
madrigalists, lutenists,
lutenists, and
and virginalists
virginalists overlap
overlap thethe

beginnings of the baroque era but do

beginnings of the baroque era but
do notnot stylistically
stylistically belong
belong to to it.
it. The
The
belated flowering of the English madrigal
belated flowering of the English madrigal explains why only explains why only the
the first
first

generation of madrigal composers (Byrd and

generation of madrigal composers (Byrd
andMorley)
Morley) can be said to repre-
can be said to repre-
sent
sent aa pure
pure
renaissance
renaissance style,
style,
while
while in
in the
the second
second (Weelkes
(Weelkes and
and Wilbye)
Wilbye)
and
and especially in the third
especially in the
thirdgeneration
generation (Tomkins
(Tomkins and and Orlando
Orlando Gibbons)
Gibbons)
undercurrents
undercurrentscame came toto thethesurface
surfacethatthatparallel
parallel the rapid
the rapid development
developmentof of

the
theItalian
Italianmadrigal
madrigalfrom fromMarenzio
Marenzioto Monteverdi.ItItisischaracteristic
toMonteverdi. characteristicthat that

none
none of
of the
the madrigalists
madrigalists took
took the
the final
final step
step toto the
the continuo
continue madrigal,
madrigal,ex- ex-

cept Porter, the pupil

cept Porter, the pupil
of Monteverdi.
of Monteverdi.
The
Theschool
school of of lutenists
lutenists which
which beganbegantotoblossom
blossom with with John
John Dowland
Dowland
(1597) as suddenly as ititwithered
(i597) as suddenly as
witheredwith withAttey (Ayrcs,X622)
Attey(Ayres, 1622)has haserroneously
erroneously
been regarded as an "entirely original"
been regarded as an "entirely original" prefiguration prefiguration of
of monody
monodyiniaEng- Eng-
land.
land.The
TheEnglish
English
"ayre"
"ayre" was
was ininfact,
fact, asaseven
eventhe thename implies,
name implies, dependent
dependent
ononthe
theairairde cour,the
decour, thegreat
greatpopularity
popularityof whichisisproved
ofwhich provedby byaagreat
greatmany
many
English editions,
English editions,
either
either inin the
the original
original French
French (Tessier, 1597)
(Tessier, 1597) ororinintrans-
trans-

lation
lation (Hilton: French Court-Ayres with their ditties Englished,
(Hilton: French Court-Ayrcs
with their ditties Englished,X629).1629).
Although
Although the
theayres
ayres
were
were solo
solosongs
songs they
they had
had stylistically
stylistically nothing
nothing inincom-
com-
mon
monwithwithmonody,
monody,and andnot notbybycoincidence
coincidencewere werethey publishedininalterna-
theypublished alterna-

71
72 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
tive
tive versions
versions as as accompanied
accompanied solos solos or part songs.
or part songs. InIn the Musical Banquet
the Musical Banquet
(1610) by Robert
(1610) by Robert Dowland (the
(the son
son of
of John)
John) the
the difference
difference in
in style
style be.
be-
tween
tween ayre
ayre andand monody
monody comes
comes clearly
clearly toto light;
light; we findfind here
here English
English ayresayres
side
side by
by side
side with
with Spanish
Spanish and
and Italian
Italian monodies.
monodies. It
It is,
is, however,
however, significant
significant
that
that the latter are
the latter are supplied
supplied here
here with
with a a written-out
written-out lute lute and viol
viol accom
accom-
paniment
paniment instead
instead of
of with
with a
a continuo
continue *
1 which
which was
was not
not yet
yet an
an established
established
practice
practice inin England.
England. John
John Dowland was was far removed from
far removed from a a continuo
continue stylestyle
but
but he
he struck
struck a a new and
and personal.
personal note
note by by cautious
cautious useuse ofof poignant
poignant "false"
"false"

intervals.
intervals. One of of his
his finest
finest songs,
songs, Go nightly cares from
nightly cares from A PiZgrimes
Pilgrimes Solace
Solace
(1612.),2
(1612)
2
,
is
is steeped
steeped in
in deep melancholy
deep melancholy like
like the
the somber
somber ayre
ayre In
In darkness
darkness let let

dwett and
me dwell and many
many other
other of
of his
his songs
songs of
of death.
death. He justly gave
justly gave as
as his
his motto:
motto:
Dowland semper dolens. Within
semper doZens. Within a a small
small frame
frame Dowland achieved achieved a a per.
per-
ection
fection ofof song
song writing that none
writing that none of of his
his fellow
fellow composers
composers could match.
could match.

Among these
Among these the
the poet-musician
poet-musician Campion,
Campion, the the graceful
graceful Rosseter,
Rosseter, and and
Danyel, noteworthy
Danyel, noteworthy for
for his
his chromatic
chromatic ventures,
ventures, maymay be
be especially
especially men
men-
tioned. Campion's
tioned. Campion's ayre would II wed (Book
Fain would
ayre Fain (Book IV,IV, no.no. 24)
24) which
which exists
exists

also
also in
in aa virginal
virginal arrangement
arrangement by by Richard
Richard Farnaby
Farnaby (Fitzwilliam
(Fitzwilliam Virginal.
Virginal
Book)
Book) betrays
betrays Italian
Italian influence
influence since
since it
it is
is built
built on
on a variant of
a variant of the passa-
the fossa-
antico which
mezzo antico which furnished
furnished the the basis
basis to to several.
several English
English ballad
ballad tunes.
tunes.

ENGLISH ANTECEDENTS: THE ABSTRACT INSTRUMENTAL

STYLE

The mechanical. patterns in

mechanical patterns in English
English solo music for
solo music for keyboard
keyboard instruments
instruments
and in
in ensemble
ensemble music
music forfor consorts
consorts were
were the
the only
only elements
elements that
that had
had a a direct
direct
bearing
bearing on the
the genesis
genesis of
of baroque style.
baroque style. The virginalists
virginalists excelled
excelled in
in discant
discant
variations
variations of
of secular
secular tunes
tunes and patterned
patterned variations
variations on
on plainsongs,
plainsongs, ground
ground
basses, and melodies
basses, melodies ofof the passamezzo family
the passamezzo which all
family which all involved
involved a a purely
purely
instrumental
instrumental cantus ftrmusfirmus technique.
technique. The ballads,
ballads, dances,
dances, and popular
and popular
songs
songs were subjected
subjected to variation by
to variation by means
means of of abstract
abstract patterns be..
that be-
patterns that
came increasingly
increasingly more complex
complex as
as the
the variation
variation progressed.
progressed. Under
Under the
the
How
flow of
of rapid
rapid scale passages, inexorably
scale passages, inexorably repeated rhythms, syncopated
repeated rhythms, syncopated andand
dotted figures,
dotted figures, arpeggios,
arpeggios, broken
broken octaves,
octaves, and
and percussive
percussive chord
chord succe:s--
succes-
sions
sions the
the tunes
tunes were atat times
times completely
completely atomized.
atomized. The typically
typically clavieristic
clavieristic

idiom ofof this

this music manifested
manifested itself
itself in
in the
the "free-voiced"
"free-voiced" style
style in
in which the
which the
number of of parts
parts was not
not consistently
consistently maintained.
maintained. In
In contrast
contrast to
to the
the dissolu-
dissolu-
*
^ accompaniments throw an interesting
1 These accompaniments interesting light
light on the
the continuo practice of
continue practice of the
the
time.. collection also
time. The collection also contains
contains Caccini's Amari/Ii the
Caccini's Amarilli accompaniment of
the accompaniment of which
which
permits us
permits the faulty
to correct the
us to faulty realization
realization by
by Schering
Schering in
in GMB no.no. 173-
173.
IPrinted in PdJowes,
* Printed in
Fcllowes, TMThe En6lish
English School
School of Lutmin Sonlofllrikrs.
of Lutcnist Song-writers.
 Early and
Early and Middle Baroque
Baroque in
in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 73
73
tion of
tion of secular
secular tunes
tunes in
in the
the variation,
variation, plainsongs
plainsongs were
were left essentially un-
left essentially un-
by figuration.
touched by figuration. favorite plainsongs
The favorite plainsongs included
included the the hymn
hymn Felix Fdir
namque, Miserere,
namque, Miserere, and In In nomine,
nomine, the the melody
melody of of the
the Trinity
Trinity antiphon
antiphon
Gloria tibi
Gloria enjoyed universal
tibi which enjoyed universal favor,
favor, from
from Taverner
Taverner to to Purcell.
Purcell.22*& The
plainsong melodies
plainsong melodies served
served as as the
the scaffolding
scaffolding for for great
great instrumental
instrumental struc- struc-
tures, often wrongly
tures, often wrongly regarded
regarded as as dry-as-dust
dry-as-dust exercises
exercises without
without aesthetic
aesthetic
importance. Actually,
importance. Actually, however,
however, they they established
established one one ofof the
the essential
essential ele-ele-
ments of of baroque
baroque music,
music, namely,
namely, patterned
patterned figuration
figuration thatthat relied
relied on on
rhythmic consistency
rhythmic consistency and the
the abstract
abstract interplay
interplay of
of patterns
patterns and
and lines.
lines. These
These
specifically instrumental
specifically instrumental devices
devices mark the the final
final emancipation
emancipation of of instru-
instru-
mental music
mental music from vocal style.
vocal style. The ideaidea ofof mechanical
mechanical severity
severity that
that under-
under-
lay patterned
lay patterned figuration
figuration called
called forfor aa peculiar
peculiar kindkind of of non-expressive,
non-expressive, purelypurely
abstract musical
abstract musical imagination
imagination without without whichwhich the the future
future development
development of of
baroque
baroque organorgan music
music would not
not have
have been
been possible.
possible. That
That the
the imagination
imagination
of Italian
of Italian and English
English composers
composers ran ran along
along entirely
entirely different
different lines
lines can
can bebe
seen in
seen Peter Philips's
in Peter Philips's revealing
revealing virginal
virginal arrangement
arrangement of of Caccini's
Caccini's madrigal
madrigal
Amarilli in
Amarilli which he
in which he grafted
grafted the the English
English abstract
abstract figuration
figuration on on anan affective
affective
monody, certainly
monody, certainly not
not in
in the
the spirit
spirit
of
of the
the original,3
original.
3

The fantasia, or fancy,

fantasia, or fancy, of the virginalists
of the virginalists covered
covered aa much wider wider rangerange
than the
than the Italian fantasia; it
Italian fantasia; combined, in
it combined, in fact,
fact, traits
traits ofof the
the Italian
Italian ricercar,
ricercar,
canzona,
canzona, and toccata.
toccata. The English
English composers
composers paid paid particular attention to
particular attention to
the returns
the returns of of the
the main idea,idea, which
which they often actually
they often actually numbered in in the
the
virginal books. With the
virginal books. the exception
exception of Byrd, the
of Byrd, the virginalists
virginalists belonged
belonged not not
to
to the
the Elizabethan
Elizabethan but but toto the
the late Jacobean generation.
late Jacobean They
generation. They comprised comprised
beside Giles
beside Giles Farnaby
Farnaby and Peter Philips three
Peter Philips three prominent
prominent masters:
masters: Bull Bull
(d. 1628),
(d. 1628), a a virtuoso
virtuoso of of the
the first
first water,
water, Orlando Gibbons (d. (d. 1625),
1625), and
Thomas Tomkins (d. (d. 1656).
1656), Bull
Bull and Philips,
Philips, who spent spent the
the latter part of
latter part

their
their lives
lives in
in the
the Netherlands,
Netherlands, transmitted
transmitted the the English
English style
style to
to Sweelinck.
Sweelinck.
The only
only printed
printed collection
collection of of virginal
virginal music was Parthenia Parthenia (16II)
(1611) and its its

sequel,
sequel*
Parthenia
Parthenia infliolata,
inviolata, so
so called
called because
because it
it was supplied
supplied with a doubling
doubling
viol
viol part.
part.
4
The composers
composers of of ensemble
ensemble music music forfor viols,'
viols, such
such as as Ferrabosco,
Ferrabosco, Lupo, Lupo,
Deering, Coperario (or
Deering, Coperario (or Cooper), Cooper), Gibbons,
Gibbons, Hume,
Hume, Ward,
Ward, and East,
East, were
in
in their
their conservative
conservative attitude
attitude obligated
obligated to
to an essentially
essentially polyphonic
polyphonic renais-
renais-

sance
sance style.
style.
The chamber
chamber ensembles
ensembles or or consorts
consorts for for which they they wrote con-
sisted of either a "chest"
sisted of either a "chest" of of instruments
instruments of
of one family
family or a combination of
2a For
211
For the
the answer
answer toto the
the puzzling
puzzling question
question why
why the antiphon was known as
the antiphon as In
nomine see Reese,
nomine see Reese, Music
Music in
in the Renaissance (in
the Renaissance preparation) ch.
(in preparation) ctu 16.
16.
S* GMB no. 174; Fitzwilliam
no. 174; Fitzwilliam Virginal
Virginal Book I,
I, 329-
329.
44 For
For examples
examples see Meyer, English
see Meyer, English Chamber
Chamber Music.
Music.
74
74 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
different
different instruments
instruments (''broken
("broken consort").
consort"). Consort
Consort music music was written
written with-
with-
out continuo in the familiar
out continue in the familiar forms forms of
of virginal music,
virginal music, notably notably the
the fancy,
fancy,
the
the plainsong
plainsong elaboration,
elaboration, and and the
the dance.
dance. HardlyHardly affected
affected byby the
the slight
slight
modernisms
modernisms of of the
the English madrigal
English madrigal and
and ayre
ayre the
the first
first two
two groups
groups were
were
rigidly contrapuntal
rigidly contrapuntal and
and retrospective
retrospective in
in style.
style. The viol
viol ensemble
ensemble with
with its
its

unemotional and
unemotional and remote
remote color
color was particularly suitable
was particularly suitable forfor the
the abstract
abstract
linear
linear design
design of of the
the fancy.
fancy. ItIt was "still
"still music,"
music," as as Shakespeare
Shakespeare says,says, a a music
music
that
that did
did not
not call
call for
for an
an audience,
audience, thatthat should
should be played rather
be played rather than
than listened
listened
to
to since
since its
its structure
structure became
became clear
clear only
only from
from within,
within, not not from
from without.
without.
The simple
simple dance
dance music
music of
of Brade,
Brade,
5
IS Thomas Simpson, Harding,
Simpson, Harding, Rowe, Rowe,
Holborne,
Holborne, Edward Johnson,
Johnson, and
and Dowland,
Dowland, was
was widely disseminated
widely disseminated
through German collections
through collections since
since many
many of of these
these composers
composers were were active
active onon
the
the Continent.
Continent. TheirTheir consorts
consorts which consisted
consisted of of varied
varied couples,
couples, or
or single
single
dances
dances loosely
loosely strung
strung together,
together, exerted
exerted a a considerable
considerable inHuence influence onon the
the de-
de-
velopment
velopment of
of the
the orchestral
orchestral suite.
suite. Its
Its polyphonic
polyphonic tradition
tradition was eagerly pur-
eagerly pur-
sued
sued byby the
the German masters masters of of the
the dance
dance suite,
suite, notably
notably Melchior
Melchior Franck
Franck
and Schein.
and Schein.
Mixed ensemble
ensemble music music (for(for voices
voices andand instruments
instruments without without continuo)
continue)
enjoyed
enjoyed a
a great vogue
great vogue in
in the
the first
first decades
decades of
of the
the century.
century. Coperario's
Copcrario's Fu- Fu-
neral Tears and Songs
neral Tears of Mourning, Leighton's
Songs of Mourning, Leighton's Tears Tears or
or Lamentations,
Lamentations,
and Peerson's
Peerson's Private Musicke (1620)
Private Musicfe (1620) and MottectsMottects or or Gratle
Grave Chamber
Music (I630)
(1630) called
called for
for fairly
fairly large
large combinations
combinations of of voices
voices and instruments.
instruments.
In
In Peerson's
Peerson's Private
Private Musicke
Music^e the
the obligatory
obligatory viol
viol accompaniment
accompaniment could could be be
replaced
replaced byby a
a makeshift
makeshift virginal part,
virginal part, another
another indication
indication that
that the
the continuo
continuo
was
was not
not yet
yet common in in England.
England. With its its slight
slight contrapuntal
contrapuntal texture
texture andand
occasional
occasional hints
hints of of affective
affective writing,
writing, mixed
mixed ensemble
ensemble music music hadhad allall the
the
earmarks
earmarks of of a
a transition
transition period.
period. Convivial
Convivial music
music was
was represented
represented by by Ravens-
Ravens-
croft
croft whose Briefe discourse contained
Briefe discourse contained songs songs for for "Hunting,
"Hunting, Hawking,
Hawking,
Dauncing, Drinking,
Dauncing, Drinking, and Enamouring."
Enamouring." His
His catch collections, Pammelia,
catch collections, Pammelia,
Deuteromclia, and Melismata
Deuteromelia, Melismata, "fitting
t"fitting forfor the
the Court,
Court, Citie,
Citie, and
and Countrey
Countrcy
Humours," apdy
Humours," aptly demonstrated
demonstrated the the three
three types
types of
of music
music making
making in in the
the
Jacobean
Jacobean period.
period.

THE NETHERLANDS: SWEELlNCK

SWEELINCK
The religious
religious separation
separation of
of the
the Calvinist north from
Calvinist north from the
the Catholic
Catholic south
south
in
in the
the Netherlands
Netherlands had profound repercussions
profound repercussions on
on music.
music. The Calvinists
Calvinists

Musi% am Gottorjer
1
I For Brade sec:
see GMB no. no. 156, Engelke, Musil(
156, and Engelke, Gottorfcr Hofe
Hofe 1927;
1927; for
for
Holborne see Plltlans eeL
see Paeans by Sydney
ed. by Beck, New York
Sydney Beck, Public Library
York Public Library 1942.
1942.
 Early
Early and Baroque in
and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 75
75
ascetically
ascctically restricted
restricted church music music to to the
the Huguenot
Huguenot psalter which had
psalter which had
supplanted
supplanted the the traditional
traditional psalms
psalms or or Souterliedekens.
Souterlicde^ens. The
The main
main outlet
outlet of of
musical activity
activity was instrumental
instrumental music, especially
music, especially the
the elaboration
elaboration of
of
sacred
sacred and
and secular
secular tunes,
tunes, which found found its its greatest master
greatest master in in Jan
Jan Pieters
Pieters
Sweelinck (1562-1621).
Sweelinck (1562-1621). He was the
the first
first ofof the
the famous
famous quartet
quartet of of S's
S's in
in
early
early baroque
baroque music: Sweelinck,
Sweelinck, Schiitz,
Schiitz, Schein,
Schein, and and Scheidt.
Scheidt. Taught
Taught by by
Zarlino inin Venice and thoroughly familiar
thoroughly familiar with with thethe works
works of of the
the two
two
Gabridis
Gabriclis and Merulo,
Merulo, he amalgamated
amalgamated in
in his
his music
music the
the modern Venetian
modern Venetian
forms with
with the
the figurative
figurative techniques
techniques of of the
the English
English virginalists. His inti-
virginalists. His inti-
mate relations
relations to to English
English music music transpire
transpire in in the
the fact
fact that
that somesome of of his
his
pieces
pieces were included in in thethe Fitzwilliam
Fitzwilliam VirginalVirginal Book;
Book; that that he wrote
he wrote
variations on compositions
variations compositions by by Dowland and and Philips;
Philips; that
that Bull based aa
Bull based
fantasia
fantasia on one of his his themes,
themes, and that
that he
he in
in turn
turn quoted
quoted one of Bull's
one of Bull's
canons in the theoretical
canons in the treatise he compiled
theoretical treatise compiled after after Zarlino.
Zarlino. As organist
organist at at
the Oude Kirk in in Amsterdam he was sought sought as as teacher
teacher by by the young
the young
organists of Germany
organists Germany where he was affectionately affectionatdy nicknamed
nicknamed the the "maker
"maker
of organists."
of organists."
The vocal
vocal works of of Sweelinck, notably four
Sweelinck, notably four books
books of psalms in
of psalms the
in the
metrical
metrical French translation
translation of Marot and Beza,
of Marot were still
Beza, were still written
written in in renais-
renais-
sance style;
style; only the Cantiones
only the Cantioncs sacracsacrae (16I9)
(1619) called
called for
for a
a continuo.
continuo. Of far
Of far
greater importance
greater importance were
were his
his organ
organ and
and harpsichord
harpsichord works
works which
which can
can be
be
divided into
divided three categories:
into three categories: sacred
sacred and and secular
secular variations,
variations, toccatas,
toccatas, andand
fantasias. Swedinck's
fantasias. variations of
Sweelinck's variations psalm tunes
of psalm tunes andand chorales
chorales open open the
the long
long
brilliant history
and brilliant history ofof the
the organ
organ chorale.
chorale. He made the the essentially
essentially secular
secular
variation technique
variation technique of of the
the virginalists
virginalists subservient
subservient to to aa liturgical
liturgical purpose.
purpose.
severity and gravity
The severity gravity of of these
these "spiritual
"spiritual exercises"
exercises" was aa directdirect reflection
reflection
of the
of the ethical
ethical convictions
convictions of of the
the Reformed
Reformed Church. Church. The Calvinists
Calvinists firmly
firmly
believed that
believed that worldly
worldly success
success was indicative
indicative of of predestined
predestined salvation
salvation in in
the hereafter.
the complete interpenetration
hereafter. The complete interpenetration of of the
the secular
secular and and spiritual
spiritual
spheres was musically
spheres musically symbolized
symbolized in in the
the transference
transference of of aa secular
secular variation
variation
technique
technique to
to sacred
sacred mdodies.
melodies. The liturgical significance
liturgical significance of
of the
the psalm
psalm and and
the chorale
the chorale bestowed
bestowed on this t~nique aa religious
this technique religious dignity
dignity thatthat cannot
cannot be be
found in
found in the
the English
English models.
moods. The sacred sacred tunes
tunes were
were subjected
subjected to to mechanical
mechanical
daboration in
elaboration in abstract
abstract rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns in in the
the belief
belief that
that the the effort
effort of of
elaboration was in
elaboration in itself
itself aa token
token of of unceasing
unceasing devotion.
devotion. The patterns patterns con-
con-
standy challenged
stantly challenged the the imagination
imagination of of the
the composer;
composer; only only the the great
great com-
com-
posers
posers could
could deal
deal with
with them successfully,
successfully, the
the minor
minor ones
ones ran
ran them into
into the
the
ground. Consistent
ground. Consistent withwith the the idea
idea ofof mechanical
mechanical severity
severity which
which pervades
pervades
the entire
the entire history
history of of the
the organ
organ chorale
chorale in in the
the Protestant
Protestant countries,
countries, Swec-Swee-
76 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
linck
linck presented
presented the
the lines
lines of
of the
the chorale
chorale in
in a
a network
network ofo motives,
motives, rigidly
rigidly
worked out
out for
for aa certain
certain time and
and then
then replaced by
replaced by others
others (Ex.
(Ex. 18).
18). Each
Each
variation
variation contained
contained a great variety
great variety of
of upbeat patterns, complementary
upbeat patterns, complementary
rhythms, motives in
rhythms, and motives in double counterpoint.
counterpoint. In
In the
the course
course of
of the
the varia-
varia-
tion the cantus ftrmus changed
tion the cantus firmus changed its position,
its position, and the
the number of of parts
parts often
often

Ex. 18.
18. Sweelinck:
Sweelinck: Chorale variations Hertzlich
Chorale variations Hertzlich litb.
licb.

tt:-~ I; t4:;,: 1:&:;:l

~Q!~l JfflI:"v:wW!I!c Fr: I
l~:q:rrr:C&I::
increased in
increased the English
in the English manner,
manner, resulting
resulting in
in aa climactic, yet controlled,
climactic, yet controlled,
effect of
effect of mounting
mounting complexity
complexity which
which Sweelinck
Sweelinck liked
liked to resolve by aa
to resolve by
rhapsodic coda
rhapsodic coda in
in toccata
toccata style.
style. Because
Because ofof their
their liturgical
liturgical dignity
dignity the
the
tunes themselves kept
tunes themselves kept aloof
aloof from the lively
the lively motivation
motivation ofof the
the surrounding
surrounding
voices. They
voices. They were real
were real cantus
cantus firmi which were
firmi which were only
only exceptionally dissolved
exceptionally dissolved
by variation.
by variation. This structural
structural dualism
dualism could
could not
not be
be realized
realized through
through the
the
blending stops
blending stops of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance organ;
organ; it
it called
called for
for aa new type
type of
of instru-
instru-
ment, the
ment, the baroque
baroque organ,
organ, characterized
characterized by
by sharply
sharply differentiated
differentiated stops
stops that
that
permitted the
permitted the cantus
cantus firmus to stand
firmus to stand out.
out. Catholic
Catholic composers
composers like
like Fresco-
Fresco-
baldi and
baldi and his
his south
south German followers
followers did
did not
not adopt
adopt the
the patterned
patterned variation
variation
in their
in their cantus
cantus firmus composition because
firmus composition because to
to them
them the
the idea
idea of
of organistic
organistic
severity had no religious
severity religious associations
associations and
and seemed
seemed therefore
therefore pedantic
pedantic rather
rather
than dignified.
than dignified.
In his
In his secular
secular variations
variations Sweelinck
Sweelinck also
also leaned
leaned heavily
heavily on
on the
the technique
technique
of the
of the virginalists,
virginalists, but
but his
his motives
motives were
were more
more rigidly developed, more
rigidly developed, more neatly
neatly
organized, and,
organized, and, above
above all,
all, rhythmically
rhythmically more square
more square than
than was
was the
the custom
custom
with English
with English composers.
composers. If
If Sweelinck's variations
Swedinck's variations on
on Dowland's
Dowland's famous
famous
Lachrimae
Lachrimae Pavan and on
Patlan and on the
the pavan
pavan by
by Philips are
Philips are compared with
compared with the
the Eng-
Eng-
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries
Countries 77
77
lish originals,
lish originals, aa revealing
68
revealing difference
difference comes comes to to light.
light. Although
Although SweelinckSweelinck
also drew
also drew thethe melody
melody into into the the variational
variational patterns,
patterns, itit never
never lostlost itsits own
own
identity
identity
in
in the
the process.
process.
The toccatas
The toccatas carried
carried the the stamp
stamp of of thethe Venetian
Venetian school.
school. They They usually
usually
began with
began with sustained
sustained harmonies
harmonies and and then
then rambled
rambled on on in
in rhapsodic
rhapsodic passages,
passages,
but their
but their flow
flow was was nownow disciplined
disciplined by by the the mechanical
mechanical rhythmsrhythms of of the
the
English figuration.
English figuration. Sections
Sections of
of contrasted
contrasted textures
textures sometimes
sometimes enclosed
enclosed short
short
fugal passages in Merulo's manner.
fugal passages in Merulo's manner.
In musical
In musical importance
importance the the toccatas
toccatas could could not not compare
compare with with the the fantasias
fantasias
in which
in which Sweelinck
Sweelinck laid
laid the
the foundation
foundation for
for the
the evolution
evolution of
of the
the fugue.
fugue. The
fantasias were
fantasias were based based on a single idea, a real
a single idea, a real fugue subject offugue subject of abstract
abstract
design, such
design, such as as the
the hexachord,
hexachord, the the chromatic
chromatic fourth, fourth, or or similar patterns.'7
similar patterns.
Variation played
Variation played aa prominent
prominent role, role, but,
but, in in contrast
contrast with
with the
the favorite
favorite method
of Frescobald~ Sweelinck
of Frescobaldi, Sweelinck varied varied not not the the subject,
subject, butbut the
the countersubjccts.
countersubjects.
sometimes gathered
He sometimes gathered the the numerous
numerous sections sections of of the
the fantasia
fantasia into into aa vast
vast
tripartite
tripartite
form.
form. In
In the
the first
first part
part the
the subject
subject was led
led through
through several
several ex-
ex-

positions with various countersubjects,

positions with various countersubjects,
the
the second
second part brought
part brought the
the aug-
aug-
mentation, the
mentation, the third the diminution
third the diminution of of thethe theme
theme with
with new or rhythmically
or rhythmically
varied countersubjects. The perpetual
varied countersubjects. perpetual stretti, the piling-up
stretti, the piling-up of of contrapuntal
contrapuntal
devices,
devices, and
and thethe increased
increased pace pace led led in in thethe last part to
last part to a rhythmic
rhythmic climax
which
which lent
lent thethe fantasia
fantasia a a pervasive
pervasive unity unity not not found in Frescobaldi. The
in Frescobaldi.
thorough craftsmanship
thorough craftsmanship and clear
clear formal
formal disposition
disposition of
of Sweelinck's fan-
tasiq
tasias were
were second
second only
only to
to Bach's
Bach's fugues.
fugues. Sweelinck's
Sweelinck's conception
conception of counter-
point
point was
was essentially rhythmic;
essentially rhythmic; in
in his
his countersubjects
countersubjccts he utilized utilized with

amazing consistency and resourcefulness

amazing consistency and resourcefulness the
the untold
untold possibilities
possibilities of of rhythmic
rhythmic
subdivision
subdivision and and thethe interplay
interplay of of slow
slow and rapid rapid patterns.
patterns.
The fantasias
fantasias thatthat Sweelinck
Sweelinck designated
designated as as "in
"in the
the manner of an echo"
of an echo"
belong
belong toto anan entirely
entirely different
different type. type. Only
8
8
Only lightly
lightly contrapuntal,
contrapuntal, they they were
closely
closely
allied
allied with
with the
the toccata.
toccata. Here the
the technique
technique of
of the Venetian double
chorus,
chorus, brilliantly
brilliantly adapted
adapted to to thethe two manuals of of the
the organ,
organ, was reduced
to short upbeat
to short upbeat motives
motives which
which were
were tossed
tossed back and
and forth
forth in
in terraced dy- dy-
namics, forte and piano;
namics, forte and piano; toward toward the
the end,
end, the
the play
play of the echo subsided
subsided in in

rhapsodic
rhapsodic toccata
toccata passages.
passages.
Sweelinck had
Sweelinck had scarcely
scarcely aa rivalrival in in hishis country.
country. The The onlyonly contemporary
contemporary
of
of note
note waswas thethe organist
organist Pieter
Pieter Cornet
Cornet (d.
(d. 1626),
1626), active
active at at the
the Catholic
Catholic

court in
court in BrusseIs.
Brussels.9 SWeelinck's
9
Sweelinck's contemporaries
contemporaries and
and successors
successors included
included

SecTAM
See TAM IIII and
and III,
III, also the
also the Fitzwilliam
Fitzwilliam Virginal
Virginal Book.
Book.
l'T GMB no.
GMB no. 158, TAM
158, TAM III,
III, 17,
17, Fitzwilliam.
Fitzwilliam Virginal
Virginal Book
Book II,
II, 26.
26.

HAM
HAM no.
no. 181.
181. .

See PeeteIs:
Sec Peetcrs: Oual'letlerZa1lfine
Oudncderlandsche Meesters, 1938, s!}-80,
Uccsters, X,938, and Liber
59-80, and Liber Prtllnlm
Fratrum Crud,.
Cruet*
ferorum
jerorum LeorIieruium
Leodiensium (Guilmant,
(Guilmant, Archives,
Archives, 10),
10), x83
183 ft. .
78 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
(Kruisbergh, 1640),10
10
vocal
vocal composers,
composers, such such as Padbrue (Kruisbet'gh.
as Padbrue* 1640) , and the
the organists
organists
Kerckhoven
Kerckhoven u
11 and
and van
van Noordt.
Noordt. The Tabulatuur
Tabulatuur Boec\ (1659) 12 by
Boeck (1659) 12
by van
Noordt was
Noordt was thethe first
first Dutch keyboard
keyboard work to to appear
appear in print.
in print. The Dutch
school
school of
of lutenists,
lutenists, noteworthy
noteworthy for for its
its lute
lute arrangements
arrangements of of psalm
psalm tunes for for
home useuse andand a a vast
vast repertory
repertory of
of dance
dance music is
is represented
represented by
by the
the tab-
tab-

lature
lature books
books of of Vallet
Vallet (Secretum Musarum. 1615
(Secretum Musarum, 1615 fl.),
ff.), van den Hove, Hove,
1S
Thysius, and Valerius (Nedet'landtsche Gedenckclanck.
Thysius, and Valerius (Nederlandtsche GedencJ^clanc^ 1626) 1626).18 . The last
last

contains
contains thethe famous
famous Wilhelmus
Wilhelmus tune,tune, aa political
political song
song against
against thethe Spanish
Spanish
oppressor
oppressor which
which has
has become
become the
the Dutch national
national anthem,
anthem, distinguished
distinguished not
not
only
only for
for its
its antiquity but,
antiquity but, unlike
unlike many
many other
other national
national anthems,
anthems, for
for its
its

musical
musical quality. The tablature
tablature book
book of
of Thysius u discloses
14 discloses the
the strong de-
de-
quality. Thysius strong
pendence
pendence of of the
the Dutch lutenists
lutenists on English music. English
English music. English tides
tides appear
appear
here
here in
in fantastically
fantastically corrupt
corrupt spellings,
spellings, e.g.
e.g. "Pacce tou pon"
"Pacce tou pon" for
for ''Packington
'Tackington
Pound,"
Pound," and and "Inno
"Inno myne"
myne" for In nomine.
for In nomine. The opera arose in
opera arose the Nether-
in the Nether.
lands only
lands only in
in the
the middle
middle baroque period.
baroque period. The first
first Dutch opera,
opera, De triom
triom-
jeet'ende
jcercnde Min (1678), was written by Hacquaert
(1678), was written by Hacquaert for
for Amsterdam.

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA IN THE SEVENTEENTH

CENTURY

German music
music ofof the
the early
early and middle baroque was inextricably
middle baroque inextricably inter
inter-

woven withwith the paralyzing religious

the paralyzing religious and political struggles
political struggles of
of the
the nation.
nation.
The Thirty
Thirty Y cars' War deepened
Years' deepened the the rift
rift between
between thethe denominations
denominations and
widened the the cultural
cultural gap
gap between
between the the Catholic
Catholic south
south and thethe Protestant
Protestant
parts
parts of
of northern
northern and central
central Germany.
Germany. The wave
wave of
of Italian
Italian influence
influence that
that
rolled
rolled over
over Germany
Germany in
in the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the century
century was followed
followed in
in its
its

wake by by a French one,

a one, and the the assimilation
assimilation and transformation
transformation of these
of these
stimuli
stimuli gave
gave German music music itsits special
special problems.
problems. While the the Catholic
Catholic com
com-
posers
posers adopted
adopted the
the Italian
Italian style
style without
without essential
essential changes
changes the
the Protestant
Protestant
composers
composers were aced with the
faced with the task
task ofof bringing
bringing their
their precious heritage, the
precious heritage, the
chorale,
chorale, in
in harmony
harmony with the
the concertato
conccrtato style.
style. The result
result of
of this
this fusion
fusion was
was
the
the most original
original German contribution
contribution to to the history of
the history of baroque
baroque music.
music.
In
In the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century Protestantism passed through
Protestantism passed through itsits "scholastic"
"scholastic"
period, phase of
period, a phase rigid orthodoxy
of rigid orthodoxy in in which violent
violent dogmatic
dogmatic quarrels
quarrels were
were
10 VNM
lOVNM42.
42.
U11 Man"menta MflSit:ae Belgicae
Monumenta Musicae Belgicac ILn.
12 Printed in
^Printed VNM
in VNM 190 19, new edition
edition by
by Seiffert, see also
1935; see
SeifEert, 1935; the clavier
also the clavier book
book of
of
EijI VNM
(1671), VNM 37.
EijI (X67I). 37.
11 VNM
11 VNM 2, 2, other reprints: Utrecht 1931,
reprints: Utrecht 1931, Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, Ig.p.
1942.
and MM
14
1. See TiitJselmft
See Tijdschrift VNM 1, 129, and
1, I2g, MfM 18.
18,
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern Countries 79
Northern Countries 79
fought,
fought, first
first with
with the
the Calvinists,
Calvinists, and and later
later with
with thethe Pietists.
Pietists. The
The orthodox
orthodox
Lutherans
Lutherans upheldupheld the the "artificial"
"artificial" figural
figural music
music in
in the
the church,
church, sung
sung notnot byby
the
the congregation,
congregation, but but byby aa specially
specially trained
trained choir,
choir, the
the Kantorei.
Kantord. The
The
Pietists,
Pietists, who soughtsought a mystic
mystic union
union with
with God
God andand stressed
stressed the
the private de-
private de-
votion of the layman,
votion of the layman, were, were, like
like the
the Calvinists,
Calvinists, opposed
opposed to to the
the artistic
artistic

autarchy
autarchy of of music and insistedinsisted on on rather
rather shallow
shallow songs
songs within
within the
the reach
reach
of
of everybody.
everybody. The strugglestruggle between
between Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy and
and Pietism
Pietism which
which began
began inin
the
the second half half ofof the
the century
century continued
continued throughout
throughout the
the period
period and
and even
even
overshadowed the the life
life ofof Bach.
Bach. Consistent
Consistent with with the the Lutheran
Lutheran idea idea ofof
exegesis
exegesis as as the
the foundation
foundation of of the
the liturgy,
liturgy, Protestant
Protestant church
church music
music had had the
the
function
function of of interpreting
interpreting the "word" of
the "word" of the
the Gospel.
Gospel. ThisThis goal could be
goal could be
achieved in in two ways:
ways: the
the word could
could be
be either
either objectively "presented"
objectively "presented" by by
a chorale,
chorale, thethe quintessence
quintessence of of the
the dogma,
dogma, or or subjectively
subjectively "interpreted"
"interpreted" by by
a free concertato composition.
a free concertato composition. The first first course,
course, that
that ofof cantrlS firmus treat-
cantus firmtts treat-

ment,
ment, was taken taken by by the
the organists
organists and and cantors,
cantors, thethe second
second by by SchUtz
Schiitz and his
and his
ltalianate
Italianate school.
school. Both
Both trends
trends merged
merged with
with Bach
Bach and
and found
found in
in his
his works
works
their
their final
final consummation
consummation..
. The music
music for for the
the Protestant
Protestant service fell into
service fell into three
three fundamental
fundamental cate- cate-

gories:
gories: (I)(i) Gregorian
Gregorian chantchant and and motets
motets in antico; (2)
stile antico;
in stile (2) the
the chorale,
chorale, andand
-in in the
the Reformed Church-the
Church the psalter; (3) figural
psalter; (3) figural music,
music, that
that is
is composed
composed
art
art music.
music. InIn spite
spite ofof the
the rift
rift between
between the the denominations
denominations a a substantial
substantial part part
of Catholic
of Catholic church
church music
music was was retained
retained in the Lutheran
in the Lutheran service,
service, notably
notably
the
the plainchant
plainchant of of the
the Mass,
Mass, thethe magnificat,
magnificat, and and certain
certain hymns,
hymns, whichwhich werewere
sung
sung in in Latin
Latin or or inin German translation.
translation. In In addition,
addition, a a wide
wide common
ground
ground was providedprovided by by motets
motets in antico, disseminated
stile antico,
in stile disseminated in in Germany
Germany
by
by two huge
huge and
and influential
influential collections:
collections: the
the Promptuarium by Schadaeus
Promptuarium by Schadaeus
(16n
(i6ufl.)fl.) and the Portense (1603
Florilegium Portense
the Florilegium (16035.) ff.) by
by Bodenschatz;
Bodenschatz; they they
contained almost the
contained almost the complete
complete repertory
repertory of the old
of the old Roman,
Roman, Venetian,
Venetian, and and
German schools
schools known and performed in
and performed in the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century,
century, and and
appeared
appeared time
time and
and again
again in
in new editions
editions well
well into
into the
the Bach
Bach period.
period. Bach
Bach
is
is known to to have
have ordered
ordered a a new copycopy of
of the Floriiegium for
the Florilegium for Leipzig.
Leipzig. The
importance
importance of of the
the stile antico and
stile antico and the
the Gregorian
Gregorian chant chant began
began to to fade
fade only
only
in
in the
the late
kte baroque
baroque period.
period.

CHORALE AND DEVOTIONAL SONG

The Protestant
Protestant chorale
chorale was a
a German hymn sung in
hymn sung in unison-that
unisonthat is is

choraliter, hence
choraliter, hence the
the name-by
name by thethe congregation,
congregation, originally
originally without
without ac-
ac-

companjment.
companiment. Polyphonic
Polyphonic arrangements
arrangements of the chorale
of the chorale were traditionally
traditionally
80
8o Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the
the prerogative
prerogative of of the Kantorei. These
the Kantorei. These settings
settings carried
carried the the chorale
chorale as as

cantus firmus either in the tenor or, since

cantus firmus either in the tenor or, since Osiander (1586), Osiander (1586), in
in the
the upper
upper
voice.
voice. The latterlatter practice
practice led led toto the
the organ
organ accompaniment
accompaniment of of the
the chorale,
chorale,
already
already present
present in in the Hamburg Melodeien~Gesangsbuch
the Hamburg Melodeien-Gesangsbuch (I604)' (1604). It It was

definitely
definitely established
established as
as a
a formal
formal organ
organ continuo
continue in
in Schein's
Schein's Cantional
Cantional
(1627).
(1627). The organ organ accompaniment
accompaniment of of the
the chorale
chorale was an invention
invention of of the
the
early
early baroque
baroque period.
period.
In
In the
the course
course of of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth centurycentury numerous chorale chorale melodies
melodies were were
added
added to to the
the body
body of
of traditional
traditional tunes, notably by Johann
tunes, notably by Johann Criiger Cruger who set
set

the
the texts
texts of of Paul
Paul Gerhardt,
Gerhardt, the
the only
only German poet
poet able
able to
to rival
rival Luther's
Luther's
terse
terse language
language and mystic mystic fervor.
fervor. As in in the
the renaissance,
renaissance, manymany of of the baroque
the baroque
chorales
chorales were of of secular
secular origin,
origin, but
but they
they were
were not
not folksongs,
folksongs, as
as a
a persistent
persistent
legend
legend has has it.
it. The situation
situation was remarkably,
remarkably, yet yet rather
rather typically,
typically, complex
complex
in
in the
the case
case ofof the
the famous choralechorale 0 Haupt Haupt voll Blut und W
voll Blut unden. The
Wundcn.
melody
melody had its its origin
origin in in Hassler's
Hassler's lovelove song
song Mein G'mut ist ist mir verwirret
verwirret
from the Lustgarten (1601)
the Lustgarten (1601) and was soon soon spiritualized
spiritualized to to the
the chorale
chorale
Herzlich tut
Hcrzlich verlangen. The Catholics
mich verlangen.
tut mich Catholics adopted
adopted the
the same tune
tune in the
in the
Latin hymn
Latin hymn SalveSalve caput CTuentatum,
caput crucntatum, which in
in turn
turn was translated
translated and
and
paraphrased by
paraphrased Paul Gerhardt and thus
by Paul became 0 Haupt
thus became Haupt voll vall Blut
Blut und
Wunden. The interactions
interactions between
between secular models and sacred
secular models sacred contra/acta
contrafacta
the one hand,
on the hand, and Protestant
Protestant and CatholicCatholic repertory
repertory on on the
the other
other werewere
very lively throughout
very lively throughout the
the entire
entire period.
period.
Cruger's chorales
While Cruger's chorales still
still breathed
breathed the the collective,
collective, congregational
congregational spirit spirit
of the
of the liturgical
liturgical chorale, later compositions
chorale, later approached in
compositions approached in their
their individual
individual
devotional spirit
devotional spirit the
the sacred
sacred ariaaria or
or song.
song. The gradual
gradual qualitative
qualitative decline
decline of of
chorale composition
chorale composition in in the
the latter
latter part
part ofof the
the century
century coincided
coincided withwith aa sharp
sharp
increase in
increase in quantity.
quantity. Under the the influence
influence of of Pietism
Pietism aa veritable
veritable flood
flood of of
devotional songbooks
devotional songbooks for for private
private singing
singing appeared
appeared containing
containing chorale-
chorale-
like arias
like arias with
with sentimental
sentimental and ecstatic ecstatic texts
texts of
of which
which only
only very
very fewfew werewere
ultimately accepted
ultimately accepted as
as liturgical
liturgical chorales
chorales by
by the
the congregation.
congregation. It
It is
is highly
highly
characteristic that
characteristic that Bach,
Bach, whose harmonizations
harmonizations represented
represented the the peak
peak of of
the harmonic chorale
the chorale interpretation,
interpretation, did did not
not compose
compose any any chorales
chorales in in the
the
orthodox sense,
orthodox sense, and contributed
contributed only only very
very few
few melodies
melodies of his own to
of his to
Schemelli's devotional
Schemelli's devotional songbook.
songbook. In In the
the following
following listlist the
the major
major chorale
chorale
books of
books of the
the baroque
baroque period
period are are compiled
compiled in in chronological
chronological order:
order:

Osiander: Fiinfzig
Osiander: Fun/zig Geistiiche
Geistliche Liedcr,
Lieder, 1586
158611
15

Melodeien~Gesangbuch, 1604
Hamburger Mclodeien-Gesangbuch,
Hamburger 1604
15
11 Reprinted 1903.
Reprinted 190'i.
 Bocca, .llils
Frat~lli BDt:CtJ,
FratelK ..
Milan
Claudio
Claudio Monteverdi
Monteverdi
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern Countries 81
Northern Countries 81
Praetorius: Musae Sioniae,
Praetorius: Sioniae, V-VIII, 1607 ff.1fl
V-VIII, 1607
18
ff.

Hassler: Kirchengesiing simfliciter,

Hassler: Kirchcngesdng simpliciler, 1608
. . . 1608 11
17

Schein: Cantional,
Schein: Cantiond, Leipzig, 1627
Leipzig, 1627
CrUger: Praxis Pietatis
Criigcr: Praxis melica, 1~7
Pietatis melka, 1647 if.
ff.

Scheidt: Tabulaturbuch,
Scheidt: Tabulaturbuch, 16501.
1650
18

Briegel,
Bricgel, Darmstadt,
Darmstadt, 1687
1687
Speer, 1692
Speer, 1692
Freylinghauscn: Geistreiches
Freylinghausen: Geistreichcs Gesangbuch.
Gesangbuch, Halle, 1704 if.
Halle, I704 ff.

Bachoen,
Bachofen, Ziirich,
Zurich, 1727
1727
Schemelli,
Schemclli, 1736
1736
KOnig,
Konig, Frankfurt,
Frankfurt, 1738
1738

These publications
publications clearly
clearly demonstrate
demonstrate the the internal
internal history
history ofof the
the chorale,
chorale,
namely
namely the
the development
development from modal to
to tonal
tonal harmonization and from
harmonization and the
from the
original
original free
free rhythm
rhythm to to an accentual
accentual isometric rhythm. In
isometric rhythm. In their
their original
original
form the
the chorales
chorales showed the the flexible
flexible mensural
mensural rhythmrhythm and the the durational
durational
accent
accent ofof renaissance
renaissance song,
song, toto which they they were
were indebted
indebted by numerous con-
by numerous con-
tra/ada.
trafacta. With the
the turn
turn to
to the
the sacred
sacred aria,
aria, to
to an accentual
accentual rhythm,
rhythm, and to
to
tonal harmony
tonal harmony toward the
the end of
of the
the century a rhythmic
century a rhythmic decline decline made
itself
itself felt
felt in
in the
the course
course of of which the the rhythm
rhythm was smoothed out out toto the
the even
even
pace
pace of
of one
one syllable
syllable to
to one beat,
beat, as
as we know it
it in
in Bach's
Bach's harmonizations.
harmonizations.

process of
The process of rhythmic
rhythmic equalization
equalization was well well advanced in in Briegel's
BriegcFs
chorale
chorale collection
collection and was completed
completed in
in Freylinghausen's Gesangbuch.
Freylinghausen's Gesangbuch,
the
the most
most influential
influential collection
collection of of the
the eighteenth century, in
eighteenth century, which rela-
in which rela-

tively
tively few
few liturgical
liturgical chorales
chorales were buried under aa mass of
buried under pietistic songs.
of pietistic songs.
The innumerable contrafacta of
innumerable contra/ada of operatic arias in
operatic arias in the
the late chorale books
late chorale books
marked
marked the the end of of chorale
chorale composition.
composition.
Chorale
Chorale harmonizations
harmonizations were functional functional music or or Gebrauchsmusik
Gebrauchsmu$i\
Without
without higher
higher ambition
ambition and derived derived their
their strength
strength from this this very
very fact.
fact.

The wide
wide musical range within
musical range within the the small
small frame can be seen seen inin Ex.
Ex. 1919 in
in
which five
which five settings
settings of
of Ein
Ein leste Burg,
jeste Burg, Luther's
Luther's paraphrase
paraphrase of
of Deus
Dcus noster
nostcr
refugium,
rcfugium, by by the
the leading
leading masters
masters Schutz,
Schiitz, Schein,
Schein, Scheidt,
Scheidt, KOnig,
Konig, and
Bach are juxtaposed.
Bach are juxtaposed.
19 The first
111 first three
three preserve
preserve in
in their
their free
free distribution
distribution
of
of durational
durational accents
accents the
the old
old flexibility
flexibility of rhythm, while the last
of rhythm, belong
last two belong

to
to the
the isometric
isometric type.
type. Recendy
Recently attempts
attempts have
have been
been made to
to restore
restore the
the old
"polymetric"
"polymetric" rhythm
rhythm of
of the
the chorales
chorales in
in the
the congregational
congregational singing singing of our
l'SceCE.
"SceCE.
17' Reprinted Birenreiter
I Reprinted Barenreiter edition
edition no.
no. 53.
53.
18 See
II CE, also
See CE, also reprinted
reprinted 1940. Barenreiter eeL
1940, Bircnreitcr ed. by
by Dietrich.
Dietrich.
U For
19 For nine
nine earlier settings of
earlier settings of the
the same
same chorale
chorale sec
see Blume
Blumc Ernmgelische
Evangclische T&rchcn- Kirchetl-
musit76-
i\, 76.
82 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
day. ItIt
day. must be
must be realized,
realized, however,
however, that
that the
the original
original mensural
mensural rhythm
rhythm can
can
be revived only at the expense of the tonal
be revived only at the expense o the tonal harmony harmony which
which characterizes
characterizes
our modern
our usage. While
modern usage. While the
the modal
modal settings
settings readily
readily allow
allow of
of polymetric
polymetric
flexibility,
flexibility,
Bach's
Bach's harmonies
harmonies would
would lose
lose much
much of
of their
their directed
directed drive ifif
drive
forced on
forced on the
the original
original rhythm.
rhythm.
Ex.
Ex. 190 Chorale
19. Chorale harmonizations Hin feste
hannonizations Ein teste Burg.
Burg.
Rill fes-te elu - - eo.

-
Ein res-Ie Burgistun
Burg lst DD -
- sir GolI, efn gu-te
serGott, go-Ie Wfhr Ulld a
\Vrfiruiid\Vaf feo.
dI.

SchUtz
Schiitz
1- r r Ir
I
I I

J ~~.l J...1
r r Ir 1"
I
r
I
-r Ir I
J .,J. J.tJ.~
r rr- --r
" I I I r I

Scfrein

Scheldt

Kunig

Each
J

W^
The
The music
music ofof the
the Reformed Church was
Reformed Church was restricted to the
restricted to the Huguenot
Huguenot
Psalter in
Psalter in the
the German
German translation
translation of
of Lobwasser.
Lobwasscr. Goudimel's
Goudimd's settings
settings of
of
the traditional
the traditional melodies,
melodies, most
most commonly
commonly used,
used, were
were expanded by Moritz,
expanded by Moritz,
Landgrave
Landgrave of of Hessen
Hessen (1612).
(1612). The
The simple
simple settings
settings of the Bas1e
of the Basle organist
organist
Mareschall (1606)
Mareschall (1606) carried
carried the
the melody
melody in
in the
the highest Schiitz also
highest voice. Schutz
voice. also
composed.
composed aa book
book ofof metrical
metrical psalms
psalms after
after the
the translation of Cornelius
translation of Cornelius
Becker,
Becker, mostly
mostly with
with new
new melodies of his
melodies of his own.
own. The
The psalms
psalms were
were sometimes
sometimes
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 83
83
presented in
presented in amusing
amusing editions
editions for
for edification,
edification, with
with Bower pictures and
flower pictures and
emblem&-for
emblems for example
example in
in the
the Lust Artzeney-Garten (I675)
Lust und Artzcney-Gartcn (see
(1675) (sec
plate
plate 8).
8).
The great
great fashion ofof spiritual
spiritual continuo
continue songs
songs in in the
the vernacular prompted
vernacular prompted
also
also a number of of important Catholic collections espoused especially
important Catholic collections espoused especially by by the
the
Jesuits.
Jesuits. They
They included publications by
included publications by the
the Austrian
Austrian Prior
Prior Corner
Corner (Gross-
(Gross-
catholisch Gesangbuch, I625),
catholisch Gesangbuch. 1625), Kuen,
Kuen, Gletde,
Gletde, Laurentius
Laurentius von von Schniiffis
Schniiffis
(Mirantisches Flotlein, I682)
(Mirantischcs Flotlein, and,
1682) and, above
above all,
all, the
the Trutznachtigall (I62g,
Trutznachtigall (1629,
published posthumously
published posthumously in
in I~9) by
1649) by the
the Jesuit
Jesuit Friedrich
Friedrich von
von Spee.
Spec. The
The
latter
latter overcame the the generally
generally mawkish tone of the words in a few in-
mawkish tone of the words in a few in-
spired,
spired, yet
yet simple,
simple, songs
songs ofof which
which In
In stiller Nacht has
stiller Nacht has actually remained
actually remained
alive
alive to
to the
the present
present day
day inin aa famous
famous setting
setting by by Brahms
Brahms which
which he he passed
passed
off
off as
as a
a "German folksong." Occasionally
folksong." Occasionally German songs
songs were
were even
even used
used
as
as substitutes
substitutes for
for the
the Mass music
music in
in the
the Catholic
Catholic service (Singmesse), if
service (Singmesse), if

no other
other music
music was available.
was available.

CHORALE MOTET AND CHORALE Concertato:

ConCCTtatOl SCHEIN

The two methods of of exegesis,

exegesis, the the objective
objective presentation
presentation andand the
the subjec-
subjec-
tive
tive interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the "word" divided
divided the figural music of the Protestant
the figural music of the Protestant
church
church into
into two equally
equally important
important fields.
fields. They
They had
had the concertato style
the concmato style inin
common,
common, but but the
the first
first was bound by by a
a chorale
chorale cantus
cantus firmus,
firmus, the
the second
second
only
only by
by the
the subjective
subjective imagination
imagination of of the
the composer.
composer. Most
Most German com-
posers
posers were
were active
active in
in both
both fields; only
fields; only in
in the
the orbit
orbit of
of Schutz
Schiitz was
was the
the interest
interest

in
in the chorale subordinated to free
the chorale subordinated to free composition. composition. The greatest
greatest German
masters
masters of of the
the early
early baroque,
baroque, Hans Leo Hassler (I565-I612),
Leo Hassler (1565-1612), Michael
Michael
Praetorius (I57I-I62I).
Praetorius (1571-1621), Heinrich
Heinrich Schutz,
Schiitz, (1585-1672),
(1585-1672), Johann
Johann Hermann
Schein (1586-163),
Schein (1586-1630), and Samuel Scheidt Scheidt (X587-16504),
(1587-1654), were surrounded
by a host of lesser lights
by a host of lesser lights whose
whose music
music is
is comparatively
comparatively wellwell known thanks
to
to the
the various Denkmiler editions.
various Denfynaler editions. Hassler
Hassler was was the
the first
first great
great German
composer
composer to
to undertake
undertake an
an "Italian
"Italian Journey"
Journey" which
which must be
be regarded
regarded as as a
a
symptom
symptom of
of the
the Italian
Italian domination
domination over
over German music.
music. Like
Like his
his friend
friend
Giovanni
Giovanni Gabrieli
Gabrieli he he studied
studied with
with Andrea Gabrieli,
Gabrieli, and from the time of
the time o
Hassler to that of
Hassler to that of Handel Handel and
and Mozart
Mozart German composers traditionally
composers traditionally
sought
sought their
their final
final education
education in
in Italy.
Italy.
The most conservative of
most conservative of the
the cantus firmus compositions
cantus firmus compositions was the the chorale
chorale
motet
motet which
which continued
continued thethe polyphonic
polyphonic chorale
chorale settings
settings of
of the
the renaissance.
renaissance.

Although
Although the the chorales were not
chorales were not stricdy biblical in
stricdy biblical in their
their texts they were
texts they were
regarded
regarded as as the pillars of
the pillars the liturgy
of the liturgy and
and thus
thus paralleled liturgical fune-
paralleled the liturgical
the func-
84 Music in in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
tion
tion ofof the
the Gregorian
Gregorian chant chant in in the
the Catholic
Catholic church.
church. Music with with aa chorale
chorale
cantus
cantus firm
firmus us showed
showed generally
generally a a retrospective
retrospective style.style. The task task of of adapting
adapting
the
the chorale
chorale to to the
the Italian
Italian innovations,
innovations, the the affective
affective interpretation
interpretation of of the
the
word,
word, thethe continuo,
continuo, and the the concertato
concertato stylestyle could
could not
not be
be solved
solved at
at one
one
stroke.
stroke. Hints
Hints at at the
the future
future can can be be observed
observed first first in in the
the penetration
penetration of of
counterpoint
counterpoint by by an
an advanced
advanced harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary and in
in the
the migrant
migrant
cantus
cantus firm
firmus,us, that
that isis aa chorale
chorale thatthat shifted
shifted in in the
the course
course of of the
the composition
composition
to
to anyone
any one of of the
the voices
voices in in alternation.
alternation. The famous chorale chorale motets
motets (1597),
(1597),
and thethe Preussische
Prcussischc Festlieder
Festlieder by by Eccard
Eccard (d. 16n),
(d. 1611), posthumously pub-
posthumously pub-
lished
lished and expanded
expanded by by his
his pupil Stobaus (1642),
pupil Stobaus (1642), established
established the the type
type for for
the
the baroque
baroque period.
period. Michael
Michael Praetorius
Praetorius presented
presented in his Musae Sioniae
in his Sioniae
(I-IX,
(I-IX, 1601 ff.)ff.) a a veritable
veritable encyclopedia
encyclopedia of of chorale
chorale arrangements.
arrangements. The col- col-

lection
lection comprised
comprised more than
than 1200 compositions
compositions ranging ranging from simple
simple
chorale
chorale harmonizations
harmonizations to to overwhelming
overwhelming polychoral
polychoral settings settings in in the
the Vene-
Vene-
tian
tian manner. In Part
In Part IX of of the
the work Praetorius
Praetorius discriminated
discriminated between between
three manners of
three of chorale
chorale arrangement,
arrangement, "motet-wise,"
"motet-wise," "madrigal-wise,"
"madrigal-wise," and and
"cantus-firmus-wise."
"cantus-firmus-wise" In In the
the first
first manner the the chorale
chorale pervaded
pervaded the
the contra-
contra-
puntal interplay
puntal interplay of of all the voices;
all the voices; in in the
the second,
second, the the chorale
chorale was was broken
broken
up
up into
into small
small fragments
fragments and motives
motives set in a concertato
set in a concertato dialogue; indialogue; in the
the
third, the cantus
third, firmus was
cantus firmus was left
left intact
intact and
and led led against
against ostinato motives
ostinato motives
also derived
also derived from the the chorale
chorale-aa procedure
procedure obviously
obviously borrowedborrowed from from the the
technique
technique of
of the
the organ
organ chorale.
chorale. Only
Only the
the first
first and
and last
last manners
manners belonged
belonged
to the
to the chorale
chorale motet,
motet, the the second
second showed
showed Praetorius
Praetorius on on thethe wayway to to the
the
chorale concertato, but
chorale concertato, all three
but all three were
were toto become
become important
important for for the
the elaborate
elaborate
chorale treatment
chorale treatment in in the
the future.
future. Occasionally
Occasionally also also instruments
instruments participated
participated
in the
in the chorale
chorale motet,
motet, as as can
can bebe seen
seen inin the
the works
works of of Praetorius
Praetorius and and Johann
Johann
Staden.20
Staden. 20

The Psalmen und christliche christliche Gesang

Gesling (1607)
(1607) by by Hassler
Hassler were, were, according
according
to the
to the author
author "composed
"composed fugue-wise,"
fugue-wise," that that is, they corresponded
is, they corresponded to to the
the
motet manner of
motet of Praetorius.
Praetorius. Equally
Equally important
important in in musical
musical and and liturgical
liturgical
respect, this collection
respect, this collection belongs
belongs to to the
the small
small group
group of of compositions
compositions that that
revived as
were revived as early
early as as the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century.
century. It It has
has been
been re-edited
re-edited by by
Kirnberger, the
Kirnberger, the pupil
pupil of of Bach. 21
Bach. Hassler
21 Hassler gavegave in his Psalmen
in his Psalm en classic
classic ex-ex-
amples of
amples of the
the chorale
chorale motet
motet in in which all all voices
voices participated
participated in in the
the melodic
melodic
contours of
contours of the
the chorale.
chorale. The organ organ master
master Scheidt
Scheidt also also made,
made, in his Can-
in his Can-
tionessacrae (16:ro), aa significant
tiones sacrae (1620), significant contribution
contribution to to the
the chorale
chorale motet.
motet. In In imita-
imita-
tion of
tion of his
his organ
organ variations
variations he he cast
cast each
each verse
verse of of the
the chorale
chorale intointo aa different
different
10 See DTB 7:1, and
*SceDTB7:i, and 8:r.
8:1.
11
Reprinted by
J1 Reprinted by Saalfdd, Barenreiter edition.
Saalfeld, Barenreiter edition.
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque Northern Countries
in Northern Countries 85
85
setting
setting and
and thus
thus arrived
arrived at
at a
a chain
chain of
of contrapuntal
contrapuntal variations
variations which
which forms
forms
one
one of
of the
the roots
roots of
of the
the chorale
chorale cantata.
cantata.

Unlike the the conservative

conservative motet motet the the chorale
chorale concmato
concertato was was written
written in in aa
progressive
progressive style,style, clearly
clearly manifested
manifested in the u~ ~ijhc
in the th~ ~~ntinuo.
continue. Whereas
Whereas
usej>f
Contmuo
:

me
tfie continue {oimedformed only
only an an optional
optional partpart of them~t~~-it;"~~i~spensable
of the motet, it was indispensable
in
in the
the concertato.
concertato. The continuo continue foundfound a a staunch
staunch supporter
supporter in in Praetorius
Praetorius
whose S'y'ntaK!!}~
Syntagma musicum (I-III, x615
(I-III, 1615 ff.) ff.) is
is an
an invaluable
invaluable source
source _of of in-
in-
formation
formation for for eari:y---barOque
early baroque music. Praetorius translated the rules of
music. Praetorius translated the rules of
Viadana and naturally naturally adhered
adhered to to Viadana's conservative conception
Viadana's conservative conception of of
continue practice.
continuo practice. Praetorius's
Praetorius's first
first experiments with
experiments with the
the continuo
continue in
in the
the
Musae Sioniae
Sioniac were feeble feeble andand insignificant.
insignificant. However,
However, in in his Polyhymnia
his Polyhymnia

style. This
caduceatrix (1619)
caduceatrix (1619) he
he applied
applied it
it to
to the
the resplendent
resplendent Venetian style.
Venetian This
collection
collection contains
contains many-voiced
many-voiced concertato
concertato compositions
compositions with brilliant
with brilliant
instrumental
instrumental and vocal vocal choruses
choruses and and lively gorgia passages
lively gorgia passages forfor the
the soloists
soloists

which clearly bespeak

clearly bespeak a
a modern
modern spirit.
spirit.
It
It should
should be
be noted
noted that
that Praetorius
Praetorius
was cautious
was cautious enough
enough to to print
print the
the ornamented
ornamented version version above
above the the unem-
unem-
bellished parts
bellished parts in in case
case the
the German singers singers werewere not not able
able to
to cope
cope withwith the the
gorgia. Even though
gorgia. though Praetorius
Praetorius could could not not compete
compete with with the the harmonic
harmonic
ventures
ventures and the the magic
magic sonorities
sonorities of of Gabrieli,
Gabrieli, he he handled
handled the polychoral
the polychoral
style
style most
most skilfully
skilfully and brought
brought to
to it
it the
the elements
elements of
of the
the chorale,
chorale, whichwhich
Gabrieli
Gabrieli did did notnot know;
know; at
at the
the same
same time
time the
the chorale
chorale restrained
restrained him from
going far
going far into
into thethe affective
affective representation
representation of the words.
of the words.
The affective
affective spirit remained, as
spirit remained, in Italy,
as in the domain
Italy, the domain of of the
the few-voiced
few-voiced
concmato.
concertato. It It found
found itsits first
first clear
clear expression
expression in
in Schein's
Schein's Opella
fella novanova or or
Geistliche
Geistliche Konzerte
Konzertc (I, 1618; II,
(I, 1618; II, 1626)
x626) which
which must
must be
be considered
considered as
as aa
milestone in the development
milestone in the development of the of the chorale
chorale concertato.
concertato. The tide
tide Geistliche
Geistliche

Konzerte appeared
Konzerte appeared here here forfor the
the first
first time
time in in German music. music. Schein,
Schein, the the
successor
successor of of Calvisius
Calvisius at at St.
St. Thomas'
Thomas' in in Leipzig
Leipzig and,
and, like
like Kuhnau,
Kuhnau, one
of
of the
the outstanding
outstanding predecessors
predecessors of of Bach,
Bach, combined
combined a a restless
restless and
and excitable
excitable

harmonic
harmonic sense sense with
with a pronounced talent
a pronounced talent for for affective
affective melody.
melody. All
All pieces
pieces
of
of Part I of the Opella nova.
Part of the fella nova, except one,
I except one, are
are based
based on
on chorale
chorale texts
texts for
for the
the
liturgical
liturgical year,
year, andand nearly
nearly always,
always, also,
also, the
the melody
melody is is retained.
retained. Not content content
with
with thethe presentation
presentation of
of the
the chorale
chorale Schein
Schein strove
strove at
at the
the same time
time for
for a a
highly subjective interpretation.
highly subjective interpretation. In
In his
his desire
desire to
to interpret
interpret the
the affection
affection of
of
the
the words
words he he distorted
distorted the the chorale
chorale tunes,
tunes, broke
broke them up up into
into fragments,
fragments,
vivified
vivified thethe rhythm,
rhythm, andand infused
infused them them withwith extraneous
extraneous chromaticism or
chromaticism or
exuberant gorgia (Ex.
exuberant gorgia (Ex. 20).
20). As a rule, the
a rule, the single
single phrases
phrases of of the
the chorale
chorale are arc
86
86 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
stated
stated at
at intervals in cantus
intervals in firmus fashion
cantus firmus 22 and the concerting voices
fashion 22 and the concerting voices
emphasize the verbal interpretation
emphasize the verbal interpretation by an almost manneristic
by an almost repetition of
manneristic repetition of
single
single words.
words. Sometimes,
Sometimes, however,
however, the
the chorale
chorale is
is completely
completely absorbed
absorbed into
into

the
the intricate
intricate rhythmic dialogue
rhythmic dialogue of
of the
the voices
voices and appears only
appears only in
in motivic,
motivic,

"):1:
Ex.
Ex. 20. Schein:
20. Schein: Chorale
Chorale ConcertrJto,
Concertato, Aut
Aus tiefer Not from
tiefl!1' from Opella nOrla.
nova.

c:;
Opetta

or ~ n:ffll7r if9!~j
not
not in in integral
integral form.
form. The style style ofof Schein
Schein was was heavily
heavily indebted
indebted to to Italian
Italian

models, especially to Monteverdi's

models, especially to Monteverdi's duet style duet style with
with concerting
concerting instruments.
While the the contrast
contrast motives
motives and the the lofty
lofty interplay
interplay of of the
the instrumental
and vocal
vocal parts
parts were
were obviously
obviously due to
to Italian
Italian influence,
influence, the
the fast
fast pace
pace ofof
the
the changing harmony
changing harmony and the
the affective
affective cantus
cantus firmus
firmus treatment were Ger-
man characteristics.
characteristics.

Schein
Schein proceeded
proceeded even even more radically
radically in in the
the chorale
chorale monody
monody which laid laid

the
the ground
ground for
for the
the future
future solo
solo cantata.
cantata. In
In the
the few monodic compositions
compositions
of the Opella
of the Qfella nova
nova thethe solo
solo voice
voice was forced
forced to to give
give both
both the
the chorale
chorale and its its

interpretation simultaneously.
interpretation simultaneously. While the
the vocal
vocal part
part retained
retained the
the remark-
able
able rhythmic
rhythmic and melodicmelodic flexibility
flexibility of
of the
the monodic style, style, the vague bass
the vague bass
line
line that
that was customary
customary in in the
the Italian
Italian monody
monody was was disciplined
disciplined by the rigidly
by the rigidly
progressive
progressive beat beat ofof the
the instrumental
instrumental accompaniment.
accompaniment. Schein Schein achieved
achieved here
here
a unique
unique fusion
fusion of of the mechanical instrumental
the mechanical instrumental style style of
of the
the north
north with
with the
the
Italian
Italian monody.
monody.
With the the rising
rising trend toward subjective
trend toward subjective interpretation
interpretation composers
composers tendedte.nded
to
to ignore
ignore the
the dogmatic significance
dogmatic significance of
of the
the chorale
chorale mdody
melody and to
to set
set the
the
chorale
chorale texts
texts as
as aa free chorale concertato
free chorale without reference
concertato without reference to to the melody.
the melody.
Schein
Schein tooktook this
this last
last 'step also. In
step also. In Part
Part IIII of the Opella
of the fella nova
nova thethe rdations
relations

between chorale
between chorale texttext and melody
melody are are sometimes
sometimes completdy
completely severed.
severed. The

memorable monody monody 0 Jesu Jesu Christe

Christe ofof Part
Part II may
may be be mentioned,
mentioned, too, too, as
as an

example
example of
of the
the free
free chorale
chorale concertato.
concertato. Its
Its musical
musical intensity
intensity testifies
testifies to
to the
the
powerful personality
powerful personality of
of its
its composer.
composer.
Schein's
Schein's works stand stand at at the
the beginning
beginning of the long
of the long and devious
devious develop-
develop-
ment from the chorale concertato
the chorale concertato to to the
the chorale
chorale cantata.
cantata. Many organists
Many organists
and cantors
cantors pursued
pursued the the course
course of of Schein,
Schein, notably
notably Scheidt
Scheidt in his Geistliche
in his Geistliche
Conzerten (1631
Conzerten if.).
(1631 ff.). The smaller
smaller masters
masters of
of the
the chorale
chorale concertato
concertato in
in the
the
early
early and middle baroque period can be
baroque period be grouped
grouped into into three
three regional
regional schools.
schools,
\
GMBna
22 GMB
III no. 188.
188.
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries
Countries 87
87
Thenorth
The northGerman
Germanschool
schoolincluded
includedThomas
ThomasSelle
Selle(d. 1663) ininHamburg;
(d. 1663) Hamburg;
Matthias Weckmann
Matthias Weckmann (d. 1674), aa Ppupil
(d. 1674), u pil of Schutz; the
f Schiitz; the important
important Franz
Franz
Tunder ( 161 4-1667) of
Tunder (1614-1667) of Liibeck,
Lubeck, predecessor
predecessor and
and father-in-law
father-in-law of
of Buxte-
Buxte-
hude; and
hude; and finally
finally Christoph
Christoph Bernhard
Bernhard who transmitted toto us
who transmitted us aa valuable
valuable
treatise on
treatise on composition,
composition, based
based on
on the
the precepts
precepts of
of his
his teacher
teacher Schiitz.
Schutz. The
The
southGerman
south Germanschool
schoolwhich
whichhad
hadits
itscenter
centerin
inNuremberg
Nurembergcomprised
comprisedJohann
Johann
Staden (d.
Staden 1634), and
(d. 1634), and Erasmus
Erasmus Kindermann
Kindermann (d. 1655), aa pupil
(d. 1655), pupil of
of Staden
Staden
and Cavalli.
and Cavalli. The
The central
central German
German school
school of
of Saxony
Saxony and
and Thuringia
Thuringia cen-
cen-
tered round
tered round Andreas
Andreas Hammerschmidt (1639-1675), aa most
Hammerschmidt (1639-1675), most prolific
prolific and
and
popular composer
popular composer who
who watered
watered down
down the
the achievements
achievements of
of Schiitz
Schutz for the for the

multitude. It
multitude. It included
included also
also the
the three
three Thomas
Thomas cantors
cantors between
between Schein
Schein and
and
Kuhnau: Michael,
Kuhnau: Michael, Kniipfer,
Kniipfer, and
and Scheile.
Schelle.
All these
All these masters
masters contributed
contributed to to the
the expansion
expansion of of the
the chorale
chorale concertato
concertato
into the chorale cantata.
into the chorale cantata. The variousThe various media
media of
of the
the chorale
chorale concertato,
concertato, the
the
many-voiced, the
many-voiced, the few-voiced,
few-voiced, and and the
the monodic,
monodic, were were no no longer
longer keptkept apart
apart
but were
but were combined
combined in in large
large multipartite
multipartite compositions
compositions in in which
which solo,
solo, choral,
choral.
and instrumental
and instrumental sections
sections alternated.
alternated. Here
Here lie lie the
the beginnings
beginnings of of the
the chorale
chorale
cantata. The
cantata. The organorgan chorale
chorale variation
variation whichwhich Scheldt
Scheidt had alreadyalready trans-
trans-
ferred to the
ferred to the choralechorale motet
motet was
was also
also applied
applied to
to the
the chorale
chorale concertato
concertato so
so

that the composer had a

that the composer had a great variety great variety of
of styles
styles at
at his
his disposal.
disposal. The single
single
verses
verses could
could now be be composed alternately as
composed alternately as duets,
duets, monodies,
monodies, choruses,
choruses, and and
ensembles
ensembles with with or or without
without instrumental
instrumental accompaniment.
accompaniment. One of the of the

earliest
earliest attempts in this direction was Scheidt's Nun komm
attempts in this direction was Scheldt's \omrn der der Heiden
Heiden
Heiland
Heiland from
from the
the Geistliche
Gcistliche Conzerten,
Conzcrten, in
in which the eight
eight verses
verses were
were
set in strictly organistic
set in strictly organistic manner
manner with
with cantus
cantus firmus
firmtts and a simple
simple chorale
chorale

harmonization
harmonization at at the end, as
the end, as customary
customary in in the
the later
later cantata.
cantata. Selle
Selle was
was active
active
23
primarily
primarily in
in the
the few-voiced
few-voiced medium,
medium, Weckmann
Weckmann 23 in the many-voiced
in the many-voiced
concertato. Tunder's
Tunder's chorale
chorale variations
variations are arc remarkable
remarkable for for the
concertato. the extensive
extensive

use
use they make of the concmato style and
they make of the concertato style
and thethe inner
inner expansion
expansion of of the
the form.
form.
He
He more
more nearly approached the cantata than
nearly approached the cantata
than any any other
other composer
composer of of the
the

time. Tunder and Hammerschmidt

time. Tunder and Hammerschmidt both
both cultivated
cultivated the
the chorale
chorale monody,
monody,
the latter also
the latter also the
the free
free composition of chorale texts. texts. The
composition of chorale
The chorale
chorale concertatc
concertato

per omnes that is

versus, that is with
with aa varied
varied setting
setting for each stanza,
for each stanza, can actually
can actually
per omnes versus,
be
be called
called aa cantata
cantata although
although we
we find
find as
as yet
yet only
only very
very sporadically
sporadically the
the dis-
dis-

tinguishing feature of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque cantata,
cantata, namely
namely aa freely
freely inserted
inserted
tinguishing feature
poetic passage that interrupts
that interrupts the
the liturgical
liturgical text
text by
by moralizing
moralizing reflections.
reflections.
poetic passage
However, the strict
However, the strict chorale chorale cantata
cantata in
in form
form of
of variations
variations like
like Bach's
Bach's Christ
Christ

lag in Todesbanden grew directly out outof the cantatas of Franz Tunder
of the cantatas of Franz Tunder.
lag in Todesbanden grew directly
.. EL II, 41-
88
88 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era

THE DRAMATIC Concertato:

THE DRAMATIC ConCCTtatOl SCHUTZ
SCHUTZ
Compositions
Compositions bound bound by by aa chorale
chorale represented
represented in in spite
spite of their liturgical
of their liturgical
prominence
prominence only only the
the smaller
smaller portion
portion of
of Protestant
Protestant church
church music. The
music. The
larger portion
larger portion consisted
consisted of
of freely composed
freely composed "church
"church concerts"
concerts" which
which in-
in-

terpreted
terpreted the word subjectively
the word subjectively with with all all the
the dramatic
dramatic resources
resources of of the
the
conccrtato style.
concertato style. InIn keeping
keeping withwith thethe orthodox
orthodox attitude
attitude of of the time the
the time the
composers
composers used
used as
as the
the main textual
textual source
source the
the psalms
psalms and
and the
the gospel
gospel in in
either
either Latin
Latin or or German.
German.
The dramatic conccrtato was
dramatic concertato was cultivated
cultivated by by nearly
nearly allall composers
composers referred
referred
above in
to above
to in connection
connection with with the
the chorale
chorale motet
motet and and thethe chorale
chorale concertato.
concertato.
However,
However, whilewhile it it was only a
only a side
side issue
issue with
with them,
them, it it held
held a a central
central position
position
in the
in the works of of composers
composers who were
were dazzled
dazzled by
by the
the Italian
Italian style
style in
in general
general
and byby the
the Venetian
Venetian polychoral
polychoral stylestyle in
in particular.
particular. They They shared
shared withwith thethe
Italian
Italian composers
composers the the belief
belief that
that cantus firmus composition
cantus firmus composition was was aa thing
thing of of
the
the past.
past. The earlier
earlier generation
generation of of German composerscomposers still still managed to
managed to do
do
without the the continuo
continue and betrayedbetrayed its its conservatism
conservatism also also in in adhering
adhering to to
Latin text.
text. ItIt included
included masters
masters likelike Demantius
Demantius (d. 1&J3), Dulichius
(d. 1643), Dulichius (d. (d.
1623),
1623), Staden,
Staden, Melchior
Melchior Franck,
Franck, Friderici,24
Friderici,
24 Hassler, Michael Praetorius,
Hassler, Michael Praetorius,
and Hieronymus
Hieronymus Praetorius
Praetorius (d. (d. 1629).
1629). The latter latter Praetorius,
Praetorius, who who was was
active as
active as organist
organist in in Hamburg,
Hamburg, wrote wrote for for a a combination
combination of four five-voice
of four five-voice
choruses with
choruses with considerable
considerable ease. ease. Schein
Schein paid paid hishis tribute
tribute to to Venice
Venice in in the
the
Cymbal14m
Cymbalum Sionium
Sionium (I615),
(1615), and Scheidt
Scheldt in the Concertus sacri
in the Conccrtus sacri (1622) (1622)
which contained
which contained colorful
colorful settings
settings for
for solo
solo ensembles,
ensembles, echo echo choruses,
choruses, and and in-in-
strumental sinfonie.
strumental sinfonie. The harmonic
harmonic language
language of of these
these compositions
compositions was was
conservative and
conservative and diddid notnot venture
venture much beyond beyond the the cadential
cadential frictions
frictions that
that
can be
can be found
found in in the
the music
music of of Gabrieli.
Gabrieli.
More influential
More influential than than the
the grand
grand conccrtato
concertato works works werewere the the few-voiced
few-voiced
or monodic
or monodic compositions.
compositions. They They were were usually
usually set set toto German
German texts texts and
and
always called
always called forfor an an obligatory
obligatory continue,
continuo, as as for
for example
example the the Gcistlichc
Geistliche
Concertlein by
Conccrtlein by Selle,
Selle, several
several works
works of of Johann
Johann Staden,
Staden, and and thethe little-known,
little-known,
but charming,
but charming, Licblichc
Li.ebliche Krafftblumlein
Krafftblumlein (1635) (1635) by by Scheldt.
Scheidt. The The free
free com-
com-
positions in Schein's
positions in Schein's Ofclla
Opella nova represented the
nOtla represented the most
most serious
serious attempt
attempt at at
assimilating the
assimilating the monodic
monodic principle
principle intointo German
German music. music. Tobias
Tobias Michael
Michael
gave in
gave in his
his Scclenlust,
Seelenlust, like like Praetorius,
Praetorius, an an optional
optional gorgia interpretation of
gorgia interpretation of
his solo parts.
his solo parts.28
211

The rich
The rich instrumental
instrumental accompaniment
accompaniment that that Schein
Schein and and others
others addedadded
**
14EL II, 2.
EL D, 2.
25
Example in
:tilExample in Adler
Adler HMG,
HMG.458.
458.
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries
Countries 89
89
totheir
to theirmonodies
monodiesreveals
revealsaacertain
certainhesitancy
hesitancyon
onthe
thepart
partof
ofthe
theGerman
Germancom-
com-
posers in
posers inappropriating
appropriatingthe themonody
monody inin its
itspure
pureform.
form. Praetorius
Praetorius succinctly
succinctly
expressed
expressed this
this attitude
attitude in
in his
his Syntagma
Syntagma by
by the
the remark
remark that
that one
one or more
or more
concertato voices
conccrtato voices by
by themselves
themselves were
were "too
"toonaked."
naked." He
Headvised
advisedsupplement-
supplement-
ing them
ing them byby what
what he
he called capella fidicinia,
called aa capella fidicinia. aa string
string ensemble,
ensemble, the
the
favorite medium
favorite medium of
of dance
dance music.
music. Scheidt
Scheidt composed
composed seventy Symphonim
seventy Symphonicn
auf Conzerten-Manier (1644)
auf Conzertcn-Manicr (1644) expressly
expressly for
for this
this purpose.
purpose.

German music
German music soared
soared to to unprecedented
unprecedented heightsheights in in thethe works
works of of the
the
undisputed
undisputed master
master of
of the
the dramatic
dramatic concertato:
conccrtato: Heinrich
Heinrich Schiitz
Schiitz (1585-
(1585-
16'J2), the greatest of the quartet of S's. Schiitz belonged to
1672), the greatest of the quartet of S's. Schiitz belonged
to the
the few
few German
German
baroque composers
baroque composers whowho combined
combined aa wide wide European
European perspective
perspective with with thethe
aristocratic attitude
aristocratic attitude ofof an
an highly
highly individual
individual artist.
artist. Reared
Reared in in aa Calvinist
Calvinist
milieu, but
milieu, but an
an orthodox
orthodox Lutheran
Lutheran himself,
himself, he he showed
showed remarkable
remarkable tolerance
tolerance
in religious matters.
in religious matters. He approached,
approached, at
at times,
times, aa Catholic
Catholic spirit
spirit in
in his
his music.
music.
Schiitz and
Schiitz and Handel
Handel were
were the
the only
only great
great Protestant
Protestant composers
composers of the time
of the time
who took
who took little
little interest
interest in
in the
the chorale
chorale as as such.
such. Although
Although his his official
official duties
duties
brought him in constant contact with the chorale, Schiitz
brought him in constant contact with the chorale,
Schiitz made it it sub-
sub-
servient to his personal
servient to his personal artistic
artistic expression.
expression. The composer-prince
composer-prince Moritz
Moritz
of
of Hessen
Hessen discovered
discovered thethe young
young Schiitz
Schiitz among
among the the promising
promising choir-boys
choir-boys
and
and decided
decided to to provide
provide for
for his
his musical
musical education.
education. It
It was completed
completed by an
by an
apprentice period inin Venice
Venice withwith Gabrid~
Gabricli, who recognized
recognized in him aa
in him
apprentice period
worthy successor.
worthy successor.
Schiitz
Schiitz served
served for
for fifty-five years (161;7-12)
fifty-five years (1617-72) as
as music
music
director to the elector of Saxony,
director to the elector of Saxony, but
but was permitted
permitted to
to take
take several
several long
long
leaves
leaves during
during the
the Thirty
Thirty Years'
Years' War
War which he spent
spent at
at the
the court
court in
in Copen-
Copen-
hagen.
hagen.
Schiitz's
Schiitz's apprentice piece, his Op.I, was
apprentice piece, his op.i,
was aa book
book of of Italian madrigals (16u)
Italian madrigals (1611)
in which he carried the affective pictorialism
in which he carried the affective pictorialism of
of the
the madrigal
madrigal style to
style to its
its

last
last possible
possible
extreme.
extreme. The
The consistent
consistent useuse of
of contrast motives,
contrast motives, the adventur-
the adventur-

ous
ous dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, thethe realistic
realistic and
and intellectual representation of
intellectual representation of

words,
words, which
which could
could successfully
successfully rival
rival the
the mature
mature madrigals
madrigals ofof Gesualdo
Gesualdo
and Monteverdi, appeared here
here for
for the
the first time.
first time. They
They remained
remained the
the
and Monteverdi, appeared
fundamental elements of his style. Schiitz's
Schutz's fertile
fertile imagination
imagination drew
drew ever
ever
fundamental elements of his style.
new
new plastic
plastic
ideas
ideas and
and inspiration
inspiration from
from these
these devices.
devices.

In
Inhis
his first
firstgreat work of German
Germanchurchchurch music,
music, the thepolychoral Psdmcn
polychoral Psalmen
great work of
com-
Davids (1619),
Davids Schiitz adopted the the grand
grand manner
manner of Gabridi in
of Gabrieli in com-
(1619), Schiitz adopted
positions for
positions
two, three, and
for two, three, and four
four choruses
choruses with
with instruments.
instruments. Like
Like Gabrieli,
Gabridi,
he
heallowed
allowedaawide widemargin
marginfor forthe
thearranger
arranger since
sincehe hedidad not alwaysspecify
notalways specify
 Early and
Early and Middle Baroque inin Northern
Middle Baroque Northern Countries
Countries 91
91
ofthe
of thecollection,
collection, like 1stnicht
like1st nichtEphraim
Ephraim for
for two
two solo
solo voices
voices with comati
withcornetti
and trombones,
and trombones, or or the
the monumental
monumental polychoral
polychoral ZionZion spricht
spricht demonstrate
demonstrate
howconsciously
how consciouslyand andoften
oftenintellectually
intellectuallySchutz
Schutzarrived
arrivedatathishisinspired
inspiredpic-
pic-
torial motives.
torial motives. Significantly
Significantly enough,
enough, Christoph
Christoph Bernhard,
Bernhard, the the author
author of of
one of
one of the
the best
best treatises
treatises onon the
the doctrine
doctrine ofoffigures,
figures, was
was aa pupil
pupil of
of Schutz.
Schutz.
Theformal
The formal structure
structureof ofthe
theexpansive conc~rtato compositions
expansiveconcertato compositions was wasmade
made
clear by
clear Alleluia refrains
by Alleluia refrains inin Gabrieli's
Gabrieli's manner,
manner, or or byby other
other recurrent
recurrent sec-
sec-
tions which
tions which served
served toto heighten
heighten thethe rondo
rondo character
character of of the
the form.
form. Rhythmic
Rhythmic
transformations of
transformations of sections
sections from
from duple
duple toto triple
triple meter,
meter, and and the
the use
use of
of
identical
identical musical
musical material
material for
for psalm
psalm verses
verses and
and the
the concluding doxology
concluding doxology
further unified
further unified the
the highly flexible form.
highly flexible form.
The Cantiones
The sacra~ (1625)
Cantioncs sacrae (1625) were
were based
based on on mystic
mystic Latin
Latin texts,
texts, more
more
appropriate
appropriate
for
for the
the Catholic
Catholic than
than the
the orthodox
orthodox Lutheran
Lutheran service.
service. In
In their
their

extremism
extremism they they form
form a
a sacred
sacred pendant
pendant to
to the
the madrigal
madrigal book.
book. Schutz
Schutz com-
com-
posed them in a radical conc~tato motet style for four
posed them in a radical concertato motet style for
four voices
voices and
and continuo
continuo
which he
which he added
added onlyonly reluctantly
reluctantly at at the
the entreaties
entreaties of of his
his publisher.
publisher. The
subjective attitude of the texts very closely corresponds to
subjective attitude of the texts very closely corresponds
to that
that of
of the
the music
music
which goes
which goes to
to the
the very
very limits
limits of
of pictorial
pictorial dissonance
dissonance treatment.
treatment. The severely
severely
contrapuntal texture is shot through with
contrapuntal texture is shot through
with simultaneous
simultaneous cross-relations,
cross-relations,
melodic dissonances,
melodic dissonances, and
and augmented
augmented triads, characteristically set to the
triads, characteristically set to the

word dulcis (Ex.

worddtdcis (Ex. 21). 21).
Ex. 21. Schiitz:
Ex. 2I. bone from
Schutz: 0 hone from Cantiones
Condones SllCt'ae.
sacrae.

,,, oO bo
bo . De
- ne,I 0 dul
dul .
- ds
cfe o be.
I)
i-
DIgne
be-ni-gw

1&1 IJ bo ne, 0 dul . .. . cis, Ilbe nl.peJt- - IIU, t (Ifr-

!I... .r1 .J. .J J .J)..b J ,..0. J I Kl, J
I) bo ne, 0 dul . - .
Although Schiitz continued to write music music of of remarkable
remarkable austerity
austerity he he
Although Schutz continued to write
never
never returned
returned in in his
his later
later works
works to to this
this overemphatic
overemphatic style.style. Very
few
Very few other
other

German composers
German composers could
could equal
equal it. A
it. A work
work of
of similar
similar intensity
intensity was the
was the

Fontana
Fontana d'lsrael
d'Israelor Israel'sBriinnl~in
orlsrad's Brunnlein (1623)(1623) by by Schein
Schein inin which
whichthe theauthor
author

exhausted the pictorial possibilities of

of the
the German
German words,
words, as
as he
he put it, "in
put it, "in
exhausted the pictorial possibilities
the
the manner
manner of of the
the Italian
Italian madrigal."
madrigal." Also profound K.ernspriiche
Also the profound
the Kemsprucke
(1~8 ft.) by Rosenmiiller
Rosenmuller belong
belong to
to this
this category.
category.
(1648 ff.) by
In theSymphoniae
Inthe sacrae, published ininthree threeparts (1629,I~7,
parts(1009>
and165
1647,and 0),
1650),
Symphoniae sacrae, published
Schiitz reaped the fruits ofof his
his second
second journey to
to Italy. They
They hold
hold as im-
as im-
Schutz reaped the fruits journey Italy.

portant aaposition in his creative

his creative career
career as
as the
the works
works of
of the
the same
same title
tide do
do
portant position in
ininthat
thatofofGabrie1i.
GabriduThe Thefact thatSchUtz
factthat Schutzin inhis
hisfull maturity
full went a
maturitywent a second second
92 Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
time
time toto Italy
Italy to
to learn
learn from
from the
the "sagacious"
"sagacious" Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, as as he called
called him,
him,
bespeaks not
bespeaks not onlyonly his
his personal humility
personal humility but
but also
also his
his great
great respect for
respect for the
the
Italian style. In
Italian style. In Part
Part II of
of the
the Symphoniae sacrae the
Symphoniae sacrae concertato style
the concertato style appears
appears
fully
fully stabilized
stabilized and the the three
three vocal
vocal parts
parts form,
form, with
with the
the exactly
exactly specified
specified
instrumental
instrumental ensembles,
ensembles, a a highly
highly coloristic
coloristic yet
yet thoroughly
thoroughly unified
unified whole.
whole.
Several
Several ofof Schutz's
Schutz's pieces
pieces were only
only German adaptations
adaptations of
of Italian
Italian com-
28
positions by Monteverdi
positions by Monteverdi and Grandi.
Grandi. 26 In
In the
the medium of
of the
the small
small concer-
concer-
tato Schiitz
tato Schiitz created
created scenes
scenes of of great
great vision,
vision, like
like the
the somber
somber plaint
plaint of of David
for
for Absalom,
Absalom, for for bass
bass voice
voice and four
four trombones,
trombones, which must be be singled
singled outout
as
as an incomparable masterpiece.
incomparable masterpiece. At the
the beginning
beginning the
the trombone quartet
quartet in-in-

tones
tones a a sinfonia
sinfonia that
that anticipates
anticipates the
the motive
motive of
of the
the voice,
voice, and then
then the
the bass
bass
comes in in with
with a a bold
bold idea
idea ofof successive
successive major
major thirds,
thirds, aa typically
typically Schiitzian
Schiitzian
theme of of a
a sophisticated
sophisticated simplicity (Ex. 2.2).
simplicity (Ex. 22).

Ex. Schutz: Fili

Ex. 22. Schutz: Fill mi,
mi, Ahsalon
Absalon from Symphoniae
Symphoniae sacrae
sacrae II.
. .
~'i-Ii mi,fi-ll mi, Ii-Ii mi, fi-Ii mi Ab -sa-Ion n-Ii mi,fi-Ii mi, n-li mi Ab -sa i
IClII.

,

~. # n ~ '''t'.

In Parts II
In Parts II and III
III of
of the
the Symphoniae
Symphoniae sacrae Schiitz acknowledged
sacrae Schutz acknowledged his
his
debt to
debt to Monteverdi
Monteverdi not only in
not only his interesting
in his interesting revisions
revisions of
of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's
compositions, but
compositions, but especially
especially in
in the
the adoption
adoption of
of the
the stile
stile concitato. While
concitato_ While
adhered in
he adhered in Part
Part II to
II to the
the few-voiced
few-voiced concertato
concertato he he resuscitated
resuscitated inin Part
Part
III the splendor of his earlier polychoral compositions. The vast
III the splendor of his earlier polychoral
compositions. vast combina-
combina-
tions reflect
tions reflect the
the reassembling
reassembling of of the
the Saxonian
Saxonian court
court chapel
chapel after
after its
its dis-
dis-
persal during
persal during the
the Thirty
Thirty Years'
Years' War. Part
Part III
III contains
contains works
works onon the
the largest
largest
scale which approach
scale approach thethe dramatic
dramatic church
church cantata.
cantata. One of of these,
these, the
the
deeply stirring
deeply stirring Pauline
Pauline conversion
conversion (Acts 9, 4fI.)
(Acts 9, 4*!.) Saul,
Saul, Saul,
Saul, was verfolgst
vcrjolgst
Du mich?,
mid?, is is perhaps
perhaps the
the most
most impressive
impressive of
of all
all of
of Schutz's
Schutz's compositions.
compositions.
dramatic concertato
This dramatic rediscovered by
concertato was rediscovered by Winterfeld
Winterfeld 2T 27 more than
than aa
century ago.
century ago. It
It is
is scored
scored for
for an
an ensemble
ensemble ofof six
six favoriti (solo sextet),
favonti (solo sextet), two
two
four-voice choruses
four-voice choruses oror "complements,"
"complements," two violins,
violins, and
and organ
organ continuo.
continuo. At At
26
2tI Monteverdi's Chiome d'oro
Monteverdi's Chiome a'oro (seventh book of
(seventh book of madrigals)
madrigals) appears
appears in
in the
the works
works
of Schutz
of Schiitz as
as the
the canzonetta Giilame Haare
canzonetta Gitldcnc Haare (CE
(CE XV, 91). Monteverdi's
XV, 91). Armato ilif
Monteverdi's Armato
cor and
cor ZefJiro torna
and Zcffiro torna (CE
(CE IX)
IX) have
have been
been used
used in Es steh
in Es sUn Goto
Gott auf
auf (Symphoniae
(Sympnoniae sacrae
sacrae
II, 16),
II, 16), and
and Grandi's Lilia convallium
Grandi's Lilia cont/allium reappears
reappears as /esu suss
as 0 Jesu sUss (Symphoniae
(Symphoniae sacrae
sacrae
III,9)
III, 9).
27
27 Winterfeld, Gabrieli und
Winterfeld, Gabrieli una sein
sein Zeitalter,
Zeitaiter, II,
II, 197.
197. In
In spite of its
spite of its early
early date
date this
this book
book
still is one
still is one of
of the finest pieces
the finest of musical
pieces of musical research.
research. The
The lucid
lucid style
style of
of presentation
presentation stands
stands
in marked
in marked contrast
contrast with
with the
the studied
studied profundity
profundity of of many later books
many later books onon musicology.
musicology.
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 93
93
the beginning
beginning the solo voices
voices give
give out
out the insistent calls
the insistent calls "Saul,
"Saul, Saul"
Saul" in
in an
an
impetuously
impetuously accelerated rhythm
rhythm and come to
to an
an uncompromising
uncompromising cadence
cadence
with stern parallel
parallel seconds,
seconds, of
of which Schutz was as
Schiitz was as fond
fond as
as Monteverdi
Monteverdi
(Ex. 23).
(Ex. 23). The calls
calls are
arc answered by
by the complementary choruses and
the complementary choruses and lead
lead

Ex. Schutz: SfIIIi.

23. Schiitz:
Ex. 23. Saul, Saul from Symphon;ae
Saul from Symphoniac sacrae 111.
lat:rtte 11L

t: fI:' ;1~~ I:
Saul, Sau!,Sml,Sau! was ver-folgtf da inich?

to
to a fortissimo
fortissimo climax which tapers tapers off
off in
in aa staggered
staggered echo echo effect,
effect, expressly
expressly
prescribed
prescribed by by the
the composer.
composer. In
In the
the course
course of
of the
the composition
composition SchutzSchutz usesuses
the motives of the calls calls inin contrapuntal
contrapuntal combination
combination with
with the
the graphic
graphic ideaidea
of
of "kicking against
"kicking against the
the pricks"
pricks" and achieves
achieves a
a dramatic
dramatic grandeur
grandeur un- un-
matched by
matched any
by any of
of his
his contemporaries.
contemporaries.
The Kleine geistliche Konzerte (1636-39)
geistliche Konzerte (1636-39) were composed composed for very
for very
modest combinations as as strict
strict monodies
monodies or or small
small solo
solo ensembles.
ensembles. TheyThey callcall

only
only for
for a a continuo
continue but but no other
other instruments because, as
instruments because, as Schutz
Schutz remarks
remarks
in
in the
the preface,
preface, the ruinous effect
the ruinous of the
effect of the war had completely
completely paralyzed
paralyzed
musical life. In
musical life. In this
this collection
collection Schiitz
Schutz gave
gave his
his version
version of
of monody
monody or, or, as he
as he
called
called it,
it, the
the stylo
stylo oratorio;
oratorio; it
it was more flexible
flexible in
in style
style and more highly
highly
integrated
integrated by by bass
bass imitations
imitations than than the
the early
early Italian
Italian parallels.
parallels. Some of of the
the
sacred
sacred concerts
concerts are based on the
are based words of
the words of chorales
chorales or or Latin
Latin hymns.
hymns. It
It is
is

highly characteristic of Schutz's

highly characteristic of Schiitz's undogmatic undogmatic and highly personal approach
highly personal approach
that he
that he retained
retained the the traditional
traditional tunestunes only
only occasionally.
occasionally. He preferred
preferred to to

ignore them in
ignore in favor
favor ofof a a free conccrtato interpretation.
free concertato interpretation. Two chorale chorale set-set-

tings
tings (I, 24 and II,
(1, 24 II, 22)
22) even
even coupled
coupled thethe idea
idea ofof chorale
chorale variation
variation to to a strict
strict

ostinato
ostinato of of the Italian ruggi~
the Italian type.
ruggiero type. In
In this
this curious
curious combination of
of sacred
sacred
and
and secular
secular techniques
techniques it it was the the ostinato
ostinato that that dominated the the cantus
firmus.
firmus. The "aria"
"aria" leh
Ich hab
hob mein Sach
Sack quotes
quotes the
the chorale
chorale in
in strict
strict form
only
only in
in the
the first
first and last
last (eighteenth) variation,
(eighteenth) variation, while
while the
the other statements
are
are more
more or or less
less free
free variations
variations on a a ground
ground bass.bass. The Musifylische
Musikolische 'Eze- Exe-
quien
quien (1636),
(1636), an important
important forerunner
forerunner of Brahms's
of Brahms's German Requiem,
Requiem, also also
made
made free
free useuse ofof chorale
chorale melodies,
melodies, this time however in
this time in the polychoral
the polychoral
medium.
The
The Geistliche Chormusi^ or
Geistliche Chormusik or Muncalia
Musicdia ad Chorum Sacrum (1648), (1648),
dedicated
dedicated to to the
the city
city of
of Leipzig
Leipzig and the
the Thomas choir,
choir, brought
brought the con-
serv~tive side
servative side ofof Schiitz's
Schiitz's genius
genius to
to the
the fore.
fore. In the
the preface
preface the aging
aging Schutz
94
94 Music in
Music in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
expressed his concern about the steadily progressing decline
expressed his concern about the steadily progressing
decline in in technical
technical
proficiency that he
proficiency that he thought
thought to
to observe
observe in
in the
the younger generation,
younger generation, brought brought
up only
up only on on the
the continue,
continuo, and and advocated
advocated the the return
return to to the
the thorough
thorough trainingtraining
that he
that he had
had himself
himself received
received in in Italy. admonished the
Italy. He admonished the budding
budding Ger- Ger
composers to
man composers to perfect
perfect themselves
themselves properly properly in in the
the style
style without
without con- con
tinuo before they
tinuo before they proceeded proceeded to
to the
the cancer-tato
concertato style,
style, to
to learn
learn the
the requisites
requisites
of aa "regulated
of "regulated composition,"
composition," 28 28 and to to "crack
"crack the the hard
hard nut nut in in which
which one one
has to
has to seek
seek the
the kernel
kernel and and the
the proper
proper foundation
foundation of of aa good
good counterpoint."
counterpoint."
Schutz called
Schiitz called in in the
the Chormusi^
Chormusik for for aa mixed
mixed vocalvocal andand instrumental
instrumental per- per
formance and
formance and discriminated
discriminated between between two possibilities:
possibilities: one one in in which
which the the
solo or choral ensemble
solo or choral ensemble could
could be
be doubled
doubled by instruments,
by instruments, another
another in
in which
which
vocal and
vocal and instrumental
instrumental parts parts were
were deliberately
deliberately kept kept apart.
apart. For neitherneither one one
was the
was the continuo
continuo obligatory;
obligatory; both both stood stood halfway
halfway between
between a-cappella
a-cappella and and
styles. The Chormusi\
conccrtato styles.
concertato Chormusik is is written
written in in aa remarkably
remarkably archaic archaic con-con
trapuntal style.
trapuntal style. The affective
affective intensity
intensity of
of the
the music
music is
is subdued
subdued by the
by the
graphic terseness of
graphic terseness of the melody the melody and the austere asceticism of
the austere asceticism of the counter- the counter
point
point that
that seems
seems to
to hark
hark back
back to
to the
the old motet.
old motet. OnlyOnly the the restive
restive contrast
contrast
motives and
motives and the the relentlessly
relentlessly dissonant
dissonant harmonic harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary betray betray aa
modern spirit.
modern spirit. In In the
the Geistliche Chormusif( Schutz
Geistliche Chormusik succeeded in
Schiitz succeeded in doing
doing the the
impossible:
impossible: he
he fused
fused stile
stile antico
antico and stile
stile moderno into
into a
a higher unity. It
higher unity. It

symbolic of
is symbolic
is of the whole collection
the whole collection that that Schutz
Schiitz inadvertently
inadvertently slipped slipped intointo
the
the collection
collection a a motet
motet by by Andrea Gabrieli Gabrieli that that he he had provided
provided with with aa
German text, probably
text, probably during during his
his student
student years
years in
in Italy.
Italy.
The oratorical compositions of
oratorical compositions of Schutz
Schiitz whichwhich accompany
accompany his his entire
entire
career form
career form a
a group
group by by themselves.
themselves. They
They consist
consist of
of the
the Aufcrstehungs
Auferstehungs
Historic (162.3),
Historie (1623), the the Sieben
Sieben Worte am Kreuz, Krcuz, the the Historia
Historia von der der Ge
Gc-
burth Gottes (1664),
burth Gottes (1664), and three
three Passions
Passions according
according to
to St.
St. Luke,
Luke, St.
St. John,
John,
and St.St. Matthew (1666). (1666). The Passion Passion according
according to to St.
St. Mark is is probably
probably
spurious.
spurious. Some of
of these
these have
have come down to
to us
us only
only in
in strongly revised
strongly revised
versions.
versions. The first first of of the
the so-called
so-called "histories,"
"histories," the the Easter
Easter Oratorio,
Oratorio, is is aa
freely
freely modernized
modernized variant variant of of an an earlier
earlier work by by Scandello
Scandello (d. (d. 1580).
1580).
Schutz
Schiitz usedused herehere an old-fashioned
old-fashioned type type of of recitative
recitative thatthat combined
combined the the
elements
dements of of the
the Gregorian
Gregorian tonus
tonus lectionis
Icctionis and the
the operatic
operatic recitation.
recitation. The
archaic
archaic style
style appears
appears also also in
in the
the factfact that
that text
text passages
passages of of single
single persons
persons
are
are set for more than one voic~
set for voice, an indication
indication of of how far far removed
removed the the
"history"
"history still
still was from the
1*
the opera.
opera. The Seven Seven Words at at the
the Cross
Cross and and the
the
Christmas
Christmas Oratorio
Oratorio are are much more complex complex works
works written
written in
in the
the modern
modern
dramatic
dramatic stylestyle and involving
involving a great great many many instrumental
instrumental and and vocalvocal en.cn-
28 Compare
28
Compare the use of
the use the same term with
of the with Bach,
Bach, p.p. 2']2.
272.
 Early
Early and Baroque in
and Middle Baroque Northern Countries
in Northern Countries 95
95
sembles
sembles inin the presentation of
the presentation of the
the story.
story. Both
Both compositions are framed by
compositions are framed by
powerful
powerful instrumental and choral
instrumental choral movements
movements between between whichwhich the the story
story
unfolds in
unfolds in form of recitatives and ensembles.
of recitatives ensembles. The choral choral introduction
introduction and and
conclusion
conclusion of of the
the Seven Words are arc based
based on on thethe text
text of
of a a chorale, but,
chorale, but,
significandy, its melody is
significantly, its words of
melody is not used. used. The words of Christ
Christ are
are often
often accom-
accom-
panied,
panied, as
as in
in Bach's
Bach's Matthew Passion, Passion, by by the
the halo
halo ofof aa string
string ensemble.
ensemble. The The
colorfully
colorfully orchestrated
orchestrated Christmas
Christmas OratorioOratorio consists
consists of of single scenes or
single scenes or
intcrmcdii, bound together
intermedii. together by by thethe same key. key. InIn the
the preface
preface Schutz
Schutz draws
draws
attention
attention toto the novel recitative
recitative of of the
the Evangelist
Evangelist which
which is
is far
far advanced
advanced
over that of the Easter Easter Oratorio.
Oratorio. It It lacks
lacks thethe affective
affective tone
tone we find find inin
Schiitz's
Schiitz's monodies and points points in in its
its neutral
neutral parlando
parlando toward
toward the seeeo
the sccco
recitative
recitative of
of the: bel-canto opera.
the bel-canto opera.
In
In the
the Passions,:at
Passions,
29
which belong
which belong to to the
the latest
latest works
works of of the
the composer,
composer,
Schiitz
Schutz dispensed
dispensed with instruments
instruments altogether,
altogether, including
including even
even the
the continuo.
continue.
Written inin aa strict
strict a-cappella style they
a-cappella style they employ employ with
with extreme
extreme economy
economy only only
an unaccompanied
unaccompanied (!) <I) solo
solo recitative
recitative and turbae
turbac or
or choruses.
choruses. The recita-
recita-

tives
tives are
are freely composed in
freely composed in the
the fashion
fashion of of aa "neo-Gregorian"
"neo-Gregorian" tonus tonus lee-
Ice-

Iionis.
tionis. In continuation
continuation of of the
the ascetic
ascetic trend,
trend, already
already manifested
manifested in in the
the
Chormusik..
Chormusi\, Schiitz
Schutz resuscitated
resuscitated the the old
old Gregorian
Gregorian Passion
Passion in in so
so rarified
rarified

an
an atmosphere
atmosphere that that it
it had lillie
little effect
effect on anyany of his contemporaries
of his contemporaries or pupils.
or pupils.
These works, in
These works, in which liturgical severity
liturgical severity and highly personal artistry
highly personal artistry
strangely
strangely intermingle,
intermingle, are symbols of
are symbols of the
the creative solitude in
creative solitude in which the the
aged
aged master
master was to
to outlive
outlive his
his own fame.
fame.
Schiitz
Schutz never
never wrote
wrote any any instrumental
instrumental music music independent
independent of of vocal
vocal com-
positions;
positions;
all
all his
his efforts
efforts werewere directed
directed toward the
the vocal
vocal pole.
pole. This fact
fact

marks
marks thethe abyss
abyss that
that separates
separates him from Bach who probably
probably knew not
of his,
note of
aa note except perhaps
his, except perhaps his
his music
music for
for the
the Calvinist
Calvinist Psalter.
Psalter. Deeply
Deeply
concerned
concerned overover the
the spreading
spreading of facile and shallow
of facile shallow compositions
compositions prompted
prompted
by the
by the German vogue
vogue for
for the
the Italian
Italian style-the
style the very
very style
style Schutz had
brought home and
brought Germanized in
and Germanized in his
his own fashion-5chiitz
fashion Schutz staunchlystaunchly up- up-
held
held throughout
throughout his his life
life the
the supremacy
supremacy of of the
the Italian
Italian style
style even when it it was

challenged
challenged by by such
such conservatives
conservatives as as the
the organist
organist Siefert.
Sicfert.

It is
It is difficult to summarize
difficult to summarize the oratorical music and the dramatic con-
the oratorical con-
eerlato of Schiitz's contemporaries
certato of Schiitz's contemporaries and successors,
successors, not so much because
because of
its
its immense
immense quantity,
quantity, but
but because
because it
it seems
seems much less alive by
less alive by comparison,
comparison,
though
though it
it is
is music
music of
of excellent
excellent workmanship.
workmanship. The scriptural
scriptural cantatas,
cantatas,

2.*GMB
2 GMB no. 192-
no. 192.
96 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
dialogues,
dialogues, and and Passions
Passions ranged
ranged from die the old-fashioned
old-fashioned motet
motet Passion
Passion
(Demantius)
(Demantius) and and the
the Gregorian
Gregorian Passion
Passion with
with turbae
turbae (Mancinus, Besler,
(Mancinus, Besler,
Vulpius,
Vulpius, Christoph
Christoph Schultze),
Schultze), overover dramatic
dramatic and allegorical
allegorical dialogues
dialogues
(Hammerschmidt,
(Hammerschmidt, Kindermann,
Kindermann, Rudolph
Rudolph Ahle),
Able), to
to Passions
Passions with
with arias
arias

and other
other textual
textual insertions
insertions of of contemplative
contemplative character.
character. Of the
the many
many
church
church concerts
concerts in in dramatic conccrtato style
dramatic concertato style the
the Gospel
Gospel dialogues Musi-
dialogues Musi-
caHsche
calischc Andachten (163~), and Gespraeche
Andachtcn (1638-52), Gcspraeche ;;ber
ubcr die Etlangelia (1655)
die Evangdia (1655)
by Hammerschmidt
by Hammerschmidt 80 must80 must be be mentioned,
mentioned, which
which were
were widely
widely imitated
imitated by
by
the
the parochial
parochial musicians
musicians of
of central
central Germany.
Germany. The light
light but
but not
not superficial
superficial
style
style of
of his
his music was referred
music was referred to to inin affectionate
affectionate irony
irony asas "Hammer-

schmidt's
Schmidt's foot" (Fuhrmann, 1,00).
foot" (Fuhrmann, 1706). The dramatic
dramatic type
type of
of Passion with
Passion with
non-liturgical
non-liturgical insertions
insertions appeared
appeared firstfirst with Thomas Selle Selle (St.
(St. John
John Pas-
Pas-

sion, 1643),
sion, 1643), Christian Flor, Sebastian~
Christian Flor, Sebastiani, and the the Schiitz
Schiitz pupil
pupil Johann
Johann Theile,
Theile,
and
and was
was further developed by
further developed by Pfleger,
Pfleger, Briegel,
Briegel, Meder,
Medcr, and Kiihnhausen.81
Kiihnhausen. 81
As early
early as
as the Passions of
the Passions Sebastiani (I672)
of Sebastiani (1672) and of Theile (I673)
of Theile (1673) chorales
chorales
appeared
appeared at
at strategic places
strategic places in
in alternation
alternation with
with contemplative
contemplative arias, a
arias, prac-
a prac-
tice
tice that
that laid
laid the
the ground
ground for
for the
the Passion
Passion of of the
the Bach type.
type.

The Catholic
Catholic church music of
church music of southern
southern Germany
Germany stood stood in in the
the shadow
of
of Rome and, and, toto aa smaller
smaller degree,
degree, of
of Venice.
Venice. For internal
internal and
and external
external
reasons
reasons a a specifically
specifically German style
style did
did not
not develop
develop in
in Catholic
Catholic church
church
music. The internal
music. internal and decisive
decisive reason
reason was that that composers
composers looked upon
looked upon
Rome as as their
their spiritual
spiritual center
center and therefore
therefore emulated
emulated the the Italian
Italian style.
style.
The external
external reason
reason was that the key
that the key positions
positions in in Munich,
Munich, Salzburg,
Salzburg, and
Vienna were occupied
occupied by by Italians
Italians such
such as
as Giovanni
Giovanni Valentini, B~
Valentini, Bertali, the
the
two Bernabeis,
Bernabeis, and Bernardi.
Bernardi. The influence
influence of
of Lasso, greater
Lasso, greater in
in Germany
Germany
than
than inin any
any other
other country,
country, lingered
lingered on well well into
into the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century
and was onlyonly slowly displaced by
slowly displaced by that
that of of Palestrina.
Palestrina. The conservative
conservative
82
Aichinger,82
Aichinger, an outstanding
outstanding master
master of of the
the transition
transition period,
period, was indebted
indebted
to
to the
the style
style of
of Palestrina
Palestrina rather
rather than
than to
to that
that of
of his
his teacher
teacher Gabrieli.
Gabrieli. His
His
highly polished
highly polished music
music in
in stile
stile antico
antico is
is noteworthy
noteworthy for
for its
its harmonic
harmonic rich-
rich-
ness.
ness. Aichinger
Aichinger did did not
not yet
yet write
write monodies though though he he was thethe first to pub-
first to pub-
lish
lish a printed score (I607),
continuo score
printed continuo (1607), the the description
description of of which
which he he drew
drew
directly
directly from Viadana whose pseudo-monodies
pseudo-monodies were were widely
widely disseminated
disseminated
in
in Germany.
Germany. Sacred monodies of
of German composers
composers were
were few and far
few and far

"DDT
DDT 40.
10 40.
81
81 Reprints: Selle in
Reprints: Selle CW
in CW 26,
26, Sebastiani
Sebastiani in
in DDT Theile in
17, Theile
I7. in DDT Pflcger in
17, PB.eger
I7. in
CW
CW 52, Kuhnhauscn in
52, Kiihnhausen CW
in CW SO.
50.
2
DTB IO:I.
IIIDTB 10:1.
 Early
Early and Baroque in
and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 97
97
between;
between; Klingenstein
Klingenstein (1607)(1607) was the the first
first to
to imitate
imitate thethe conservative
conservative
continuo
continue writing
writing of of Viadana.
Viadana.
The concertato
The conccrtato stylestyle with instruments
instruments assumed
assumed importance
importance with with local
local
Austrian masters such as
Austrian masters as Stadlmayr (d. Innsbruck
Stadlmayr (d. Innsbruck 1648), Emperor
1648), Emperor Ferdi-
Ferdi.
nand III,
III, Christoph
Christoph Strauss,
Strauss, and,
and, in in the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque generation, Johann
generation, Johann
Schmelzer,
Schmelzer, Biber,
Biber, Kerll,
Kerll, and Emperor Leopold 1.
Emperor Leopold I. They wrote
They wrote their their Masses,
Masses,
requiems,
requiems, and magnificats
magnificats forfor great
great choral
choral combinations,
combinations, two two or or three
three
choruses (Kerll),
(Kerll), and impressive
impressive orchestral
orchestral accompaniments
accompaniments with
with massed
massed
brass ensembles and timpani timpani which
which were
were popularly
popularly used used inin the
the seventeenth
seventeenth
century
century to lend pomp
to lend pomp and splendor
splendor to to important
important sections
sections of of the
the Mass.
Mass. Like
Like
Schiitz,
Schutz, the Catholic
Catholic masters
masters paid particular attention
paid particular attention to to the
the stylistic dif
stylistic dif-
ference between solo solo and choral
choral ensemble,
ensemble, and and to to the
the declamation
declamation of of the
the
text. KerlI
text. Kerll setset his
his choruses
choruses inin the
the manner of his teacher
of his teacher Carissimi
Carissimi with
with
imitative,
imitative, though harmonically conceived,
though harmonically conceived, texture.
texture. The Austrian
Austrian comcom-
posers did not hesitate to employ
posers did not hesitate to employ in in the
the orchestral
orchestral accompaniment
accompaniment of of their
their
Masses such operatic
Masses devices as
operatic devices the tremolo
as the tremolo which
which occurs
occurs in in Kerll's
KerlFs Re-Re-
88
quiem,83
quiem, or the programmatic
or the programmatic imitation
imitation of bells, which can
of bells, can bebe found
found in the
in the
84
sinfonia
sinfonia toto a Kyrie by
a Kyrie by Strauss.
Strauss.84 The Mass was was internally organized
internally organized as
as aa
unified whole by
unified by means of repeats of
of repeats of the same music
the same music to different words,
to different words,
rhythmic transformation
rhythmic transformation of the same motives
of the motives (Kerll's Requiem) and
(KcrlTs Requiem) and the
the
alternation of
alternation of florid
florid solo
solo ensembles
ensembles and and concise
concise chordal
chordal choruses
choruses in in church
church
cantata fashion.
cantata plainsong Mass
fashion. The plainsong Mass waswas definitively
definitively supplanted
supplanted by by the
the
concertato Mass or
conccrtato or cantata
cantata Mass,
Mass, designated
designated by by such
such general
general titles
titles as Missa
as Missa
S. Henrici (Biber)
5. Hcnrici (Biber) or Missa solemnis
or Missa solemnis which
which havehave survived
survived to to the
the present
present
day.
day.

OPERA, AND ORATORIO

LIED, OPERA,
CONTINUO LIED,
"Although secular German music
"Although secular music ofof the
the early
early baroque
baroque was heavily in
heavily in-
debted to
debted to Italian
Italian innovations,
innovations, it preserved
it preserved an
an individual
individual tone
tone because
because ofof
its conservatism and its traditional penchant
its conservatism and its traditional penchant for
for contrapuntal
contrapuntal texture.
texture. As
in sacred
in sacred music,
music, German composers
composers werewere slow
slow in in assimilating
assimilating monody.
monody.
point of
The point of departure
departure for
for the
the secular
secular song
song literature
literature was the
the Italian
Italian part-
part-
song
song "to
"to sing,
sing,
dance
dance and
and play"
play" which
which Hassler
Hassler had brought
brought back from his
his

Italian apprentice period.

Italian apprentice period. In
In his
his German songs
songs "in
"in the
the manner of
of foreign
foreign
madrigals and
madrigals and canzonets,"
canzonets." and especially
especially inin his
his valuable Lustgarten
valuable Lustgarten
(1601) 85
(1601) Hassler transplanted
8G Hassler transplanted to to German soilsoil the
the villanelle,
villanelle, canzonctte,
canzonette,
88
88 XXX:x (voL
DTOe XXX:i (voL 59).
59).
84
B4jb.
ib.
85
Eitner
8& Eitner PAM 15.
15.
98 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
and dance
and dance songs
songs of of Gastoldi
Gastoldi and and Vccchi.
Vecchio The charming charming sentiment
sentiment and
freshness of
freshness of his
his melodies
melodies was was not
not yetyet tinged
tinged by by the
the modern affectiveaffective tone.
tone.
Like the
Like the dance-song
dance-song collections
collections for for voices
voices or or instruments
instruments by by Melchior
Melchior
Franck, Haussmann,
Franck, Haussmann, Widmann, Widmann, and and Johann
Johann Staden,
Staden, Hassler's
Hassler's songs songs
represented aa hybrid
represented hybrid vocal-instrumental
vocal-instrumental literature literature in in which the the continuo
continuo
was either
was either optional
optional or or altogether
altogether lacking,
lacking, as as was
was characteristic
characteristic of of the
the tran-
tran-
sition period.
sition period.
The few-voiced
The concertato style
few-voiced conccrtato style with
with obligatory
obligatory continuo
continuo made its its en-
en-
try
try
in
in the
the three-voice
three-voice Musica
Musica boscareccia
boscarcccia (16:u-28)
(1621-28) by
by Schein.
Schein. In
In the
the pref-
pref-
ace the
ace the author
author suggested
suggested variousvarious manners
manners of of performance,
performance, ranging ranging from
a-cappella singing to solo song
a-cappella singing to solo song with continuo with continuo for
for either
either soprano
soprano or or tenor.
tenor.
It is
It is symptomatic
symptomatic of of Schein's
Schein's modern attitude attitude thatthat he left left the
the choice
choice of of
voice register
voice register to the performer
to the performer as as many
many Italian
Italian monodists
monodists had done be- be-
fore him.
fore him. Written
Written in in what
what Schein
Schein called
called the
the "Italo-Villanellian
"Italo-Villanellian invention"invention"
the Musica boscarcccia
the Musica boscareccia consisted
consisted of of strophic
strophic songs songs with with slight gorgia
slight gorgia
passages.
passages. Schein
Schein adopted
adopted here
here the
the airy dialogue
airy dialogue of
of the
the Monteverdian
Monteverdian
continuo canzonetta
continuo canzonetta and and not not byby coincidence
coincidence did did he he supply dynamic and
supply dynamic
tempo marks in
tempo marks in Italian. Italian. The adroit pictorial
adroit pictorial open-workopen-work of
of his gay
his gay and
and
concise motives
concise motives was was far far removed
removed from from the the self-contained
self-contained melodies melodies of of
Hassler's
Hassler's songs.
songs. Schein
Schein frequently
frequently wrote
wrote his
his own lyrics,
lyrics, which disclose
disclose aa
respectable poetic
respectable poetic talent
talent though
though the
the trifling pastoral
trifling pastoral subjectssubjects are
are presented
presented
with aa mannered
with mannered emphasis
emphasis on diminutives.
diminutives. The Diletti pastorali (1624),
Diletti fastordi (1624),
composed
composed in
in the
the "madrigalian
"madrigalian manner,"
manner," pay
pay tribute
tribute to
to the
the Italian
Italian continuo
continuo
madrigal. Here
madrigal. Here Schein,
Schein, in in obvious emulation of
obvious emulation of Monteverdi,
Monteverdi, gave gave most
most
valuable
valuable German madrigals for
madrigals for five five voices
voices andand instruments
instruments in in through-
through-
composed
composed form.
form.
Schein was
Schein was one of of the
the first
first German musiciansmusicians to to adopt
adopt thethe poetic
poetic form
of
o thethe madrigal
madrigal in
in music.
music. Schutz
Schiitz followed
followed suit
suit in
in aa few madrigalian
madrigalian
concertato
conccrtato compositions
compositions with with instrumental
instrumental sinfoniesinfonie to to words by by Opitz;
Opitz;
Sdle also
Selle also wrote
wrote in in a a similar
similar vein.
vein. In In spite
spite of
of Schein's
Schein's very
very successful
successful mad-
rigals, madrigalian
rigals, madrigalian poetry poetry was slow
slow to
to gain
gain a
a foothold
foothold in
in Gernlany.
Germany. As
late
ktc asas 1653
1653 the
the poet
poet Caspar
Caspar Ziegler,
Ziegler, withwith the the aid
aid ofof Schutz,
Schiitz, made a a strong
strong
effort
effort to to introduce
introduce the the madrigal
madrigal into into German poetry, praising it
poetry, praising it as
as "a
"a
beautiful
beautiful kind
kind of of verse,
verse, most
most suitable
suitable for for music."
music." His plea plea found
found an echo
echo

Knupfer whose Lustige Lustigc MatJrigale

86
with
with Kniipfer Madrigalc (1663) (1663) 86 brought
brought a a belated
belated vogue
vogue
for
for the
the German continuo
continuo madrigal.
madrigal
Strict
Strict monodies,
monodies, apparently,
apparently, did did notnot appeal
appeal very very strongly
strongly to to German

.. H. J.
**H. J. Moser, Corydon n.
Moscr, CoryJon IL
 Early
Early and
and Middle Baroque in
Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 99
99
musicians.
musicians. The firstfirst monodic collection
collection inin Germany,
Germany, the Arie passcgiatc
the Arie passegiate 8f
8T

by
by Nauwach,
Nauwach, appeared
appeared as
as late
late as
as 1623.
1623. The
The author acknowledged
author acknowledged his debt his debt
to
to Italy not only
Italy not only byby the title and the
the title the texts, but also
texts, but also by by including Caccini's
including Caccini's
well-known monody Amarilli which
monody Amarilli which he he paraphrased
paraphrased with
with flamboyant
flamboyant
gorgia passages.
gorgia passages. Nauwach's Teutsche Villancllcn (1627)
Tcutschc Villanellen assume, except
(1627) assume, except
for an ambitious romanesca
for romancsca variation,
variation, a a very
very popular
popular tone,tone, characteristic
characteristic
of
of the
the entire
entire German literature.
literature. The staticstatic basses
basses andand the the discontinuous
discontinuous
rhythms
rhythms of the Florentine
Florentine recitative
recitative had
had on the whole
on the whole only only a negligible
a negligible
effect
effect on German monodies. The Aricn Arien und Kantaten (1638)
und Kantatcn (1638) by Kittel,
by Kittel, aa
pupil
pupil of Schutz,
of represent the
Schiitz, represent the rather
rather naive
naive attempt
attempt to to turn
turn the
the virtuoso
virtuoso

technique of
technique of castrato
castrato singing
singing intointo a a vocal
vocal drill
drill for
for German
German choirchoir boys.
boys.
Following
Following the
the practice
practice of
of Grandi,
Grandi, Nauwach
Nauwach and
and Kittel
Kittel composed
composed theirtheir
"cantatas"
"cantatas" in in the
the form of of strophic
strophic variations. It is therefore hardly sur-
variations. It is therefore hardly sur-
prising that
prising that they
they are
are based
based in in part
part on the ruggiero
on the ruggicro 88 and
88
and thethe romaneSC(l.
romancsca.
Kittel
Kittel advised
advised beginners
beginners to to sing
sing all
all stanzas
stanzas to to the
the music
music of of the
the first
first and
and
simple
simple variation
variation before
before they
they tried
tried the
the subsequent
subsequent ones
ones which
which became
became pro-
pro-
gressively
gressively more ornate.
ornate. The German text by Opitz
text by Opitz that
that Kittel
Kittel used
used for the
for the
ruggiero
ruggicro variations was also
variations was also set
set by
by Nauwach,
Nauwach, but
but without
without ostinato.
ostinato.
8*
8e

The main stream

stream of of secular
secular music took the
music took the course
course of
of the
the strophic
strophic con-
con-
tinuo
tinue lied
lied which paralleled
paralleled in
in scope
scope and
and perfection
perfection of
of style
style the
the song
song
literature of
literature of the
the English
English lutenists.
lutenists. The continuo
continuo liedlied represented
represented the the
second
second great
great flowering
flowering in in the
the history
history of of the
the German song,song, its first peak
its first peak
being
being the
the tenor
tenor lied
lied of
of the
the renaissance
renaissance and and its
its third
third the
the piano
piano lied
lied of
of the
the
classic
classic and
and romantic periods. Consistent
romantic periods. Consistent with their conservative
with their procliv-
conservative procliv-
ities
ities the
the German composers
composers did did notnot cultivate
cultivate exclusively
exclusively the modern
the modern
monodic
monodic style
style but
but included
included in in their
their collections
collections polyphonic
polyphonic songs,
songs, even
even sug-
sug-
gesting
gesting that
that in
in monodic
monodic songs
songs a
a second
second voice
voice might
might be
be improvised.
improvised. They
They
frequently to be
frequently provided ritornelli for
provided ritornelli for asas many
many as as five
five voices,
voices, to played
be played
between
between thethe stanzas.
stanzas.
The
The continuo
continuo lied flourished -in
lied flourished in the
the three
three regional
regional schools.
schools. The leader
leader
of
of the
the north
north German school school was Heinrich Albert (I6o.t-I6;sI),
Hcinrich Albert (160^1651), the
the cousin
cousin
of
of Schutz,
Schiitz, whose
whose inspired Aricn (1638-1650)
inspired Arlen (1638-1650) 40 were sung all
40
were sung all over
over Ger-
Gcr-

8T Einstein,
IT Einstein, SIMG XIII, 286 fI.
XIII, 286 S.
88 Riemann
III Riemann HMG 2:2, 352; compare
2:2, ;3S2; the similarities
compare the similarities between Kittel's F~
Kittel's and Fresco-
baldi's "'lgiero
baldi's ruggiero variations
variations {TAM
(TAM IV)IV).
Haas B,
898 Haas B, 100.
100.
~ GMB no. 193-193.
.
100
ioo Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
many. Albert
many. Albert setset to
to music
music not not only
only the
the lyrics
lyrics of of Simon
Simon Dach Dach but also his
but also his
own. The north German
own. The north German school comprised school comprised in
in addition
addition Thomas
Thomas Selle,
Sclle,

notable for
notable his monodic
for his monodic collection M onophonetica (1636)
collection Monophonetica (1636),41, Rubert, Loewe,
n Hubert, Loewe,
42
Delphin Strungk
Delphin Strungk (the(the father
father of of Nikolaus),
Nikolaus), Caldenbach, GrefBinger,42
Caldenbach, Grefflingcr, and
and
the poet-musician
the poet-musician Rist.
Rist.
48
4S With
With the
the musical
musical aid
aid of
of Schop
Schop and
and others
others Rist
Rist
published Galathea, Sabbathische Seelenlust, Florabella
published Galathea, Sabbathische Seclenlust,
(I~), and
Florabella (1644), and many
many
other collections
other collections containing
containing sacred sacred andand secular
secular miniature songs
miniature songs in very
in very
popular style.
popular style.
The
The trumpeter
trumpeter Gabriel
Gabriel Voigclander
Voigtlander contributed,
contributed, in
in his
his

Allerhanri Oden
Allcrhand Oden (i642),
(I6.p},44 to the lowest
44 to the lowest stratum
stratum of of German
German songs. songs. They
They
were exclusively
were exclusively parodies
parodies of airs de
of airs de cour
cour andand other
other songs
songs drawn from
Italian, English, and French
Italian, English, and French authors authors whose names were never disclosed.
never disclosed.
Rist's and
Rist's and Voigtlander's
Voigtlander's collections
collections included
included among among other other English
English songssongs
also Dowland's
also Dowland's Can Can sheshe excuse
excuse (which
(which appears
appears in in the
the Fitzwilliam
Fitzwilliam Vir- Vir-
ginal
ginal
Book
Book in
in an
an anonymous arrangement}-an
anonymous arrangement) an indication
indication that
that English
English
songs remained
songs remained popular
popular in in Germany
Germany even even longer
longer than than in in England.
England. The
south German school
south German included Johann
school included Staden (Venus
Johann Staden Kriintzlein and
(Venus Krantzlein and-
Hertzenstrost-Musica), Sigmund
Hertzenstrost-Musica), Sigmund Staden Staden (the (the son of Johann), Kinder-
of Johann), Kinder-
mann,
mann, and and Capricornus
Capricornus (Bockshom).
(Bockshorn). The most most fertile
fertile center
center was the the
central
central German
German school
school with
with Schein, Nauwach,
Schein, Nauwach, Kittel, Kittel, Rudolf Ahle,
Able, Ham-
merschmidt (Weltlide
(Weltliche Oden, Oden, 1642},411 Neumark, Dedekind (Aelbi-
45
merschmidt 1642) , Neumark, (Aelbi-
anische Musenlust, 16s7),
anische Musenlust, 1657), and ^^ Adam Krieger Krieger (1634-1666),
(1634-1666), the pupil pupil of
Scheidt.
Scheidt.
In Aricn (16s7-1667)
Krieger's Arien
In Krieger's (1657-1667) -for for solo
solo voice
voice or or small
small solo
solo ensembles

and sonorous five-part ritornelli,

and sonorous five-part ritornelli, the
the continuo
continuo lied
lied achieved
achieved its
its perfection.
perfection.
He combined
combined in in his
his melodies
melodies the the clarity
clarity ofof the
the Italian
Italian belbel canto
canto with the the
strong
strong and
and concise
concise rhythms
rhythms of of the
the German song song style,
style, obviously
obviously derived
derived
from
from the dance. The influence
the dance. influence of of the
the dance on song style
song style can be seen
seen in in

occasional rhythmic transformations,

occasional rhythmic transformations, in
in the
the manner of
of the
the varied
varied couple,
couple,
that
that occur
occur inin Albert's songs. The homespun
Albert's songs. homespun humor and the the delicate
delicate gravity
gravity
of
of the texts was
the texts was matched
matched by by thethe profound sentiment of
profound sentiment of the music. Al- Al-
though popular
though popular in
in tone
tone these
these songs
songs were not
not folksongs,
folksongs, but
but were in-
in-

tended
tended for for "civil"
"civil" use,
use, to
to revive
revive a
a term of
of the
the English
English theorist
theorist Butler.
Butler.
The
The civil
civil songs
songs served
served as as popular
popular entertainment
entertainment and and were
were sungsung in in the
the
homes of
homes of the
the middle
middle classclass in in the
the cities
cities and
and at at the
the gatherings
gatherings of of students
students
in the collegia
in the musica of
collegia musica of the
the universities.
universities.

Q41 Haas
Haas B,
B, 100.
ioo.
42
62 GMB 206, Miiller
no. 206,
GMB no. Muller Gtschichte
Gesckichte del
des deutsclzen Lie des, App.
deutschen Liedel, App. 18
18.
.. MillIcr, I.e. p. 14-
Muller,/^p. 14.
.. See Fischer,
"See Fischer, SIMG
SIMG XII, 17ff.
X3I, 17 5.
* B GMB
6' GMB no.no. 194, H. J.J. Moser.
194, H. Moser. Alte
Altc Meister
Mcister des
des deutsr:1zen
deutschen Liedel.
TJedes.
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries
Countries 101
101
Albert and
Albert and Kriegcr
Krieger were
were great
great only in the
only in the medium
medium of
of the
the small
small forms;
forms;
they represent
they represent respectively
respectively the
the early
early and
and the
the mature
mature phase
phase of
of the
the continuo
continuo
lied. It is characteristic of Albert's German
lied. It is characteristic of Albert's German background
background that that his
his collec-
collec-
tions
tions make no
make no' clear
clear distinction
distinction between
between secular
secular andand sacred
sacred literature
literature and
and
present
present dance
dance songs, chorales,
songs, chorales, short
short recitatives,
recitatives, and
and choral
choral songs
songs indis.-
indis-

criminately mixed
criminately mixed together.
together. Both
Both composers
composers expanded
expanded the the strophic
strophic form
form
to larger
to larger units by joining
units by joining different
different strophes
strophes together,
together, to to be
be sung
sung in al-
in al-
ternation. Although
ternation. Although AlbertAlbert admitted
admitted in in the
the preface
preface to to his
his arias
arias that
that only
only
the through-composed
the through-composed song song did
did justice
justice to
to the
the words,
words, he he wrote
wrote inin this
this form
form
only occasionally.
only occasionally. The influence
influence of
of Schiitz
Schiitz on
on Albert's
Albert's style may
style may account
account
for Albert's
for Albert's marked leanings
leanings toward
toward thethe Italian
Italian recitative;
recitative; recitative
recitative sec-
sec-
tions frequently
tions frequendy interrupt
interrupt thethe continuity
continuity of of the
the song,
song, and Albert
Albert ex-ex-
pressly pointed
pressly pointed
out
out that
that these
these should
should be
be sung
sung "without
"without measure"
measure" in
in the
the
manner of
manner of "a
"a clear
clear narration."
narration." The rhapsodic
rhapsodic elements
elements in in Albert's
Albert's melodies
melodies
give
give his
his songs
songs a
a peculiar
peculiar charm.
charm. Krieger
Kriegcr on
on the
the other
other hand kept aloof
kept aloof
from the recitative and designed
from the recitative and designed his his bel-canto
bel-canto melodies
melodies against
against a
a very
very
active bass
active in close
bass in close adherence
adherence to to dance
dance patterns
patterns (Ex. 24). He approached
(Ex. 24). approached

C...
Ex. 24-
Ex. 24.
An
Krieger: Continuo
Adam Kricger:
-
~.n
ro - ra
Lied.
Continuo Lied.

...........
mein Licht, _do ........... .
er-scheinst do mir nlcht, da ~
ich dir

at
at times
times the
the Italian
Italian chamber
chamber cantata
cantata with ritornelli in
with ritornelli in which
which aria and
aria and

arioso
arioso were
were consciously
consciously differentiated.
differentiated. After
After Krieger,
Kricger, the continuo
continuo song
song
rapidly declined
rapidly declined
under
under the
the impact
impact of
of the
the oncoming
oncoming German
German opera.
opera. It
It

was assimilated by the operatic

was assimilated by the operatic aria
aria or
or survived
survived only
only in
in modest
modest songs
songs de-
de-

rived
rived from French a..la-mode
from French b-la-modc dances.
dances.

The
The origins of the German
German opera
opera and oratorio
oratorio cannot easily be
cannot easily be traced
traced
origins of the
because of lack of sources. The low comedy plays
comedy plays of
of the
the English come-
English come-
because of lack of sources.
T*
dians, who swarmed all over the
dians, who swarmed all over Germany after 1600,
the Netherlands and Gtrmany
and after
I02
IO2 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque hra
Jira

can
can hardly
hardly be be called
called operas
operas sincesince the
the numerous stanzas stanzas were sung sung to to aa
few popular
popular ballad
ballad tunes,
tunes, amongamong which the
the English
English Roland or
or Lord
Willoughhy,
Willoughby, Fortune my my joe,foe, and Pickelherring
Pic^elherring were the the most famous.
famous.
Some of of them appearedappeared in in keyboard
keyboard arrangements
arrangements in in the
the Fitzwilliam
Fitzwilliam
Virginal
Virginal Book.Book. The farce farce The Singing Simptyn was translated
Singing Simpkin translated into into Ger-
Ger-
man (Pickelherring
(Picfylherring in
in the
the Box,
Box, 1620)
1620)
46
46 and
and similar
similar farces
farces were
were contained
contained
in
in Ayrer's collection (1618)
Ayrer's collection (1618) and the Liebesfompf (1630),
the Liebeskampf (1630), which trans- trans-
mitted
mitted a a large
krge repertory
repertory of of popular
popular theatre
theatre on English
English models.
models.
The decisive
decisive stimulus
stimulus for for the
the opera
opera inin Germany
Germany came, came, of of course,
course, from
from
Italy.
Italy. It
It can
can be
be traced
traced as
as early
early as
as 1618
1618 (Salzburg).
(Salzburg). The first
first German opera
opera
Dafne was composed
Dafne composed by by Schutz (Torgau, 1627).
Schiitz (Torgau, 1627). ItIt was based
based on the the trans-
trans-
lation
lation ofof Rinuccini's
Rinuccini's first libretto by
first libretto by Martin
Martin Opitz,Opitz, thethe leading
leading German
baroque poet
baroque poet whose treatise
treatise Von der der T Poeterey was aa milestone
eutschen Poeterey
Teutschen milestone
in
in the
the development
development of
of German literature.
literature. Schutz's
Schiitz's music
music is
is not
not extant,
extant, and
and
from thethe libretto
libretto it it can
can only only be
be gathered
gathered that
that Opitz
Opitz stressed
stressed the
the idyllic
idyllic
rather
rather than the the dramatic
dramatic side side of the pastoral.
of the pastoral. Schutz
Schiitz composed
composed duringduring his his
stay
stay in Venice (1629)
in Venice (1629) another
another opera,
opera, anan Italian
Italian "comedy"
"comedy" that that could
could be be
"acted
"acted singing,"
singing," of of which we know only through one
only through one ofof his letters.4.7
his letters.
47 His
His
casual remark
casual remark in this letter
in this letter that the stile
that the stile rappresentativo
rapprescntativo was was "as yet totally
"as yet totally
unknown in in Germany,"
Germany," seems
seems to
to imply
imply that
that Dafne
Dafne contained
contained little
little if any
if any

recitative. Schutz's ballet Orfeo

recitative. Schiitz's ballet Orfeo e Euridice (1638) is
Euridice (1638) is also lost. The first
also lost. first
German opera opera to to survive
survive was was Seeleurig*
Seelewig,488 aa rather
rather wooden
wooden allegorical
allegorical playplay
the Frauenzimmer-Gesprdchsspiele
from the Frauenzimmer-Gespriichsspiele (1644) (1644) of of Harsdorffer
Harsdorffer with with music
music
by Sigmund
by Sigmund Staden.
Staden. In
In the
the music
music chorale
chorale quotations,
quotations, continuo
continue songs,
songs, andand
Florentine recitatives
Florentine recitatives formform aa strange
strange mixture
mixture of of styles.
styles.
school dramas
The school dramas and and thethe Jesuit
Jesuit morality
morality playsplays also
also furnished
furnished aa smallsmall
basis for
basis for semi-operatic
semi-operatic spectacles.
spectacles. The first first group
group is is represented
represented by by the
the
oratoricus with
Actus oratoricus with incidental
incidental musicmusic byby Melchior
Melchior Franck.
Franck.'9 49 In Munich,
In Munich,
one ofof thethe centers
centers of of thethe Jesuit
Jesuit drama,
drama, the the anonymous
anonymous comedia comedia sacra sacra
50
Philatea 110
Philatea was performed in 1643.
performed in 1643. ItIt was
was followed
followed by by the
the sacred
sacred playplay
Pia et
Pia fortis mulier
et fortis (1677) by
mulier (1677) by Kerll,
Kerll, the
the music
music of of which
which was was through-
through-
composed in
composed in operatic
operatic fashion.
fashion.
The main activityactivity in in thethe field
field of
of opera
opera lay,lay, however,
however, in in the
the hands
hands of of
Italian musicians
Italian musicians employed
employed at at the
the German and and Austrian
Austrian courts,
courts, such
such as as
Maccioni, Ercole
Maccioni, Ercole and GiuseppeGiuseppe Bcrnabei
Bernabei in in Munich,
Munich, and and Bontempi
Bontempi in in
46 See
Bolte in TAeatergescAichtZiche ForscAungen, 77 (1893).
411 See Bolte in Theatorgeschichiliche Forschungen, (1893).
,., Moser, SChUtz, 122.
^MoscitSchutz, 122.
48
Reprinted in
4S Reprinted
4* Haas
MM
in MfM 13, 1881. Excerpt
13, 1881. in
Excerpt in GMB no.
no. 195.
Igs.
B, 170.
'8 Haas 6,170.
10
I:~ 913*
J,aviFac E 1:2,
10 J-avignac gu.
 Early
Early and
and Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries
Countries 103
103
Dresden.
Dresden. The The latter
latter also
also composed
composed (with (with Peranda)
Peranda) two two German
German operas,operas,
Daphne (1~)
Daphne (1672) and JupiterJupiter und 10 lo (I67J).
(1673). Vienna
Vienna must
must be regarded as
be regarded as
the main outpost
the main outpost of of Italian
Italian opera.
opera. The Italian
Italian tradition
tradition began
began with
with the
the
performance
performance of of Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's Ritorno Ritorno andand Cavalli's
Cavalli's Egisto and persisted
Egisto and persisted
throughout
throughout the
the baroque
baroque periodperiod with
with Bertali,
Bertali, Cesti, Pietro Ziani,
Cesti, Pietro Ziani, andand
Draghi
Draghi whose
whose works are discussed
are discussed in in Chapter
Chapter IV. IV. The
The Austrian
Austrian emperors
emperors
Ferdinand
Ferdinand III III and Leopold
Leopold II were both active
were both active in in thethe field
field of of opera;
opera;
Ferdinand disclosed his his respectable
respectable musical proficiency in
musical proficiency in the
the Drama
musicum (1~) (1649) composed
composed in in strictly
strictly Venetian
Venetian style, and Leopold wrote
style, and Leopold wrote
arias
arias and manymany jesteteste teatrtde
teatrale that
that were
were inserted in
inserted in operasoperas and and school
school
dramas. Biber's
Biber's only extant opera Chi la dura
only extant opera Chi la dura la vince la vince 50 *
I5Ga (Salzburg,
(Salzburg, 168 7)
1687)
spite of
shows in spite of its
its dependence on
dependence on the the Italian
Italian bel-canto
bel<anto style a remark-
style a remark-
ably
ably independent
independent attitude.
attitude.

The German oratorio literature of

oratorio literature of the middle baroque
the middle baroque was was at at first
first in-
in-

significant.
significant. It
It developed
developed out
out of
of modest
modest school
school dramas
dramas such
such as
as the
the sacred
sacred

Nuremberg Acts (c.

Nuremberg (c. 1650)
1650) in in which
which chorales,
chorales, choruses,
choruses, and and songs
songs alter-
alter-

nated with spoken

nated narration. The decisive
spoken narration. decisive influence
influence came again again from
from
Italy
Italy after
after Carissimi
Carissimi had had established
established the the oratorio.
oratorio. The first first attempt
attempt to
transplant
transplant the
the originally
originally Catholic
Catholic form
form into
into the
the Protestant
Protestant milieu
milieu was
was
made by Fromm in the Actus
Actus musicus: De Divite et Lazaro 50b (St~
ISOb
by in the musicus: Divitc et Lazaro (Stettin,
1649).
1649). He closely
closely adhered to to Carissimi's
Carissimi's oratorios,
oratorios, butbut Germanized them
by means of
by of chorale melodies. The oratorical
chorale melodies. dialogue in
oratorical dialogue in Latin
Latin was ex- ex-
tensively
tensively cultivated
cultivated by by Kaspar
Kaspar Foerster
Foerster who had received received his his training
training
in
in Italy
Italy and was active active inin Copenhagen
Copenhagen and northernnorthern Germany.
Germany. His Latin Latin
dialogues
dialogues David,
David, De Divitt:. Holofmzes (c.
Divitc, Holofemes (c. i66o), 1660),11151 are strongly influenced
are strongly influenced
by
by Carissimi's
Carissimi's plastic
plastic and concise
concise choral
choral style.
style. The Austrian
Austrian oratorios, too,
oratorios, too,
were
were predominantly
predominantly Italian, Italian, not only in
not only in their
their style
style but
but alsoalso inin their
their texts.
texts.

Emperor
Emperor Leopold's
Leopold's oratorio
oratorio Die Erlosung
Erlosung des menschlichen Geschkchts
des menschlichen Geschlechts
(1619),112
(1679)
52
, one of
one of the
the few oratorios
oratorios in in German,
German, is is noteworthy
noteworthy for for the in- in-

dividual tone of
dividual tone of the
the music.
music. The Viennese
Viennese evolved
evolved a a special
special typetype of
of oratorio
oratorio
in
in the
the so-called sepolcro performed
so-called sepolcro performed during Holy Week in
during Holy in semi-operatic
semi-operatic
manner. The brief
manner. brief allegorical action of
allegorical action of the sepokro took place
the sepolcro took place before
before a a
representation of
representation of the
the Holy
Holy Sepulchre
Sepulchre in in the church. The Sacrificio
the church. Sacrificio
a'Abramo
dAbramo (1660) by
(1660) by EmperorEmperor Leopold
Leopold established
established the
the form,
form, and later
later

the
the Austrian
Austrian Schmelzer
Sdimclzer and and Richter
Richter contributed
contributed to to tke
the sepokro
sepolcro com-
position,
position, not
not to to mention Sances, Draghi,
mention Sances, Draghi, and the the other Italians. Except for
Italians. Except for

10& Schneider, AMW, VIII,

50a See
See Schneider, VIE, 28x.
281.
50b DnJl{miiler der
lOb Pommern, s-
Musil{ in
Pommem.
DenJynaler der Musi% in 5.
w 0rt#0rUun.
11 Schcring.
Schcring, Oratorium, 160.
Q GMB DO. 235.
104 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the
the occasional
occasional use
use of
of naive
naive popular
popular songs
songs of
o Viennese
Viennese local
local color
color the
the
Austrian
Austrian operas
operas and oratorios
oratorios depended
depended on the
the Italian
Italian middle baroque
baroque
style.
style.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC:
MUSIC SCHEIDT,
SCHEIDT, FROBERGER,
FROBERGER, BIBER
Z

In German keyboard keyboard literature

literature of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque periodperiod thethe organ
organ
hdd
held thethe central
central position
position and
and most
most of
of the
the music
music was composed
composed for for this
this
instrument,
instrument, even
even if
if the
the titles
titles left
left the
the choice
choice between
between organ
organ or
or harpsichord.
harpsichord.
The distinction
distinction between
between the the idioms
idioms of of the
the two instruments
instruments was in in its
its

incipient
incipient stage,
stage, since
since very
very little
little use
use was as yet made of
as yet of the pedal, and when
the pedal,
it
it occurred
occurred at at all
all the
the composer
composer took pains to
took pains to indicate
indicate the the fact
fact in the
in the
title.
title.

Three influences
influences converged
converged in in the
the German tradition
tradition of of keyboard
keyboard music,
music,
all
all of
of which contributed
contributed to to the
the great
great achievements
achievements of
of the
the future.
future. The first
first

was thethe German tradition

tradition of of the
the colorists embellished vocal
colorists who embellished vocal settings
settings
with aa highly
with highly intricate
intricate embroidery
embroidery of idiomatic keyboard
of idiomatic keyboard figuration
figuration which
which
completely obscured
completely obscured the vocal origin
the vocal origin ofof the
the model.
model. The second second came from from
Italy,
Italy, especially
especially from the the Venetian
Venetian and Roman schools schools (Merulo,
(Merulo, Gabrieli,
Gabrieli,
and Frescobaldi).
Frescobaldi). The third third and most most potent
potent waswas the the Dutch influence
influence of of
Sweelinck, the
Sweelinck, the maker of of German organists,
organists, who transmitted
transmitted the the Anglo-
Anglo-
Italian style to
Italian style to the
the schools
schools of northern and
of northern and central
central Germany.
Germany.
Of thethe three
three regional
regional schools,
schools, the the south
south German school school was directly
directly
dependent on Gabrieli
dependent Gabrieli and and Merulo.
Merulo. Hans Leo Leo Hassler
Hassler and and his
his brothers,
brothers,
Christian Erbach
Christian Erbach (d. (d. 163S),1I3
1635) ,
8S
Holtzner, Steigleder
Holtzner, Stcigleder (d. (d. 1635), and Kinder-
1635), and Kinder-
mann (d. (d. 16ss) preserved the
1655) preserved the tradition
tradition of of the
the colorists
colorists and and in
in their
their toc-
toc-
catas and canzonas
catas canzonas leanedleaned heavily
heavily on the the Italian
Italian models. T ahulatura
models. The Tabulatura
italica, aa set
italica, set of
of fugues
fugues by by thethe organist
organist Klemme (a (a pupil
pupil ofof Erbach
Erbach and and
Schiitz).
Schiitz), followed
followed the
the order
order of
of the
the twelve
twelve modes,
modes, a
a favorite
favorite pedagogical
pedagogical
arrangement that
arrangement that persisted
persisted not not only
only inin the
the works
works of of Pachelbel
Pachdbel and and Ferdi-
Ferdi-
Fischer, but
nand Fischer, also in
but also in the
the Inventions
Inventions and and thethe Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier Clavier
of Bach.
of Bach. The Harmonica organica (1645) of
organica (1645) of the
the Nuremberg
Nuremberg organistorganist
Kindermann is is noteworthy
noteworthy for for the
the obligatory
obligatory use use of of pedals.
pedals. Steigleder's
Steigleder's
forty variations
forty variations on the the chorale
chorale VaterVater unscr
unser S4 are concluded
1i4 are concluded by by aa toccata.
toccata.
complete interpenetration
The complete interpenetration of of secular
secular andand sacred
sacred techniques
techniques of of varia-
varia-
tion in
tion in Steigleder's
Steigleder's musicmusic shows
shows the the influence
influence of of the
the north
north German school, school,
but no north
but north German organist organist wouldwould havehave thought
thought of of making
making aa toccata
toccata anan
integral part
integral part ofof aa set of
set of variations.
variations.
I8DTB 4:2-
" Reprinted by
U Reprinted Emshcimer, Barenrciter
by Emshcimcr, cd. Ig28, see
Bircnreiter cd, also HAM no.
see also no. 19ob.
1928, ipob.
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 105
105
The north German school, school, being being almost
almost exclusively
exclusively a a Sweelinck
Swcelinck prod-prod-
uct,
uct, was the
the bulwark of the patternedpatterned chorale
chorale variation.
variation. It
It could pride
could pride itself
itself

on such masters as as Melchior Schildt Schildt (Hanover),

(Hanover), Paul Paul Siefert
Sicfert (Danzig),
(Danzig),
Delphin
Delphin Strungk,
Strungk, Jacob Praetorius (the
Jacob Praetorius (the son
son of of Hieronymus),
Hicronymus), and Hein-
and Hcin-
rich
rich Scheidemann (d. (d. 1663).
1663). The last last two werewere active
active in in Hamburg,
Hamburg, the the
prominent
prominent center
center of thethe school.
school. The middle baroque generation
middle baroque generation included
included
Franz Tunder (d. (d. I667),
1667), Matthias
Matthias Weckmann (a (a disciple
disciple of of Jacob
Jacob Prac-
Prae-
torius), Nikolaus Banff
torius), Hanfi (d. 1706),
(d. 1706), and Jan
Jan Reinken
Rcinken (1623-1722)
(1623-1722) who
lived
lived to
to hear Bach improvise
improvise on
on the
the organ
organ in
in Hamburg.
Hamburg.
The central
central German school school centered round Samuel
centered round Samuel Scheidt
Scheidt in in Halle,
Halle,
the
the most distinguished
distinguished of
of the
the Sweelinck
Sweelinck pupils,
pupils, and
and comprised
comprised Rudolph
Rudolph
Ahle,
Ahle, Briegel,
Briegel, and Johann Christoph Bach (I&P-I703),
Johann Christoph (1642-1703), the the greatest
greatest musi-
musi-
cal
cal ancestor
ancestor of of Johann
Johann Sebastian.
Sebastian.
With Scheidt
Scheidt German organ organ musicmusic came into into its
its own. His epoch-making
epoch-making
Tabulatura nova (1624
Tabulatura (1624*1.)if.) 55
ISIS was "new"
"new" because
because it
it abandoned
abandoned the tra-
the tra-
ditional
ditional German organ organ tablature
tablature in
in favor
favor of
of the
the Italian
Italian keyboard partitura
keyboard partitura
which reserved
which reserved for for each
each voice
voice a separate staff.
a separate staff. Scheidt applied the
Scheidt applied the pat-
pat-
terned
terned variation
variation technique
technique of
of Sweelinck
Sweelinck with
with a
a thoroughness
thoroughness and severity
severity
that
that would touch pedantry were
touch pedantry were it it not
not forfor hishis abstract
abstract combinative
combinative
imagination.
imagination. Brahms confessed confessed that that he he "revelled
"revelled in in admiration"
admiration" of of it.
it.

Scheidt's
Scheldt's chorale
chorale variations
variations are are literally
literally "elaborations"
"elaborations" since since ceaseless
ceaseless

"labor" in
"labor" in the
the service
service ofof God was regarded regarded as as the
the measure of of devotion.
devotion. The
first
first two parts of
two parts of the
the Tabulatura
Tabulatura not/a nova include, besides fugues
include, besides fugues and echoes,
echoes,
German chorales
chorales andand secular
secular songs;
songs; the
the third
third contains,
contains, with one exception,
exception,
strictly liturgical hymns and chorales
strictly liturgical hymns
chorales thatthat serving
serving as as cantus firmifirmi are not
are not
touched
touched by by the
the variational
variational patterns.
patterns. The preface expressly designates
preface expressly designates these
variations
variations asas absque
absquc ullo colore. In
ullo colore. In his
his extended
extended variations
variations Scheidt sharp- sharp-
ened the contrast between
ened the contrast between chorale melody chorale melody and the
the abstract patterns of
abstract patterns of
the
the other voices in
other voices in order
order to to emphasize
emphasize the the structural function of the
structural function of the
cantu! firmus and
cantus firmus and toto make it it as
as prominent
prominent as possible. This musical
as possible. musical style
style
was
was directly
directly bound up
up with
with the
the baroque
baroque organ,
organ, minutely
minutely described by
by
Praetorius in
Praetorius in the
the Syntagma
Syntagma musicum.
musicum. It provided
It provided the pedal
pedal with
with inde-
inde-

pendent four-foot
pendent four-foot and two-foot ranks
and two-foot ranks for the cantus firmus
for the firmus and made made the the
rhythmic patterns of
of the
the voices
voices easily audible by virtue of
of its brillian~
its
rhythmic patterns easily by brilliant,
56
penetrating, and nasal timbres
penetrating, and nasal
timbres and mixture mixture stops.1I8
stops.

"DDT I.i.
laDDT , , ^
56 In
118 In recent years organ
recent years organ builders
builders have returned more and more
have returned to the
to the baroque
baroque
organ. At
organ. At the
the suggestion
suggestion of
of Professor
Professor Gurlitt
Gurlitt a Practorius organ has
Praetorius organ ~ l'CCOD-
has been recon-
structed
structed by
by Walker
Walker at
at the University of
the University of Frc.iburg.
Freiburg. The reform movement was was maugu-
inaugu-
rated in
rated in this
this country
country by
by Walter
Walter Holtkamp
Holtkamp who has built several
has built several splendid organs in
splendid organs in
Cleveland. organs in the Germanic Museum at
Also Donald
Cleveland. Also Donald Harrison's
Harrison's organs in the at Harvard
Harvard
University
University and
and at
at the
the :Westminster Choir School in
Westminster Choir in Princ:etoD. should be
Princeton should be mcntioDed.
mentioned.
106 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
Scheidt
Scheldt shared
shared with Sweelinck the the strong
strong emphasis
emphasis on rhythmic variety.
rhythmic variety.
His chief
chief contribution
contribution was to to show thethe infinite
infinite possibilities of combining
possibilities of combining
abstract
abstract patterns
patterns with thethe cantus firm us. It
cantus firmus. It easily
easily escapes
escapes attention
attention that
that
often
often each
each phrase
phrase of the chorale
of the melody is
chorale melody is set
set off
off by
by aa different
different rhythmic
rhythmic
variation Warum betrUbst Did

=
idea.
idea. The seventh
seventh verse
verse ofof the
the chorale
chorale variation betrubst Du Dick
mein
mcin Herz (Ex. 25)
(Ex. 25)
5T
111 begins
begins with one of
of the
the typical upbeat patterns,
typical upbeat patterns,

Ex. 25.
Ex. 25. Scheidt: Chorale Variation
Scheldt: Chorale Variation from
from Tabulatura
Tabulatura not/a.
nova.
Choralis in canty
77...._., ..... "' .. _tv

ll~::: :W[j] I:;&; 1!r;EI:~r:J

Vei-svSj

~!:;;;:t;J:;JJ :,['P&H
Scheldt liked
which Scheidt liked as
as much as
as Sweelinck
I:
Sweelinck did,
did, and then
then introduces
introduces for
for
=:
the second line of the melody
the second line of the melody an eighth-note
eighth-note pattern of similar
pattern of phrasing.
similar phrasing.
The variations include bicinia
variations include bicinia and tricinia,
tricinia, often
often in
in double
double counterpoint,
counterpoint,
chromatic variations per semitonia.
variations per semitonia, and sections
sections in in imitatio
imitatio violistica
violistica which
which
prove
prove that the'
the measured string
string tremolo
tremolo was also
also transferred
transferred to
to the
the organ.
organ.
The fugues
fugues of of the Tabulatura
Tabulatura nOflanova are wrought in
are wrought in a
a solid
solid contrapuntal
contrapuntal
texture
texture and correspond
correspond exacdy
exactly to to what Sweelinck
Sweelinck wouldwould havehave called
called
fantasia. Scheidt expanded
fantasia. Scheidt expanded them to to grand
grand tripartite
tripartite forms
forms byby lengthening
lengthening
the sections
sections in which the the theme appears
appears inin augmentation
augmentation and diminution.
diminution.
The fantasias
fantasias inin echo do not transcend
transcend the the limits
limits ofof Sweelincks's
Sweelincks's form.form.
The various sets sets of
of secular
secular variations
variations were based based on French
French and and Flem-
Flem-
ish
ish songs
songs or on dances like like allemandes
allemandes or or the passamezzo antico.
the passamezzo antico. InIn con-
con-
trast with the chorale variation
trast variation Scheidt
Scheidt restricted
restricted himself in
himself in the secular
the secular
variation
variation toto the
the elaboration
elaboration of of aa single pattern for
single pattern for each
each statement
statement of the
of the
melody.
melody. The sequence
sequence of of variations
variations was conceived
conceived as as leading
leading up up to
to aa
rhythmic
rhythmic climax,
climax, brought
brought about by by a consistendy
consistently accelerated
accelerated pace
pace of
of the
the
elaboration in in ever shorter
shorter note
note values.
values. The set was rounded
set was rounded off off by
by aa swift
swift
conclusion in triple
triple meter.
meter. In
In the
the fugues
fugues also
also the
the drive
drive toward
toward a
a rhythmic
rhythmic
climax isis very
very noticeable.
noticeable.

Scheidt
Scheidt significandy
significantly distinguished between secular
distinguished between secular and sacred variation
sacred variation

"*7 The articulation has

The artic:ulation been added in
has been in order to show the
order to the phrase
phrase structure.
structure. Compare
Compare
harmonizations of
Bach's harmonizations the same chorale
of the chorale (nos.
(nos. 331-.333).
331-333).
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque in
in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries 107
I07
by
by calling the
calling the single
single statements
statements variatio or versus
variatio or respectively.
va-sus respectively. The dif-
The dif-
ferent "verses"
ferent "verses" of
of the
the chorale
chorale could
could be
be used,
used, like
like the
the Catholic
Catholic versets,
versets,
for the
for the alternatim practice in
alternatim practice in the
the service.
service. Since
Since the
the chorale
chorale had
had aa dozen
dozen or
or
even more
even more stanzas,
stanzas, it
it was
was performed
performed alternately
alternately either
either by
by the
the congregation
congregation
in unison,
in unison, by
by the
the Kantorei in aa polyphonic
Kantorei in polyphonic setting,
setting, or
or by
by the
the organist
organist in
in
an organ
an organ variation.
variation. It
It should
should be
be noted
noted that
that the
the number
number of
of variations
variations did
did
not necessarily
not necessarily coincide
coincide with
with the
the number
number of
of stanzas,
stanzas, nor
nor was
was there
there any
any
palpable relation
palpable relation between
between the
the musical
musical patterns
patterns and
and the
the words of any
words of any par-
par
ticular stanza. The subjective
ticular stanza. subjective musical
musical interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the chorale
chorale text
text was
was
foreign to
foreign to the
the early
early baroque
baroque organist.
organist. He merely
merely "presented"
"presented" thethe chorale
chorale
in aa purely
in purely abstract
abstract elaboration
elaboration which no longer
which no longer held
held aa secular
secular connotation
connotation
but was hallowed
but hallowed by
by its
its liturgical
liturgical purpose.
purpose.
Aside from the
Aside the chorale
chorale variation
variation Scheidt
Scheidt cultivated also the
cultivated also the chorale
chorale fan-
fan-
tasy, e.g. Ich
tasy, e.g. Ich ruf rut zu from the
Dir from the Tabulatura
Tahulatura nova. In structure
nova. In structure the
the
chorale fantasy
chorale fantasy did
did not
not differ
differ from
from the
the chorale
chorale motet;
motet; it consisted
it consisted of of aa
chain of
chain of strictly fugal expositions
strictly fugal expositions based
based on
on the
the successive
successive phrases
phrases of
of the
the
chorale melody.
chorale melody. Fantasy
Fantasy and and variation
variation were
were the the only
only forms
forms of of the
the organ
organ
chorale known in
chorale in the
the early
early baroque
baroque period.
period. The chorale
chorale prelude
prelude proper
proper
did not yet
did not yet exist.
exist.

After Scheidt
After Scheidt both both the
the variation
variation andand thethe fantasy
fantasy lostlost much of of their
their
liturgical severity. In the hands of the middle baroque composers the
liturgical severity. In the hands of the middle baroque composers
the
organ
organ fantasy
fantasy became
became a
a fantasy
fantasy in
in the
the modern sense,
sense, namely
namely a rhapsodic
a rhapsodic

composition of
composition demanding technical
of demanding technical difficulty,
difficulty, characterized
characterized by by virtuoso
virtuoso
writing,
writing, echo
echo effects,
effects, and
and an
an exuberant
exuberant ornamentation
ornamentation of
of the
the chorale
chorale
melody. Scheidemann,
melody. Scheidemann, Tunder, Tunder, and
and Reinken
Reinken were
were the
the main contributors
contributors
to
to the
the development
development of of the
the form.
form. Weckmann remained faithful faithful toto the

figural chorale variation.

figural chorale variation.
It
It is
is significant
significant that
that with all
all these
these composers
composers
the
the chorale
chorale melody
melody was was often
often drawn into into thethe process
process of of ornamentation
ornamentation
and
and thus
thus subjected
subjected to to an
an imaginative
imaginative and personalpersonal interpretation.
interpretation. Some
late
late sources
sources transmit
transmit the the works
works of of Scheidt
Scheidt with
with posthumously
posthumously added em-
bellishments
bellishments of of the
the melody.
melody.
The
The increasingly
increasingly subjective
subjective approach
approach to to the
the chorale
chorale and the gradualgradual
weakening
weakening of
of its
its liturgical objectivity brought
liturgical objectivity brought
a growing rapprochement
growing rapprochement
between
between chorale
chorale and and devotional
devotional song.song. The origins
origins ofof the chorale prelude
prelude
proper were closely
proper were closely
related
related with
with these
these tendencies.
tendencies. The prelude
prelude presented
presented
the melody only
the melody only once
once inin aa contrapuntal
contrapuntal or or figurative
figurative statement,
statement, treated
treated either
cither

as
as aa concise fantasy or
concise fantasy or asas aa single
single variation.
variation. In fact certain manuscripts
fact certain manuscripts
prove
prove
that
that single
single
variations
variations were selected
selected from the set set and copied
copied down
separately
separately
to
to serve
serve as
as preludes.
preludes. The chorale
chorale prelude
prelude proper
proper arose in
in the
the
I08
io8 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
north
north German
German school
school of
of the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque with Nicolaus Hanff 1S8
with Nicolaus 5S
and
flowered with Buxtehude, Pachelbel,
flowered with Buxtehude, Pachelbel, and Bohm. With the
the last
last three
three com-
posers we have
posers have reached the transition
reached the transition from the
the middle baroque
baroque to the
to the
late
late baroque period.
baroque period. Since
Since their
their works form the
the background
background to those
to those of
of
Bach, they
Bach, they will
will be
be discussed
discussed in
in Chapter
Chapter VIII.
VIIL

German harpsichord
harpsichord and clavichord
clavichord music music assumed distinctive
distinctive features
features
only
only in
in the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque period.period. It
It developed
developed an idiomatic
idiomatic style
style after
after

the
the suite
suite hadhad been transferred from the
been transferred the chamber ensemble and the the lute
lute
to the keyboard.
to the keyboard. This
This transfer
transfer originated
originated in
in France
France and quickly spread
quickly spread
over
over Europe.
Europe, The first first important
important composer
composer for for the
the harpsichord
harpsichord was
Johann
Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-1667),
Jacob Froberger (1616-1667), a pupil of
a pupil of Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi, who served served
as
as organist
organist at
at the
the Austrian
Austrian court.
court. He travelled
travelled extensively
extensively and came in
in
intimate
intimate contact
contact with
with thethe Italian, English,
Italian, English, and French lute
lute and harpsichord
harpsichord
masters.
masters. The assimilation
assimilation of of so
so many
many diversified
diversified styles
styles would have been
have been
aa serious
serious challenge
challenge to to a a less
less creative
creative mind,
mind, but but Froberger
Froberger was able to fuse
able to fuse
the
the free-voiced
free-voiced style
style and
and the
the delicate
delicate agriments
agriments of
of the
the French dance
dance music
music
with the
with the bold
bold harmonic
harmonic language
language of of the
the Italians. facility in
Italians. His facility in the
the various
various
styles
styles is
is reflected
reflected even
even in
in the
the notation
notation of
of his
his autographs:
autographs: he wrote
wrote his
his toc-
toc-

catas
catas in in the
the Italian
Italian keyboard
keyboard score score with
with two stavesstaves of of six
six or
or Plore
more lines
lines

each;
each; his his canzonas
canzonas in in the
the polyphonic
polyphonic keyboardkeyboard partitura
partitura with as many
as many

staves
staves as as there
there were parts;parts; and his suites in
his suites in the
the French manner on two
staves
staves with
with five
five lines
lines each,
each, that
that is
is the
the piano score
piano score as
as we know it it today.
today.
Froberger's powerful
Froberger's powerful toccatas
toccatas are
are written
written in
in a
a scintillating clavieristic
scintillating clavieristic
style
style which remained exemplary exemplary for for a a long time. Even Bach is
long time. is known to to
have
have been
been especially
especially fond
fond of
of Froberger's
Froberger's toccatas.
toccatas. Although
Although very
very obviously
obviously
tinged
tinged by by the
the idiom
idiom of of Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi the the toccatas
toccatas easily
easily surpass
surpass their
their model

in
in their
their expansive structure,
expansive structure, their
their imaginative
imaginative chromaticism, and their
chromaticism, their
fantastic
fantastic angular
angular runsruns and passagepassage work.work. Froberger's
Froberger's short toccatas "alla
short toccatas "dia
levatione"
Icvationc" are are liturgical music for
liturgical music for the
the organ.
organ. They
They do not not have
have the
the fugal
fugal
sections
sections thatthat usually
usually conclude
conclude the the toccatas
toccatas forfor harpsichord.
harpsichord.
Froberger
Froberger excelled
excelled in
in canzonas
canzonas and ricercars
ricercars for
for harpsichord
harpsichord and and organ
organ
which are are noteworthy
noteworthy for
for their
their clear
clear formal
formal organization.
organization. He brought
brought the the
two main currents,
currents, represented
represented respectively
respectively by by Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi and Sweelinck,
Sweelinck,
together
together on a higherhigher level
level by by directing
directing the rhapsodic flow
the rhapsodic flow ofof Frescobaldi's
Frescobaldi's
variation
variation canzona into into the large form.
the large form of of three,
three, four,
four, oror five
five parts that
parts that
Sweelinck had had established.
established. The restless restless discontinuity
discontinuity of
of the
the early baroque
early baroque
58
A Straube.
Straube, Al~ Meuter des
Altc Ueisler dcs Orgelspiels. Neue Folvf'
Orgelspiels. Ncue Fohr
 Early Baroque in
Early and Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries log
109
canzona
canzona and
and ricercar
riccrcar gave
gave way
way to
to aa noble
noble and
and evenly
evenly flowing
flowing polyphony
polyphony
which
which unified
unified the
the individually
individually contrasted parts. The
contrasted parts. The themes,
themes, imbued
imbued with
with
bel-canto
bel-canto style,
style, assumed a a characteristic
characteristic shape
shape that
that remained
remained valid
valid for
for the
the
entire
entire part. Although usually differentiated by contrasting meters,
part. Although usually differentiated by contrasting meters, the the
parts were bound together
parts were bound together by
by the
the idea
idea of variation (Ex.
of variation (Ex. 26).
26). Froberger's
Frobergcr's

Ex.
Ex. 26.
26. Froberger:
Frobergcr: Variation
Variation canzona.
canzona.

t:: rnQprrl'I~bJ:I=I@~~!
~~: If IIJ J:: I~ rr :frim :~ W: :
JJ r I liF J

~~: fP EF::JiJI!tI!! I!m::;=

fugal
fugal forms
forms can
can be
be regarded
regarded as as the
the classic
classic examples
examples of of the
the middle baroque
middle baroque
variation
variation ricercar
ricercar and variation canzona.
and variation canzona. He was was still
still very conscious
very conscious of the
of the
distinction
distinction between
between canzona and capriccio on the one hand,
canzona and capriccio on the one hand, and the ricer- and the ricer-
car
car and
and fantasia
fantasia on
on the
the other,
other, asas can
can bebe seen
seen inin the
the vivacious
vivacious themes
themes of the
of the
first
first group
group and
and the
the vocal
vocal or
or abstract
abstract (hexachord)
(hexachord) themes
themes of
of the
the second
second
group.
group.
In
In his
his dance
dance music
music for
for harpsichord
harpsichord and clavichord
clavichord Froberger
Froberger adopted
adopted
the ftexible
the flexible pattern
pattern ofof the
the French
French suite
suite as he found
as he found it in Chambonnieres.
it in Chambonnieres.
The French
French suite not yet
suite was not yet fixed
fixed as
as to
to number and types types of
of the
the dances,
dances,
and
and thethe gigue, especially,
gigue, especially, did
did not
not yet
yet form
form an integral
integral partpart of
of it.
it. Fro-
Fro-
berger's
bcrger's suites
suites consisted
consisted of
of three
three basic
basic movements:
movements: allemande, courante,
allemande, courante,
and
and saraband. Although some
saraband. Although some of of his
his suites
suites foreshadow
foreshadow the the four-movement
four-movement
form
form of of the
the late
late baroque
baroque suite
suite they
they differed
differed from
from it
it in
in their
their order.
order. In In Fro-
Fro-
berger's autographs
berger's autographs the
the gigue appeared,
gigue appeared, if
if it was
it was present
present at
at all,
all, as
as an inser-
inser-

tion
tion inin the
the middle;
middle; only
only in
in the
the posthumously edition (IIl93)
printed edition
posthumously printed (1693) did it it

become
become the the final dance. We find
final dance. find inin the music of
the music of Froberger
Frobergcr occasional
occasional
survivals
survivals of of the
the variation
variation suite,
suite, but
but the rhythmic transformations
the rhythmic transformations are arc
usually
usually restricted
restricted toto the
the allemande
allemande and and courante.
courante.
no
110 Music in
1iusic in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
The
The texture
texture ofof the
the harpsichord
harpsichord suitessuites reHects
reflects the style brise
the style brisi and the the free-
free-

voiced
voiced idioms
idioms of of French
French lute
lute music,
music, discussed
discussed in in Chapter
Chapter V. Froberger's
Froberger's
famous
famous Lamento
Lamento liB 59 on the death of emperor Ferdinand
on the death of emperor Ferdinand IV which which endsends
with
with an an ascending
ascending scale
scale symbolizing
symbolizing the
the ascent
ascent to
to heaven,
heaven, is
is a
a subdy
subtly pro-
pro-
grammatic
grammatic piece piece in in allemande
allemande rhythm rhythm whichwhich serves
serves likelike an an ordinary
ordinary
allemande
allemande as as the
the first movement of
first movement o a a suite.
suite. It
It parallels
parallels thethe French
French tom beau
tombeau
and
and similarly
similarly free
free preludes
preludes in
in tempo
temp o ruhato
rubato of
of the
the French
French lutenists
lutenists and
and
clavecinists;
clavecinists; symptomatically,
symptomatically, Froberger prescribed in
Froberger prescribed in one
one ofof his
his tombeau:r
tombeaux
that
that itit should
should be played sans
be played sans obsertler
observer aucune
aucune mesure.
mesure* The famous varia-
famous varia-
tion
tion suite
suite onon the Mayerin 60
the Mayerin
60
discloses
discloses the the fusion
fusion of of styles
styles that
that Froberger
Froberger
so
so brilliandy
brilliantly effected.
effected. He treated
treated thethe famous
famous and and popular
popular allemande
allemande tune tune
first in
first in six
six patterned
patterned variations
variations and
and then
then as
as varied
varied dances
dances with
with highly
highly or-
or-

namented doubles.
namented doubles. Such mixture of
Such mixture of dance
dance patterns
patterns and formal
formal variations
variations
had
had already occurred in
already occurred in Frescobaldi's partitas. If
Frescobaldi's partitas. If the Mayerin suite
the Mayerin suite isis

analyzed
analyzed according
according to to national
national influences
influences the the result
result is is truly
truly amazing:
amazing: the the
order of
order of the
the dance
dance movements
movements is is French,
French, the
the idea
idea of
of the
the variation
variation suite
suite

German,
German, the the mechanical
mechanical patterns
patterns of of the
the variation
variation English,
English, the the inclusion
inclusion
of
of the
the dance
dance inin the
the variation
variation Italian. Mayerin suite
Italian. The Mayerin suite thus
thus represents
represents a a
veritable
veritable inventory
inventory of
of national
national styles.
styles. The double
double of
of the
the courante
courante from
from
the Mayerin
the Mayerin suite
suite demonstrates
demonstrates that that in in the transfer of
the transfer of the
the lute
lute style to the
style to the
keyboard
keyboard medium Froberger Froberger was perhaps perhaps moremore subtle
subtle than
than any any of his
of his
German contemporaries (Ex.
contemporaries (Ex. 27). 27). He made of
of the
the technical
technical limitations
limitations of
of

Ex. 27.
Ex. 27. Froberger:
Froberger: Co,wante
Courante (Douhle)
(Double) from
from the Mayeri" suite.

1:::JI;r r.rlr;J I~JJ~;' I;JJJ il4i::

the Mayerin suite.

CJ~J:J:r:J:r I: r~
the lute
lute a virtue
virtue by
by distributing
distributing the
the notes
notes so
so as to form
as to form a
a composite rhythm
composite rhythm
of
of continuous
continuous quarter beats. Chords
quarter beats. Chords appeared
appeared only
only on
on important
important beats,
beats,
so
so that
that the
the structure
structure remained
remained clear even if
clear even if the
the music
music was
was plucked
plucked oror
played
played stQ&Cato
staccato in
in lute
lute fashion
fashion.

8
HAM DO. :ZI6~ TAM VI.
*HAMno.2i6,TAMVL
toTAMVl
OTAMVI.
 Early
Early and
and Middle Baroque in
Middle Baroque in Northern
Northern Countries
Countries Iin
II

If Froberger's Mayerin
If Froberger's Maycrin variations
variations are
are compared
compared with
with Jan
Jan Reinken's
Reinkcn's
61
variations
variations of of the
the same tune 61 the
the difference
difference between
between the the north
north German
German
and south
and south German schools schools becomes
becomes very clear: Froberger's diversified
very clear: Frobcrgcr's diversified
elegance is
elegance is the
the very
very opposite
opposite of of Reinken's
Reinken's rigidly patterned but highly
rigidly patterned but highly
imaginative
imaginative style. style. Among
Among the the lesser
lesser keyboard
keyboard composers
composers of of the
the Austrian
Austrian
school
school Wolfgang
Wolfgang Ebner stands stands outout for
for a a set
set of
of thirty-six
thirty-six
variations
variations on
on aa
theme by
theme by emperor
emperor Ferdinand III
III (1648)
(1648)
62 in which the number of varia-
62 in which the number of varia-
tions
tions corresponds
corresponds to to the age age ofof the
the composer.
composer. The entire entire set set isis organized
organized
as a variation suite;
as a variation suite; each
each of of the
the three
three basic
basic dance
dance movements
movements is is varied
varied
aa dozen
dozen times.
times. Johann
Johann KasparKaspar KerIl Kcrll (I627-I~3),
(1627-1693), a
a pupil
pupil of
of Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi
(and
(and Carissimi),
Carissimi), was the the only
only peer
peer of of Froberger
Frobergcr in in the
the Austrian
Austrian group.group.
His
His canzonas,
canzonas, toccatas,
toccatas, and versets versets to the magnificat,
to the magnificat, are
are more
more strongly
strongly
influenced
influenced by by Italian
Italian style
style and less less imaginative than
imaginative than those those of of Froberger.
Froberger.
The
The Italian harpsichord
Italian harpsichord virtuoso virtuoso Poglietti,
Poglietti, who was was employed
employed at at the
the court
court
in
in Vienna,
Vienna, gave gave in his his suites
suites jocular
jocular genre pieces
genre pieces on
on bird
bird calls
calls and
and other
other
animal
animal sounds. KerIl Kerll also also used
used bird bird calls
calls in in his
his music,
music, but but merely
merely as as
themes; Poglietti
themes; Poglietti carried
carried his
his programmatic
programmatic tendenciestendencies much further
further in in
an Aria of
an Aria of anan allemande type type withwith twenty-three
twenty-three variations,
variations, 53 each
53
each ofof
which is
which is a picturesque caricature
picturesque caricature of various national
of various national customs.
customs. He depicted depicted
in aa suite
in suite of abstract
abstract dancedance movements
movements the history of
the history of the Hungarian re-
the Hungarian re-
bellion (1672);
bellion (1672);
6*
84 it
it included
included the
the trial,
trial, the
the decapitation
decapitation of
of the
the rebels,
rebels, and
and
the final requiem
the final requiem in in which
which the the composer
composer adroitly
adroitly imitated
imitated the the tolling
tolling ofof
the bdls. Both
the bells. Both Ebncr
Ebner and and Poglietti
Poglietti werewere given
given to to resourceful,
resourceful, if if shallow,
shallow,
virtuoso effects.
virtuoso effects.
The German lute lute music
music of of the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque is is best
best represented
represented by by
Esajas
Esajas Reusner (1636-1679)
(1636-1679) who, who, trained
trained in
in the
the French
French school, brought
school, brought
the refined
the refined French
French lute lute technique
technique to to Germany.
Germany. Symptomatically,
Symptomatically, he he ap-
ap-
plied it
plied it not
not only
only in in the
the suite
suite but
but even
even inin chorale
chorale arrangements.
arrangements. His His imag-
imag-
inative suites
inative Deliciae testudinis
suites Dcliciac testudinu (i667),(1667),61165
which leave
which leave the the sphere
sphere of of
ordinary
ordinary dance
dance music
music far
far behind,
behind, often
often begin
begin with
with a
a stylized prelude
stylized prelude or
or
sonatina. His
sonatina. His dignified
dignified style style was consummated
consummated in in the
the late
late baroque
baroque periodperiod
by the
by the Saxon
Saxon lutelute master
master Silvius
Silvius Weiss (1686-1750) who strikes
Weiss (1686-1750) strikes in in his
his
serious music 6e
serious music 6& a a note
note of of Bachian
Bachian gravity.
gravity.

11 TAM VII.
"TAMVH.
*TAMVIL
"TAM VII.
"TAM VIII, HAM no.
Ia TAM Vm, no. 236.
236.
"TAM
16 TAM VHL
VIII.
la GMB
65
GMB no. :1I6, HAM no.
no. 216, 233.
no. 233.
M
"Neemann, Alee Master
Ncemann, Altc tier Laute,
Meister dcr IV (Vwcg),
Laute. IV and ER
(V1eWeg). and ER 12.
12.
H2
II2 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
The steady
The steady influx
influx of of English
English comedians
comedians and and violists
violists into
into Germany
Germany at at the
the
beginning of the seventeenth
beginning of the seventeenth century brought
century brought orchestral
orchestral dance
dance music to
to the
the
Continent where
Continent where it it developed
developed at at aa very
very fastfast pace.
pace. The preferred
preferred ensembles
ensembles
of the
of the dance
dance werewere quartets
quartets or or quintets
quintets of of viols,
viols, which shouldshould not not be re-
be re-
garded
garded as
as orchestras
orchestras in
in the
the modern
modern sense.
sense. It
It is
is significant
significant that
that in
in Fiillsack's
Fullsack's

Auserlesene Paduancn
Auscrlcsene Paduanen (Hamburg, (Hamburg, 1607), 1607), one one of of the
the most popular
popular dance
collections of
collections of the
the time,
time, English,
English, Dutch,Dutch, and Danish Danish composers
composers were by by
67
far in the
far in majority. We meet
the majority. meet herehere with
with names like like Grcp,
Grep, Borchgrcving,
Borchgreving,8'1
Brade, Dowland,
Brade, Dowland, Harding,
Harding, Edward Johnson, Johnson, Peter Peter Philips,
Philips, and Thomas
Simpson.
Simpson. The
The works
works of
of Simpson,
Simpson, the
the most
most influential
influential English violist
English violist inin
Germany, were
Germany, were printed
printed in in Hamburg
Hamburg and Frankfort. Similar
Frankfort. Similar dance collec-
collec-

tions for
tions for four, five, or
four, five, or sixsix string
string or or wind instruments
instruments without
without continuo
continuo
were published
were published by by Hassler
Hassler in in his
his vocal
vocal and instrumental Lustgarten
instrumental Lustgartcn
(1601),
(1601),
as
as well
well as
as by
by Melchior
Mdchior Franck
Franck (numerous
(numerous collections,
collections, 1603 ff.),
1603 ff.),
Valentin
Valentin Haussmann (1602 ff.), Johann Staden,
(1602 E.), Johann Stadcn, Johann Moeller, Johann Moeller, Erasmus
Widmann (16r8), Demantius, .Scheidt
(1618), Demantius, Scheidt (Ludi musici, 1621),
(Ludi musici, Johannes
1621), and Johannes
Schultz. 6s In
Schultz. 68 In these sets, dances of the
these sets, dances of the same same type type were
were asas aa rule
rule lumped
lumped to- to-
gether
gether as
as they
they were
were in
in the
the contemporary
contemporary Italian
Italian collections.
collections. Michael
Michael Alten-
Alten-
burg attempted,
burg attempted, in in typically
typically German fashion, fashion, to to bridge
bridge the
the gapgap between
between the the
dance and
dance and thethe chorale.
chorale. In his chorale
In his intradas (1620)
chorale intradas (1620) hehe added a chorale
a chorale mel-
mel-
ody
ody toto the instrumental ensembles
the instrumental ensembles "so "so that
that everybody
everybody couldcould join in." A
join in."
rather exceptional
rather instrument chorale
exceptional instrument chorale setting
setting by by William
William Brade proves proves that
that
English composers
English composers also
also recognized
recognized the
the importance
importance of
of the
the chorale
chorale for
for
German music.music.
The preferred
preferred dance dance types types included
included the the by by now oldfashioned
old-fashioned pair pair ofof
pavane
pavane and galliarde,
galliarde, the
the allemande,
allemande, the
the courante,-
courante, and the
the intrada.
intrada. The
latter
latter was a a festive
festive processional
processional piece piece which Wagner revived in
Wagner revived the prelude
in the prelude
to the Meistersinger.
to the Mcistersinger. The pattern
pattern of
of the
the intrada
intrada was not
not rigidly
rigidly stereo-
stereo-

typed,
typed, butbut occurred
occurred in in duple
duple or or triple
triple meter,
meter, the the pompous
pompous duple duple meter
meter
being
being more frequent.
frequent. The dances dances were sometimes sometimes grouped
grouped in in pairs
pairs asas
varied
varied couples,
couples, but
but often
often only a
a
only singlesingle dance
dance was printed
printed and its
its rhythmic
rhythmic
transformation
transformation to to triple
triple timetime (tripla
(tripla or proporz) was left
or proporz) left toto improvisation.
improvisation.
In
In the
the preface
preface to to the Vcnusgarten (1602),
the Venusgarten (1602), Haussmann expressly expressly called
called
for
for the
the improvisation
improvisation of of a a tripla
tripla in in the
the ''Polish
"Polish manner."
manner."
The most important
important German contribution contribution to to the
the development
development of of the
the
suite
suite was the the expansion
expansion of
of the
the form by progressive
by progressive variation-a
variation a procedure
procedure
that
that closely
closely corresponds
corresponds to to thethe variation
variation canzona.
canzona. The varied varied couple
couple
IfT For
For Grep
Grcp and
and Borchgreving
Borchgreving sec
sec VNM 34-
34.
ea Sec the
the highly
highly variegated collection Musikaliscner
variegated collection Musi^dischcr Liutgarn (1622) in
Lustgartc (1622) in EL
68 Sec
EL.
la ,

PLATE
PLATES3
 Early and
Early and Middle
Middle Baroque in Northern
Baroque in Northern Countries II3
Countries 113
could not
could not yet be regarded
yetbe regarded asas aa cyclic
cyclic form,
form, but
but the
the combination
combination of
of two
two
varied couples
varied couples led
led toto the
the organization
organization of
of the
the variation
variation suite.
suite. This
This truly
truly
cyclic form
cyclic form waswas unified
unified not
not only
only by
by the
the same
same key
key but
but especially
especially byby the
the
use of
use of the
the same
same thematic
thematicmaterial
materialfor
for all
all the
the dances
dances of
of the
the suite.
suite. The
The first
first
variation suites
variation suites were contained
were contained inin the N~u~ Paduan
the Ncue Paduan (1611)
(16u) 6969 of
of the
the
Styrian organist
Styrian organist Paul
Paul Peurl.
Peurl. In Schein's famous Banchetto mllsical~
In Schcin's famous Banchetto musicale (1617) ( 161 7)
the variation
the variation suite
suite assumed
assumed its its classic
classic form.
form. Schein
Schein made
made aa sharp
sharp distinc-
distinc-
tion between
tion between stylized
stylized dances
dances andand straight
straight dance
dance music
music by by scoring
scoring thethe
pavanes, galliardes,
pavanes, galliardes, and
and courantes
courantes for
for aa five-voice
five-voice ensemble
ensemble in
in subtly
subtly
polyphonic texture,
polyphonic texture, the
the allemande
allemande and tripla for
and tripla for only
only four
four instruments
instruments in in
aa simple
simple chordal
chordal texture.
texture. While
While thethe last
last pair
pair was
was always
always very
very clearly
clearly aa
varied couple
varied couple the
the first
first three
three dances
dances were
were notnot exactly
exactly variations
variations ofof an
an entire
entire
piece
piece but
but more
more or'
or
1
less
less closdy
closely rdated
related transformations
transformations of
of the
the same
same initial
initial

motive and
motive and aa free
free continuation
continuation (Ex. 28). That
(Ex. 28). That Schein
Schein consciously
consciously applied
applied
28. Schein:
Ex. 28.
Ex. Schein: Variation suite from
Variation suite Banchetto Musicalf.
from Banchetto Musicale.
Padovana
4i~
Padovana

(Tt uri J r r r I" I r r r

9agliarda
tliV Err IJertr IF
Courente

"' t l c:r Ir- PFr' j'r IJ. ~ EC r

I J. r I r F rio-
.f118.J r r I I r Ir r r I
II e'

the
the variation
variation toto the
the entire
entire suite
suite clearly
clearly transpires
transpires from
from the the preface
preface which
which
asserts
asserts that
that the
the dances
dances "well
"well correspond
correspond to
to each
each other
other in
in tono
tono and
and intl~n
inven-
tion~."
tionc." Other
Other composers
composers of of variation
variation suites,
suites, notably
notably Isaac Posch (1617),
Isaac Posch (1617),
Hammerschmidt (1636),
Hammerschmidt (1636), and
and Neubauer
Neubauer (1649),
(1649), observed thematic unity
observed thematic unity
less
less consistently than
than Schein.
Schein. It
It can
can still
still be
be discerned in
discerned in their
their works
works that
that
consistently
the
the variation
variation suite
suite originated
originated in
in the
the joining
joining together
together of
of two
two different
different

varied
varied couples.
couples.
The suiteof
Thesuite ofthe
theearly
earlybaroque
baroquedid didnot
notobserve
observeany anystereotyped
stereotyped order
orderandand
practically any
practically any
combination of dances was
combination of dances was possible. possible. 70 Pavanes and
'10 Pavanes and gal_
gal-
liardes
liardes usually opened the
the suite
suite as
as the
the leading
leading pair.
pair. Formal
Formal variations of
variations of
usually opened
""DTOe
DTOe XXXVI:2 (vol.70).
XXXVI.-2 (voL 70). . . .

SeeNorlind.
* See
10 Norlind,SIMG VII,I720
SIMGVII, 172,and Ncf,cresclziclzte
andNef. Gescfachtetier
derSinfonie
Stnjomeuna
undSuite.
Suite,
H4 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the passamezzo
the passamezzo stood, stood, because
because of of their
their length,
length, outside
outside of o the
the suite.
suite. They
They
were
were incorporated
incorporated in in the
the collections
collections as as an independent
independent set set of
of variations,
variations,
as the passamezzi
as the fassamezzi of of Thomas Simpson Simpson and Haussmann show.71 show. 71 Schein
Schein
adopted
adopted in
in his
his courantes
courantes the
the French type,
type, characterized
characterized by
by aa slow
slow tempo
tempo
and
and aa sophisticated
sophisticated hemiola
hemiola rhythm.
rhythm. The variation
variation suite
suite formed
formed only
only a a
small,
small, if
if important,
important, part part of
of the
the entire
entire suite
suite literature.
literature. Its
Its technique
technique grad- grad-
ually
ually fell
fell into
into oblivion
oblivion in in thethe middle baroquebaroque period
period and survived
survived only only
very
very sporadically
sporadically in in the
the late
late baroque.
baroque.
In
In the
the middle baroque baroque phase phase of of the
the ensemble
ensemble suite,suite, pavanes
pavanes and and gal-
gal-
liardes
liardes allall but
but disappeared
disappeared and other
other dances
dances took
took their
their places.
places. After
After the
the
model of of the French suite,
the French suite, allemande allemande and courante became
courante became the leadingthe leading
pair,
pair, often
often still
still loosely
loosely treated
treated as as aa varied
varied couple.
couple. They
They were were followed
followed
by
by gigues,
gigues, sarabands,
sarabands, and other
other dances
dances most of
of which were taken
taken over
over
from French lute lute and harpsichord
harpsichord music.
music. Stylized introductory
Stylized introductory move-
move-
ments began
began to to precede
precede the the dances
dances proper.
proper. In In one
one of of the
the earliest
earliest German

instances
instances of of this
this practice,
practice, the the suites
suites ofof Johann
Johann JakobJakob Loewe (1658), (1658), the the
introductions
introductions were designateddesignated as as sinfonie.
sinfonie. In In other
other collections
collections they they werewere
called prelude,
called prelude, sonata, toccata, or
sonata, toccata, even pavane
or even pavane which by by this time had
this time had
completely
completely renounced
renounced its
its dance character.
character. These
These independent
independent introduc-
introduc-
tions paved
tions paved the way for
the way the overture
for the overture in the late
in the baroque suite.
late baroque suite.

In spite
In spite of of the
the German reserve reserve toward
toward the the continue
continuo the harmonic lan-
the harmonic lan-
guage of
guage the suites
of the suites was fairly
fairly advanced.
advanced. Seventh
Seventh chords
chords werewere frequent
frequent at at
cadences and the
cadences the melodies
melodies were were conceived
conceived on on the
the basis
basis of of the
the polarity
polarity
between bass
between bass and soprano.
soprano. The deeply deeply ingrained
ingrained German predilection predilection
for polyphony
for polyphony came to light
to light especially
especially in in the
the stylized
stylized movements
movements which which
contain very
contain very closely
closely spaced
spaced imitations
imitations and and aa great
great deal
deal ofof open-work
open-work within within
static chords.
static chords. The modern trio trio setting
setting with
with continue
continuo was was only
only slowly
slowly
absorbed into
absorbed into the
the suite.
suite. It
It can
can bebe found
found in in Peuerl (1625), Vierdank
Peuerl (1625), Vierdank (1641), (I~I),
Rosenmiiller (1645).
and Rosenmuller (1645).
ensemble suites
The ensemble suites of
of thethe middle
middle baroque
baroque comprise
comprise the the collections
collections of of
Loewe,72
Loewe,
72
Diedrich Becker
Diedrich Becker (1668),(1668), Furchheim
Furchheim. 73 78 (who wrote
(who wrote the the five-
five-
voice ritornelli
voice ritornelli to to Krieger's Arlen), Schmelzer
Krieger's Arien), (1662), the
Schmelzer (1662), the charming
charming wind wind
ensembles of
ensembles of the
the clarino
clarina virtuoso
virtuoso PezelPael (d. I6g4) , and
(d. 1694), and the Sonate da
the Sonate da
camera (1667) 7*
camera (1667) by Rosenmuller.
l ' by Rosenmiiller. In In the last collection
the last collection inspired
inspired sinfonie
sinfonie
serve as
serve as introductory
introductory movements.
movements. Johann Johann Rosenmuller
Rosenmiiller (c. 1620-1684), aa
(c. 1620-1684),
composer of
composer of unquestionable
unquestionable genius, genius, wrecked
wrecked his his promising
promising career career by by
T1
Simpson in
See Simpson
11 See in OCM, 50,
OCM, 50, and
and Haussmann
Haussmann DDT
DDT 16,
16, 141.
141.
"Two
llITwo suites in Nagcls
suites in Nagels Musifyrchiv.
Musik,llTchifl.
73
fa See
See the
the suite in Organum*
suite in Organum.
DDT iS,
"
14
T4 18, GMB
GMB no.
no. 220.
110.
 Early
Early and Baroque in
and Middle Baroque Countries 1I5
Northern Countries
in Northern 115
questionable
questionable morals,
morals, which made it it necessary for
necessary for him
him to
to flee
flee Leipzig and
Leipzig and
live in
live in Venice.
Venice. The Venetian background of
background of his
his music
music is
is apparent
apparent
in
in his
his
sinfonie which resemble in their
sinfonie which their variegated structure
structure Venetian
Venetian opera over-
over-
variegated opera
tures.
tures. Hints
Hints of
of thematic unity between
unity between the various movements
the various movements betray, on
betray, on
the
the other hand,
hand, the German background.
background.

In
In the
the field
field of
of the ensemble canzona,
canzona, less less common in in Germany
Germany than than in
in
Italy,
Italy, Rosenmiiller
Rosenmuller and Weckmann were were thethe leading masters. The
leading masters. The latter latter
wrote aa number of canzonas for
wrote for wind instruments.
instruments. The restless tempera-
restless tempera-
ment
ment of Schein was congenialcongenial to to the
the quilt
quilt canzona
canzona which
which he he adopted
adopted after
of Schein after
the
the Italian
Italian precedent,
precedent, but but his
his example
example found
found no
no echo
echo with
with other
other com-
com-
posers.
posers. The long long list
list of canzona composers includes
composers includes Vierdank, Peuerl,
Vierdank, Peuerl,
Hammerschmidt,
Hammerschmidt, Johannes Johannes Schultz, Kirchhoff, Foerster, Furchheim, Cap-
Schultz, Kirchhoff, Foerster, Furchheim, Cap-
ricolOus,
ricornus, Schmelzer,
Schmelzer, Nikolaus
Nikolaus Strongk,
Strungk, and Loewe. Loewc. Johann
Johann Theile's
Theile's
rather
rather drydry but learnedly
learnedly contrapuntal
contrapuntal sonatas
sonatas of of the Musicalisches KU12n-
the Musicalisches Kunst-
bud technique of
buch turned the technique of the
the variation.
variation can zona to
canzona to didactic purposes.
didactic purposes.
The canzonas paralleled
paralleled thethe development
development in in Italy:
Italy: the
the single
single sections
sections be-
be-
came lessless numerous as as their
their dimensions
dimensions grew, grew, and as
as aa rule
rule the
the final
final
return to
return to the beginning
beginning was retained.
retained. This
This return
return was sometimes
sometimes expanded
expanded
to a true da-capo
a part, which occurs
da-capo part, occurs in in the
the sonatas
sonatas of of Weckmann and
Philipp
Philipp Krieger.
Krieger.
It is symptomatic that
It is
symptomatic that the the viol
viol maintained
maintained a a relatively
relatively important
important position
position
in the
in the polyphonic
polyphonic ensemble canzona,
canzona, next
next to
to the
the wind instruments
instruments of of
which the German composers composers were especially fond. In
especially fond. In the solothe solo and trio
trio

sonata,
sonata, however,
however, the violin was
the violin was unquestionably
unquestionably the the leading
leading instrument.
instrument.
Violin music received
received a powerful stimulus
a powerful stimulus from such such remarkable virtuosi
remarkable virtuosi
as
as Johann
Johann Schmelzer
Schmelzer of
of Vienna (d. 1680),
(d. 1680), his
his pupil (?)
pupil (?) Heinrich
Heinrich Biber
Biber
of
of Salzburg, Johann Jakob Walther, Westhoff, Thomas Baltzar,TS75 and
Salzburg, Johann Jakob Walther, Westhoff, Baltzar,
Nikolaus Strungk.
Nikolaus Strungk. TheyThey perfected
perfected the the technical
technical resources
resources of of the
the instru-
instru-
ment not not only
only with regard
regard to to range,
range, highhigh positions,
positions, and bowing,bowing, but but
especially
especially with regard
regard to
to multiple
multiple stopping,
stopping, another
another symptom
symptom of
of the
the Ger-
man penchant
penchant for for polyphony.
polyphony. In order order to to facilitate
facilitate polyphonic
polyphonic playing
playing
they
they most ingeniously
ingeniously exhausted
exhausted the
the possibilities
possibilities
of
of the
the scorc1atura.
scordatura. This

"mistiming" of
"mistuning" of the
the conventional
conventional accordatura
accordatura in in fifths
fifths permitted
permitted greater
greater
simultaneous
simultaneous use use of
of the
the open
open strings.
strings. The solo solo sonatas
sonatas diddid not
not observe
observe the
distinction between chamber and church
distinction church sonata
sonata and indiscriminately
indiscriminately
mixed rhapsodic preludes,
rhapsodic preludes, arias
arias with figurative
figurative variations,
variations, dances,
dances, and

fIIGMB 237.
"GMB237.
06
u6 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
programmatic to fanciful
programmatic pieces. Walther 18 was given fanciful programs which
76
pieces. Walther given to programs which
served, as with Farina,
served, as with Farina, as
as a
a pretext
pretext for
for the
the display
display of
of stupendous virtuosity.
stupendous virtuosity.
The piece of
last piece
The last of his chelicus (1688)
(1688) is
Hortulus chelicus
his Hortulus is a screnata for
a serenata for solo
solo violin
violin
without
without continuo
continue in in which
which a score of
a score of instruments,
instruments, including
including the the organ,
organ,
guitar,
guitar, flutes,
flutes, trumpets,
trumpets, and timpani (I),
and timpani (I), are
are imitated.
imitated. The chamber music music
of
of Schmelzer
Schmelzer includes
includes a set of
a set of twelve
twelve triotrio sonatas
sonatas (1659),
(1659), another
another set
set for
for
violins, viols, and trombones,
violins, viols, and trombones, and Sonatae and Sonatae unarum fidium (1664)
fidium (1664) which which
exerted
exerted a a strong
strong influence
influence on on Biber.
Biber. .
The violin
violin music
music of the middle
of the middle baroque
baroque found
found its
its consummation
consummation in
in
Heinrich Biber
Heinrich Biber (I6.J4-1704)
(1644-1704) whose
whose trio
trio sonatas
sonatas for
for viola
viola d'amore
d'amore or
or gamba
gamba
pose many
pose many technical
technical problems,
problems, but but never
never allow
allow virtuosity
virtuosity to to become
become an an
end
end inin itself.
itself. His
His valuable
valuable solo solo sonatas
sonatas include
include thethe famous
famous fifteen Mystery
fifteen Mystery

Sonatas (c.
Sonatas (c. 1675)," noteworthy
noteworthy not not only
only for their artistic utilization of
77
1675) ,
for their artistic utilization of
the
the scordatura
scordatura but but also
also for
for thethe visionary
visionary powerpower of
of their
their preludes.
preludes. TheyThey
are
are not
not programmatic
programmatic in the sense
in the sense of of Walther's
Walther's sonatas,
sonatas, butbut represent
represent only
only
the
the general affection in abstract commentaries on biblical incidents, each
general affection in abstract commentaries on biblical incidents, each
of
of which is is illustrated
illustrated in in the
the autograph
autograph by by aa picture.
picture. Biber's
Biber's eight
eight solo
solo
sonatas
sonatas (1681)
(1681) combine,
combine, like
like the
the music
music of
of Froberger,
Froberger, a
a variety
variety of
of national
national
influences:
influences: French
French are are the
the highly
highly embellished
embellished doubles
doubles of of the
the dance
dance move-
move-
ments,
ments, Italian
Italian the
the numerous
numerous arias
arias with
with variations
variations and
and the
the frequent ostinati,
frequent ostinati,
English
English or or German the the consistent
consistent patterns
patterns of of his
his variations.
variations. His monu-
His monu-
mental passacaglia
mental passacaglia in g for
in g for unaccompanied
unaccompanied solo solo violin
violin (Ex.
(Ex. 29)
29) is built
is built

the first
on the first type
type of
of chaconne
chaconne bass
bass (see
(see Ex.
Ex. 8).
8) This
This
. model
model of
of systematic
systematic yet yet
imaginative
imaginative use
use of
of the
the patterned
patterned variation
variation was
was surpassed only
surpassed only by by the
the solo
solo

Ex. 290
Ex. 29. Biber: Passacaglia for
Biber: Passacaglia for unaccompanied
unaccompanied violin.
violin.

t iB,,;: r' lif: r.lf' Q~; liFo m,: 1Jt! 5 ;U;z: I

F K K

11 i;1!O J ;J J:J.E lIfk~f.P a~I' ld~f? l

'*.tati4 ;c ~ ~:1Ir. pEr Ul aAn
'ii'1JJjJl"'rrl'.'#I~~ 25..J!IdogiD .

(1676); see
sec also
76
17, ScAerzi
... ER 17. Ja Violino
Schcrzi da Violino solo (1676);
1010 Beckmann, Das
also BeckmaDn. Das Violinspiel
Violinspicl in
in
DeutsMand, Beispielsammlung.
DerltlcMtmil. Bcispielsammlung, I!)2I.
1921.
GMB no. 238, HAM no.
no, 238. no. 238.
TT
TT 238.
 Early
Early and
and Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque in Northern Countries
in Northern Countries 117
117
violin
violin sonatas
sonatas of
of Bach.
Bach. Biber
Biber fully
fully absorbed
absorbed the
the diversified
diversified national
national styles,
styles,

but
but merged
merged them inin a highly personal
a highly personal stylistic unity. His music
stylistic unity. His
music is
is equally
equally
far
far removed
removed from
from the
the experimental
experimental harmonies
harmonies of of early baroque and
early baroque the
and the
fully developed tonality of the late baroque style.
fully developed tonality of the late baroque style.
 (HAPTER
CHAPTER FOUR

Italian
Italian Music
Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque

THE BEL-CANTO STYLE

T
THE
HE COMPOSER Bonini
histories
histories of

two
of monody

two "new swans":

monody
Bonini to

swans": Luigi
closes
closes

Luigi Rossi
to whom we owe one

his
his

Rossi in
report (1641)
report (1641)
in Rome and
one of
with
with
and Cavalli
of the

a
a

Cavalli in
the earliest
earliest

reference
reference
in Venice.
Venice.
to
to

These
These namesnames mark a a new period
period in
in Italian
Italian music
music which
which coincides
coincides with
with '
the
the emergence
emergence of of the bel-canto style
the bei-canto between 1630
style between and 1640.
1630 and 1640. The bel-canto
bel-canto
style,
style, one
one of
of the
the most
most significant
significant contributions
contributions to
to the
the stylistic development
stylistic development

of
of baroque music, has
baroque music, has left
left its
its indelible
indelible stamp not only
stamp not only on
on the
the late
late baroque,
baroque,
but even
but even on the classic
on the classic period.
period. Although
Although it did
it did not
not create
create many
many new
new forms
forms
it transformed
it transformed the the existing
existing ones
ones by by a
a new concept
concept of
of melody
melody and
and harmony.
harmony.
bel-canto style
The bel-canto style represents
represents the the reaction
reaction of of musicians
musicians against
against the the dic-
dic-
tates of
tates of the
the poets.
poets. The immanent
immanent musical musical lawslaws were
were restored,
restored, and and the the
music was
music was now coordinated
coordinated with,
with, rather
rather than
than subordinated
subordinated to, to, the
the words.
words.
As the
As the name implies,
implies, the
the bel
bel canto
canto was was essentially
essentially vocal
vocal music
music as as found
found in in
the cantata,
the cantata, thethe oratorio,
oratorio, and
and the the opera.
opera. From here here its
its influence
influence spreadspread
also to
also to instrumental
instrumental music.music.
simplicity of
The simplicity of bel-canto
bel-canto stylestyle which
which may may appear
appear almost
almost tritetrite today
today
must be
must be seen
seen in in the
the perspective
perspective of of the
the monodic
monodic style.
style. The
The melody
melody assumed
assumed
a lilting
a lilting flow,
flow, not not impeded
impeded by by thethe exuberant
exuberant coloraturas
coloraturas of of the
the singer
singer
although florid
although florid sections
sections continued
continued to to bebe employed
employed for for certain
certain words.
words.
Garish virtuosity
Garish virtuosity was was abandoned
abandoned in in favor
favor of of aa more
more restrained
restrained vocal vocal
idiom, essentially
idiom, essentially basedbased onon the
the penetrating
penetrating and and sustaining
sustaining power
power of of the
the
castrato voice.
castrato voice. Bel-canto
Bel-canto melodies
melodies were were moremore highly
highly polished
polished and and lessless
ostentatiously affective
ostentatiously affective than
than those
those in in the
the monody.
monody. The The melodic
melodic flow flow was was
caused by
caused by aa rhythmic
rhythmic treatment
treatment that that discarded
discarded the the nervous
nervous contrast
contrast mo- mo-
tives for
tives for aa continuous
continuous ternary
ternary rhythm.
rhythm. So So often
often diddid this
this rhythm
rhythm appearappear
that the
that bel canto
the bel canto cancan actually
actually be be called
called the
the apotheosis
apotheosis of of triple
triple meter.
meter.
lIS
118
 Italian
Italian Music
Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 119
119
The melody
The melody was was organized
organized by by stylized
stylized dance
dance patterns, especially those of
patterns, especially those of
the saraband and
the saraband and courante,
courante, the the uniformity
uniformity of
of which
which was
was broken
broken by the
by the
declamation
declamation of of the
the words.
words. The The melodic
melodic ideasideas themselves
themselves were short
were short and and
were delimited
were delimited by by cadences
cadences with with stereotyped
stereotyped anticipations of the final
anticipations of the final
note.
note. Another
Another important
important feature
feature of
of the
the bel canto lies in the integration
bel canto lies in the integration
of bass and melody.
of bass and melody. The bass
The bass moved
moved likewise
likewise in in stylized dance rhythm and
stylized dance rhythm and
was often
was often also
also melodically
melodically dependent
dependent on on the
the contour
contour of of the
the voice
voice line.
line.
This
This contrapuntal
contrapuntal equivalence
equivalence of of parts increasingly
parts increasingly asserted
asserted itself
itself and
and ledled
finally
finally to to the
the anticipatory
anticipatory imitation
imitation of
of the
the melody
melody by the continuo at
by the continuo at the
the
beginning
beginning of of the
the aria.
aria.

The
The harmony
harmony of of the bel-canto
bel-canto stylestyle differed
differed from from that that of of the
the early
early
baroque
baroque in in its
its striking simplicity. In
striking simplicity. In contrast contrast to to the
the empirical
empirical and
and not
not yet
yet
tonally
tonally directed
directed progressions
progressions of of the
the early
early baroque,
baroque, the the chords
chords of of the
the new
new
style
style outlined
outlined a a rudimentary
rudimentary tonalitytonality by by an an annoying
annoying insistence
insistence on on the
the
IV-V.I or IIs-V-!
IV-V-I or II 6 -V-I cadence in closely
cadence in closely related
related keys.
keys. The frequent
frequent cadencescadences
reduced
reduced the the phrase
phrase lengths
lengths of of the
the melody
melody and and necessarily brought about a
necessarily brought about a
characteristic,
characteristic, short-winded effect effect which
which abatedabated only only in
in the second half
the second half
of
of the
the century.
century. The insistence
insistence on simple
simple triadic
triadic harmony
harmony can
can also
also be
be felt
felt

in
in thethe melodic design,design, not
not only
only in
in the
the innumerable operatic
innumerable operatic "alarum** "alarum"
choruses
choruses but but alsoalso inin the
the bel-canto
bel-canto melody melody in in general.
general. The affective affective
"false"
"false" intervals
intervals of the melody,
of the melody, usually
usually appearing
appearing shortlyshortly before
before the ca-
the ca-
dence were integrated
dence integrated into into thethe harmony.
harmony. The directive directive power power of of the
the
harmonically conceived
harmonically conceived cadence
cadence arose arose forfor the
the first
first time
time in in the the bel-canto
bel-canto
style.
style.
Hand in in hand with with thethe harmonic
harmonic simplification
simplification went went an an important
important
formal development:
formal development: the the gradual
gradual differentiation
differentiation between between recitative
recitative and and
aria. The characteristics
aria. characteristics discussed
discussed so so farfar apply
apply primarily
primarily to to thethe aria
aria oror
arietta. But the
arietta. the recitative also was
recitative also was reduced
reduced to to triadic
triadic harmony,
harmony, became became
restrained and
more restrained and less
less affective,
affective, andand developed
developed the the rapid
rapid parlando
parlando of of the
the
secco or "dry"
sccco or "dry" recitative. For
recitative. For the
the highly
highly affective
affective passages
passages aa new category category
emerged, the
emerged, the arioso
arioso for
for which gorgia effects,
which gorgia effects, static
static basses,
basses, and and harmonic
harmonic
experiments were
experiments were reserved.
reserved. As As cancan easily
easily be be seen,
seen, the the arioso
arioso is is actually
actually
nothing
nothing but
but a
a new
new name
name for
for the
the old
old Florentine
Florentine recitative
recitative which
which embraced
embraced
both aria
both aria and secco recitative
and sccco recitative as as two possible extremes.
two possible extremes. It It isis symptomatic
symptomatic
that Doni,
that Doni, thethe theorist
theorist of the bel-canto
of the bel-canto period,
period, criticized
criticized the the early
early recitative
recitative
because itit was,
because was, in in his
his opinion,
opinion, neither
neither fishfish nor
nor fowl,
fowl, neither
neither aa sccco secco recita-
recita-
tive nor
tive nor an "artificial" aria;
an "artificial" aria; hehe praised
praised the the latter
latter asas the best means
the best means to to dispel
dispel

-.---
tediousness.11 The
tediousness.
-.1
Solcrti. Lc
1 Solcrti,
The differentiation
differentiation of
on';", del
Lt: origint del mclodramma,
of recitative,
me!oaramma. 217.
recitative, arioso,
211.
arioso, and and ariaaria enabled
enabled the the
I20
120 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era. .

composer to use three styles for

composer to use three styles
for narrative,
narrative, dramatic,
dramatic, and
and lyrical
lyrical or
or purely
purely
ornamental purposes.
ornamental purposes.

THE CHAMBER
THE CHAMBER CANTATA:
CANTATA: LUIGI ROSSI AND
LUIGI ROSSI AND CARISSIMI
CARISSIMI

In the
In the early
early baroque
baroque Venetian
Venetian schoolschool the the term
term cantata
cantata denoted
denoted aa vocal
vocal
composition
composition in form
in form of strophic
of strophic variations
variations on
on aa recurrent
recurrent bass.
bass. These
These
cantatas naturally
cantatas naturally lack lack the
the division
division of of recitative
recitative and and ariaaria although
although hintshints
of the
of the incipient
incipient differentiation
differentiation do do occur
occur as as early
early as as inin the Musiche of
the Musiche of the
the
22
remarkable Neapolitan
remarkable Neapolitan Falconieri.
Falconieri. Also
Also the
the numerous
numerous dialogues
dialogues and
and
monodic cantatas
monodic cantatas by by Berti,
Berti, Sances,
Sances, and and Rasi
Rasi can can be be considered
considered forerun-
forerun-
ners of
ners of the
the chamber
chamber cantata.
cantata. The form was definitively established coin-
definitively established coin-
cident with
cident with the the bel-canto
bel-canto style
style in in the
the sophisticated
sophisticated literary literary andand musical
musical
circles in
circles in Rome.
Rome. It It was
was based
based on on aa pastoral
pastoral or or dramatic
dramatic story,story, narrated
narrated in in
an alternation
an alternation of of recitative
recitative and arioso,
arioso, and punctuated by
punctuated by strophic strophic arias
arias

at lyrical
at lyrical oror dramatic
dramatic points.
points. Formally,
Formally, it it was closely
closely allied
allied with
with thethe opera,
opera,
as implied
as implied in in the
the term
term "dialogue
"dialogue without
without stage"stage" that that Doni used used forfor this
this
type.
type.
The
The strophic
strophic variation
variation persisted
persisted as
as the
the major
major means of
of creating
creating
unity in the works of the
unity in the works of
the two
two leading
leading Roman composers: composers: the the singer-
singer-
composer Luigi
composer Luigi RossiRossi (I598-I653)
(159^-1653) and Giacomo Carissimi (I605-I674).
Carissimi (1605-1674).
Also
Also Manelli
Manelli and and Ferrari,
Ferrari, who developed
developed the bel-canto style
the bel-canto style in Venice,
in Venice,

Orazio
Orazio (Michi) dell'Arpa,
(Michi) dell'Arpa,
and Caprioli
Caprioli
8
8 belong
belong to
to the first
first generation
generation of
of
bel-canto composers.
bel-canto composers.
Rossi
Rossi waswas pre-eminencly a composer of
pre-eminently a composer
of cantatas
cantatas of of which about two

and fifty
4
hundred
hundred and are extant.
fifty are
extant. In4 In his
his hands the cantata assumed the
hands the cantata the ex-
ex-

pansive composite form in

pansive composite form
in which recitative,
recitative, arioso,
arioso, and aria aria freely
freely alter-
alter-

nated
nated to to form
form as as many
many as
as fourteen
fourteen sections.
sections. A primitive
primitive type
type of
of cantata,
cantata,
the
the aria
aria cantata,
cantata, consists
consists of of only
only one aria aria 5 repeated
5
repeated for for every
every stanza of the
text. In the refrain cantata
text. In the refrain cantata only only the
the riddle
middle part
part of
of the
the aria
aria changes
changes while
the
the first
first section
section serves
serves as as refrain.
refrain. This
This type type is is exemplified
exemplified by by Difenditi
Dijcnditi
Amore.
Amore?8 The The mostmost complex
complex type type is,
is, however,
however, the
the rondo
rondo cantata
cantata in
in which
which
the
the various
various recitative
recitative and and arioso
arioso sections
sections are are held
held together
together by by aa short
short aria,
aria,

repeated
repeated at at intervals
intervals in
in rondo
rondo fashion.
fashion. The
The formal
formal division
division between
between secco
secco

recitative
recitative and
and ariaaria is
is unInistakable
unmistakable in Rossi (Ex.
in Rossi (Ex. 30)30) andand is is further
further empha-
empha-

Adler HMG, 438

2*AdlerHMG,438.
Pruniercs, r:Opba
B8 Prunicrcs,L ltalien, Appendix, I3.
'Opera Italien, Appendix, 13.
See the bibliographical notes of PruniCrcs, ZIMG
40* See the bibliographical notes of Prunicrcs, ZIMG XIV, 109; Riemann
XIV, Iog; HMG 2:20
Riemann HMG 2:2,
372>
372, and
and Landshoff,
Landshoff, Alee
AlU Meimr'
Meister des
des Bel
Bel Canto.
Canto.
Torchi
*
AMV,
Torchi AM see also
190, see
V, 190, HAMno.
also HAM no. 203-
203.
I6Riemann HMG
Riemann HMG 2:2,
2:2, 38I.
381.
 Italian
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque I21
121
sized by
by instrumental
instrumental ritornellos,
ritornellos, mostly
mostly for
for the
the continuo,
continuo, but
but sometimes
sometimes
also for a violin solo or
also for a violin solo or duet.
duet. While the
the majority
majority of
of Rossi's
Rossi's works
works belong
belong
to
to the
the category
category of solo cantatas in
solo cantatas in which
which the
the same
same singer
singer both
both narrates
narrates and
and
"acts,"
"acts," there are also
also about three
three dozen
dozen chamber
chamber duets
duets and
and trios
trios in
in which
which
Ex. 30.
30. Luigi
Luigi Rossi:
Rossi: Chamber cantata.
cantata.

rWI~
'fI .. . [Aria]
r.'I

... \'jdo-Ia-tlO V'i-do-ro et a-mo Ardct,ag -. gh~,av- yam-po

r.'I
.
III In . e '1

=:7 tor I:~,t! H ;'I~:~ ~ I'i':;: J 1:.1 I '1 II

ensembles
ensembles in in aa noble imitative
imitative style style alternate
alternate withwith solo
solo arias.
arias. The solo solo
cantata Gelosia
7
cantata Gelosia '1 is
is subdivided
subdivided into into an
an arioso,
arioso, a a short
short aria,
aria, and a recitative;
a recitative;
this
this entire
entire sequence
sequence is is then
then twice
twice repeated
repeated to to new words and with with some
melodic variation in
melodic variation the voice
in the voice part,
part, but
but not
not in
in the
the bass.
bass. Here the
the idea of
idea of
strophic
strophic variation
variation is
is retained
retained in
in principle,
principle, but
but the
the strophe
strophe itself
itself has
has gained
gained
flexibility by the
flexibility by the juxtaposition
juxtaposition of of recitative,
recitative, arioso,
arioso, and ark. aria. Exactly
Exactly the the
same form can
same be found
can be found in in Manelli's
Manelli's Bella
Bella tu* arias of
tu.8 The arias of Rossi
Rossi areare gen-
gen-
erally brief
erally brief and
and gain
gain length
length only only by by varied
varied repeats
repeats that
that are
are always
always fullyfully
written out.
written out. These
These repeats
repeats characterize
characterize the the favorite
favorite bipartite
bipartite form of of the
the
bel-canto aria:
bel-canto aria: A A'B
ATJ B',
B', or
or A B
B B'.
B'. Sometimes
Sometimes the
the first
first section
section returns
returns at
at

the end
the end (A
(A B B [B 7
A') to
[B']] A') to form the the first
first clear
clear manifestation
manifestation of of the
the da-capo
da-capo
aria,
aria, on
on a
a diminutive
diminutive scale,
scale, however.
however. This
This brief
brief da-capo
da-capo aria
aria which becomes
quite frequent in cantata
quite frequent in
cantata and and opera
opera after
after 1650
16so should
should not be confused
not be confused with
the grand da-capo
die grand da-capo form
form of
of the
the late
late baroque.
baroque. In
In the
the brief
brief da
da capo the return
capo the return isis
written out because
written out because of of the
the variation
variation of
of the
the melody
melody and because
because the
the sections
sections

do not yet
do not yet form
form self-contained
self-contained and almost almost independent
independent movements,
movements, but but
consist merely
consist merely ofof groups
groups of of phrases.
phrases. Rossi
Rossi shows his his outstanding
outstanding melodicmelodic
inventiveness in
inventiveness his ability
in his ability to to spin
spin aa bcl-canto
bel-canto lineline out
out ofof aa single
single rhythmic
rhythmic
motive,
motive^ and
and sudden
sudden shifts
shifts from
from triple
triple to
to duple
duple meter bespeak
bespeak his
his subtle
subde
rhythmic sense.
rhythmic sense.
Carissimi's importance
Carissimi's importance for for the
the cantata
cantata has been too
has been too firequendy
frequently minimized
minimized
in favor
in favor of
of his
his oratorios.
oratorios. In In the
the cantata,
cantata, however,
however. Carissimi
Carissimi reveals
reveals sophistir
sophisti-
Gcvacrt, Les
7'I
Gevaert, Gloir~s de
us Gloircs t1~ Vltdte,
l'ltali~. no. 9; sec
DO. 9; also OHM III,
sec also III. 153.
I53-
Riemann,
f KIIntatenjriihling na
Riemann, KantatenfruhKng no. 3.
3
122 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
cated
cated andand experimental
experimental traits traits conspicuously
conspicuously absent absent in in the
the oratorio.
oratorio. LikeLike
Rossi
Rossi he he excelled
excelled in in rondo
rondo cantatas,S
cantatas, strophic
9
strophic variations,
variations, and chamber
10
duets
duets inin concerted counterpoint. His sparkling
concerted counterpoint. 10
sparkling cantatas
cantatas on humorous sub- sub-
jects
jects
like
like the
the "Charlatan,"u
"Charlatan,"
X1
the
the Testamentum Asini, Requiem
Asini, Requiem Jocosum^ Tocasum,12 2

form a class
form a class by by themselves.
themselves. In
In the
the famous I
I Pilasoft
Filosofi
13
18 he depicts
depicts the
the good
good
and the ill
and the ill "humors"
"humors" of of Herac1it
Heraclit and Democrit by by a a drastic
drastic turn
turn from major major
to
to minor
minor which demonstrates
demonstrates that that the
the rudiments of of modern key key feeling
feeling
are
are clearly
clearly established;
established; not
not by
by accident
accident does
does Carissimi
Carissimi in
in his
his theoretical
theoretical
treatise
treatise reduce
reduce the multitude of
the multitude of modes to to only major and minor.
only major minor.
The ostinato
ostinato bass, especially
bass, especially the
the descending
descending tetrachord, appears in
tetrachord, appears in Caris-
Caris-
simi as well
simi as well as in as in Rossi.
Rossi. However,
However, the
the obbligo
obbligo of
of a
a strophic
strophic bassbass and the
the
rigid
rigid chaconne
chaconne bass bass yidded
yielded in in the
the bd-canto
bel-canto sty Ie to
style to the
the freer
freer device
device of of the
the
patterned
patterned bass
bass or
or quasi-ostinato
quasi-ostinato in
in which only only the
the rhythm
rhythm persisted
persisted in
in
ostinato
ostinato fashion
fashion while
while the the mdody
melody was not
not strictly,
strictly, but
but only sequentially
only sequentially
repeated. The dement
repeated. element of variation became less
of variation less prominent
prominent in in the
the measure
measure in in
which the
which the single
single sections
sections gained
gained in
in internal
internal organization
organization by by means of
of pat-
pat-
terned
terned basses,
basses, sequential
sequential mdodies,
melodies, and contrapuntal
contrapuntal integration
integration of of con
con-
tinuo
tinue and voice. voice. By virtue of
By virtue of his
his concise
concise and formal mdodic melodic designdesign
Carissimi
Carissimi achieved
achieved a a Bowing
flowing continuity
continuity of of line unimpeded by
line unimpeded by the
the affection
affection
of
of single
single words.
words. His coloraturas
coloraturas have a a neutral
neutral flavorflavor by by dint
dint of of their
their
rhythmic
rhythmic drive, drive, as
as for
for example
example in
in the
the wdl-known
well-known VittoriaY'
Vittoria.
14
In
In their
their har
har-
monic complexity
complexity his
his cantatas
cantatas and chamber duets
duets differ
differ noticeably
noticeably from
from
his
his oratorios.
oratorios. The affective
affective intervals
intervals of of the melody were made an
the melody an integral
integral
part of
part of the
the harmony,
harmony, notablynotably by by the
the use
use of
of the
the Neapolitan-sixth
Neapolitan-sixth chord. chord.
This
This chord
chord received
received its its misleading
misleading name because because it it was erroneously thought
erroneously thought
to have
to originated in
have originated in the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan opera. opera. Actually,
Actually, however,
however, it it was es- es-

tablished
tablished as as a cadential
cadential idiom in in the
the bd-canto
bel-canto stylestyle and can be
be found in
in
nearly
nearly all
all middle baroque composers.
baroque composers. In
In Carissimi's
Carissimi's chamber duet
duet II
// mio
mio
cor (Ex. 31)
cor (Ex. 31) it
it appears on an affective
appears affective word to to reinforce
reinforce the the cadential
cadential drive
drive

Ex. Carissimi; Chamber

31. Carissimi:
Ex. 31. Chamber duct.
duet

C:: !';Ii!; Ii^;l~~s !~:

n mio core

r= ^E
II mio mar 4i plan ?f

9 Haas
Haas B, 127.
10 Landshoff, Alte
10 Landshoff, .lIte Meister des Bel Canto
Meister des Bel Canto (several
(several cumplcs)
examples).
. U Torchi AM V.239-
12 Haas B, 131.
111 B, 131.
ls
18 Landshoff, .lIte Meister; also
Landshoff, Alte Meister; also in
in Burney's General Histtwy.
Burners General History. '
1~ Gcvacrt,
14
Gevaert^ Gloires
Gloires de rIta/ie no.
Fltdie no. 2;2; Parisotti, Anthology of
Parisotti, Anthology of Ita/ilm
Italian Songs
Songs (An"
(AHe
fllltie~) no.
ftntiche) no. I.i.
 Italian
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque I23
123
of
of the
the harmony.
harmony. The cadence cadence is is also
also rhythmically emphasized by the
rhythmically emphasized by the
broadening
broadening effect
effect of the hcmiola, very typical of the bel-canto
hemiola, very typical of the bckcanto style.
style.
The
The second generation
generation of cantatacantata composers
composers comprises
comprises Cesti
Cesti (the pupil
second of
(the pupil
of
of Carissimi),
Carissimi), Mazzaferrata,
Mazzaferrata, Savioni,Savioni, Tenaglia, Legrenzi,
Tenaglia, Lcgrenzi, and
and Stradella,
Stradella,
the
the last
last two
two better
better known for for their
their operas
operas and oratorios. The painter-
and oratorios. painter-
composer
composer Salvatore
Salvatorc Rosa,
Rosa, whose bitter bitter satire
satire against
against music
music aroused
aroused thethe
belated
belated protests
protests of Mattheson,
Matthcson, must
must also
also be
be mentioned
mentioned here.
here.
Cesti's
Cesti's cantatas
cantatas areare distinguished
distinguished for for their
their expansive
expansive ariosi
ariosi and
and the
the pro-
pro-
nounced lyrical
nounced lyrical quality
quality of his melodies.
of his melodies. Written
Written in in triple meter with supple
triple meter with supple
syncopations,
syncopations, theythey abound in in such
such melodic
melodic dissonances
dissonances as as diminished
diminished thirds
thirds
and fourths although
although the the underlying
underlying harmonies
harmonies are
are essentially simple.
essentially simple.
us
15

With Savioni,
Savioni, Legrenzi,
Legrenzi, and Stradella Stradella the the cantata
cantata grew
grew to to major
major pro-
pro-
portions
portions and showed in
in its
its increased
increased use
use of
of imitation
imitation the
the definite
definite resur-
resur-
gence
gence of counterpoint.
counterpoint. The anticipatory
anticipatory statements
statements of of the
the melody
melody by by the
the
continuo
continue have now become the stereotyped form of aria beginning, as
the stereotyped form of aria beginning, as for
for
example in
example in Pasquini's tramontar 18 Instrumental
Pasquini's Al tramontar. Instrumental ritornelli
ritornelli and
and arias
arias
with obbligato
with obbligato instruments are are characteristic
characteristic for for Legrenzi
Legrenzi andand Stradella,
Stradella,
aa feature
feature that
that again
again discloses
discloses the parallelism of
the parallelism of the
the opera
opera and
and cantata.
cantata.
Stradella's serenate, as
Stradella's sercnate, he called
as he called them,
them, served
served as as model for Handel who
for Handel
paid the
paid the older
older composer
composer the the highest
highest form of of compliment
compliment by actually using
by actually using
17
some of of his
his music.
music.u the nearly
Of the nearly two-hundred
two-hundred cantatas
cantatas ofof Stradella only
Stradella only
a few
a few are available in
are available in modern editions 18
which hardly
editions 18 which hardly dodo justice
justice to
to the
the
forceful curves
forceful curves of of his
his flowing
flowing melodies,
melodies, in in which
which Cesti's melodic dis-
Cesti's melodic dis-
sonance technique
sonance technique is is brought
brought to to perfection.
perfection. Occasionally,
Occasionally, Stradella's
Stradella's rich
rich
harmonies, like
harmonies, like those
those of of Legrenzi,
Legrenzi, even even point
point to to the
the expanded
expanded tonality
tonality
of late
of late baroque
baroque music.
music.

THE ORATORIO: CARISSIMI AND STRADELLA

oratorio was aa sacred,
The oratorio sacred. but
but non-liturgical
non-liturgical dramatic
dramatic composition in
composition hi
which aa biblical
which biblical subject
subject was presented
presented in
in the
the form ofof recitative,
recitative, arioso,
arioso, aria,
aria,
ensemble, and chorus, usually
ensemble, and chorus, usually with
with the
the aid
aid of
of a
a narrator
narrator or
or testo.
tcsto. According
According
to Spagna,
to Spagna, the
the outstanding
outstanding oratorio
oratorio poet
poet of
of the
the period,
period. the
the presence
presence of
of the
the
testa
tcsto formed the
formed the distinguishing
distinguishing characteristic
characteristic between
between opera
opera and oratorio.
oratorio,

15
Adler HMG, 439-
IS AdlcrHMG,439-
ie VatielIi Antickc CantaU
18 Vatielli d'Amor~. The
AnticM Cantate d'Amore. The piece has also
piece has been printed
also been printed inin Riemann
Riemann
KantatenfrUhling, here
Kantatenjruhling, here erroneously ascribed to
erroneously ascribed to Carissimi.
Carissimi.
17 One serenata
IT One serenata has been printed
has been in the
printed in the Handel G~tellschaft, Suppl.
Handel Geselhchaft, Suppl. 3.
3. It
It should
should be
be
noted, however,
noted, that Stradella's
however, that Stradella's authorship
authorship has been questioned
has been questioned onon stylistic
stylistic grounds;
grounds;
Robinson, ML
see Robinson,
see ML XVI.
XVI.
ls Parisotti, Anthology;
18 Parisotti, Riemann HMG 2:2,
Anthology; Riemann 3!m Lavignac
2:2, 397; I:~ 733;
Lavignac EE Ira, 7~~; Zanon,
Zano~ Rep-
Rs,c-
colla di
colta di 24 ari~. no.
24 arif, no. 22.
22.
I24
124 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
In
In the
the presentation
presentation of of the
the action
action and the the general
general dramatic
dramatic spirit spirit akin
akin toto the
the
opera,
opera, thethe oratorio
oratorio appealed
appealed to to the
the imagination
imagination of o thethe audience
audience and dis- dis-

pensed
pensed in
in principle.
principle, though
though not
not always
always in
in practice.
practice, with
with the
the stage.
stage. This
This
feature
feature it it had in in common with the the chamber cantata; cantata; Spagna,
Spagna, indeed.
indeed,
called
called thethe early
early oratorical
oratorical dialogues
dialogues "cantatas."
"cantatas." The form
form was contrived
contrived
by
by the
the Jesuits
Jesuits to to stem
stem thethe tide
tide of
of secularization.
secularization. Capitalizing
Capitalizing on the the vogue
vogue
of
of the
the opera
opera theythey made the the oratorio
oratorio a a pliant
pliant tool
tool of of their
their propagandistic
propagandistic
endeavor. The name oratorio
endeavor. oratorio (= (= prayer
prayer hall)hall) was derived
derived from the the meet-
meet-
ing place
ing place of
of aa devout
devout congregation
congregation of
of laymen,
laymen, the
the Congregazione
Congregazione dell'Ora-
dell* Ora-
torio,
torio, where the
the members met for
for prayer
prayer and the
the singing
singing of
of devotional
devotional
songs such as
songs such as thethe lauda.
lauda. Palestrina
Palestrina and other other composers
composers connected
connected with with
the counter-reformation
the counter-reformation composed composed laude
laude in
in a
a simple
simple polyphonic
polyphonic style; style;
the
the dialogue
dialogue laude laude by by Giovanni
Giovanni Anerio (Teatro (Teatro Armonico Spirituale, Spirituale,
I6I9)
1619) have even
even a
a polyphonic
polyphonic testo.
testo. In
In spite
spite of
of their
their title
title these
these laude
laude are,
are,
however, not
however, not really
really dramatic.
dramatic. Cavalieri's
Cavalieri's Anima e Corpo, since
e Corpo, since Burney
Burney
often regarded as
often regarded as the
the "first"
"first" oratorio,
oratorio, is is actually
actually a a cross
cross between oratorio
between oratorio
and sacred
sacred opera,
opera, but
but purists
purists have
have gone
gone too
too far
far in
in ruling
ruling the
the work
work out
out
from the history of
the history the oratorio
of the oratorio altogether.
altogether. Anima e
e Corpo
Corpo shares
shares at
at least
least

some features
features of the oratorio
of the oratorio form. Moreover, it
form. Moreover, it was performed in
performed in the the
hall of
hall of the Oratorio and even
the Oratorio even contains
contains some of the familiar
of the lauda texts.
familiar lauda texts.
It was not
It not called oratorio. because
called oratorio, because thisthis name,
name, around
around 1600, IooO, designated
designated
merely a
a locality,
merely locality, as
as the
the term
term da
da camera
camera and
and da
da chiesa
Mesa did
did in
in instrumental
instrumental
music.
music.
stylistic premise
The stylistic premise of of the
the oratorio
oratorio was was monody,
monody, and and in in this
this respect
respect
Cavalieri set
Cavalieri set aa model that that was followed
followed by by Ottavio
Ottavio Durante,
Durante, Vittori,
Vittorio andand
the brothers
the brothers Mazzocchi
Mazzocchi who composed composed laude laude in in monodic
monodic style. style. Certain
Certain
Latin dialogues
Latin dialogues for solo and
for solo and chorus,
chorus, preserved
preserved in in motet
motet collections
collections of of
Venetians like
Venetians like Romano,
Romano. Tommasi,
Tommasi,19 Capello,
19
Capello,20 and
20 and Pace,Pace, havehave beenbeen
claimed to
claimed to be
be forerunners
forerunners of of the
the Latin
Latin oratorio.
oratorio. TheyThey are are strictly
strictly liturgical,
liturgical,
if dramatic,
if dramatic, music, music, composed
composed in in the
the conservative
conservative pseudo-monodic
pseudo-monodic style style
of Viadana.
of Viadana. NeitherNeither the the polyphonic
polyphonic laudalauda nor nor the
the Latin
Latin dialogue
dialogue belong
belong
stylistically to
stylistically to thethe history
history of of the
the oratorio.
oratorio. The form form does does notnot crystallize
crystallize
before I630, its
before 1630, its beginnings
beginnings coinciding
coinciding with with thethe beginnings
beginnings of of the
the bel-canto
bel-canto
style.
style.
Two types types of of oratorio
oratorio can can bebe distinguished:
distinguished: the the oratorio
oratorio volgare
tlolgare in in
Italian, and
Italian, and thethe more aristocratic
aristocratic Latin
Latin oratorio,
oratorio, both
both equally
equally dramatic
dramatic and and
popular in
popular in their
their appeal.
appeal. The centercenter of of the
the Latin
Latin oratorio
oratorio was, was, according
according
~D Schc:ring, Geschichte
"Sobering, Geschichte dcs
des Oratoriums,
Oratoriums. Appendix
Appendix XVI.
XVL
20 GMB no. ISo.
*GMBno,i8o.
 Italian Music
Italian Music ofof the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque I25
125
to a highly informative report ofMaugars
to a highly informative report of (1639),S.S.Marcdlo
Maugars (1639), MarcelloininRome Rome
whereCarissimi
where Carissimiwas wasemployed
employedafter 1~9.Carissimi's
after1649. Carissimi'sworks works are thefirst
are the first
extantoratorios
extant oratoriosproper,
proper.and and though
thoughhe hediddidnotnotinvent
inventthe theform,
form. ititisishe he
whoestablished
who establishedititartistically.
artistically.
The sixteen
The sixteen extant
extant oratorios
oratorios ofofCarissimi
Carissimi all all belong
belong toto the
theLatinLatin type,
type,
except Daniele.
except Daniels, thus
thus far
far unpublished.
unpublished, and
and not
not identical
identical with
with the
the oratorio
oratorio
21
tlolgareof
volgarc ofthe
thesame
sametidetitlethat
thatisissometimes
sometimeshypothetically
hypotheticallyascribed
ascribedtotohim. him.lI1
The most
The most impressive
impressive works works include
include JcphtcJephte (his
(his masterpiece),
masterpiece). Jonas, lonas, thethe
Judicium
Judicium Salomonis.
Sdomonis, Balthazar,
Balthazar, the
the Di/uTJilim
Diluvium Universaie,
Univcrsale, the
the Judicium
Judicium
Extremum, and
Extremum, and the
the Historia
Historia Divitis?*
Divitis.22 Nearly
Nearly all all of
of the
the subjects
subjects arc are taken
taken
from the Old
from the Old Testament Testament and
and are
are presented
presented by by an
an unknown
unknown librettist
librettist in
in

tersely dramatic scenes of great economy. Carissimi

tersely dramatic scenes of great economy.
Carissimi who was known in
who was known in

his day
his day as as "the
"the musical
musical rhetor"
rhetor" fully
fully deserves
deserves his his honorary
honorary tidetide in in view
view of of
his powerfully
his powerfully rhythmicrhythmic recitatives
recitatives and and sweeping
sweeping declamatory
declamatory choruses.choruses.
The main
The main pillars
pillars ofof the
the oratorio
oratorio structure
structure are are thethe choral
choral sections
sections which which
call sometimes for large
call sometimes for large combinations combinations such
such as
as a
a double
double chorus
chorus and
and soloists,
soloists,

as in
as in the
the Diluvium;
Dilutlium " or or even
even aa triple
triple chorus
chorus with with orchestra,
orchestra, as as inin the
the
ludicium
Judicium
Extremum.
Extremum. The
The chorus
chorus which
which sometimes
sometimes serves
serves as
as a
a moralizing
moralizing
spectator.
spectator,
but more
but often takes
more often takes part
part in in the
the action.
action, is written in
is written in a a strictly
strictly
chordal and extremely rhythmic
chordal and extremely rhythmic style, inspired by style, inspired by the
the fiery
fiery anapaests
anapaests and
and
the relentlessly hammering
the relendessly hammering dactyls dactyls of
of the
the Latin
Latin language.
language. The sea
sea storm
storm
in
in Jonas
Jonas
and
and the
die tumultuous
tumultuous gathering
gathering of
of the
the elements
elements during
during the the Deluge
Deluge
in
in the
the Diluvium
Diluvium are are depicted in
in superb
superb rhythmic
rhythmic stylization.
stylization. Other
Other mem-
mem-
depicted
orable
orable scenes
scenes are are the
the sudden
sudden calm calm of of the
the seasea after
after Jonah
Jonah has has beenbeen sac-
sac-

rificed to the waves,

rificed to the waves, where where the
the chorus
chorus comes
comes in
in after
after an
an uncannily
uncannily eloquent
eloquent
rest which
rest on
on aa single sustained chord; or or the
the battle
batde chorus
chorus in in Jephte
Jcphtc in in which
single sustained chord;
alternating choral and soloistic snatches
alternating choral and soloistic
snatches conj ure up
conjure up a sharply
a sharply profiled
profiled pic-pic-

ture
ture of
of strife.
strife.

Concentration
Concentration on on rhythm
rhydun in in the
die choral
choral writing
writing makesmakes up up for for the
die lack
lack

of out
of harmonic
harmonic interest.
interest. TheThe astonishing
astonishing simplicity
simplicity of of harmony
harmony comes comes out

notonly
not in the emphatic use use of triadic melodies in the recitative, but also
oftriadic but
melodies in die recitative, also
only in die emphatic
inin the
the almost
almost childish
childish insistence
insistence on on aa few
few simple
simple chords.
chords. Since
Since thisthis har-
har-

monic cantatas, it must be due due

monic restriction
restriction doesdoes not notobtain
obtain in in Carissimi's
Carissimi's cantatas, it must be
to the popular and propagandistic function function of of oratorio
oratorio music
music which which al- al-
to the popular and propagandists
lowed
lowedof ofonly the most obvious effects.
only the most obvious
effects.TheThechoruses
chorusesby bythemselves
themselvesseem seem
primitive and only in their dramatic context. What What
primitive
andtaketake ononsignificance
significance only
in their dramatic context.

11 Torchi AM V, II7.
the&sa:
firattbnc
Thefirst
The four oratorios have been printed ininChrysandcr, D,IJ, liree
U first tour* c^rtorios have been printed Chrysander,D. U,the
ininczecrpts in ICMI s. Single
excerpts in ICMI 5. Single
scenes in
scenes GMB
in GMBno.
na 19B.
198, HAM
HAM no.
DO. 20'].
207.
126 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Handel
Handel admired
admired in in Carissimi's
Carissimi's choral
choral oratorio
oratorio was primarily,
primarily, as as his
his musical
musical
borrowings prove,
borrowings prove, the
the structural
structural dramatic
dramatic function
function of
of the
the chorus,
chorus, and
whoever
whoever hopes
hopes to to find
find Handelian grandeurgrandeur in in Carissimi
Carissimi willwill be disap-
disap-
pointed.
pointed. The oratorios
oratorios are
are a
a mosaic
mosaic of
of short-winded
short-winded phrases,
phrases, typical
typical of
of the
the
bel-canto
bel-canto style,
style,
and
and are
are organized
organized in
in free
free rondo-like
rondo-like structures
structures by
by recurrent
recurrent
arioso,
arioso, choral,
choral, and instrumental
instrumental sections.
sections. The formal differentiation
differentiation of of
recitative, arioso,
recitative, arioso, and aria
aria is
is less
less conspicuous
conspicuous than in the cantata,
than in the cantata, butbut the
the
bel-canto
bel-canto style
style of
of the
the aria
aria isis always
always clearly
clearly recognizable,
recognizable, as as for
for example
example in in
Ite
Ite angeli (Ex.
angcli (Ex, 32) ,32) in
in which the
the hemiola
hemiola cadence
cadence retards
retards the
the flow
flow of
of the
the
simple is taken from Lucifer,
simple line
line in
in characteristic
characteristic fashion.
fashion. The example
example is Lucifer,
one of
one of the
the rare
rare solo
solo oratorios
oratorios without chorus.
chorus.

Ex. 32. Carissimi:

Ex. 32. Bel-canto aria
Carissimi: Be1-eanto aria from Lucifer.
Lucifer
.."
&J
1- te - - 1'8- 11, an-p-ll
-- -
--
AD - me-! I - te, I te

Only in
Only in aa few significant
significant ariosi
ariosi does
does Carissimi
Carissimi venture
venture into affective
into affective
harmonies,
harmonies, written
written either
either on chromatically descending tetrachords,
chromatically descending tetrachords, as as in
in
the Judicium Salomonis
the Judicium Salomonis and Jephte,Jephte, or diminished steps,
or on diminished steps, as
as in
in Jephte.
Jephte.
Contrapuntal texture
Contrapuntal texture appears
appears in the oratorios
in the oratorios only
only in neatly chiselled
in neatly chiselled solo
solo
duets or,
duets or, occasionally,
occasionally, in in final
final choruses,
choruses, butbut even
even here
here the
the consideration
consideration of of
a lucid
a lucid speech rhythm
speech rhythm restrains
restrains Carissimi
Carissimi from
from showing
showing the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal
skill which he
skill he did
did not
not hesitate
hesitate to
to apply
apply inin his
his church
church music
music and and cantatas.
cantatas.
instrumental accompaniment
The instrumental accompaniment comprisescomprises besides
besides thethe continue
continuo only only
a scanty
a scanty combination
combination of of two violins.
violins. These
These trios, if present
trios, if present at at all,
all, provide
provide
the modest
the modest introductory
introductory musicmusic and
and serve
serve otherwise
otherwise in in aa rather
rather subordinate
subordinate
function. Carissimi's
function. Carissimi's choral
choral oratorio
oratorio diddid not
not find
find many
many successors
successors in in Italy,
Italy,
except among
except among his
his personal
personal followers
followers and
and lesser
lesser men like Graziani,
like Graziani, Foggia,Foggia,
and Marcorelli;
and Marcorelli; only
only in in France
France (Charpentier),
(Charpentier), where where thethe sober
sober brilliance
brilliance
of his
of his music
musiC was especially
especially appreciated,
appreciated, and in in Germany
Germany (Foerster,
(Foerster, Capri-
Capri-
cornus, and Meder)
cornus, Meder) did did his
his model stimulate
stimulate imitations.
imitations. In In Italy,
Italy, the
the
emphasis
emphasis shifted
shifted after
after Carissimi
Carissimi from the
the Latin
Latin oratorio
oratorio to
to the
the oratorio
oratorio
flolgare, in
volgare, in which
which the the chorus
chorus lost
lost its
its central
central position
position and and served
served as as aa
theatrical or
theatrical or decorative
decorative prop,
prop, setting
setting thethe scene
scene with
with short
short interjections,
interjections,
wails, and battle
wails, battle cries,
cries, or
or giving
giving aa sententious
sententious moralmoral at at the
the end.
end. In In exact
exact
parallel
parallel to
to both
both cantata
cantata and opera,
opera, the
the interest
interest was
was now focussed
focussed on
on the
the
soloist,
soloist, the
the castrato
castrato singer;
singer; and the
the formal
formal aria, which does not
aria, which does not yet stand yet stand
out in
out in Carissiim's
Carissimi's oratorios
oratorios asas an independent
independent form, form, monopolized
monopolized the the at-
at-
 Italian Music
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 127
127
tention of
tendon of composer
composer and
and audience.
audience. The
The solo
solo oratorio
oratorio became
became aa courtly,
courtly,
aristocratic form
aristocratic form that
that served
served as
as aa substitute
substitute opera.
opera. During
During the
the Lenten
Lenten
season opera
season opera houses
houses were
were traditionally
traditionally closed,
closed, but this regulation
but this regulation could be
could be
circumvented by
circumvented by the
the presentation
presentation of
of oratorios
oratorios so
so the
the nobility
nobility did
did not
not have
have
forego the
to forego
to the pleasure
pleasure of
of hearing
hearing their
their favorite
favorite castrato.
castrato.
The sensuous
The sensuous mysticism
mysticism ofof the
the Jesuit
Jesuit baroque
baroque found
found its
its congenial
congenial ex-
ex-
pression in
pression in the
the so-called oratorio erotico.
so-called oratorio erotico. Only
Only by
by dint
dint of
of the
the sacred
sacred sub-
sub-
jects and
jects and the
the lack
lack of
of stage
stage action
action do
do these
these oratorios
oratorios differ
differ from
from the
the opera,
opera,
in their
in their brilliant
brilliant concerting
concerting style,
sty their Ie,
their luscious
luscious bel
bel canto,
canto, and
and their
their sensu-
sensu-
ous, if
ous, if not
not voluptuous,
voluptuous, tone tone they
they surpass
surpass eveneven thethe opera
opera in in which such such
effects could
effects could be be left
left toto the
the stage
stage presentation.
presentation. It It is
is not
not surprising
surprising thatthat most
most
of the
of the opera
opera composers
composers of of the
the period
period were
were alsoalso the
the leading
leacling oratorio
oratorio com-
posers. The oratorio
posers. oratorio composition
composition was was centered
centered in in the
the states
states ofof northern
northern
Italy, especially
Italy, especially Modena and
and Bologna,
Bologna, beside
beside which
which Florence
Florence and
and Rome
took second
took second place.
place. Since
Since thethe oratorio
oratorio flourished
flourished mostly
mostly at at courts,
courts, Venice
Venice did did
not directly
not participate, but
directly participate, but Venetian
Venetian opera opera composers
composers did did write
write oratorios
oratorios
for the
for the Italianized Austrian or
Italianized Austrian or German courts,courts, such
such as Vienna and Munich.
as Vienna Munich.
The Italian
Italian school included Ferrari,
school included Ferrari, the the founder
founder of of the Venetian opera,
the Venetian opera,
and
and masters
masters better
better known for
for their
their instrumental
instrumental music,
music, such as
as Cazzati,
Cazzati,
the
the elder
elder Vitali,
Vitali, Arresti,
Arresti, deglidegli Antonii,
Antonii, and,and, most important
important of all, Lo-
of all, Lc-
grenzi
grenzi (d.
(d. 1690)
1690) and
and Stradella
Stradella (d.
(d. 1682).
1682).
Ferrari surprises in
Ferrari surprises his Sansone
in his Sansonc (c. (c. 1660)
1660) by by aa keen dramatic characteriza-
characteriza-

tion
tion in in aria
aria and
and recitative. Vitali's Giona
recitative.23 Vitali's Giona (1689) deserves special
special atten
28 deserves atten-
(1689)
tion for the polyphonic
tion for the polyphonic tcsto, testa, which
which in
in form of
of a
a five-part
five-part chorus narrates
narrates
the
the story
story while
while thethe passages
passages of of direct
direct action
action are sung by
are sung by soloists.
soloists. ItIt is
is one
one
of
of the
the few
few links
links that
that connect
connect the the choral
choral narrations
narrations of of Carissimi
Carissimi with the
choral recitatives in
choral recitatives in Handel's
Handel's oratorios.
oratorios. Legrenzi
Legrenzi and Stradella,
Stradella, who bothboth
wrote
wrote six
six oratorios, represent
oratorios, represent the
the peak
peak of
of middle baroque
baroque oratorio com-
position.
position.
The lofty aim of
lofty aim of these
these composers
composers is is evidenced
evidenced in in ponderous
ponderous con-
trapuntal choruses, as, for example, in
trapuntal choruses, as, for example, Legrenzi's La
in Legrenzi's La Morte del del Cor
Cor PmiPent-
tmte.
tente. According
According to to the
the Roman
Roman composer
composer Pitoni,Pitoni, chapel
chapel master at at St.
St.

Peter's,
Peter's, Stradella
Stradella considered
considered as
as his
his best
best work not
not one
one of
of his
his operas,
operas, but the
the

oratorio S.
oratorio S. Giotlanni Battista (1676).
Giovanni Battista (1676). It It is
is indeed
indeed aa masterpiece
masterpiece of of charac-
charac-
terization, endowed with
terization, endowed with a "Handelian" a "Hande1ian" breadth
breadth of
of melody
melody and
and aa wealth
wealth
of
of harmonic
harmonic ideas ideas that indicate his
that indicate his advanced
advanced stylistic
stylistic position.
position. It is further-
It is further-

more
more symptomatic
symptomatic that
that Strade1la
Stradella experimented
experimented with
with the the concerto
concerto and and pre-
pre-
scribed
scribed in in an
an aria
aria concertata
conccrtata the
the accompaniment
accompaniment of
of aa concerto
concerto grosso
grosso and
and aa
concertina which were,
concertino which were, however, however, not
not yet
yet written
written in
in the
the late
ktc baroque
baroque con-
con-

n"Schering, GcsMchu Ul
Schering. GelIicAte des 0rtzI0ritIms.
Oratoruims, Appendix
Appendix XXVILXXVII.
 128 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
certo
certo style.
style. The ostinato
ostinato appears
appears often
often in in modulatory
modulatory form, form, as as for
for example
example
in Susanna.
in Susanna?* 2 !' In
In the
the last
last scene
scene of
of S.
S. Giovanni
Giovanni Battista
Battista Stradella
Stradella combines
combines
the
the joy
joy of
of Herod's
Herod's daughter
daughter overover thethe death
death ofof St.
St. John
John with the the remorse
remorse
of
of the 26 in which he rep-
the father
father in in aa remarkable
remarkable duet duet on a chaconne bass,25
a chaconne bass, in which he rep-
resents
resents simultaneously
simultaneously two mutually mutually opposing
opposing affections
affections in in a a contrapuntal
contrapuntal
contrast.
contrast. This
This occurs
occurs so so rarely
rarely in
in baroque
baroque music
music that
that the
the use
use of
of the
the same
same
device with Handel,
device with Handel, who was familiar with
familiar with Stradella's
Stradella's music,
music, does
does not
not
seem coincidental.
coincidental.
The Roman oratorios, oratorios, furthered
furthered by by Vittori,
Vittori, Luigi
Luigi Rossi,
Rossi, Pasquini,
Pasquini, and and
Foggia,
Foggia, did
did not
not rise
rise to
to the
the high
high level
level of
of the
the northern
northern school
school and only in
only in
the
the late
late baroque
baroque periodperiod did
did Rome recapture
recapture its
its leading
leading role.
role. Italian
Italian oratorio
oratorio
in
in Germany
Germany was was an offshoot
offshoot dependent
dependent on the Venetian masters
the Venetian masters andand thethe
numerous
numerous Italians
Italians who held held permanent
permanent court positions in
court positions in Vienna and and
Munich.
Munich. The Italian Italian domination
domination of of the
the Viennese court court began
began withwith Bertali
Bertali
(d. 1669), Sances,
(d. 1669), Sances, Pietro
Pietro Ziani
Ziani (d. 17II), Pederzuoli,
(d. 1711), Pederzuoli, and especially An-
especially
tonio Draghi (d.
tonio Draghi (d. 1700), who,1700), who, for
for the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the century, held the
century, held the
position of
position music director
of music director at the court.
at the Draghi's amazingly
court. Draghi's prolific output
amazingly prolific output
(forty-three
(forty-three oratorios)
oratorios) did
did not
not leave
leave him time
time to
to complete
complete the
the scores,
scores, which
which
are
are often
often only
only sketched
sketched out
out in
in a shorthand
shorthand continuo.
continuo. We find
find here
here all
all the
the
operatic
operatic forms
forms of
of the
the day, including
day, including the
the heavily
heavily orchestrated
orchestrated accompanied
accompanied
recitatives and
recitatives and thickly
thickly scored
scored choruses
choruses whichwhich werewere aa Viennese
Viennese specialty
specialty
reflecting the
reflecting the conservative
conservative taste taste of
of the court. In
the court. spite of
In spite of the
the full
full differentia-
differentia-
tion of
tion of recitative
recitative and aria, aria, the
the arias themselves were
arias themselves were singularly
singularly short,
short, often
often
overladen with
overladen with mechanical
mechanical coloraturas,
coloraturas, and not
not exactly distinguished
exactly distinguished by by
inspiration.
inspiration.

THE VENETIAN OPERA SCHOOL

It is
It is difficult
difficult to
to ascertain
ascertain whether
whether the
the bel-canto
bel-canto style
style originated
originated in
in the
the
cantata or
cantata in the
or in the opera
opera since
since it
it appeared in both
appeared in both forms
forms simultaneously.
simultaneously. Ac-
Ac-
cording to
cording to aa report
report by
by Meder inin Mattheson's Ehrenpforte it
Mattheson's Ehrenpjortc it was
was Cesti
Cesti who
transposed the
transposed the cantata
cantata style
style to
to the
the opera.
opera. The pronounced
pronounced bel-canto
bel-canto idiom
idiom
of Cesti's
of Cesti's cantatas
cantatas was at
at the
the time
time associated
associated primarily
primarily with
with the
the cantata,
cantata,
although
although it was also
it also distinctly
distinctly tried
tried out
out in
in the
the operas
operas ofof the
the first
first bel-canto
bel-canto
composers.
composers. Since
Since these
these operas, however,
operas, however, had not
not yet definitely
yet definitely abandoned
abandoned
the supremacy
the supremacy of of the
the continuous
continuous recitative,
recitative, the
the priority
priority of
of the
the cantata
cantata in
in
the evolution
the evolution ofof the
the bel
bel canto
canto seems
seems atat least
least plausible,
plausible, even
even though
though the
the
style ultimately
style ultimately triumphed
triumphed in in the
the opera.
opera.
**
H GMB no. 230.
GMB no. 2.30.
Ji
1:2, 735,
Lavignac E la,
II Lavignac 735, History, 588.
Burney History,
and Barney 588.
 Italian Music
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 129
129
The
The tendency
tendency to to emphasize
emphasize thethe aria
aria at the expense
at the expense of
of the
the recitative
recitative and
and to
to
make
make the latter less affective
the latter less affective had
had already
already been
been suggested in the
suggested in the early
early Roman
Roman
operas of
operas of Landi,
Landi, Vittori,
Vittori, and
and Domenico
Domenico Mazzocchi;
Mazzocchi; but
but this
this emphasis
emphasis
became obvious
became obvious only
only in
in the
the operas
operas of
of Luigi Rossi,
Luigi Rossi, notably in
notably 11 Palazzo
in 11 Palazzo in-
in-
cantato (1642),
cantato (1642), based
based on
on aa libretto
libretto by
by Rospigliosi,
Rospigliosi, and L'Orjeo (Paris,
and L'Orfco (Paris,
1647)
1647) in
in which
which arias
arias and ensembles hold the main musical interest.
ensembles hold the main musical interest 26 26

In these
In these works recitative
recitative and
and aria
aria are
are clearly
clearly differentiated
differentiated although
although recita-
recita-
tive
tive and arioso are
arioso are not
not yet
yet as
as clearly
clearly distinguished.
distinguished.
Rossi's contributions
While Rossi's contributions toto opera
opera cannot
cannot compare with those
compare with those to
to the
the
cantata the
cantata the reverse
reverse is
is true
true of
of Cavalli (1602-I6J6), organist
Cavalli (1602-1676), organist at
at S. Marco and
S. Marco and
later successor
later successor to to Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's position
position in in Venice,
Venice, whose whose exceptional
exceptional
melodic gift
melodic gift predestined
predestined him for for thethe opera.
opera. His
His works
works in in the
the field
field ofof
instrumental and church
instrumental church music
music areare far
far outweighed
outweighed by by hishis forty-two
forty-two operas.
operas.
Even hishis early
early Nozze di di Teti
Teti contains
contains aa few few strophic
strophic arias
arias inin the
the lilting
lilting
rhythm
rhythm of
of a
a stylized
stylized dance
dance which
which may
may have
have set
set a
a model
model to
to Monteverdi.
Monteverdi.
profuse madrigal
The profuse madrigal choruses
choruses and and ensembles
ensembles of of the
the score
score attest
attest toto his
his
contrapuntal skill.
contrapuntal bel-canto aria
skill. The bel-canto aria appears
appears fully
fully established
established in Didone
in Didonc
(1641), the
(1641), the unprecedented
unprecedented success success of of which
which eclipsed
eclipsed Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's fame, fame,
it is
and it is further solidified in
further solidified Egisto (Vienna,
in Egisto 1642),
(Vienna, 1642), and Giasone
Giasonc (1649).
(1649).
His later works include
later works Pompeo (1666),
include Pompeo (1666), and Ercole amantc
and Ercolc amante (Paris,(Paris,
1662)
1662) composed
composed for for the
the marriage
marriage of of Louis XIV, with
Louis XIV, interludes by
with interludes by
Lully.
Lully.
Of the
the progressive
progressive aria aria forms,
forms, thethe brief
brief dada capo
capo comes
comes to to the
the fore
fore only
only
in the
in the later
later operas,
operas, nowhere as
as clearly
clearly demonstrated
demonstrated as
as in
in the
the lullaby
lullaby from
Ercole,277 the
Ercolc? the murmuring
murmuring sounds sounds of of which
which were
were closely
closely imitated
imitated in in Cesti's
Ccsti's

Pomo d'Oro.28
Porno d'Oro. 2 * The differentiation of secco recitative
differentiation of sccco recitative and arioso,
arioso, also, is
also, is

definitely
definitely established
established only only inin the
the late
late works,
works, in in which the the ariosi
ariosi areare re-
re-

served
served forfor the
the pathetic passages
pathetic passages while
while the
the secco
sccco prevails
prevails in
in the
the neutral
neutral
dialogue.
dialogue. In In his
his early
early phase
phase Cavalli
Cavalli showed his his indebtedness
indebtedness to to Monte-

verdi
verdi inin affective
affective recitatives,
recitatives, the
the frequent
frequent use
use of
of the
the stile
stile concitato,
concitato, and
composite
composite strophic
strophic arias.
arias. These
These arias
arias are
are suddenly
suddenly interrupted
interrupted by by recitative
recitative

or
or arioso
arioso sections,
sections, after
after which
which thethe aria
aria isis resumed;
resumed; the the composite
composite form is is

then
then repeated
repeated in
in its
its entirety
entirety with
with different
different words.
words. 29
211 This integration
integration of
recitative
recitative andand aria
aria persisted
persisted even
even in in Cavalli's
Cavalli's later
later operas.
operas. Cavalli
Cavalli was
pre-eminently
pre-eminently aa master
master of
of dramatic
dramatic characterization
characterization by
by means of terse
terse and

gestic melodic ideas and simple

gestic melodic ideas simple triadic
triadic harmonies,
harmonies, as can
as can be seen in
seen in Me-

26 Examples in
18 Examples in Goldschmidt,
Goldschmidt, Studien,
Studien, I.
I, 295, 385. GMB no.
295, 385. no. 199-
199.
n11 Prunieres,
Pruni&rcs, L'Opba Itdicn, App. 27; compare no. 206-
compare HAM no.
L'Oftra ltalien, App. 27; 206.
2 DTOe
28 III:2 (vol.
DTOeIII:2 6), I06.
(vol. 6). 106.
211 See GiasOfU!
** See Giasone in
in Eitner
Eitner PAM I2,
PAM 12, 73-
73.
130 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
80
dea's impelling
dea's impelling invocation
invocation ofof the
the furies
furies 80 which
which provoked
provoked innumerable
innumerable
supernatural incantation
supernatural incantation scenes
scenes in
in later
later operas.
operas. The constant
constant triple rhythm,
triple rhythm,
which the
which the Venetians
Venetians may
may well
well have
have liked
liked best
best inin Cavalli's
Cavalli's music,
music, would
would
be monotonous
be monotonous were
were itit not
not for
for the
the melodic
melodic charm of of the
the arias.
arias. Especially
Especially
the laments
the laments on
on chromatic
chromatic chaconne
chaconne basses,
basses, since
since Cavalli
Cavalli an
an indispensable
indispensable
ingredient
ingredient of
of the
the opera,
opera, demonstrate
demonstrate his
his art
art of
of characterization
characterization in their
in their
affective melodic steps, best
affective melodic steps, best illustrated
illustrated by
by the
the famous
famous plaint of Climene
plaint of Climene
from Egisto (Ex.
from Egisto (Ex. 33).
33). The subtly
subtly overlapping
overlapping phrases
phrases ofof melody
melody andand bass
bass
Ex. 33.
Ex. Cavalli: Lamcnto
33. Cavalli: Lamento on
on aa ground Egisto.
ground from Egisto.
Plan.gc - leoe - - chi dp-len-ti
dolen-t! eal fie
fIe -
- bll plan. 10 ml-o

11 "14= ,,]:t ,J'IF "I di" I

teoc chi eal bil
Pian-go^ ^-

Plif! -lit ;"11 J lie

, (

el A Ii

(/t).UI;~'" ...
plall - - - - ga, plan t gila fOIl-te e 1\

-
, - "'lilg .t';'~1 Ie:
rio.
... e0dii Ar -- tI -- cu
J.~
c:u -- 14
lirt Qt I: e
- te
la - te Ie * cen-tl,
cen-tl,

'-
rio. tl ac

^ p Ijo^f lu..-]^
I -.
1^"
:5=
tl I,a
(
l<8 .,
J
lag
^lafi tdhffrI Ii
lj." I
I

I:,
froD- dose ee mil- Ie pian-te
mu-te plan-te de
de miei ca
mfe! ca - si
sl mlei ca - sUn-fe - 11- ci,

Ii.,
fron-do-se - miel ca-sjjn-fe- 11-ci,

Jqu41 j.i, JJ
J
i- r
11 I,: > In:': 'IF
-
I,a -F IBit ^.
1

-
fJ
it in'.-;
ii/i
i;!.' J " J Iii'
J
c ins fr iirJf
i

and the
the shifting
shifting chromatic harmonies of
chromatic harmonies this masterpiece
of this masterpiece of variation
of variation
remained exemplary
remained for middle
exemplary for middle baroque
baroque composers
composers like Cesti,
like Cesti, Legrenzi,
Legrenzi,
and even
and even Purcell.
Purcell.
The exact
exact opposite
opposite of the pathetic
of the pathetic chaco noes were
chaconnes were comic arias which
comic arias which
by
by their
their amusing exploitation
amusing exploitation of
of the
the parlando
parlando established
established a
a new type,
type,
illustrated
illustrated byby the
the spirited
spirited aria
aria of
of the bragging stutterer
the bragging stutterer Momo in in Giasone
Giasone
(I,
(I, 7).
7). It
It is
is built
built on a a modulatory
modulatory ground bass and accompanied
ground bass accompanied by two
by two
violins.
violins. Cavalli
Cavalli was very very fond of
of ensembles,
ensembles, especially
especially duets,
duets, but
but the
the duet
duet
technique
technique went hardly beyond that
hardly beyond that of
of Monteverdi
Monteverdi since
since the
the soloists
soloists sang
sang
31
more often
often inin alternation
alternation than
than together.
together.
Sl The exuberant
exuberant choral
choral ensembles,
ensembles,
typical of his
typical of his first
first opera,
opera, were reduced
reduced later
later to
to brief
brief decorative
decorative or or dramatic
dramatic
choruses,
choruses, such
such as as battle
battle cries
cries and alarm
alarm signals.
signals. While at at times
times he he dis-
dis-

pensed completely
pensed completely with choruses
choruses (Egisto),
(Egisto), he
he emphatically
emphatically returned
returned to
to
them inin the
the court
court opera Ercole,
opera Ercole, which calls
calls for
for combinations
combinations of
of instruments
instruments
voices far
and voices far greater
greater than
than usual.
usual.

The instrumental
instrumental sinfonies
sinfonies areare generally
generally short, but in
short, but in spite
spite ofof their
their
brevity
brevity they
they significantly
significantly set the mood in
set the in aa few bold,
bold, evocative
evocative lines
lines over
over
80 GMB no.
10 GMB no. 201.
201.
11 Wolff, VennitmUt:he Oper, App. 3.
11 Wolff, Veneziaruschc Oper, App. 3.
 Italian
Italian Music of
o the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 13I
131
triadic too, in
triadic harmonies;
harmonies; the the overtures,
overtures, too, in which
which the the rhythmic
rhythmic transforma-
transforma-
tion
tion of
of the
the varied couplecouple is is still
still sometimes
sometimes discernible,
discernible, serve
serve that
that purpose.
purpose.
Instruments
Instruments and voice usually usually alternate
alternate in in the
the arias,
arias, but
but thethe trend
trend toward
toward
aa greater prominence
greater prominence of the
the instruments
instruments is
is disclosed
disclosed in occasional obbliga-
in occasional obbliga-
tos
tos and
and accompagnato
accompagnato recitatives
recitatives which
appear in
which appear in Ercol~
Ercole purposefully
purposefully
contrasted with the the s~cco
secco passages.
passages.
When Cavalli disappointing succ~s
Cavalli returned from Paris Paris after
after the
the rather
rather disappointing succts
d'~stim~
d'estimc ofof Ercol~
Ercole he was resolvedresolved to to forswear
forswear opera altogether.
opera altogether. He did
did
not keep
keep this
this resolution
resolution because
because a
a new rival had arisen in Cesti
rival had arisen in Cesti who over- who over-
shadowed the the later
later years
years ofof Cavalli
Cavalli as as much as as Cavalli
Cavalli did did those
those of
of Mon-
Mon-
teverdi.
teverdi. Marc'Antonio Cesti Cesti (1623-1~)
(1623-1669) received
received hishis training in
in Rome,
Rome,
training
the cradle of the cantata, cantata, and,
and, although
although ordained
ordained to to the
the lower
lower orders,
orders,
devoted himself primarilyprimarily to
to the
the opera.
opera. He scored
scored his
his first
first successes in
successes in
Venice
Venice with
with Orontea and Cesare Ccsare amant~
amante (1651).
(1651). His
His eminently
eminently successful
successful

masterpiece La Dori
masterpiece Don (1661(1661 Florence)
Florence) was performedperformed all all over
over Italy.
Italy. For
For
Porno d'Oro (1666)
the Pomo (1666) hehe went to to Vienna,
Vienna, gladglad to
to leave
leave Venice
Venice where
where
his
his licentious
licentious conduct had irritated irritated eveneven the broad-minded Venetians.
the broad-minded Venetians. A
lyrical
lyrical rather
rather than a dramatic
dramatic talent,
talent, Cesti
Cesti endowed his arias with a
his arias with a solemn,
solemn,
hymnic tone that
hymnic that ever since
since has been associated
has been associated withwith thethe belbel canto.
canto. The
feminine
feminine chromaticism
chromaticism of of his melodies led
his melodies led toto striking
striking harmonic
harmonic com- com-
plexities
plexities which explain why augmented
explain why augmented sixth
sixth chords
chords and
and "Neapolitan"
"Neapolitan"
sixths hold so
sixths hold conspicuous aa place
so conspicuous place in his music.
in his music. As with with Carissimi,
Carissimi, the the
latter chord
latter chord (see
(see Ex.Ex_ 34
34 below)
below) was adduced adduced by by melodic
melodic meansmeans and and served
served
to strengthen
to strengthen the the cadence
cadence by by thethe integration
integration of of the
the flat
Bat second
second of of the
the
Phrygian
Phrygian mode into
into the
the major
major or
or minor
minor key-a
key a clear
clear indication
indication of
of the
the
growing
growing tonal
tonal consciousness
consciousness in
in middle
middle baroque harmony.
baroque harmony. As to
to the
the aria
aria
forms, strophic
forms, strophic variations
variations and and strophic
strophic arias,
arias, often
often in in an an ostentatiously
ostentatiously
popular style,
popular style, areare inin the
the majority,
majority, and and continuo
continuo arias
arias still
still heavily
heavily out- out-
arias with
number arias with obbligato
obbligato accompaniment.
accompaniment. Brief Brief da<apo
da-capo and and rondorondo
forms occur
forms occur sparingly
sparingly but but significantly,
significantly, as as for
for example
example in in the
the very
very impres-
impres-
sive rondo
sive rondo aria Rendete mi ilil mio
aria Rendetc ben~ from
mio bene Dori.S2
from Dor/. 32
favorite ABB'
The favorite
form of
form of the
the bel-canto
bel-canto cantata
cantata appears
appears very very frequently
frequently with with Cesti.
Cesti. Proser-
Proser-
pina's first
pina's first aria
aria in in the
the Porno
Pomo J'Oro,
d'Oro,33 one
38
one of of Cesti's
Cesti's most
most extended
extended piecespieces
with written-out
with written-out variations,
variations, is is cast
cast in in this
this form,
form, and
and is is preceded
preceded by by an
an
"infernal" ritornello
"infernal" ritornello for for aa regal
regal withwith two corn~tti and
two cornctti and two two trombones.
trombones.
arias are,
Most arias however, composed
are, however, composed on on aa more
more modest
modest scale.scale.
The grand festival show piece Il Pomo d'Oro,
The grand festival show piece Porno d'Qro, dramatically inferior
II dramatically inferior to to
82 Eitner
a2 Eitner PAM
PAM 12,
X2, 129.
129-
aaDTOe lIb (vo16),>448.
*DTOem:2(voL6) $.
13
1322 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Dori,
Dori, suffers
suffers from
from the
the labyrinthic
labyrinthic accumulation
accumulation of
of sixty-seven
sixty-seven scenes.
scenes. The
rich choral ensembles
rich choral ensembles of
of the
the prologue,
prologue, written
written in
in the
the britde
brittle chordal
chordal style
style
of
of Carissimi,
Carissimi, indicate
indicate the
the courtly
courtly background
background of
of the
the work,
work, the
the sumptuous
sumptuous
scenery
scenery of
of which was designed
designed by Burnacini who was,
by Burnacini was, next
next to
to Giacomo
Torelli,
Torelli, the
the most
most famous theatre architect
famous theatre architect of
of the
the day. Cesti adhered in
day. Cesti his
in his
ensembles
ensembles toto alternate
alternate singing,
singing, as
as exemplified by
exemplified by the
the trio
trio (Ex. 34)
(Ex. 34) from
from

Ex. .34-
Ex.
....
34. Cesti: Terzetto from Semiramitle.
Cesti: Terzetto Semiramidc.
cCreonte:
reont r:
- Arsactt
,./2.

- 'k ... ~. .L
-
l1al.1II& !111m IIlIrsa Incend'l
'k .. b""
roso iJ' I8JIgue. II
.L

... ~.D. ...c-... k. laid

'6 r~_

-
cUor Del

~
pet - to
,.. I...
laD
,L
gue;'" gli ~Oll. gla son dl spir.to

I/IJ
prf -

J) ....
"fL1

Scmiramide (1667). Freely

'"
Semiramitle (x667). Freely built on a chromatic chaconne bass it illustrates
built on a chromatic chaconne bass it illustrates

the
the typical
typical dissonant
dissonant progressions
progressions in in Cesti's mdodies. Characteristically,
Cesti's melodies. Characteristically,
Cesti
Cesti did
did notnot fill
fill in the skip
in the skip from a-flat
0-flat to
to I-sharp
/-sharp as
as Cavalli would
Cavalli would
have done,
have done, but
but relished
relished the
the poignant
poignant effect
effect of
of the
the diminished
diminished third.
third.

In
In his
his recitatives
recitatives Cesti juxtaposed short
Cesti juxtaposed short secco passages with ariosos
secco passages ariosos and
accompagnato
accompagnato sections.
sections. Like
Like Cavalli,
Cavalli, he he reserved
reserved the the latter
latter for
for solemn
solemn or or
affective
affective occasions,
occasions, such such asas the so-called ombra
the so-called ombra scenes,
scenes, inin which thethe spirit
spirit
of
of one departed
departed was invoked.
invoked. These solemn solemn scenes
scenes became later later the
the in-
in-

dispensable equipment
dispensable equipment of
of the
the opera
opera sma
scria and their
their influence
influence can
can be
be traced
traced
as
as far
far as
as Gluck and Mozart.Mozart.
Many arias of
Many arias of Cesti begin in
Cesti begin in aa peculiar
peculiar manner with with a a fragmentary
fragmentary
statement
statement that,that, after
after aa brief
brief rest,
rest, is
is once
once more resumed and continued continued
without
without interruption.
interruption. The initial
initial presentation
presentation of
of a
a plastic
plastic motive
motive that
that
sums up up the
the basic
basic affection
affection of
of the
the aria,
aria, like
like a
a musical
musical motto, can occasion-
motto, can occasion-
ally
ally be found in in the
the cantatas
cantatas ofof Rossi
Rossi and in in Cavalli,
Cavalli, but
but not
not before
before Cesti
Cesti
was it
was it on the
the way
way to becoming aa mannerism.'
to becoming mannerism. 84 The motto beginning had
motto beginning had
not
not only
only the
the formal function
function of
of setting
setting a
a rhythmic
rhythmic and melodic
melodic pattern
pattern
in
in motion,
motion, but it it had also
also aa dramatic
dramatic significance
significance because
because thethe first
first words
words
emphatically
emphatically summarized the the whole aria text. A comic
aria text. comic aria from Le
ark from Lc
Disgrazie
Disgrazie (166'])
(1667) illustrates
illustrates the
the typical
typical motto
motto beginning
beginning and at the same
at the same
N GMB no.
no. 203.
203.
 Italian
Italian Music
Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque I33
133
time
time the
the brisk
brisk rhythms
rhythms of
of Cesti's
Cesti's comic
comic and
and popular
popular style (Ex. 35).
style (Ex. 35).
The achievements
The achievements of
of Cavalli
Cavalli and
and Cesti
Cesti were
were solidified
solidified and
and expanded expanded
by
by aa later
later generation
generation ofof Venetian
Venetian composers,
composers, comprising besides the
comprising besides the
brothers
brothers Ziani,
Ziani, Pier
Pier Agostini, Boretti, and Sarto
Agostini, Boretti, and Sartorio, three outstanding mas-
rio, three outstanding mas-
ters: Legrenzi,
ters: Legrenzi, Stradella,
Stradella, and
and Pallavicino
Pallavicino (d. 1688). In their music the
(d. 1688). In their music the
return
return of
of counterpoint
counterpoint became
became increasingly
increasingly more
more apparent,
apparent, especially in
especially in

Ex.
Ex. 35.
35. Cesti: Comic aria
Cesti: Comic aria with
with motto
motto beginning.
beginning.
~trlngs
Strings _~

...

the carefully
carefully wrought
wrought texture
texture ofof the
the ensembles
ensembles and and inin the
the anticipatory
anticipatory
statement of the vocal line by
statement of the vocal line by the
the continuo,
continue, whichwhich can can be
be regarded
regarded as as aa
contrapuntal
contrapuntal extension of of the
the motto beginning.
beginning. Like Like thethe motto
motto beginning
beginning
itself,
itself, its
its contrapuntal extension
contrapuntal extension was established established as as a a stereotyped
stereotyped device
device
only
only with Legrenzi, Stradella,
Legrenzi, Stradella, and
and Palla vicino.
Pallavicino. In
In their
their operas
operas the
the con-
con-
tours
tours of melody
melody and bass bass underwent aa process process of
of mutual
mutual assimilation
assimilation and and
differentiation in
differentiation in which the the bass
bass either assimilated the
either assimilated the betcanto
bel-canto style,
style, or
or
else developed
else developed aa strictly
strictly instrumental
instrumental idiom idiom thethe angular
angular pattern
pattern ofof which
which
gave more relief
gave relief to
to the
the bel-canto
bel-canto melody
melody than than ever
ever before.
before. The firstfirst al-
al-
ternative,
ternative, that
that of
of assimilation,
assimilation, can
can be
be found
found in
in the
the brief
brief da-capo
da-capo aria
aria Ti
Ti
lascio
lascio
85
811 from Legrenzi's Giustino, the
Legrcnzi's Giustino, the libretto oflibretto of which was later also
later also

composed by
composed by Handel.
Handel. The ground ground bass
bass of of the
the aria
aria appears
appears in in several
several keys
keys
in keeping
in keeping with with the
the gradual
gradual widening
widening of of tonality.
tonality. The second
second alternative,
alternative,
that of
that of differentiation,
differentiation, is is illustrated
illustrated byby the
the aria R~sta il
aria Rcsta il core from Legrenzi's
core from Legrenzi's
(1677) in
Totila (1677)
Totila in which
which the the constancy
constancy of of the
the heart,
heart, represented
represented in in the
the motto
motto
beginning of
beginning of the
the voice,
voice, isis emphatically
emphatically contrasted
contrasted with
with the
the running
running of of the
the
feet, depicted
feet, depicted by by aa rushing
rushing quasi-ostinato
quasi-ostinato bass (Ex. 36).
bass (Ex. 36). This
This bass
bass demon-
demon-
strates aa high
strates high degree
degree of of instnimentalization
instrumentalization and and mechanical
mechanical stylization,
stylization,
not found
not found in in the
the earlier
earlier opera.
opera. The
The example
example given
given comprises
comprises the the complete
complete
da-capo
da-capo section-an
section an indication
indication how
how far
far removed
removed the
the brief
brief da-capo aria still
da-capo aria still
was from
was from the the grand
grand da da capo
capo ofof the
the late
late baroque
baroque period.
period.
In his
In his recitatives
recitatives Legrenzi
Legrenzi showed
showed himself
himself considerably
considerably advanced
advanced over over
his predecessors.
his predecessors. He He supplanted
supplanted the the sustained
sustained cadences
cadences of of the
the Florentine
Florentine
** Thearia
I IThe hasbeen
ariahas beenreprinted byWolff,
reprinted by Venezianiscne Qper,
Wollf, Vencxianische Opa,App.
App. 32,
32, and alsoby
and also by
Schering GMB
Schering GMBno. no. 231. Thelatter
231.The latter version
version is,
is,however,
however,faulty
faulty because the two
because the two sharps
sharps
ofthe
of keysignature
thekey signaturehave
have been
been erroneously
erroneouslyomitted.
omitted.
I34
134 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
recitative which
recitative which prevailed
prevailed as
as late
late as
as Cesti, by the
Cesti, by typical secco
the typical secco cadences
cadences
which snap abruptly off
which snap abruptly off on an unaccompanied fourth,
unaccompanied fourth, confirmed by the
by the
36
stereotyped
stereotyped V-I
V-I cadence
cadence of
of the
the continuo.
continuo. 30

Ex. 36.
Ex. 36. Legrenzi: Aria rom
Legrenzi: Aria from Totila.
Totila.

Stradella's
Straddla's works,
works, which include
include among
among many many others
others La Forza Forza deldel
Amorc paterno (1681)
Amore paterno (1681)
ST and the comic opera 11 Trespo1o Tulore, contain
3T and the comic opera II Trespolo Tutore, contain
many
many arias
arias with
with obbligato
obbligato accompaniment
accompaniment in which the
in which dimensions of
the dimensions of the
the
form are
arc noticeably
noticeably expanded.
expanded. Like his his fellow
fellow composers
composers Stradella
Stradella waswas
partial to
partial to trumpet
trumpet obbligatos
obbligatos inin the
the conventional
conventional martial
martial or or revenge
revenge arias
arias

which occurred
occurred only
only exceptionally
exceptionally in in Cavalli. His impassioned
Cavalli. His melodies
impassioned melodies
point,
point, in
in their
their pathos
pathos and their
their bold
bold and widely spaced curves,
widely spaced curves, toward toward
the pompous
the pompous Handelian style.
style. His thoroughly
thoroughly instrumental
instrumental ostinati
ostinati give,
give,
by their
by their modulations,
modulations, ample
ample range
range to to the
the harmony.
harmony.
The trend
trend toward expansion
expansion can can also
also bebe seen
seen inin Pallavicino's
Pallavicino's operas,
operas,
especially
especially in
in his
his most mature
mature work,
work, Gerusalemme liherata
liberata (Dresden
(Dresden
88
1687).88
1687) , In
In his
his operas
operas quasi-ostinato
quasi-ostinato and real real ground
ground basses
basses tended
tended to to
become indistinguishable
indistinguishable because
because of of the melodic consistency
the melodic consistency of of the
the former
former
and the
the modulatory
modulatory freedom
freedom of of the
the latter. In the
latter. In the omhra
ombra aria aria Omhre
Ombre carecare
from Le Amanoni
Amazzoni 89 89
the modulatory
the modulatory chaconne
chaconne bass
bass is
is ingeniously
ingeniously elabo-
elabo-
rated by
rated by constantly running arpeggios.
constantly running arpeggios. How stronglystrongly this bass gained
this bass gained a a
hold on the
hold the design
design of
of the
the melody
melody can
can be
be seen in an excerpt from
seen in an excerpt from Demetrio Demetrio
in
in which joy joy and torment are juxtaposed in
arc juxtaposed in a keen dramatic
a keen dramatic characteriza-
characteriza-
tion (Ex.
tion (Ex. 37).
37). The occasional use of
occasional use of the
the instrumental
instrumental concerto
concerto style,
style, as,
as, for
for
example,
example, in
in Messalina
Messalina (1680)
(1680)
40
40 marks the
the most
most advanced
advanced phase
phase of
of Pal-
Pal-

86
18 See Legrenzi's
See Totila in
Legrenzi's Totila in Wolff.
Wolff, VenezianiscAe
Vencziaiuschc Oper,
Qper, App.
App. I9-
19.
87
IT Vocal score
Vocal 1931 (Ricorcli).
score I93I (Ricordi). For another aria
For another aria see HAM
see HAM no.
no. 24I.
241.
Goldschmidt, Seudien,
88
II DDT 55;
55; see
see also
also GMB no.no. 214.
224, and Goldschmidt, Studicn, I,
I, 403.
403.
*>
Ie DDT 55.
55, XIX.
~ See the aria
40 See the
aria Ltucuz
Laicta mi gelosia
gelosia (Wolff,
(Wolff, Vmecttmische
Venezianische Oper,
Oper, App.
App, 69).
69). For the dis-
For the dis-
cussion
cussion of
of the
the concerto
concerto style
style sec
see Chapter
Chapter VII.
VII.
 Italian
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque I35
135
iavicino's
iavicino's development,
development, clearly
clearly signalling
signalling the
the transition
transition to
to the
the late
late baroque
baroque
style. While he
style. While he adhered in
in his
his earlier
earlier operas to the bipartite aria form,
operas to the bipartite aria form, he
he
favored in
favored Gcrusdemmc the
in Gerusalemme the brief
brief da-capo aria, which
which is
is here
here no
no longer
da-capo aria, longer
Ex. 37.
Ex. 37. Pallavicino:
Pallavicino: Excerpt from D~m~trio.
Excerpt from Demetrio.

~:
& loa bra. ma- it Con-ieu-ti gia-IIIlo, gia-bl-to Dei Inr-uwn

c:= ~rr rrt:'~~:-:I~-r~:!r I:

strophic
strophic but
but has
has only
[Ill

only a single
single stanza.
stanza. His
His strong
strong talent
talent for
for the
the popular
popular
.. 3'
outlet in
found an outlet in very
very numerous songs, popular in
in tone
tone and
and diminutive
diminutive in
in
songs, popular
form. The Venetian opera supplied
opera supplied for
for city
city audiences
audiences the
the "song
"song hits"
hits" of
of
the day,
the day, which combined in in their
their chatty rhythm, lively
chatty rhythm, lively bass,
bass, and melodic
and melodic
appeal
appeal elements of
of both
both the
the canzonetta and
canzonctta and airair de cour_ These modest
cour. These modest tunes tunes
correspond so
correspond so much to to our commonly
commonly accepted
accepted idea
idea of
of folksong
folksong thatthat they
they
have sometimes beenbeen designated
designated as
as such. Far from
such. Far from being
being folksongs,
folksongs, they
they
are composed
are composed civil
civil songs
songs which
which were
were asas short-lived
short-lived as they were
as they were successful.
successful.
A typical
typical example
example from Gerusalemme begins begins strikingly
strikingly likelike one
one of
of the
the
"synthetic" folksongs
"synthetic" folksongs in
in Rousseau's Dwin
Rousseau's Devin de Vi/lage (Ex.
Village (Ex. 38). 38).
38. Pallavicino:
Ex. 38.
Ex. Pallavicino: Popular
Popular song
song from Gerusalt:mmt:
from Gerusalemme liherata.
liberate*

.... "
p ji j'j' j' j> *m
!v-w sem-preimpa-gne
! "

...... m
In dl-fe-A del mio be-ne
I... ,
sea-preJlllpa-goe -roo

ea j-
...
j

-
aa88
'-j^.

The popular song style which held a firm place in the serious opera was
The popular song style which held a firm place in the serious opera was
cultivated even
cultivated even more in
more in the
the comic
comic opera,
opera, in
in which the
the middle
middle class
class of
of
the time
the time appeared
appeared on
on the
the stage.
stage. The
The historically
historically important
important experiments
experiments
with opera
with opera comedy
comedy began
began in
in Rome with soBre speri
with Chi soffre speri (1639)
(1639) 41 by Vir-
n by Vir-
gilio Mazzocchi
gilio
Mazzocchi and
and Marazzoli,
Marazzoli, and
and continued
continued with
with Dal tnIJl ilil bene
Dal mal bene
(1654) '2 by
(1654)
*2
by Abbatini
Abbatini and
and Marazzoli (based on
Marazzoli (based on aa libretto
libretto by
by Rospigliosi
Rospigliosi
after Calderon),
after Calderon), Sacrati's
Sacrati's Finta pazza (1641),
Pinta pazza (I6.tI), Melani's La Tancia
Melani's La (Floc-
Tancia (Ffor-
41
'1 in Goldschmidt,
Examples in
Examples Goldschmidt, Studien, 312 if.
S#WJit:n., I,I, 312 &
" ih. 325
42 ib*
if., also
325 ff also GMB no.
., no. 204.
204-
 136 Music
Music in in the the Baroque
Baroque Era
ence, I657),48
ence, Stradella's Trespolo
Trespolo Tutore.
4S and
and Strade1la's Tutorc. We find find in
in these
these operas
1657) , operas the
the
typical
typical comic
comic parlando
parlando passages,
passages, lively
lively canzonette,
canzonette, and formal arias.
arias. Even
the
the favorite
favorite devices
devices of of the future opera
the future opera bufJa
buffa make an occasional
occasional ap-ap-
pearance:
pearance: La T ancia
Tancia contains
contains a
a parody
parody of
of the
the serious
serious opera and Val
opera Dal mal
i1
il bene
bcne early
early examples
examples of of the
the ensemble finale,
finale, one of of the
the most significant
significant
innovations
innovations of of operatic
operatic history.
history.
Italians in
The Italians in the
the northern
northern countries
countries such as Zamponi in
as Zamponi in Brussels
Brussels
(Ulisse, 1650),4444 Bontempi in Dresden (ll Pande, 166:2.),411 45 Scacchi in Po-
(Ulisse, 1650) , Bontempi in (// Paride, 1662) , Scacchi in Po-
land,
land, Bertali
Bertali and his
his successor
successor Draghi
Draghi in
in Vienna,
Vienna, did
did not
not rise
rise above
above the
the
average
average level
level of
of Italian
Italian opera production.
opera production. The prolific Draghi
prolific Draghi who could
could
boast of
boast of more thanthan a hundred operas
a hundred operas inin addition
addition to to all
all his
his other
other works,
works,
lavished
lavished a a great
great variety
variety of
of solo
solo and choral
choral ensembles on his works, but
his works, but hehe
was able
able to
to relieve
relieve the prevailing monotony
the prevailing monotony of
of his
his music only
only byby virtue
virtue of
of
46
his pronounced
his pronounced talent
talent for
for comic scenes.'s
scenes. The stiff
stiff and heavy
heavy armor of
of his
his
orchestration
orchestration reflects
reflects the
the German proclivity
proclivity for
for thickly
thickly scored,
scored, five-voice
five-voice
ritornelli, which are
ritornelli, are as
as apparent
apparent in in Pallavicino's
Pallavicino's operas
operas asas in the continuo
in the continuo
songs
songs of
of Krieger.
Krieger.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC: THE BOLOGNA SCHOOL

After the
After the great
great flowering
flowering ofof keyboard
keyboard music
music inin the
the early
early baroque
baroque period,
period,
organ
organ and harpsichord
harpsichord music in
in the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque went through a
through a
phase
phase of
of quiet
quiet and somewhat eclectic
eclectic development. Michelangelo
development. Michelangelo Rossi, Rossi,
the most gifted
the pupil of
gifted pupil of Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi, Storace,
Storace, Strozzi,
Strozzi, and thethe Roman or- or-
ganist Pasquini
ganist Pasquini (the
(the pupil
pupil ofof Vittori Cesti) all
Vittori and Cesti) lived mainly
all lived mainly on the the
heritage of
heritage of Frescobaldi,
Frescobaldi, whose harmonic
harmonic style
style had
had its
its after-effects in Rossi
after-effects in Rossi 4T41
keyboard technique
and whose keyboard technique was givengiven aa turn
turn toto virtuoso
virtuoso dexterity
dexterity in in
the toccatas
the toccatas ofof Pasquini.
Pasquini.
far greater
Of far greater musical
m1,1sical importance
importance was the the instrumental
instrumental chamber
chamber music
music 4848
that flourished
that flourished inin three
three centers
centers ofof northern
northern Italy:
Italy: Modena,
Modena, Venice,
Venice, andand
Bologna. In the
Bologna. the works of of these
these schools
schools the
the difference
difference between
between dance
dance music
music
the stylized
and the stylized and representative
representative chamber
chamber music
music ofof more or or less
less con-
con-
"Riemann HMG 2:2, 242; Goldschmidt,
2:2, 242; Goldschmidt, op. cit.
op. cit., 349
t if.
349 S.
<1<1 Haas B, 195.
"HaasB, 195.
45
Lavignac E 1:2,
<15 Lavignac 1:2, 914.
9I4-
46
" Neuhaus,
Neuhaus, Dragki, 191, GMB no.
Dragni, 191, no. 226.
226.
47
Examples in Torem AM III,
<17 Examples in Torchi III, TAM VI, leMI, 26.
VI, ICMI, 26. The
The sonata,
sonata, printed in many
printed in many
popular editions
popular (e.g. Oesterle,
editions (e.g. Early Keyboard
Oesterle, Early Keyboard Music)
Music) under
under the
the name
name ofof Michel-
Michel-
angelo Ross~ proves
angelo Rossi, proves by
by its
its style
style that
that the
the editors
editors confused
confused Michelangelo
Michelangelo with
with another
another
Rossi, aa composer
Rossi, composer ofof the
the classic
classic period.
period. .
46
the bibliographical
See the
<18 See bibliographical list in Schlossbcrg,
list in Die italienische
Schlossberg, Die italieniscne Senate.
Sonate. Examples in
Examples in
Wasielewski,lnstrumentalsatze;
Wasiclcwski, Instrumentalsatze; for for Legrenzi
Legrenzi see HAM
see also
also HAM no. no. 220.
220.
 Italian
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 137
137
trapuntal
trapuntal texture
texture waswas consciously
consciously developed.
developed. This This is is seen
seen in
in the
the fact
fact that
that
the distinction between sonata
the distinction sonata da da camera
camera (or suite)
(or suite)
and
and sonata
sonata da
da chiesa
Mesa
took on
took on aa formal
formal significance,
significance, as as important
important as as the
the distinction
distinction between
between reci-reci-
tative
tative and aria
aria in
in the
the bel-canto
bel-canto style.
style.
The Modenese
The Modcnese school,school, characterized
characterized by by anan aristocratic
aristocratic attitude,
attitude, com-
com-
prised
prised Uccelini,
Uccelini, chapel
chapel master in in Modena from from 1654 1654
on,
on, Colombi,
Colombi, Reina,
Rcina,
Stradella,
Stradella, andand thethe theorist
theorist and composer Giovanni
composer Giovanni Maria Maria Bononcini
Bononcini
(d. 16]9).
(d. 1679). A A leaning
leaning toward violinistic
violinistic virtuosity is noticeable especially
virtuosity is noticeable especially
with
with Uccelini
Uccelini who widened the the range
range of the instruments to
of the instruments to the
the sixth
sixth
position. At
position. At the expense
the expense of the
of the many-voiced
many-voiced canzonacanzona Colombi Colombi favored
favored the the
solo
solo and
and trio
trio sonata,
sonata, cast cast inin the
the form
form of of the
the church
church sonata
sonata with with four
four
movements.
movements. The laxly-handled
laxly-handled counterpoint
counterpoint of of his
his fugal movements was
fugal movements was
written
written for
for external display
display and only
only in
in Reina's
Reina's sonatas
sonatas did
did the
the counter-
counter-
point
point maintain
maintain a solid
solid texture.
texture. The numerous
numerous chamber sonatas of
chamber sonatas of Be-
Bo-
noncini were less pretentious
noncini were less pretentious in in style,
style, and
and Stradella's
Stradella's few few sonatas
sonatas 49 also,
49
also,
combined moderate technical technical demands
demands with with good good contrapuntal
contrapuntal work-
work-
manship.
manship.
Chamber music in Venice
Chamber Venice received fresh impulses
received fresh impulses from from thethe Bourishing
flourishing
opera.
opera. The favorite
favorite type
type of
of middle baroque opera overture
middle baroque opera overture consisted consisted of of
several
several short
short and sharply
sharply contrasted
contrasted partsparts with
with little
little polyphony and
polyphony and was
was
written for
written for three
three violins
violins in in constant voice-crossings. Whereas
constant voice-crossings. Whereas in in the
the over-
over-
ture the
ture the polyphonic
polyphonic texture
texture was subordinated
subordinated to to the
the display
display of of sonorities,
sonorities,
it was
it was considerably
considerably strengthened
strengthened in in the
the field
field of of chamber
chamber music.
music. Besides
Besides
the sonata
the sonata collections
collections of of Guerreri
Guerreri (Milan),
(Milan), the the triotrio and
and quartet
quartet sonatas
sonatas
of Legrenzi
of Legrenzi and PictroPietro Ziani
Ziani stand
stand outout asas the
the major
major worksworks of of the period.
the period.
Even in in the
the rather
rather retrospective
retrospective ensemble
ensemble canzonas
canzonas of of Cavalli (I6s6) it
Cavalli (1656) it
can be
can be observed
observed how composerscomposers broke broke awayaway from from the the even
even andand inarticu-
inarticu-
late flow
late Bow of of the
the old
old canzona
canzona themes
themes to to evolve
evolve aa new motivic motivic type
type in in which
which
the strong
the strong beats
beats were articulated and
articulated and rhythmically
rhythmically emphasized
emphasized by by charac-
charac-
teristic long
teristic long upbeat patterns. A canzona
upbeat patterns. canzona themetheme by by Cavalli
Cavalli symptomatically
symptomatically
combines both
combines both the
the old
old and the the new type;type; itit starts
starts in in the
the old
old manner,
manner, and and
gathers
gathers momentum and rhythmic emphasis
rhythmic emphasis in
in the
the second
second half
half (Ex. 39).
(Ex. 39).

EL
Ex. 39. Cavalli: Canzona
39. Cavalli: Canzona theme.
theme.

'I..J dJ 14 ,!PI) J tml.smlpnPPW

J rT*3 j . rr

In the
In the church
church sonatas
sonatas of
of Ziani
Ziani and
and Legrenzi
Legrenzi the
the multisectional
multisectional structure
structure
of the
of the canzona was reduced
canzona was reduced generally
generally to
to five
five or
or even
even fewer
fewer parts,
parts, each of
each of
411 GMB no. :ug.
138 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
which
which was
was however
however gradually
gradually expanded
expanded into
into a
a concise
concise independent
independent move-move-
ment.
ment. Although
Although their
their order
order was notnot yet
yet rigidly
rigidly fixed,
fixed, the
the first
first and
and last
last

movements
movements werewere asas a rule fugal
a rule fugal and Banked
flanked a a variety
variety of
of chordal
chordal oror slightly
slightly
contrapuntal
contrapuntal movements,
movements, of of which atat least
least one was written
written in in triple
triple meter.
meter.
Legrenzi
Legrenzi liked
liked to
to emphasize
emphasize the
the independence
independence of
of the
the single
single movements by
by
abrupt
abrupt harmonic
harmonic turns
turns to
to thirdrelated
third-related keys.
keys. In
In spite
spite ofof these
these contrasts,
contrasts,
however,
however, thethe outermost
outermost movements were frequentlyfrequently bound together
together by by
the thematic material-an
the same thematic material an obvious
obvious survival
survival ofof the
the variation
variation canzona.
canzona.
Legrenzi's
Legrenzi's numerous collections, between 16s5
published between
collections, published 1655 and 1682,
1682, can
can
hardly
hardly be
be overrated
overrated for
for their
their importance
importance in in the
the development
development of of the
the church
church
sonata. He impresses
sonata. impresses thethe musician
musician of of today
today byby his
his assuredness
assuredness in in the
the
handling
handling of
of a
a harmonically
harmonically saturated
saturated counterpoint,
counterpoint, by by the
the plastic con
plastic con-
tours of his
tours of his themes,
themes, and thethe driving
driving rhythm
rhythm of his countersubjects.
of his countersubjects. In In his
his

Op.2
op. 2 (16s5)
(1655) these
these features
features are
are already remarkably
already remarkably clear
clear (Ex. 40).
(Ex. 40).

Ex. 40.
Ex. 40. Legrenzi:
Legrenzi: Trio
Trio sonata
sonata La C01'1IQf'tI,
Comoro.

LaCornara
Allegro

* I 3 4 3 5 6 5

thoroughly ~trumental
The thoroughly instrumental character
character of of the
the quoted
quoted theme-notice
theme notice the the
typical
typical tone repetitio~is
repetitions is unmistakable,
unmistakable, as
as is
is also
also the
the assimilation of
assimilation of thethe
melody
melody with the bass, which is,
the chaconne bass, however, yet
is, however, yet as
as richly harmonized
richly harmonized
as in the case
as in case of
of Pallavicino
Pallavicino (see
(see Ex.
Ex. 37 above).
37 above). In
In his
his instrumental
instrumental style
style
Legrenzi anticipated
Legrenzi anticipated the
the vigor
vigor of
of certain
certain themes
themes by Bach;
by Bach; and
and Bach
Bach did,
did,
indeed, study
indeed, study him carefully basing the organ fugue in c
carefully basing the organ fugue in c on one of hison one of his
themes. The slow movements were powerfully powerfully influenced
influenced byby thethe bel.
bd-
canto style,
style, as
as can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the numerous stylized
stylized sarabands
sarabands 50 in which
110 in which
both the upper parts and the
upper parts the bass
bass were
were integrated
integrated in in aa solemnly
solemnly flowing
flowing
counterpoint.
counterpoint
50
10 Riemann HMG :l:2,
Ricmann 2:2, I61.
161*
 Italian Music
Italian Music of
of the
the Middle
Middle Baroque
Baroque 139
139
The third
The third and
and greatest
greatest center
center of
of violin
violin music
music was
was constituted
constituted by
by the
the
musicians employed
musicians employed at at S.
S. Petronio
Petronio in
in Bologna.
Bologna. This
This church,
church, famed
famed for
for the
the
adornment of
adornment of its
its services by instrumental
services by instrumental music,
music, needed
needed aa great
great repertory
repertory
of church
of church sonatas.
sonatas. Cazzati
Cazzati (d.
(d. 1677), from 1677),
from 1657 music 1657
music director
director of
of the
the
church, established
church, established the
the Bologna
Bologna school.
school. It
It reached
reached its
its first
first flowering
flowering in
in his
his
pupil Giovanni Battista
pupil Battista Vitali
Vitali (d. 16g2), who was
(d. 1692), was followed
followed byby Mazzafer-
Mazzafer-
rata (Ferrara),
rata (Ferrara), Grossi
Grossi (Mantua),
(Mantua), the
the cellist
cellist Gabrielli,
Gabrielli, degli
degli Antonii,
Antonii, and
and
Arresti.
Arrcsti. conservative Cazzati
The conservative Cazzati differentiated
differentiated the the canzona
canzona movements
movements
less distinctly
less distinctly than
than did did hishis Venetian
Venetian contemporaries,
contemporaries, and and though
though his his
themes were
themes were longer
longer and and more characteristic
characteristic than than those
those of of the
the traditional
traditional
canzona,51
canzona, 51 he made little little use
use ofof the
the long
long upbeat
upbeat patterns.
patterns. Contrapuntal
Contrapuntal
texture predominated,
texture predominated, especially
especially in in the
the first
first movements/
movements. With Gabrielli, Gabrielli,
the literature
the literature forfor unaccompanied
unaccompanied cello cello took
took its
its first
first strides
strides in in some re- re-
markable compositions 52
markable compositions which stand
52 which stand stylistically,
stylistically, like
like those
those of of Antonii,
Antonii,
on the
on the borderline
borderline of of middle
middle and and late
late baroque
baroque periods.
periods.
Like all works
Like all works ofof the
the Bologna
Bologna school
school the the sonatas
sonatas of of Vitali
Vitali also
also arc
are dis-
dis-
tinguished
tinguished by by a
a triumphant
triumphant return
return of
of instrumental
instrumental counterpoint.
counterpoint. Pre-
Pre-
occupation with
occupation with contrapuntal
contrapuntal problems
problems characterizes
characterizes the Artificii musical*
the Artificii musical;
(1689) in
(1689) in which
which Vitali
Vitali delved
delved intointo thethe mysteries
mysteries of of counterpoint
counterpoint and
canon,
canon, and
and indulged
indulged in
in exploits
exploits like
like the
the combination
combination of
of three
three different time
different time

signatures.
signatures.
53 Published for purposes of instruction and edification, collec-
58 Published for purposes of instruction edification, collec-

tions of
tions of this
this sort witness the
sort witness the intense
intense interest baroque composers
interest baroque composers took took in the
in the

recondite technical
recondite technical problems
problems of of a mystic us
a mystic ars combinatoria,
combinatoria, the the tradition
tradition

of
of which
which culminated
culminated in in Bach's
Bach's ArtArt of of the Fugue. Vitali
the Fugue. Vitali made the the distinc-
distinc-

tion
tion between
between church
church and chamber sonata
sonata on the
the title-pages
tide-pages of
of his
his publica-
publica-
tions,
tions, sometimes
sometimes usingusing the the term
term sonata
sonata without
without further
further qualification
qualification to to

mean church
church sonata.
sonata.
While
While chamber
chamber sonatas
sonatas contained
contained a a fredy
freely ordered
ordered series
scries of dances in in

the usual bipartite

the usual bipartite form, form, church
church sonatas
sonatas presented
presented four or five
five slow and
fast
fast movements
movements in in alternation.
alternation. SinceSince the the first
first movement was not not governed
governed
by
by a
a convention
convention with
with regard
regard to
to tempo,
tempo, it
it could
could be either
either slow or
or fast,
fast, but

in
in either
cither case
case it
it was
was usually fugal.
usually fugal. Vitali's
Vitali's intimate
intimate knowledge
knowledge of of the

string technique is unmistakably

string technique is unmistakably proven by
proven by his
his themes which, directly
which, directly
inspired
inspired
by
by violinistic
violinistic idioms,
idioms, were
were admirably
admirably designed,
designed, like
like broad
broad evoca-
evoca-

tive
tive gestures. With remarkable consistency Vitali
gestures. With remarkable consistency
Vitali employed,
employed, exceptexcept in in his
his

51 See Schlossberg, 01'.

11 See Schlossbcrg, op. cit. 65;
cit. HAM no.
65; HAM no. 219-
219.
GMB no. 228.
52 GMB no. 228.
III
Torchi
Torchi AM VII,
88
B8 VII, 1740 176. Other
174, 1,& sonatas in
Other sonatas Wasielewski, qp.
in Wasielewski. <#. cit. XXV-XXVIll,
cit., XXV-XXVIH,
HAM no.
no. 245-
245.
140 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque EraEra
dance music,
dance music, long
long upbeat
upbeat patterns
patterns by
by which he
he increased
increased the
the rhythmic
rhythmic
drive. Of the
drive. Of the three
three beginnings
beginnings (Ex. 41) from aa violin
(Ex. 41) violin sonata (1689) the
sonata (1689) the
first and
first and last
last show
show the
the complete
complete contrapuntal
contrapuntal equivalence
equivalence of
of melody
melody and
and
Ex. 41.
Ex. Giovanni Battista
4I. Giovanni Battista Vitali:
Vitali: Violin
Violin sonata.
sonata.
Grave

Allegro

o o

bass whereas
bass whereas the
the second demonstrates the
second demonstrates the characteristic
characteristic broken
broken line
line re-
re-
sulting from the
sulting from the skilful use of
skilful use open strings.
of open All three
strings. All three beginnings
beginnings are
are
unified by the
unified by the transformation technique of
transformation technique of the
the variation
variation canzona, which
canzona, which
obtains in
obtains in many,
many, but not all
but not all of
of Vitali's
Vitali's sonatas.
sonatas.
Vitali's themes
Vitali's themes lent
lent themselves
themselves thus
thus readily
readily to
to contrapuntal treatment
contrapuntal treatment
because they
because they were
were conceived
conceived from the
the outset
outset for
for what they
they could
could do with
with
regard
regard to
to counterpoint.
counterpoint. He supported
supported the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal flow
flow of
of the
the parts
parts
with
with the
the impelling
impelling force
force of
of his directed, if
his directed, if simple,
simple, harmonies
harmonies and,
and, conse-
conse-
quently,
quently, could
could sustain
sustain the
the movements more firmly
firmly than
than could
could his
his pred-
pred-
ecessors.
ecessors. The peculiarly energetic
peculiarly energetic and austere
austere character of his
character of his
mpsic was
mysic was
destined
destined to
to take
take on aa new significance
significance in
in the
the concerto
concerto style which the
style which the late
late
baroque
baroque masters
masters of
of the Bologna school
the Bologna school originated.
originated.
 CHAPTER FIVE

French
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism

THE Ballet
Ballet de
dc Cour
Cour

A
AIN
IN England
in
England and Germany,
in France only
Germany, the
the turn
turn to
to baroque

for tradition the French musicians

for tradition the French
baroque music
slowly and by
only slowly
music took
took place

by degrees.
place
degrees. Bound by
musicians were were among
among the
by their
their respect

the last
last to
respect
to accept
accept
wholeheartedly
wholeheartedly the innovations
innovations of of the
the baroque
baroque style style and
and among
among the
the first
first

to
to mitigate
mitigate its
its severity.
severity. French
French baroque
baroque music
music reached
reached in
in Lully
Lully a
a sudden,
sudden,
yet short-lived efflorescence.
yet short-lived efflorescence. After
After hishis death
death the the French
French composers
composers were were
quick
quick toto transform the the late
late baroque into
baroque into the
the rococo
rococo style,
style,
more
more congenial
congenial
to their
to their artistic
artistic convictions.
convictions.
The lucid rationalism of
lucid rationalism of the
the French classical tradition
French classical tradition prevented
prevented French
French
music from succumbing
music succumbing to
to the
the turbulent
turbulent affections
affections unleashed
unleashed by the
by the
Italian baroque.
Italian seventeenth century
baroque. The seventeenth century was for
for the
the French
French drama
drama the
the

grand siecle of
grand sitcle of the
the "classics"
"classics" inin the
the strict
strict sense
sense of of the
the word.
word. Although
Although
Corneille, Racine,
Corneille, Racine, and and Molifcre
Moliere belonged
belonged essentially
essentially to to thethe baroque
baroque era, era,
they
they showed in
in their
their observance
observance of
of the
the Aristotelian
Aristotelian unities,
unities, the
the courtly
courtly
elegance of
elegance of language,
language, and the the strict
strict reglementation
reglementation of of the
the "passions"
"passions" how
deeply they
deeply they were impressed
impressed by by the
the purportedly
purportedly "classical"
"classical" concepts
concepts of of the
the
ancient drama.
ancient drama. The French attitude attitude toward
toward music
music in in this
this period
period was
was charac-
charac-
terized by
terized by aa similar
similar reserve:
reserve: music
music waswas regarded
regarded as as aa sonorous
sonorous decoration
decoration
rather than
rather than as as the
the vehicle
vehicle ofof unruly
unruly affections.
affections. This This was made quite quite ex- ex-
plicit in Mersenne's Harmonie Universelle (1636/37),
plicit in Mcrsenne's Harmonic Univcrsellc (1636137), the the most
most valuable
valuable
source for
source for the
the musical
musical thought
thought of of the
the French
French early
early baroque.
baroque. Commenting
Commenting on on
the fundamental
the fundamental difference
difference between
between Italian
Italian andand French
French music music Mersenne
Mersenne
contrasted the
contrasted the "extraordinary
"extraordinary violence"
violence" of of the
the former
former with with thethe "perpetual
"perpetual
sweetness" of
sweetness" of the
the latter. reproached his
latter. He reproached his countrymen
countrymen for for their
their desire
desire
to please
to please the
the senses
senses and
and their
their neglect
neglect ofof stirring
stirring thethe emotions.
emotions. They They were,
were,
in his opinion,
in his opinion, content
content with
with "flattering
"flattering thethe ear"
ear" andand farfar too
too timid
timid inin their
their
attempts
attempts to
to adapt
adapt the
the strong
strong accents
accents of
of Italian
Italian music
music to
to the
the douceur
douceur /rtm-
jran-
141
141
142
142 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
foise. The
foise. The monody,
monody, the the dramatic
dramatic recitative,
recitative, seemed unnaturalunnatural to to those
those ac-
ac-
customed to
customed to the the raisonnements
raisonncmcnts of
of the
the French tragedy;
tragedy; it it does
does not lack
not lack
symbolic
symbolic significance
significance that that thethe two greatgreat innovators
innovators of of the
the French
French opera,
opera,
Lully
Lully and
and Gluck,
Gluck, were not
not Frenchmen.
The polarity
polarity of of the
the Italian
Italian and the the French
French attitudes
attitudes toward
toward musicmusic cancan
hardly
hardly be
be more emphatically
emphatically shown than
than in
in the
the manner in
in which each
each
nation
nation effected
effected its its musical
musical reform.
reform. While the the Camerata "imitated"
"imitated" the the
"Ancients"
"Ancients" by by developing
developing monody,
monody, the the continuo,
continue, and the the new dissonance
dissonance
treatment,
treatment, the the Academie
Acadimie de musique musique (1571) (1571) of of the
the French humanists
humanists at- at-

tacked
tacked thethe problem,
problem, in
in typically
typically French fashion, by imitating
fashion, by imitating the
the ancient
ancient
quantitative
quantitative meters.meters. The result result of of these
these experiments,
experiments, the the French
French vers v ers
mcsurc, was a
mesurc, a creation
creation of of the
the renaissance
renaissance and concerns concerns us us only
only because
because
it
it exerted
exerted a a far-reaching
far-reaching influence
influence not not only
only on French baroque baroque musicmusic butbut
even
even on the the Italian
Italian canzonette
canzonette of of Monteverdi (C. p. 39).
(cf. p. 39). The peculiarities
peculiarities
and the
the slow
slow devdopment
development of of the
the French recitative
recitative were due precisdy precisely to to
the
the difficulty
difficulty of of fusing
fusing thethe affective
affective Italian
Italian declamation
declamation with with thethe quantita-
quantita-
tive meters
tive meters of of French poetry.
poetry.
The musical
musical baroque began in
baroque began in France afterafter thethe death
death of Henri IV (1610)
of Henri (1610)
with the
with the succession
succession to the throne
to the throne of of Louis
Louis XIII,
XIII, who was himself
himself a
a com-
com-
poser, and reached its
poser, its apex under
apex under the the Roi Soldi, Louis XIV (1643-1715).
Soleil, Louis (1643-1715).
In the hands
In the hands of such astute
of such astute statesmen
statesmen as as Richelieu,
Richelieu, Mazarin,
Mazarin, and and Colbert
Colbert
music was a pliablepliable political
political tool;
tool; rarely
rardy in in history
history have
have the
the relations
rdations be- be-
tween politics
tween politics and music music kin lain more openlyopenly on the the surface
surface than
than during
during thethe
absolutism.
French absolutism.
Dramatic music music in in France
France entertained
entertained close close relations
relations with
with the the dance,
dance,
especially the
especially the stage
stage dance
dance or or ballet,
ballet, aa feature
feature thatthat French
French music
music has has not
not
surrendered to
surrendered to the
the present
present day. day. The courtlycourtly renaissance
renaissance entertainments
entertainments
established in
were established in France
France afterafter Italian
Italian models
modds and with with thethe help
hdp of of
Italian artists
Italian artists by by the
the performance
performance of of Circt (1581), the
Cird (1581), the Ballet
Ballet comique
comique de de la
la
musico-dramatic ballets
Reine.1 These musico-dramatic
Reined ballets de de cour influenced, in
coe" influenced, in turn,
turn, Rinuc-
Rinuc-
cini who introduced
cini introduced them in in Italy.
Italy. InIn strict
strict accordance
accordance with with humanistic
humanistic
ideas even
ideas even the the dance
dance steps
steps ofof the
the ballet
ballet de de cour were sometimes
cour were sometimes governed
governed
by the ancient meters
by the ancient meters in in the
the so-called
so-called ballet
ballet mesuri.
mesure. The ballet baZlet dede cour
cour
consisted of
consisted of anan optional
optional number of of entries,
entrees, actedacted in in dumb show,show, and and ex-
ex-
planatory verses
planatory verses or or rtcits
redts thatthat were
were either
either spoken
spoken or or sung.
sung. Choral
Choral en- en-
sembles for
sembles for four
four oror five
five voices,
voices, solo
solo songs
songs withwith lute
lute accompaniment,
accompaniment, and and
music for lute or string
music for lute or string ensembles
ensembles accompanied
accompanied the the entries.
entrees. As & in in early
early
1
1 Reprinted in COF.
Reprinted in COF. It
It should be noted
should be noted that
that comique did not
comique did not mean
mean comical, but
comical, but
was the generic
was the generic term for dramatic.
term for dramatic.
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism 143
143
opera,
opera, thethe professional
professional musicians
musicians were were at at first
first hidden
hidden from from the the audience
audience
unless they
unless they appeared
appeared in in costume as as integral
integral partpart of
of the
the decor.
decor. The
The strictly
strictly
courtly
courtly nature
nature of of the
the ballet
ballet isis confirmed
confirmed by by the
the fact that they were
fact that they were danced danced
by
by the
the courtiers
courtiers themselves,
themselves, the the final
final grand ballet even
grand ballet even by by royalty.
royalty.
In
In the course of the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century the the ballet
ballet de cour went
de cour went rapidly
the course of the
rapidly
through
through several
several stages that were closely paralleled in
stages that closely paralleled in the
the development
development of
of
the
the English
English courtcourt masque.
masque. Originally
Originally a
a renaissance
renaissance form,
form, the
the ballet
ballet de
de
cour gradually
gradually assumed baroque
cour baroque characteristics.
characteristics. The The firstfirst step toward
step toward
baroque
baroque stylestyle was taken after
after lOOs
1605 when the
the recits were as a rule no longer
recits were as a rule no longer
spoken
spoken but sung.
but sung. Thus the the ballet
ballet de cour lost
de cour lost its
its distinctive
distinctive renaissance
renaissance
feature:
feature: the the equivalence
equivalence of poetry and
of poetry and music,
music, and and became
became aa stylized form,
stylized form,
unified
unified by by the
the medium of sung and danced
sung danced music.
music. This
This important
important innova-
innova-
tion
tion waswas possibly prompted by
possibly prompted by the
the presence
presence at at the
the court
court of of Henri
Henri IV IV in
in
1604-<l5
1604-05 of Caccini,
of Caccini, whose dramatic
dramatic manner of of singing
singing impressed
impressed Guedron,
Guedron,
music
music master
master to to the Queen
Queen and composer
composer of of numerous
numerous ballets. After 1620
ballets. After 1620
the
the baroque
baroque stylestyle was fullyfully established.
established. In this phase
In this phase of
of its
its development
development
the
the connection
connection between drama and ballet ballet became
became so so loose
loose that the ballet
that the ballet
de cour consisted of of no more than than anan almost incoherent series
almost incoherent series of danced of danced
tableaux. This
tableaux. type, the
This type, the so-called
so-called ballet
ballet tl
a entrees,
entrees, had had nono longer
longer a a dramatic,
dramatic,
but merely
but merely a decorative
decorative and entertaining
entertaining function;
function; but
but coincident
coincident with the
with the
decrease in
decrease in dramatic
dramatic interest
interest thethe importance
importance of of music
music increased.
increased.
A new phase phase ofof the
the ballet
ballet began
began about
about 16so with the
1650 with the appearance
appearance of of
Benserade whose elegant elegant poetry
poetry raised
raised the the battet
ballet de cour cour to to aa refined
refined
literary art-form. He reinstated
literary art-form. reinstated aa unified
unified dramatic
dramatic plot plot thatthat was
was later
later
continued in
continued in the
the comedie-ballcts
comedic-ballets of of Moliire.
Moliere. The ballet ballet librettists
librettists indulged
indulged
in fantastic
in fantastic and exotic
exotic subjects
subjects which
which gave
gave aa welcome
welcome pretext
pretext for for costumes
costumes
strange stage
and strange stage architecture.
architecture. The ballet ballet LaLa Douairiere
Douairiere de de Billebahaut
Billebahaut is is
noteworthy for an
noteworthy for an amusing
amusing entry entry of of "American"
"American" music music in in which
which fourfour
Indian bagpipe
Indian bagpipe players
players lead lead onto
onto the
the stage
stage aa truly
truly exotic
exotic lamalama pulling
pulling aa
Chinese gong
Chinese gong chime
chime which no Indian Indian of of the
the time
time could
could possibly
possibly havehave
seen I
seen!

composers of
The composers of the
the ballet
ballet de cour all held
cour all held important
important positions
positions at
at court.
court.
first baroque
The first baroque generation
generation included
included Pierre
Pierre Girfdron
Gublron (d. 1621), the
(d. 1621), the suc-
suc-
cessor of Claude
cessor of Le Jeune;
Claude Le Jeune; Henry
Henry LeLe Jeune;
Jeune; Antoine
Antoine Boesset
Boesset (cL I~3).
(d. 1643),
the son-in-law
the son-in-law ofof Gu^dron;
Guedron; Vincent,
Vincent, Bataille,
Bataille, Auger,
Auger, and
and Moulinie.
Moulinie. TheThe
next generation
next generation comprised
comprised Jean-Baptist Boesset (d.
Jean-Baptist Boesset 16%), the
(d. 1685), the son
son ofof
Antoine; the
Antoine; the brilliant
brilliant Jean Cambeort (1605-1661)
de CambdEort
Jean de who set
(I605-1661) who the music
set the music
I44
144 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
to
to many ballets of
many ballets of Benserade;
Benserade; and and Guillaume
Guillaume Dumanoir,
Dumanoir, the the chief
chief ofof the
the
Vinge-Quatre
Vingt-Quatre Violons Violons du Roi Roi who held held thethe coveted tide roi
coveted title roi desdes violons.
violons,
bestowed
bestowed on on the
the worthiest
worthiest member of of the
the medieval
medieval guildguild of musicians,
of musicians,

the Confrbie
the Confrerie de
de St.-Julien.
St.-Julien. To the
the same group
group belonged, finally, Michel
belonged, finally, Michel
Lambert,
Lambert, the
the father-in-law
father-in-law of
of Lully,
Lully, and Lully
Lully himself.
himself.
The ballet
ballet music
music hashas come down to to usus only
only inin fragmentary
fragmentary form. form. Since
Since
it
it was
was restricted
restricted to to court
court use,
use, veryvery little
little was printed; only
printed; only that part of
that part of
the
the music published that
music was published that had aa widerwider appeal,
appeal, namely
namely the
the airs
airs de
dc cour.
cour.
The choral
choral music
music and the extensive
and the extensive instrumental
instrumental musicmusic has survived, if
has survived, if

at
at all, only
all, only in
in manuscript
manuscript collections
collections of
of which
which the
the Collection
Collection Philidor
Philidor 2
II is
is

the
the most
most famous.
famous. It It transmits
transmits the the ballets
ballets in in reduced
reduced form for for melody
melody and and
bass only.
bass only. The ballet
ballet music,
music, making
making little use of
little use of the
the conventional
conventional rhythmic
rhythmic
patterns of
patterns of the
the social
social dance,
dance, was
was freely
freely composed
composed with with occasional
occasional program-
program-
matic hints
matic hints relating
relating to
to the
the story.
story. The earliest
earliest ballets
ballets retained
retained the
the massed
massed
ensembles
ensembles of of singers
singers and
and instruments
instruments (lutes
(lutes and strings),
strings), characteristic
characteristic of
of
the
the renaissance
renaissance ballet,
ballet, but
but they
they werewere soonsoon supplanted
supplanted by by the regular five-
the regular five-

part string
part string ensemble
ensemble of of French
French stage stage music.
music. The music music is not very
is not
very in- in-

teresting intrinsically
teresting intrinsically since
since it
it was composed not
composed not to
to be
be heard,
heard, but
but as
as in-
in-

cidental
cidental music
music to to the ballet; it
the ballet; it ought not
ought not to
to be
be judged
judged by by the
the standards
standards of
of
"absolute"
"absolute" music.
music.
The ~ly early dramatic
dramatic typetype ofof hallet
ballet dede csur
ceur isis illustrated
illustrated byby La Dflivrance
Dlliflrance
dc Renaud (1617)
de (1617)
8
8 the
the music
music of
of which
which was composed
composed jointly
jointly by several
by several
musicians, notably
musicians, notably Antoine
Antoine Boesset
Boesset and GuMron.
Guedron. The custom
custom of
of collec-
collec-

tive
tive composition
composition in
in the
the hallet
ballet tIe
de cour
cour was-broken
was "broken only by Lully,
only by Lully, whose
whose
dictatorial
dictatorial talent
talent did not tolerate
did not tolerate rivals.
rivals. The ballet
ballet begins
begins withwith a grant!
a grand
concert
concert for for accompanied
accompanied chorus chorus and contains
contains in in addition
addition ensembles
ensembles calling calling
for
for more than than a a hundred performers.
performers. The solo
solo rldts
rfcits are
are the
the most
most in-
in-

teresting compositions
teresting compositions of
of the
the ballet
ballet because
because they
they disclose
disclose how tentative
tentative
were thethe attempts
attempts of of the
the French
French composers
composers to to assimilate
assimilate thethe Italian
Italian recita-
recita-

tive style.
tive style. The rides by
ricits by Guedron,
Guedron, completely
completely devoiddevoid of of an
an affective
affective tone,tone,
are
are most conservative
conservative in in style,
style, asas can
can bebe seen
seen in his basses
in his basses which
which are are often
often
active than
more active than the voice; they
the voice; they areare inin fact
fact the
the exact
exact opposite
opposite of the af-
of the af-

fective
fective Italian
Italian recitative.
recitative.

Cambefort's
Cambefort's rldts rtcbs in in the
the Ballet
Ballet de dc la Nuit (1653)
la Nuit (1653) andand the Ballet du
the Ballet
Temps
Temps (I654)(1654) were more advanced. advanced. Cambefort
Cambefort made great great use use ofof thethe
by Andr~
2
II Compiled
Compiled by Andre" Philidor,
Philidor, aa member of the Philidor
of the Philidor dynasty
dynasty ofof musicians.
musicians.
Parts
Parts ofof the
the collection are now in
collection are in the
the CotJSertlaloire and in
(Paris), and
Conservatoire (Paris), in St.
St. Michael's
Michael's Col-
Col-
lege,
lege, Tenbury.
Tenbury. For a similar collection in
similar collection in Cassel
Casscl see
see Ecorc:heville:
Ecorcheville: Ving# Suites tl'Or-
Vingt Suites d'Qr-
cnem-e,
chestre, Ig06.
1906.
See Pruni~es:
8 Sec Prunieres: I.e
Le Balla Cour, App.
de Cour.
Ballet de App. 49-
49.
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism I45
145
typical
typical anapaestic
anapaestic patternspatterns thatthat thethe French
French language
language so so obviously
obviously sug-
sug-
gested,
gested, patterns
patterns that that Lully
Lully was apt apt to
to run
run into
into the
the ground.
ground.
The
The chorus
chorus
had an
had an important
important function
function in in the
the ballet:
ballet: it it served
served as as an
an introductory piece,
introductory piece,
as
as interlude,
interlude, or or even
even as as accompaniment of the dance. This
accompaniment of the dance. This practice, known practice, known
as
as ballet
ballet aux chansons, was also
aux chansons, also taken
taken over
over by by Lully into the opera.
Lully into the opera.
Aside from
Aside from the the chorus and the recits the
the recits the vocal
vocal musicmusic of of the
the ballet
ballet dede
cour included
cour included the the air cour, the
air de cour, the best
best known and and most most influential
influential com- com-
ponent
ponent of ballet music. The air
of ballet cour represents
air de cOllr
represents a a huge
huge literature
literature which
which
was
was published
published by by the famous presses
presses of of Le Roy
Roy and Ballard. It
and Ballard. It swept
swept the
the
whole of Europe
Europe in the seventeenth century; it
seventeenth century; it prompted in
prompted in England England the
whole of in the the
short
short vogue
vogue of of the English
English ayreayre andand provoked
provoked innumerable
innumerable imitations
imitations in
in
Germany.
Germany. Its Its influence
influence can be be seen
seen even
even with
with Heinrich
Heinrich Albert Albert who who in-in-
corporated
corporated airs airs byby Moulinie and Antoine Antoine Boesset
Boesset into into his Arien. The
his Arim. The airair
de cow
de cour was originally
was originally not so courtly
not so courtly as as its
its name seems seems to to imply. In the
imply. In the
first
first printed collection (1571)
printed collection (1571) the the publisher
publisher and lutenist lutenist Le Lc RoyRoy reports
reports
that the airair de cour was formerly called
formerly called tloix voix de vitte, a
de tlille, a term
term fromfrom which
which the the
French tlaudetlz11e
vaudeville is is probably derived.
probably derived. These
These courtly
courtly and
and civil
civil songs
songs for for
solo
solo voice and lute lute constituted
constituted the the French parallel to
French parallel to the
the Italian and
Italian and SpanishSpanish
renaissance song.
renaissance song. At the the beginning
beginning of of the baroque period
the baroque period the airs lost
the airs their
lost their

popular features,
popular notably square
features, notably rhythm and
square rhythm and melodic
melodic simplicity.
simplicity. Merged
Merged
with thethe sophisticated tradition of
sophisticated tradition of the
the vers
tiers mesure
mesure they they werewere stylized
stylized to to
Parran called
what Parran called in in his
his Traite
Traitt de de la musique (1646)
la musique (1646) Ie
le style
style d'air.
d'air. The
stylization was enhanced
stylization enhanced by by veryvery ornate
ornate improvised
improvised diminutions
diminutions the the
subtlety of
subtlety of which matched the the precious
precious pastoral
pastoral tonetone of of the
the lyrics.
lyrics. The airs airs
always strophic
were always strophic and almost almost invariably
invariably accompanied
accompanied by by thethe lute.
lute.
composers often
The composers often made the the lute
lute arrangements
arrangements themselves,
themselves, as as can
can be be
seen in
seen in the
the typical
typical title
title Airs
Airs dede different*
diObents auteursauteurs mis mis en en tablature
tablature de de luth
luth
par eux-mesmes (Ballard,
far 1617). Even if
(Ballard, 1617). if published
published in in four
four parts,
parts, thethe
setting showed predominantly
setting predominantly chordal chordal texture
texture withwith definite
definite emphasis
emphasis on on
the soprano
the soprano as as the
the leading
leading voice.
voice.
French ornamentations,
The French ornamentations, the the so-called
so-called broderies,
broderies, varied varied greatly
greatly by by
virtue of
virtue of their
their rhythmical
rhythmical intricacy
intricacy and and melodic
melodic delicacy
delicacy from from the the more
more
robust and sensuous
robust sensuous embellishments
embellishments of of the
the Italian
Italian singers.
singers. The unadorned
unadorned
type can
type can bebe illustrated
illustrated by by an
an air
air de
de cour
cour by by Antoine
Antoine BoessetBoesset (Ex. 423) for
(Ex. 423) for
which Mersenne
which Mersenne fortunately
fortunately recorded
recorded the the elaborate
elaborate broderies
broderies as as sung
sung by by
Moulinie (Ex.
Moulinie 42b). The
(Ex. /pb). The numerous
numerous slurs slurs ofof the
the original
original indicate
indicate that that the
the
syllable-change did
syllable-change did notnot coincide
coincide with with thethe bar
bar line
line andand that
that many many words
words
began in
began in the
the archaic
archaic manner
manner on on the
the weak
weak part part ofof the
the beat.
beat.
The instrumental
The instrumental music music of of the
the battet
ballet de de cour
cour was was performed
performed by the
by the
146
Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
Vingt-Quatre Violons du Roi who
Vingt-Quatrc Violons du Rot
who rose
rose to
to international
international famefame during
during thethe
reign of Louis XIII. The importance
reign of Louis XIII. The importance
of
of this
this orchestra
orchestra for
for the
the evolution
evolution
of baroque
of baroque music
music can
can hardly
hardly be
be overestimated
overestimated because
because itit represents
represents thethe first
first
permanent
permanent
orchestra
orchestra of
of the
the period.
period. Whereas
Whereas the
the orchestras
orchestras in
in Italy
Italy and
and in
in

Ex. 42. Mcrsenne:

Ex. 42. Mersenne: Air
Air de
de cour
cour with embellishments.
with embellishments.
'r.
De
De re-voir ell
re -voir en ces
ces lIeall,
Heux,

... N8 - pe- rez plus ml'S ypux

,. la beau-te
Ve re-volr en ces lleux, beau-Ie

... ,.
- b .-e De

I'" que J'a - do - re N\>s pe - res plus\'~

I!!!!I
yeax
De re-volr
:
, "'-'"

'"
I'"
-
re voir en c:es lIeux

I
I. llean-te que
-
j'i -
---
do - no.
e!!~ lIeux, 1. beau-te, III

r - -"---,,,

other
other countries
countries were were as as aa rule
rule only
only solo ensembles, the
solo ensembles, grande bande
the grande bandc
consistently
consistently reinforced
reinforced all
all five
five parts
parts and thus
thus established
established the
the practice
practice of of
the
the modern
modern orchestral
orchestral doubling,
doubling, cdebrated
celebrated at the time as
at the time as an amazing
amazing
innovation.
innovation. It It is
is significant
significant that
that all
all the
the doubling
doubling instruments
instruments bdonged
belonged to to
the
the violin
violin family
family which,
which, as
as Mersenne
Mersenne pointed
pointed out,
out, surpassed
surpassed the
the old-
old-
fashioned
fashioned viol ensembles by
viol ensembles by its
its penetrating
penetrating sound.
sound. The Vingt-Quatre
Vingt-Quatrc
Violons were
VioZons were conservative
conservative withwith regard
regard to to the
the continuo
continue since the u11
since the full five-
five-

part scoring in
part scoring in conjunction
conjunction with with thethe doubling
doubling made a a supplementary
supplementary
harmony unnecessary.
harmony unnecessary. The thorough-bass
thorough-bass in
in fact
fact appeared
appeared in
in France very
very
late; only
kte; only after
after 1650
1650 did
did it
it become common. In
In spite
spite of
of the
the conservatism
conservatism
of the grande
of the grande bandebandc the the music
music showed the the structural
structural contour
contour typical
typical of of
baroque
baroque music
music in in general:
general: the outermost voices
the outermost voices were
were more heavily
heavily re-re-

inforced
inforced than
than the the middle voices.
voices. The first
first violins
violins and the the basses
basses had six six

players each,
players each, the
the two other
other violin
violin sections
sections and the
the viola
viok only
only four.
four.
dances in
The dances in the
the ballets
ballets were unpretentious
unpretentious compositions
compositions of of small
small
musical interest,
musical interest, each
each section
section of
of which was frequently repeated
frequently repeated with ever
ever

changing broderies.
changing brodcrics. The manuscripts
manuscripts do not not record
record those
those diminutions
diminutions on
which the grande
which the grande bantlebandc prided
prided itself,
itself, but
but Mersenne
Mersenne comes
comes again
again toto our
our
 French
French Music
Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism 147
I47
4
rescue.
rescue. The technical
The technical demands on the
the orchestra
orchestra were
were surprisingly small-
small-
surprisingly
the
die players
players hardly
hardly ever went beyondbeyond the the first
first position-but they required
position but they required
great
great agility
agility of
of the
the left
left hand and
and the
the bow.
bow.
Of greater
Of greater musical
musical interest
interest were the the orchestral
orchestral overtures
overtures which
which can can bebe
traced back to about 1640'
traced back to about 1640. It
It is
is in
in the
the ballet
ballet de cour that
de cour that the
the orchestral
orchestral
introductions,
introductions, called sinfonie by
called sinfonie
by the
the Italians,
Italians, received
received the the name
name out/enure,
ouverturc,
and from
and from here
here the
the term passed
passed to
to the
the opera. In
In the
the ballet
ballet Mademoiselle
Mademoiselle
opera.
(1640)
(1640) the
the overture
overture assumed a a bipartite
bipartite form
form of of which
which the the first
first part was
part was
slow, the second fast-a first
slow, the second fast a first foreshadowing of
foreshadowing of the the French
French overture.
overture. In In the
the
ballets
ballets Les
Les Rues
Rues de de Paris (1647)
(1647) andand Feste
Feste de Bacchus (I6sI)
de Bacchus the
the slow
slow
(1651)
part even displayed
part displayed a a ponderous
ponderous dotted
dotted rhythm,
rhythm, the the rhythme saccade of
rhythme saccadi of
the
the Lullian
Lullian overture,
overture, but the the fast
fast movement
movement did did not yet have the
not yet have the fugal fugal
texture that became typicaltypical later
later on.
on.
Many literary
literary and musical
musical threads
threads of of the
the ballet
ballet de cour were
de cour were woven
woven
into
into the
the fabric
fabric of the French opera, which
opera, which has,
has, down to
to the
the present, re-
present, re-
mained partial
mained partial to
to ballets.
ballets. Choral
Choral dance
dance music, recitative,
music, recitative, and
and program-
program-
matic orchestral
matic orchestral music were were first established in
first established the ballet
in the ballet dede cour before
cour before
their integration
their into the
integration into the opera.
opera. Certain
Certain literary motives also confirm the
literary motives also confirm the
relations: Lully
relations: returned in
Lully returned in his
his Armide to to the
the subject
subject of of the De/it/rance de
the Delivrancc de
Renaud, and Campra
Renaud, (TancrUe)
Campra (Tancrtde) made use
use of
of the
the plot
plot to
to the
the ballet
ballet
TancrCde en la
Tancrede la forest enchantee (1619).
forest enchantie (1619).

FRENCH REACTIONS TO ITALIAN OPERA

ballet de cour
The ballet by itself
cour by itself would never
never have
have led
led to the creation
to the creation of
of the
the
opera had it
French opera it not
not been
been for
for the
the Italian
Italian opera
opera which
which the
the French
French
musicians had watched
musicians watched with
with keen
keen interest
interest ever
ever since
since Caccini's
Caccini's visit
visit to
to
France.
France. personal taste
The personal taste and
and the
the shrewd
shrewd politics
politics of
of Mazarin
Mazarin were
were
largely responsible
largely responsible for
for the
the visits
visits of
of Italian
Italian artists
artists at
at the
the French court.
French court.
Italian by birth,
Italian by birth, he
he had acquired
acquired his
his fondness
fondness for
for opera
opera during
during his
his youth.
youth.
He had beenbeen associated
associated with
with the
the sumptuous
sumptuous patronage
patronage of
of the
the opera
opera byby
the Barberinis
the Barberinis inin Rome and
and had
had personally
personally taken
taken part
part in
in the
the staging
staging ofof
Landi's Son?
Landi's San( Alessio. Convinced that
Alessio. Convinced that the
the opera
opera was
was the
the most
most aristocratic
aristocratic
of spectacles
of spectacles he
he supported
supported it
it to
to keep
keep the
the court
court entertained
entertained and
and toto divert
divert at-
at-
tention from his
tention his machinations.
machinations. At his
his instigation
instigation aa group
group of
of Italian artists
Italian artists
invited to
was invited to acquaint
acquaint the
the court
court with
with Italian
Italian opera.
opera. The group
group included
included
the Roman composer
the composer Marazzoli*
Marazzoli, Mekni,
Melani, and the the celebrated
celebrated singer Leo-
singer Leo-
4
'Excerpts in Lavignac
Lavignac E,
E, 1:3,
1:30 1254; see the
I254; see the dances
dances by
by Henry I.e fcune
Henry Le Jenne in
in Ecorche-
Ecorche-
Excerpts in
op. cit,
ville, op.
ville, cit. App.
App.
148 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
nora
nora Baroni,
Baroni, Mazarin's
Mazarin's formerformer mistress.
mistress. Baroni's
Baroni's voice
voice aroused
aroused admiration,
admiration,
but also the typically
but also the typically French
French complaint
complaint about about the
the "rudeness"
"rudeness" of
of her
her sing-
sing-
ing.
ing. InIn r645
1645 Sacrati's Finta fazza
Sacrati's Finta pazza was was performed
performed in in a a revised
revised version
version in in
which,
which, characteristically,
characteristically, the the recitatives
recitatives were partly replaced
were partly replaced by
by spoken
spoken
dialogue.
dialogue. The work work was was successful
successful mainlymainly for for thethe machine
machine effects effects of the
of the
grand
grand sorcier
sorrier Giacomo
Giacomo Torelli.
Torelli. Operatic
Operatic events
events of
of outstanding importance
outstanding importance
were
were the the performances
performances of of Cavalli's Egisto (1646)
Cavalli's Egisto (1646) and and Luigi
Luigi Rossi's
Rossi's Or/eoOrfeo
(1~7).
(1647). The latter latter was
was expressly
expressly writtenwritten for for Paris
Paris at at the
the command of of
Mazarin
Mazarin and and the the Roman nobleman nobleman Barberini,
Barberini, now living living in
in exile
exile in
in Paris
Paris
because
because of of his
his dubious
dubious financial
financial operations.
operations. The resoundingresounding success success of of
Rossi's opera was due less to the
Rossi's opera was due less to the sterling qualitiessterling qualities of
of his
his bel-canto
bel-canto style,
style, too
too
strange
strange to to the
the French
French to to bebe atat once
once fully
fully appreciated,
appreciated, than than to the lavish
to the lavish
sets
sets and
and thethe ingenious
ingenious machines
machines of
of Torelli.
Torelli. While
While the
the Italian
Italian faction,
faction, led
led
by Queen
by Queen Anne of
of Austria
Austria and
and Mazarin,
Mazarin, was
was enthusiastic,
enthusiastic, the
the French fac-
fac-

tion
tion again
again criticized
criticized the violence of
the violence of the
the singing
singing and and ridiculed
ridiculed the realistic
the realistic
accents
accents as as "convulsions."
"convulsions."
The exorbitant
exorbitant costs costs of of the
the Or/eo-more
Orfeo more than than 300,000
300,000 ecus-which
ecus which were were
pressed
pressed out
out of
of the
the people by stringent
people by stringent taxation
taxation gave
gave a
a welcome
welcome target
target to
to the
the
opposition
opposition party.party. In
In the
the subsequent
subsequent upheavalupheaval of
of the
the Fronde
"Fronde the
the court
court and
Rossi
Rossi werewere forced
forced to to flee
flee Paris,
Paris, Torelli
Torelli was was imprisoned,
imprisoned, and and some of the
of the
Italian
Italian singers
singers had had a a narrow
narrow escape.
escape. The political
political songs
songs against
against Mazarin,
Mazarin,
the so-called
the Mazarinades, bitterly
so-called Mazarinades, bitterly attacked
attacked the
the Or/eo,
Orfeo, its
its expenses, and
expenses,
naturally also
naturally also the
the castrati
castrati to to whom the the French
French taste
taste never
never gotgot accustomed.
accustomed.
Caprioli's
Caprioli's None
Nozze di
di Peleo
Peleo e
e di
di Teti
Teti (I654) incorporated
(1654) incorporated numerous bal-
bal-
lets,
lets, written
written by by Benserade
Benserade in in an
an effort
effort toto meet
meet the the French
French taste taste half way,
half way,
but Italian
but Italian opera
opera won only only a a Pyrrhic victory. In
Pyrrhic victory. In a a desperate
desperate move to bolster
to bolster
the
the Italian
Italian faction
faction at at thethe court
court Mazarin
Mazarin invited
invited Cavalli,
Cavalli, the the greatest
greatest
celebrity
celebrity of
of the
the day,
day, to
to compose
compose a
a festival
festival opera
opera for
for the
the imminent
imminent marriage
marriage
of Louis XIV.
of Louis XIV. Mter After somesome hesitation,
hesitation, whichwhich was was overcome
overcome by by a better
a better
offer,
offer, Cavalli
Cavalli finally
finally accepted
accepted the the invitation.
invitation. For For thethe preliminary
preliminary festivities
festivities

Cavalli's
Cavalli's SerseSerse was performed
performed in in a a revised version in
revised version in which,
which, sympto-sympto-
matically,
matically, the
the choruses
choruses were
were replaced
replaced by by ballets
ballets that
that had
had no relation
relation to to
the
the plot. Composed
plot. Composed and
and danced
danced by Lully,
by Lully, the
the inserted
inserted ballets
ballets were were more
successful than
successful than the the opera
opera itself.
itself. The marriage of
marriage of Louis Louis XIV was finally finally
celebrated
celebrated with with Cavalli's
Cavalli's Ercole amante (1662.),
Ercole amante (1662), for
for which
which Buti,
Buti, the
the libret-
libret-

tist of Rossi's
tist Rossi's Or/eo,
Orfeo, supplied
supplied the
the libretto.
libretto. The splendor
splendor of
of this
this spectacle
spectacle
which assumed truly truly Wagnerian
Wagnerian proportions-it
proportions it lasted lasted six six hours-out-
hours out-
shone all
shone all previous
previous operas.
operas. Each act act was concluded
concluded by by huge
huge ballets
ballets forfor
which Lully
Lully wrote
wrote the the music,
music, the the last
last one twenty-one entrees.
having twenty-one
one having entries. The
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism 149
149
French reaction
French reaction toto the
the spectacle
spectacle is
is revealing: it was taken not as a musical
revealing: it was taken not as a musical
drama
drama with inserted
with inserted ballets,
ballets, but
but as
as aa gigantic ballet
ballet with
with inserted
inserted dramatic
dramatic
gigantic
interludes-so
interludes so much had Lully pushed himself
Lully pushed himself into
into the
the foreground.
foreground. The
The
infuriated
infuriated Cavalli
Cavalli vowed that that he would never write another
would never write another opera. opera.
Mazarin
Mazarin did did not
not live
live to
to see
see Ercole
Ercole performed.
performed. WithWith thethe head
head ofof the
the
Italian
Italian faction
faction gone,
gone, the French faction
faction under
under the
the leadership
leadership
of
of Colbert
Colbert
quickly won complete
quickly won complete control
control of
of the
the court,
court, and
and what
what hadhad been
been conceived
conceived
as
as the
the final
final victory
victory of Italian
Italian opera eventually prepared
opera eventually prepared its
its external
external and
and
internal
internal downfall.
downfall. In reaction
reaction to
to Venetian
Venetian opera the French musicians
opera the French musicians
forged
forged their
their weapons
weapons forfor their
their own national
national opera.
opera. The
The performance
performance in in
Versailles of
Versailles of the
the Italian
Italian pastoral
pastoral Nicandro
Nicandro e Fileno (1681)
e Fileno (1681) byby the
the Roman
Roman
composer
composer Lorenzani (a (a pupil
pupil ofof Benevoli)
Benevoli) constituted
constituted thethe last, though
last, though
futile,
futile, attempt
attempt to
to upset
upset the
the French opera, by
opera, by now firmly
firmly entrenched at
entrenched at the
tie
court.
court.

The French experiments

experiments with with the
the musical
musical drama
drama werewere atat first
first feeble
feeble and
and
undistinguished.
undistinguished. Corneille
Corneille wrote
wrote a
a tragedie
tragedie aa machines
machines entitled AndromUe
entitled Andromede
with the
with the express purpose of
express purpose of using
using again Torelli's machines,
again Torelli's machines, which
which had had been
been
constructed at great expense
at great expense for for Luigi
Luigi Rossi's
Rossi's Or/eo.
Orfeo. The music
music was was sup-
sup-
plied by
plied by the
the poet-musician
poet-musician Dassoucy.
Dassoucy. Machine Machine playsplays were
were very
very popular
popular
in the
in the TMatre
Theatre du MaraisMarais in Paris, but
in Paris, but their
their musical
musical importance
importance was was slight.
slight.
Corneille made it
Corneille it very
very clear
clear that
that music
music had had for
for him no no dramatic,
dramatic, butbut merely
merely
a subsidiary
a subsidiary ornamental
ornamental function:
function: "I "I have
have employed
employed musicmusic only
only to to satisfy
satisfy
the ear
the ear while
while the the eyes
eyes areare occupied
occupied with with looking
looking at at the
the machines
machines .
. . .

but II have been

but been careful
careful to to have
have nothing
nothing sung sung that
that is
is essential
essential to the under-
to the under-
standing
standing of
of the
the play
play because
because the
the words
words are
are generally badly
generally badly understood
understood
in music."
in music."
pastorals, in
The pastorals, in vogue
vogue since
since thethe renaissance
renaissance afterafter the
the Italian
Italian models
models
of Tasso
of Tasso and Guarini,
Guarini, were were also
also important
important forerunners
forerunners of of French
French opera.
opera.
Their influence
Their influence persisted
persisted eveneven in in Lully's
Lully's operas,
operas, e.g.
e.g. Cadmus and and Acts
Ads ctt:t
GalatMe. In
Galathie. In Dassoucy's
Dassoucy's Amours d'Apollon d'Apollon et de Daphne
t:t de Daphne (1650)
{I6so)-another
another
one of
one of the
the numerous
numerous Daphne Daphne plays plays-spoken verses and
spoken verses and sung
sung airsairs alter-
alter-
nated in
nated in the
the manner of of the
the oldest
oldest typetype of
of ballet
ballet de
de cour.
cour. The pastoral
pastoral
Triomphe de
Triomphc de I'l'Amour
Amour (1655) (I6ss) by by de de Beys
Beys with
with music
music by by de la Guerre
de la Guerre is is
interesting only
interesting only for
for its
its ingenious,
ingenious, if
if primitive,
primitive, circumvention
circumvention of
of the
the recita-
recita-

tive. The
tive. The composer
composer simplysimply strung
strung together
together aa great
great number
number of of chansons,
chansons, as as
was done
was done later
later inin the
the prison
prison scene
scene of of The Beggars
Beggar's Opera.
Opera.
The most
The most serious
serious attempts
attempts to create aa national
to create national opera
opera were
were made
made by by the
the
150 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
poet
poet Perrin
Perrin and and hishis musical
musical collaborator,
collaborator, Robert Robert Cambert (c. (c. 1628--16'77)
1628-1677)
who had learned his craft
learned his craft with
with Chambonnieres
Chambonni&res and served
served as
as organist,
organist, and
later
later as
as composer
composer to to the
the Dowager
Dowager Queen Queen Anne of of Austria.
Austria. In In the
the Pastorale
Pastorale
d'!ssy (1659), presumptuously
d'Issy (1659), presumptuously called
called the
the "first
"first French comedy
comedy in
in music"
music"
Perrin
Perrin and Cambert strove strove forfor a a compromise
compromise between
between the
the Italian
Italian and
and the
the
French approach.
approach. This
This aim clearly transpires
clearly transpires from the
the preface:
preface: "Our
language
language is is capable of
capable of expressing
expressing the the most beautiful
beautiful passions
passions and the the most
tender sentiments, and if
tender sentiments, if one
one mixes
mixes the the Italian
Italian style
style ofof music
music a a little
little with
with
our
our manner of of singing
singing one
one may
may achieve
achieve something
something in
in between
between the
the two,
two,
more agreeable
agreeable than
than either."
either." The Pastorale
Pastorale d'!ssy
d'Issy was followed
followed by
by La Mort
d'Adonis by
d'Adonis by Jean
Jean Baptiste
Baptiste Boesset
Boesset and Ariane Ariane by by Cambert,
Cambert, but but both
both operas
operas
were not performed. If
not performed. the judgment
If the judgment of of the
the opera-hater
opera-hater St-Evremond
St-Evremond can can
be trusted,
trusted, Ariane must be be regarded
regarded as as Cambert's
Cambert's masterpiece.
masterpiece. It It con-
con-
tained
tained a lament
lament of of the
the heroine
heroine that,that, obviously
obviously fashioned
fashioned after after Monteverdi,
Monteverdi,
was said
said to to have surpassed anything
surpassed anything that
that Lully
Lully ever
ever wrote.
wrote.
The favorable
favorable reception
reception of the Pastorale
of the Pastorale d'!ssy was, according
d'Issy was, according to to Perrin's
Perrin's
own admission,
admission, due due to the rising
to the French chauvinism,
rising French chauvinism, namelynamdy "to the pas-
"to the pas-
sion to
sion to see
see our language,
language, our poetry, and our
our poetry, our music
music triumph
triumph over
over a
a foreign
foreign
poetry and language."
poetry language." These vainglorious nationalistic feelings
vainglorious nationalistic feelings were were
nurtured by
nurtured by Colbert
Colbert who,who, in in keeping
keeping with
with his
his theories
theories of
of mercantilism
mercantilism
and national self-sufficiency~ also
national self-sufficiency, also promoted
promoted the the idea
idea of spiritual autarchy.
of spiritual autarchy.
He backed
backed Perrin's
Perrin's efforts
efforts toto create
create a a national
national opera,
opera, and and procured
procured for for
him in in 1669
r66g aa royal
royal patent
patent that
that gavegave him the the exclusive
exclusive rightright to to operatic
operatic
performances. In
performances. In 16Jr
1671 Pomone 5 by
5
by Perrin
Perrin and and Cambert,
Cambert, the the first
first French
French
opera really deserving
opera really deserving this
this name, opened
name, opened the
the newly
newly founded
founded Acadimie
Acadfmie
Royale de Musique
Royale Musique and and' was greeted
greeted with with enthusiasm.
enthusiasm. Of Of thethe music
music onlyonly
the prologue
the prologue and fragments
fragments of of the
the first
fust twotwo acts
acts are
are extant.
extant.
Cambert's style
Cambert's style compares
compares on the the whole
whole not not too
too favorably
favorably with with thethe music
music
Lully
Lully wrote
wrote at
at about
about the
the same time.
time. Like
Like his
his predecessors,
predecessors, Cambert
Cambert pre-
pre-
scribed in
scribed in his
his recitatives
recitatives frequent
frequent meter meter changes,
changes, dictated
dictated by by thethe dose
close
adherence of
adherence of the
the music
music to to the
the French
French verse.verse. The recitatives
recitatives are are distinguished
distinguished
for short
for short affective
affective sections
sections and and typically
typically French
French rhythmic
rhythmic intricacies.
intricacies.
Pomone opens opens with
with an an overture
overture in in four
four parts
parts ofof which
which onlyonly thethe first
first three
three
resemble the
resemble the Lullian
Lullian type.
type. The scene scene of of the
the prologue
prologue is is laid
laid inin the
the Louvre
Louvre
gives ample
which gives ample occasion
occasion to to apostrophize
apostrophize Louis Louis XIV in in the
the fawning
fawning
pompous manner that
and pompous that characterizes
characterizes all all prologues
prologues to to ballets
ballets andand operas
operas
of the
of time. A bipartite
the time. bipartite second
second overture
overture leadsleads toto the
the opera
opera proper.
proper. The airs airs
which arc are sometimes
sometimes preceded
preceded by by ritornelli
ritornelli areare written
written on on aa very
very small
small
'Reprinted in
Reprinted in also HAM no.
see also
COF; sec 223.
no. 223.
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism lSI
151
scale in a graceful, if unpretentious, style, familiar from
scale in a graceful, if unpretentious,
style, familiar
from the hallet dc
the bdlet de cour.
t:our.
It is significant
It is significant of the
of the French
French conception
conception of of opera
opera that
that they
they have
have no no dra-
dra-
matic significance,
matic significance, the the libretto,
libretto, too,
too, being
being idyllic
idyllic rather
rather than
than dramatic.
dramatic.
Aside from
Aside from short
short ensembles
ensembles for for soloists,
soloists, Cambert
Cambert made made use use of
of bass
bass arias
arias
with "doubled
with "doubled continue,"
continuo," in in which
which thethe bass
bass sang
sang the
the same
same lineline as
as the
the
continuo while
continue while twotwo instruments
instruments furnished
furnished the the harmony
harmony abovea
above-a ratherrather
primitive type
primitive type ofof aria,
aria, frequently
frequently found found also
also inin Lully.
Lully. Cambert
Cambert was was con-
con-
servative in
servative in his
his harmonic
harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary and and rarely
rarely even
even hinted
hinted at at the
the rich
rich
resources of
resources of the
the Italian
Italian style.
style. ItIt is
is difficult
difficult toto determine
determine to to what
what extent
extent
Cambert was an
Cambert an original
original composer
composer because
because the the music
music for
for hishis first
first opera,
opera,
the Pastorale d'Issy,
the Pastorale d'Issy, is
is lost,
lost, and
and hishis Pomonc
Pomone may may already
already have
have beenbeen written
written
under the
under the influence
influence of of Lully,
Lully, who by by that
that time
time hadhad established
established himself
himself asas aa
domineering composer.
domineering composer.
In I&p. Cambert followed
In 1672 followed up up his
his first
first operatic
operatic success
success with
with the Pastorale
the Pastorale
Mroique des
Afroique dcs Peincs Peines et
ct des Plaisirs de r Amour,' also only
dcs Plaisirs de Amour* also only fragmcntarily
I' fragmentarily
preserved. Here the
preserved. the ballet
ballet is is given a
given a moremore prominent
prominent placeplace and some
progress
progress is
is made in in dramatic
dramatic intensification.
intensification. Some comic
comic sections, for
sections, for
which Cambert
which Cambert had had shown
shown aptitude
aptitude in
in the
the trio
trio CariseUi
Carisclli
7
T (an
(an insertion
insertion in
in

aa spoken play),
spoken play), also
also deserve
deserve notice.
notice.

Lully's
Lully's machinations
machinations set set an
an abrupt
abrupt endend toto the
the promising
promising career
career ofof Cam-
bert
bert andand the
the embittered
embittered composer
composer turnedturned to to England
England where he appeared appeared
for
for a a time
time atat the court of
the court of Charles
Charles II II before
before he he found a violent
violent death.
death.

Comedic-Ballet
Comedic-Ballct Tragcdic LYTiq~:
AND Tragedie Lyriquc: LULLY
With
With the
the steady
steady rise
rise of
of Lully
Lully at at the
the French court
court all
all other
other musicians
musicians
were
were slowly
slowly butbut surely
surely pushed
pushed intointo the
the background.
background. The Florentine
Gianbattista
Gianbattista Lulli
Lulli (16,32-1687),
(1632-1687), later
later known as
as Jean
Jean Baptiste
Baptiste Lully,
Lully, came
to France
to France in
in I~6 and
and entered
entered the
the service
service of
of the
the young
young Louis XIV in 16s2-
in 1652.
1646
He was taught by the organists Metru, Roberday,
was taught by the organists Metru, Robcrday, and Gigault;
Gigault; his
his musical
training was therefore primarily French, not Italian. He distinguished
not Italian.
training was therefore primarily French, distinguished
himself
himself asas violinist,
violinist, dancer,
dancer, and
and Italian
Italian comedian,
comedian, andand as as early
early asas 16s3
1653 he
he
became
became composer
composer of
of the
the royal
royal chamber
chamber music,
music, succeeding
succeeding Lazarin,
Lazarin, aa com-
com-
poser of the Vin~Quatre Violons, who
poser of the Vingt-Quatrc Violons,
who was
was likewise
likewise ofof Italian
Italian descent.
descent
Lully broke with the time-honored
Lully broke with the time-honored
custom
custom of
of embellishments, practiced
embellishments, practiced
by
by the
the grande
grande bande,
bandc, and
and pressed
pressed the
the king
king for
for permission
permission to
to have
have an an or-
or-

chestra of his
chestra of his own,
own, the
the sixteen
sixteen (later twenty-one) pdils
(later twenty-one) pctits tliolons
violons (1656).
(1656). HeHe

Reprinted in
Reprinted COF.
in COP.
rr PougiD. Les tJ1'tIIis
Pougxn, Le, vrais erltdtnws.
crtatews, 282.
282.
152 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
drilled
drilled this group in
this group in aa dry
dry and pointed
pointed style
style of of utmost rhythmical precision
rhythmical precision
which
which waswas later
later admired
admired and imitatedimitated by by all European
all European composers.
composers, Lully's
Lully's
reform
reform of of orchestral
orchestral technique,
technique, which passes passes as as aa typically
typically French achieve- achieve-
ment,
ment, was
was actually undertaken in
actually undertaken in opposition
opposition to to the
the traditional
traditional French style style
the
the perpetual
perpetual diminutions
diminutions of
of which were too
too imprecise
imprecise for for Lully's
Lully's taste.
taste.

He combined
combined the the unornamented,
unornamented, straight playing of
straight playing of the
the Venetian opera opera
orchestra
orchestra with
with the the emphatically
emphatically rhythmic
rhythmic style style of of French music and thus thus
evolved
evolved thethe famous
famous Lullian
Lullian orchestral
orchestral discipline
discipline by by which he established
established
his superiority
his superiority in in the
the field
field ofof ballet
ballet composition.
composition. The reviews reviews of the time
of the time
never
never ail
fail to
to mention
mention the
the brilliant
brilliant precision
precision of
of his
his orchestral
orchestral "concerts."
"concerts."
Endowed with with a a calculating
calculating temperament
temperament and spurred spurred by by boundless
boundless
ambition
ambition Lully
Lully systematically
systematically took took advantage
advantage of of his
his privileged
privileged position
position
with the
with the king.
king. As successor
successor of
of Cambefort he
he became superintendent of
superintendent the
of the
king's
king's music
music (1661)
(1661) and gained complete
gained complete control
control of
of the
the grande
grandc hande.
bande.
When the the success
success of of Perrin
Perrin and Cambert in in the
the opera
opera threatened
threatened to to eclipse
eclipse
his own he
his he took
took quick
quick action:
action he wrested
: wrested the the royal
royal patent
patent from Perrin who,
Perrin who,
being
being in
in prison
prison at
at the
the time,
time, was hardly
hardly in
in aa position
position to
to bargain.
bargain. The new
patent (1672) gave Lully complete
patent (1672) gave Lully complete monopoly monopoly over
over the
the opera;
opera; it
it strikingly
strikingly
restricted the
restricted the useuse ofof music
music in in theatrical productions other
theatrical productions other than
than hishis own,
own,
granted all
and granted proceeds from his
all proceeds his music to to himself
himself and his his heirs.
heirs.8 He en-
8
en-
forced
forced thethe closure
closure of of a rival opera
a rival opera house,
house, expelled
expelled Moli~e's
Molifcre's troupe
troupe from
the
the royal
royal palace,
palace, and established
established his Acadbnie Royde
his own Academic Royale de Musique.
Musique.
Thus Lully
Lully became as
as absolute
absolute a
a sovereign
sovereign in
in music
music as
as Louis
Louis XIV was in
was in
state
state affairs.
affairs. Lully
Lully died with one of
died with of the
the greatest
greatest fortunes
fortunes ever ever amassed
amassed by by
aa musician,
musician, derived
derived partlypartly from shrewd real real estate
estate speculation,
speculation, partly partly
from thethe income of of his music. Lully's
his music. Lully's tyrannical
tyrannical egotism
egotism and unscrupulous
unscrupulous
exploitation of
exploitation of friends
friends can can only
only be be compared
compared with with that
that ofof Wagner;
Wagner; but but both
both
bent the
bent the whole musicalmusical worldworld intointo submission
submission to to their
their artistic
artistic achieve-
achieve-
ments.
ments.
Lully's
Lully's musical
musical careercareer falls
falls into
into two major periods, that
major periods, that ofof ballet
ballet com-
com-
position (1653-1672),
position (1653-1672), and that
that of
of opera composition (1673-1687).
opera composition (1673-1687). At first
first

his
his position
position at
at the
the court
court was ambiguous.
ambiguous. On the
the one
one hand, he adopted in his
hand, he adopted in his
instrumental
instrumental balletballet music the the rhythmic
rhythmic stylestyle of of the
the French
French dance,dance, but but onon
the
the other
other hand, adhered in
hand, he adhered his recits
in his rttits and airs to the
airs to the Italian bel-canto
Italian bd-canto
style.
style. Not by by accident
accident were most of these recits
of these rtcits setset to
to Italian
Italian words.
words. The
ballets
ballets show therefore
therefore a Janus face,
Janus face, they they are
are French
French in
in their
their instrumental,
instrumental,
but Italian
but Italian in in their
their vocal
vocal portions.
portions. LullyLully gradually
gradually strengthened
strengthened the the role
role

88 For the
the full text of
full text this astonishing
of this astonishing document see
see Nuitter-Thoinan, LAs origines.
Nuitter-Thoinan, Les origines,
237
237-
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 153
153
of vocal
of vocal music
music by
by inserting
inserting interludes
interludes for
for solo
solo and
and choral
choral ensembles
ensembles in
in the
the
ballet dc
ballet de cour.
cour.
The dances
The dances were
were in in part
part freely
freely composed
composed in in correspondence
correspondence with with thethe
choreography
choreography of
of the
the ballets,
ballets, but
but we
we find
find besides
besides the
the older
older ball-room
ball-room dances
dances
like the
like the galliarde
galliarde and and courante
courante several
several important
important dance dance patterns
patterns of of aa more
more
recent origin.
recent origin. Although
Although they they appeared
appeared in in the
the ballet
ballet de
de cour sometime before
cour sometime before
Lully, itit was
Lully, was hehe who
who gave gave themthem the the stamp
stamp that that made
made them
them famous.
famous. They They in-in-
elude the
clude the passepied
parsepied in in lively
lively 3/83/8 time,
time, the the rigaudon
rigaudon and and bourric
bourr!e in in vigorous
vigorous
duple time,
duple time, the
the loure
loure in in dotted
dotted rhythm
rhythm and and moderate
moderate 6/4 6/4 time,
time, the
the gavotte
gavotte
in graceful
in graceful dupleduple time,
time, and and above
above all, all, the
the minuet
minuet in in stately
stately 3/4 3/4 time
time with
with
typical soft
typical soft syncopations
syncopations and and hemiolas.
hemiolas. Also Also the the march
march mustmust be be mentioned
mentioned
here, which
here, which Lully
Lully elevated
elevated to to the
the level
level of of art
art music.
music. Originally
Originally designed
designed for for
the display
the display of of military
military might might in in pompous
pompous entries, entries, the
the march
march was was derived
derived
melodically from the
melodically the stylized
stylized fanfare
fanfare of of the
the trumpet
trumpet as as is
is clearly
clearly discernible
discernible
in many
in many of of Lully's
Lully's march melodies. melodies. Like Like the the military
military uniform,
uniform, the the march
step,
step, i.e.
fa. the
the movement of
of troops
troops in
in a
a uniform
uniform motion,
motion, was
was essentially
essentially an
achievement of
achievement of the
the baroque
baroque era, era, prompted
prompted by by the
the growing
growing rationalization
rationalization
of warfare
of warfare to to which
which the the standing
standing armies armies of of the
the baroque
baroque states testify.
states testify.

None of of Lully's fellow composers

Lully's fellow composers could compare with
could compare with the the caustic wit
caustic wit
of
of his
his Italian
Italian vocal compositions which established
vocal compositions established his his fame not not only
only asas a

composer
composer but but also
also as as a a comedian
comedian and and dancer.
dancer. For For the
the Italian
Italian playplay Amore
malato (r6s7)
malato (1657) by by Buti
Bud he composed
composed the
the ballets
ballets and also
also played
played the part part
of Scaramouche.
of Scaramouche. He deliberately
deliberately set
set the
the Italian
Italian style
style against the
against the French
in
in the
the prologue
prologue to to the
the ballet Alcidiane (1658),
ballet Alcidiane (1658), and, similarly, in
and, similarly, in the Ballet
Ballet

de
de la Raillerie (1659)
la Raillerie (1659) he composed
composed an amusing
amusing dialogue
dialogue between Italian
Italian

and
and French music I)9 in
French music in which
which he he cleverly
cleverly contrasted
contrasted the the simple
simple syllabic
syllabic style
style
of
of the
the Italian
Italian canzonetta
canzonetta with
with the
the subtle
subtle turns
turns of
of the French air.
air. The
Ballet de l'Impatience
Ballet de flmpatience (1661) (1661) contained
contained a grotesque
grotesque r!cit
ricit of the "snuff
takers"
takers" for for aa three-part
three-part choral ensemble in
choral ensemble in canzonetta
canzonetta style.
style. TheThe same
same work
work
introduced
introduced also also the
the air
air Sommes-nous
Sommes-nous par pas trap keureux? (words
trop heureur? (words by by Ben-
Ben-
serade)
serade)
which
which became
became later
later one
one of
of the
the most
most popular
popular civil
civil songs,
songs, known
known at
at

the time as brunettes

the time as brunettes (Ex. 43). (Ex. 43)'
Ex.
Ex. 43. Lully: Brunette.
43. Lully: Brunette.
'A

., Som.1III!S DOllS pas trop !lea

-.. .. -.
reax Belle 1 - ris, que _ u .....bIe?

89Pruniercs, U
Prunifcres, L'Opba
-
Opera ltlllien,
ltdtcn, App.
App. J6
16
I

I> .. ."
154
154 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The ballet Alcidiane is
ballet Alcidiane is noteworthy for
noteworthy for the the first
first distinct
distinct example
example of of the
the
French
French overture.
overture. It begins with
It begins with ponderous
ponderous dotted dotted rhythms
rhythms and then turns
then turns
to
to aa fugal
fugal second
second part,part, written
written in in duple
duple time,
time, not not yetyet inin the
the triple meter
triple meter
that
that was
was toto become
become standard
standard practice.
practice. The substitution
substitution of of fugal
fugal forfor chordal
chordal
texture
texture waswas probably
probably due to
to the
the Italian
Italian canzona overtures
overtures with
with which Lully
Lully
was familiar.
was familiar. Thus even
even the
the French overture
overture was the
the product
product of
of a
a mixture
mixture
of
of styles.
styles. Lully's
Lully's overture
overture to to the
the ballet
ballet insertions
insertions in in Cavalli's Serse (1660)
Cavalli's Serse (1660)
is
is perhaps
perhaps the
the first
first example
example of
of the
the fully
fully developed
developed French
French overture
overture with
with
the
the second
second partpart in
in fugal
fugal texture
texture and triple
triple meter.
meter,
In
In spite
spite ofof the
the assimilation
assimilation of of Italian
Italian and French features features Lully passed
Lully passed
at
at court
court as as the
the representative
representative of of Italian
Italian music-a
music a wise policy so
wise policy so long
long asas
Mazarin
Mazarin was alive alive and the the Italian
Italian faction
faction dominant.
dominant. After After thethe death
death of of
Mazarin (1661)
Mazarin (1661) LullyLully made a a complete
complete about-face,
about-face, joined joined the the ascendent
ascendent
French
French faction,
faction, and became
became an
an ardent
ardent advocate
advocate of
of French music.
music. Precisely
Precisely
at
at this
this time
time he was appointed superintendent,
appointed superintendent, hastened
hastened his
his French natu-
natu-
ralization, and married
ralization, married the the daughter
daughter of of Michel Lambert. Lambert. The second second
phase
phase of
of Lully's
Lully's ballet
ballet composition
composition began
began with
with the
the comUies-ballets,
comedies-ballets, a
a genre
genre
that
that Moliere
Moliere invented
invented to to enhance
enhance the play by
the play by the
the diversion
diversion of of the ballet and
the ballet and
to restore the
to restore the original
original dramatic
dramatic significance
significance of
of the
the ballet.
ballet. In
In 16/54
1664 the
the glorious
glorious
cooperation
cooperation of of the
the two Baptistes
Baptistes began began with with the the Mariage
Manage Force; Forct; it it con-
con-
tinued
tinued withwith Princesse
Princesse d'Elide,
d'Elide, Amour mUecin, midedn, PastoralePastorale comique,
comique, Mon- Mon-
sieur de Pourceaugnac,
sieur Pourceaugnac, Bourgeois Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670), (1670), and the the tragUie-
tragtdie-
baUet Psyche (16-;1)
battet PsychS (1671) for
for which Corneille
Corneille and Moliere
Moliere wrote
wrote the
the spoken
spoken
verses,
verses, Quinault
Quinault and Lully Lully himself
himself the the lyrics
lyrics for the recits.
for the ricits.

In
In the
the comedy-ballets
comedy-ballets Lully Lully expanded
expanded his his music
music in in two directions:
directions: he he
made the the French recitative
recitative more dramatic dramatic and developed developed large large choral
choral
and orchestral
orchestral forms;
forms; both both were to to become important
important components
components of of his
his
operas.
operas. While the
the French recits
ricits of
of the
the hallet
bdlet de
de cour
cour were
were written mostly
written mostly
in
in the
the fixed
fixed forms of the air,
of the air, the
the single
single scenes
scenes of the comUie-ballets
of the comtdie-bdlcts were were
connected
connected by by secco recitatives, as
secco recitatives, as inin the
the contemporary
contemporary Italian Italian opera.
opera. The
closeness
closeness to to opera appears
opera appears also
also in
in the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the Pastorale
Pastorale comique
comique
which is is aa persiHage
persiflage of
of a
a magic
magic incantation
incantation scene,
scene, so
so popular
popular in
in Venetian
Venetian
opera. The buDo
opera. buffo style
style that
that Lully
Lully had formerly formerly reserved
reserved for the Italian
for the Italian
scenes
scenes appeared
appeared now also also inin the
the French scenes, scenes, as as for example in
for example Pour-
in Pour-
ceaugnac
ceaugnac or Bourgeois Gentilhomme.
or Bourgeois Gentilhomme. The latter latter contains
contains a a highly
highly enter-
enter-
taining scene in
taining scene in which a composer
composer is is shown in the process
process of of composing
in the composing a a
recit.
ricit. With the the French recitative
recitative made more flexible, Lully did not
flexible, Lully did not hesitate hesitate
to
to avail
avail himself in in earnest
earnest of of the
the affective
affective Italian
Italian stylestyle which
which he he had
had ridi-
ridi-

culed
culed in in the
the parodistic
parodistic plaintplaint of Tirsis Ah quelle
of Tusis quelle douceur
douceur from
from Elid~
Elide
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 155
155
(IV, 2).
(IV, The entry
2). The entry of
of the Italians in
the Italians in the
the Ballet
Ballet des
des Nations
Nations (Bourgeois
(Bourgeois
Gentilhomme) contains
Gentilhomme) contains strophic
strophic variations
variations with
with Italian
Italian words
words that
that could
could
almost
almost be
be mistaken
mistaken forfor the
the music
music ofof Luigi Rossi;
Luigi Rossi; aa similarly affective style
similarly affective style
prevails
prevails in
in the
the famous
famous Italian
Italian plaint Deh piangete from Psych/,
plaint Deh piangete from Psyche, a work a work
that
that Lully
Lully later
later transformed
transformed into into an
an opera.
opera. HeHe finally took the decisive
finally took the decisive
step
step by
by transferring
transferring the the affective
affective pathos
pathos and
and thethe melodic
melodic dissonances
dissonances of of
the
the Italian lamento style
Italian lamento style to
to the
the French
French air
air and
and recitative.
recitative. The
The plaint
plaint of
of
10
Venus 10
Venus in
in the
the Ballet
Ballet de Flore (166])
de Flore (1667) or
or the
the plaint
plaint
of
of Cloris Ah mortelles
Cloris Ah mortelles
douleurs (Ex.(Ex. 44)
44) from
from the Versailles eloquently
douleurs the Fetes
Fetes de
de Versailles eloquently bespeak
bespeak thethe

Ex. 44.
Ex. 44. Lully:
Lully: Plaint from F~tu
Plaint from Fetes de
de Versailles.
Versailles.

J"
j&l
Ah, mori:p.I-les dOD leurs. Qu'al-je plus 1 pR teD . .

." -
'1 6 6
e
4'
6 '1 6 II ~

'!!

-&1-
dre? Cou i Jez, Coo - lez mes pleura

'1 es '1 6 '1

artistic result of
artistic result of this
this fusion of styles
fusion of styles without
without which
which the
the French
French opera
opera
not have
would not have been
been possible.
possible.
In the
In the music
music ofof the
the comedy-ballet
comedy-ballet solo
solo and
and choral
choral ensembles
ensembles over-
over-
shadowed all other
all other elements.
elements. The riotous
riotous Turkish
Turkish ceremony in the
ceremony in the finale
finale
of
of Bourgeois Gentilhomme,
Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. and and thethe double
double chorus
chorus atat the
the end
end of of
George
George Dandin
Dandin are
are extended
extended choral
choral cantatas
cantatas with
with interspersed
interspersed solo
solo sec-
sec-

tions. The solo

tions. solo trio
trio Dormez
Dormez beaux beaux yeux from the
yeux from the Amant
Amant magnifique
magnifique
(16]0) isis written
(1670) in obvious
written in obvious imitation
imitation ofof Rossi's
Rossi's slumber
slumber trio
trio Dormite
Dormite begli
begli
from the
occhi from
occhi Orfeo.11
the Orfeo. It begins
l l It begins with
with aa bass
bass ritorncllo
ritornello very
very similar
similar toto
the bass
the bass of of Ex.
Ex. 44
44 and
and corresponds
corresponds to to Rossi's
Rossi's composition
composition in in numerous
numerous
details. In
details. In his
his choral
choral writing
writing also
also Lully
Lully waswas dependent
dependent on on Luigi
Luigi Rossi
Rossi and
and
Carissimi. From
Carissimi. From the the latter
latter he he borrowed
borrowed the the rhythmic
rhythmic declamation
declamation in in
chordal texture
chorda! texture which
which pervades
pervades all all his
his choruses.
choruses. InIn the
the exceptionally
exceptionally well-
well-
wrought chorus
wrought chorus of
of the
the "distributors
"distributors of of ballet-books"
ballet-books" from
from the
the Bourgeois
Bourgeois
Gentilhomme he
Gentilhomme he represented
represented the the tumultuous
tumultuous throng
throng before
before the
the beginning
beginning
of aa ballet
of ballet performance
performance by by aa perspicuous
perspicuous rhythmic
rhythmic counterpoint,
counterpoint.
10
z:
drl de
Gerold, L'Art
10G&dd, eJumt.
de chant. 25$. zs6-
11 GMB
U GMB ao.
no. 199.
I!)9-
156 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The beginnings
beginnings of of Lully's
LuUy's opera opera period
period were cloudedclouded by by crafty
crafty intrigues.
intrigues.
Lully
Lully had thus far maintained
thus far maintained that opera that opera was "impossible
"impossible to execute
to execute in in our
our
language," but
language," but hishis professional
professional jealousyjealousy made him change change his his mind. Al- Al-
though
though he was growing
growing ever
ever closer
closer to
to the
the opera
opera in
in his
his comMie-ballets
com6die-bdlets
he would hardlyhardly have have taken
taken the the final
final step
step had it it not
not been
been forfor thethe success
success
of
of Perrin-Cambert
Perrin-Cambcrt and the the Triomphe
Triomphc de l'
V Amour by
by Sablieres.
Sablieres. Unable to
to

stand
stand success
success except
except his his own,own, Lully
Lully secretly
secretly snatched
snatched Perrin's
Perrin's patent
patent forfor
himself in
himself in violation
violation of of an agreement
agreement with
with Moliere.
Moli&re. But for
for Lully's
Lully's personal
personal
ambition,
ambition, Moliere,
Moliere, and not not Quinault,
Quinault, would have have become the the official
official li-
li-

brettist
brettist of
of the
the French opera. opera.
From 16]3 1673 on,on, Lully
Lully produced
produced an opera opera almost
almost yearly,
yearly, or,or, as
as he he called
called it,
it,

aa tragMie lyrique. The transition

tragidie lyrique. transition from the comedie-ballet to
the comMie-ballet the opera
to the opera
can
can be seen
seen in in the
the pastoral
pastoral Amour et Bacchus, an
et Bacchus, an insignificant pasticchio
insignificant pasticchio
of
of earlier
earlier stage
stage works.
works. The tragMie lyrique
tragedie lyriquc was established
established with
with Cadmus et
ct

Hermione
Hcrmione (1673) (16]3) and
anc ^ then
t
^ ien followed
followed in
in quick succession masterpieces
quick succession masterpieces
such
such as Alceste (16]4),
as Alccstc (1674), TMsee Thtsie (16]5),
(1675), Isis (1677), Persic
Isis (1677), Persee (1682),
(1682), Amadis
(1684),
(1684), Roland (1685),
(1685) , and Armide (1686).
(1686) . The librettist
librettist Quinault
Quinault provided
provided
Lully
Lully with
with tragedies
tragedies in
in the
the manner of
of Corneille
Corneille and Racine
Racine whose
whose works
works
received universal
had received universal acclaim
acclaim some years years before
before Lully
Lully turned
turned to
to the
the opera.
opera.
Quinault
Quinault at at first
first retained
retained the the comic scenesscenes of the Venetian
of the Venetian libretto,
libretto, butbut
abandoned them after
abandoned after Alcestc. Unlike the
Alceste. Unlike the dramatists
dramatists he he mixed
mixed in in his
his
libretti the
libretti the traditional
traditional French Alexandrines Alexandrines with with shorter rhymed verses
shorter rhymed verses
and diddid not
not observe
observe the the three
three unities.
unities. The plot plot revolved
revolved roundround the the eternal
eternal
conflict between
conflict between gloire gloire et et amour.
amour.
Lully studied
Lully studied in in the
the Comcdie
ComMie jran$aise
franfaise the the quasi-musical
quasi-musical accents accents andand
emphatic
emphatic inflections
inflections of
of the
the celebrated
celebrated actress
actress Champmesle
Champmesl whose
whose dramatic
dramatic
rendition of
rendition of Racine
Racine became exemplary exemplary for for him.
him. He projected
projected the the wide
wide
range
range of
of spoken
spoken accents
accents into
into his
his recitatives
recitatives and heightened the rolling
heightened the rolling and and
eloquent rhetoric
eloquent rhetoric of of the
the verses
verses by by means of of aa stylized
stylized music,
music, characterized
characterized
by great
by great reserve
reserve toward
toward affective
affective dissonances
dissonances and and persistent
persistent useuse of of anapaes-
anapaes-
tic patterns.
tic patterns. The danger danger of of monotony
monotony was obviated obviated by by the
the lively
lively andand intense
intense
delivery
delivery of
of the
the singer.
singer. The meter
meter signatures
signatures of
of the
the recitative freely
recitative freely alter- alter-
nated in strict
nated in strict accordance
accordance with with thethe verse
verse between
between 4/4, 4/4, 2/2 (twice as
2/2 (twice as fast
fast
as the
as the preceding
preceding time), time), 3/2, 3/2, etc.
etc. The meter
meter changes
changes werewere not not supposed
supposed to to
be heard
be heard asas such,
such, butbut merely
merely made the the music
music flowflow vivaciously
vivaciously "like "like cham-
cham-
pagne," as
pagne," as Telemann put put it. it.
French conceived the recitative
The French conceived the recitative in in rhetorical
rhetorical rather
rather thanthan musical
musical
terms. While
terms. While the the Italians
Italians traced
traced thethe words
words primarily
primarily by by the
the melodic
melodic curve,
curve,
leaving the
leaving the rhythm
rhythm to to the
the singer,
singer, thethe French
French directed
directed their
their main
main attention
attention
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism IS7
157
to the
to the rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns giving
giving only
only small
small attention
attention to
to the
the melody. Lully
melody. Lully
remained in
remained in his
his recitatives
recitatives essentially
essentially faithful
faithful to
to the
the French
French tradition
tradition and
and
infused them
infused them with
with just
just enough
enough of
of an
an affective
affective tone
tone to
to make
make them
them suitable
suitable
for the
for the pathetic
pathetic passages
passages of
of the
the tragedy.
tragedy. With
With regard to
regard to the
the differentiation
differentiation
of recitative,
of recitative, arioso,
arioso, and
and aria
aria Lully
Lully held
held aa most
most conservative
conservative position.
position. Al-
Al-
though certain
though certain sections
sections may
may be
be said to display
said to display sccco style the
secco style the recitative
recitative was
was
generally
generally so
so undeveloped
undeveloped that
that no
no clear distinction can be made.
clear distinction can be made. Lully Lully
moved imperceptibly
moved imperceptibly from
from recitative
recitative to arioso, and
to arioso, and from
from arioso
arioso to
to air,
air, and
and
did not
did not go
go beyond
beyond the the fluid
fluid stage
stage of
of differentiation
differentiation he
he found
found in
in Cavalli.
Cavalli.
His conservatism
His conservatism isis further
further confirmed
confirmed by
by the
the unwieldy
unwieldy slow
slow cadences
cadences that
that
separated the
separated the verses.
verses. The recitatives
The recitatives were
were as
as aa rule
rule through-composed
through-composed but
but
often adroitly
often adroitly unified
unified by
by pregnant
pregnant refrains
refrains which
which gave
gave them
them aa rondo
rondo
character.
character.
12
12 The wavering between
wavering between recitative
recitative and
and arioso
arioso can
can also be seen
also be seen
in ensemble
in ensemble recitatives
recitatives and short
short duet
duet sections,
sections, as
as for
for example
example in Cad-
in Cad-
mus (I,
mus (1, i).
I).
Accompanied recitatives and
Accompanied recitatives and ariosi
ariosi were
were even
even more
more prominent
prominent than
than
arias. Reserved
arias. Reserved for
for points
points of
of highest
highest dramatic
dramatic tension,
tension, they
they demon-
strate his
strate his superb
superb art
art of
of orchestration
orchestration and
and his
his ability
ability to
to make itit subservient
subservient
the musical
to the
to musical drama (Amadis III, 2,
(Amadis III, 2, and
and Roland
Roland IV,IV, 2).
2). The memorable
narration from Armide (Ex.
dream narration (Ex. 45) is accompanied
45) is accompanied by an ensemble
by an ensemble of
of

Ex.
Ex. 45.
."
..,
45. Lully:
Lully: Accompanied
Accompanied Reat
Rtcit from Armitle.
from Armide.
.. -
l'n af -- freux miD spi-re DD~ fo-reor uoo
one fD-reln noo _
- vel-Ie
vel te cou-tre
con-tre ce fa -nw -- t'l.eDoDll-
,. Un SOllge
soiige af freux nfin spi-re
fo -1It'S t^en-oe-

14.1 Strl1l&4 :J: $ "V ~r

~.J
1ott" .". .".

e is"
.,. .. .
Ii' mi.
mi. J~i cni le voir
cru Ie voir j'en ai Cre
j'en ai fre
- mi
oai
j'ai
~fI

14.1 ... If" r 11'

I

e
low
low strings which give a somber background to
strings which give a somber background
to the
the impassioned
impassioned accents
accents

of
of the
the voice.
voice.
In
In his
his arias,
arias, too,
too, Lully
Lully took
took aa conservative
conservative attitude. He restricted
attitude. He restricted him-
him-

11 See Ctlllmus
12See v, and Persee
Cadmus V, I,i, and Perscc (GMB
(GMB no.
no. 232).
232).
15
1588 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
self
self to
to the
the short
short forms
forms of
of the
the early
early Venetian
Venetian opera
opera and of
of the
the ballet
ballet de cour.
coUt'o
Most
Most commonly
commonly they were composed
they were composed in in bipartite
bipartite AABB' form,form, in
in which
which
B and
and B'
B' differed
differed inin the
the cadence
cadence and some melodicmelodic variants
variants (Amadis
(Amadis II, II,

4;
4; Cadmus I,
I, 3;
3; Armide I,
I, 2).
2). Brief
Brief da-capo
da-capo forms appeared only
appeared only in
in the
the
most
most significant
significant arias with aa heavy
arias with heavy five-voice
five-voice accompaniment,
accompaniment, either
either as
as solo
solo
aria (Armide 1,3)
aria (Armide I, 3) or
or as
as duet
duet (Armide II, 2). Lu11y
(Armide II, 2). Lully was partial
partial to
to arias
arias

with doubled
with doubled continuo which gave
continuo which gave a a curious
curious lopsided
lopsided effect
effect because
because thethe
bass voice
bass voice served
served here
here in
in two functions:
functions: as as melody
melody and as as support
support of the
of the
instrumental
instrumental accompaniment.
accompaniment. As the
the aria
aria Borne%
Bornez vous
rlOUS from Armide (Ex.
(Ex.
46)
46) shows however they they differed
differed markedly
markedly from the the primitive
primitive type
type of of

Ex. 46. Lully: Accompanied Air from Armide.

Violins

Cont&
Voice SI Bor-nez vousvos
^
d.sirs a la gloi-r cro-el-U des maux

Cavalli
Cavalli and Cesti
Cesti byby virtue
virtue ofof the
the emphatic rhythmic declamation
emphatic rhythmic declamation of the
of the
voice.
voice.

Many
Many important
important arias were through-composed,
arias were through-composed, as as for
for example
example the the cele-
cele-

brated air
brated air of
of Renaud (Armide
(Armide II, II, 3)
3) in
in the magic garden
the magic garden of of the
the sorceress.
sorceress.

Here aa ritornello precedes and concludes

ritornello precedes concludes the the aria
aria inin which the the muted
strings depict
strings depict with
with their
their softly undulating
softly undulating figures figures the
the murmuring
murmuring of of a
a
brook.
brook. Modern devices, such
devices, such as
as the motto beginning
the motto beginning and the announce-
the announce-
ment ofof the
the melody
melody in the continuo,
in the continuo, hardly
hardly everever occur
occur with
with Lully,
Lully, and
the
the long
long coloraturas
coloraturas of
of Italian
Italian opera
opera are
are reduced
reduced to
to modest
modest flourishes
flourishes on
important
important words.
words. Likewise,
Likewise, little
little use
use is
is made of
of strophic
strophic variations
variations and
ground basses. In
ground basses. Atys (I,
In Atys (I, 4)
4) a a section
section of the aria
of the aria is
is exceptionally built
exceptionally built
on type
type II of
of the
the chaconne bass. bass.

The shortness
shortness of of the
the arias
arias explains
explains why
why extended
extended forms
forms appeared
appeared onlyonly
in
in conjunction
conjunction with the the chorus.
chorus. The chorus
chorus assumed
assumed in in Lully's
Lully's operas
operas anan
unprecedented prominence.
unprecedented prominence. It
It served
served as
as the
the main means of
of organization
organization
since
since the
the aria
aria was not not weighty
weighty enough
enough for this purpose.
for this purpose. OnlyOnly in the
in the
oratorios
oratorios ofof Carissimi
Carissimi did did the
the chorus
chorus hold
hold a a comparable position. Even
comparable position. Even
though
though the
the rhythmic precision of
rhythmic precision of Lully's
Lully's choral
choral writing
writing was
was inspired
inspired by by
Carissimi,
Carissimi, Lully
Lully left
left his
his Italian
Italian model far
far behind.
behind. His
His prologues
prologues represent
represent
independent
independent choral
choral cantatas
cantatas on a a scale
scale not previously realized
not previously realized by by any
any com-
com-
poser. Throughout
poser. Throughout the five acts of
the five acts of the
the opera,
opera, sung
sung and danced
danced choruses
choruses
created
created points
points ofof rest
rest inin the
the dramatic
dramatic action
action and nearly all
and nearly all acts
acts were
were
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 159
159
rounded off
rounded off by
by them.
them. Lully
Lully combined
combined solo
solo ensembles
ensembles and
and choral
choral sections
sections
in large
in large rondo
rondo forms,
forms, as
as for
for example
example in Armid~ (I,
in Armidc (I, 3).
3). The
The choral
choral en-
en-
sembles often
sembles often appeared
appeared inin the
the form
form of
of gigantic
gigantic chaconnes,
chaconnes, perhaps
perhaps the
the
greatest monuments
greatest monuments of
of Lully's
Lully's art.
art. They
They had
had already
already occurred
occurred in
in the
the ballet
ballet
Alcidianein
Alcidiane in instrumental
instrumentalform,
form, and
andin
in the
the comedy-ballet Pastoralecomiquc
comedy-balletPastorale comique
in choral
in choral form.
form. Lully
Lully treated
treated the
the chaconne
chaconne with
with considerable
considerable freedom
freedom as
as
variations of
variations of aa rhythmic
rhythmic pattern
pattem-saraband rhythm with
saraband rhythm with emphasis
emphasis on
on the
the
second beat-rather
second beat than as
rather than as strict
strict ground
ground basses.
basses. The
The stereotyped
stereotyped descend-
descend-
ing tetrachord
ing tetrachord appeared
appeared atat times
times only
only in
in the
the course
course of
of the
the composition, as
composition, as
in Roland
in Roland,13 and,
and, especially
especially in
in choral
choral chaconnes,
chaconnes, the
the bass
bass was
was even
even more
more
freely varied
freely varied by modulations
by modulations and
and melodic
melodic inversions.
inversions. The
The chaconnes
chaconnes of
of
the operas
the operas developed
developed into
into huge
huge choral
choral and
and instrumental
instrumental rondos
rondos which
which were
were
punctuated by
punctuated by trio
trio episodes
episodes for
for woodwinds
woodwinds-a practice that
a practice that anticipates
anticipates an
essential element
essential element ofof the
the concerto
concerto grosso.
grosso.14 rondo form was further
14 The rondo further
strengthened by
strengthened by the
the juxtaposition
juxtaposition of of large
large keykey areas
areas which made the the
chaconne a tripartite
chaconne a tripartite form:
form: the
the first
first and
and third
third parts
parts enclosed
enclosed a
a middle
part in
in the
the tonic
tonic minor
minor or or the
the relative
relative major.
major.15 u The monumental chaconne chaconne
part
in Amadis (V,
in Amadis (V, 5)
5) illustrates
illustrates with
with itsits heavy-footed
heavy-footed pomp pomp and its its inexorable
inexorable
drive aa power
drive power to to sustain
sustain an an extended
extended movement paralleled paralleled only
only in in the
the
music of
music of late
late baroque composers
baroque composers such
such as
as Vivaldi,
Vivaldi, Bach,
Bach, and Handel.
Handel.
A thickly
thickly scored
scored five-part
five-part ensemble
ensemble of of strings
strings formed the the nucleus of the the
orchestra
orchestra which could be
which could be expanded
expanded for for coloristic
coloristic reasons by
reasons by a trio of
a trio of wood-
winds.
winds. Lully's
Lully's keen
keen sense
sense of
of color
color is
is proved by
proved by his
his effective,
effective, if
if essentially
essentially
simple,
simple,
orchestration.
orchestration. Wind instruments
instruments appeared
appeared preferably
preferably in
in the
the ritor-
ritor-

nelli
nelli and
and accompaniments
accompaniments for
for batde
battle arias
arias and magicmagic scenes.
scenes. His evocative
evocative

descriptions of nature conform in their

descriptions of nature conform in
their stylized
stylized rationalism
rationalism to the grand grand
manner of
manner of the
the heroic landscapes by
heroic landscapes by Claude Lorrain.Lorrain.
Next
Next toto the
the orchestral
orchestral chaconnes,
chaconnes, the the overtures
overtures constituted
constituted the weightiest
weightiest
instrumental
instrumental form form in in the
the opera. They
opera. They were
were usually
usually played
played twice,
twice, before
before

and
and after
after the
the prologue.
prologue. The
The French
French overture
overture as
as shaped
shaped by by Lully
Lully became
became
with
with its
its austere
austere pathos
pathos andand itsits pretentious
pretentious and and rather
rather superficial
superficial counter-
counter-

point the symbol of courdy ceremonial.

point the symbol of courtly
ceremonial. They They call for the dry,
call for the dry, precise
precise and and
brilliant
brilliant orchestral
orchestral technique
technique on on which
which Lully's
Lully's European
European fame was pri-
fame was pri-
marily
marily
based.
based. Formally,
Formally, the
the overture
overture was
was bipartite:
bipartite: a cadence on
a cadence on thethe

dominant separated
dominant separated the
the slow
slow and
and the
the fast
fast section,
section, both
both of
of which
which were
were re-
re-

peated. The coda-like

peated. The coda-like return
return to
to the
the slow
slow part
part at
at the
the end
end was
was not
not typical
typical

lsGMB
1& no. 233.
GMBno. 233. t
trioof
14The
14 The trio of the minuetin
the minuet in the classic symphony
theclassic symphony isis aa direct descendentof
direct descendent the Lul-
of the Lul-
Han
lian trio.
trio.
GMB no. 233-
1& See
"SeeGMBno. 233.
r60
160 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
of
of Lully
Lully himself;
himself; it it became
became the the rule
rule only
only withwith his his late
late baroque
baroque imitators.
imitators.
In Lully's part-writing
In Lully's part-writing the
the outermost
outermost voices
voices always
always show unmistakable
unmistakable
character
character while
while the the inner
inner voices,
voices, especially
especially the the fifth
fifth part,
part, move awkwardly,
awkwardly,
often
often in in parallel
parallel fifths
fifths and octaves.
octaves. It It seems
seems that that Lully
Lully sketched
sketched out out only
only
the
the structural
structural contour
contour of of the
the composition
composition leaving leaving the
the filling-in
filling-in to
to his
his un-
un-
derlings,
derlings, who may
may also
also have
have been
been responsible
responsible for
for the
the frequent
frequent cadential
cadential
clashes.
clashes. Even the the structural
structural parts,
parts, however,
however, have have an angular, if
an angular, if not
not er-er-

ratic,
ratic, quality.
quality. They
They move not not according
according to to their
their inherent
inherent melodic
melodic logiclogic butbut
according
according to to rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns which cause cause a a striking
striking asymmetrical
asymmetrical phrase phrase
structure, highly
structure, highly characteristic
characteristic of
of Lully's
Lully's instrumental
instrumental style.
style. When Lully Lully
set
set words,
words, their
their rhythm
rhythm dictated
dictated thatthat ofof the
the music.
music. But even even in in the
the airs
airs the
the
influence
influence of of dance patterns is
dance patterns is always perceptible and often
always perceptible often dominant.
dominant. Many Many
of
of Lully's
Lully's instrumental
instrumental dance dance tunes
tunes do not not differ
differ in in style
style from his his airs;
airs;
in
in fact,
fact, many
many of
of them became famous as
as vaudevilles
vaudevilles through
through the
the addition
addition
of
of text,
text, aa procedure
procedure that that was called canevas at
called canevas the time.
at the time.
The harmonic vocabulary vocabulary was conservative,
conservative, hardly hardly richer
richer than
than thatthat of of
Luigi
Luigi Rossi,
Rossi, and as as free
free from the the pre-tonal ventures of
pre-tonal ventures of early baroque style
early baroque style
as from the
as the rich tonal resources
rich tonal resources of of late baroque style.
late baroque His frequent
style. His frequent use use of of
cross-relations
cross-relations is typical of
is typical of middle baroque harmony.
middle baroque harmony. Major Major and minor
minor keys
keys
are clearly
are clearly established
established at at the
the cadences,
cadences, but but the the harmonies
harmonies between between the the
cadences do not
cadences not progress
progress in in a logical drive, and
logical drive, and are,are, like
like his
his melodies,
melodies,
dependent on rhythm.
dependent rhythm. Also Also hishis more suggestive
suggestive than than realreal counterpoint
counterpoint
produces rhythmic
produces rhythmic rather rather thanthan harmonic
harmonic interest.
interest. This This conspicuous
conspicuous de- de-
pendence
pendence on rhythm
rhythm adduces
adduces homogeneous,
homogeneous, if
if not
not monotonous,
monotonous, progres- progres-
sions; only
sions; only thethe VI V~ chord
chord stands
stands out out as as aa powerful
powerful harmonic
harmonic resource,
resource,
especially at
especially at the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the overture.
overture. Chromatic
Chromatic sectionssections occur
occur in in the
the
opera only
opera only in in laments,
laments, written
written in in deliberate
deliberate imitation
imitation of of the
the Italian
Italian style;
style;
otherwise the
otherwise the harmony
harmony is is essentially
essentially diatonic.
diatonic. LullyLully handled
handled his his keys
keys with
with
striking monotony.
striking monotony. Most of
of the
the ballet
ballet entrees
entrees are
are restricted to
restricted to one keyone key
which may may at at best
best be changed
changed to to the
the opposite
opposite mode or or the
the related
related key;key;
the single
the single scenes
scenes of of the
the operas
operas usually
usually observe
observe the the same
same restriction.
restriction.
In spite
In spite of
of all
all traceable
traceable influences
influences on on Lully's
Lully's musicmusic it it bears
bears an an unmistak-
unmistak-
ably personal stamp.
ably personal stamp. Lully Lully was not
not a
a spontaneous
spontaneous composer.composer. His
His musical
musical
imagination
imagination was stimulated neither
stimulated neither by by thethe sensuous
sensuous appeal appeal of of the
the bel-
bel-
canto melody
canto melody nor nor by by the
the expressive
expressive possibilities
possibilities of of harmony,
harmony, but but by by the
the
idea of
idea of abstract
abstract rhythm
rhythm and motion. motion. WithinWithin these these restrictions
restrictions he he waswas
an incomparable
an incomparable stylist. stylist. His highly
highly rational
rational sobriety
sobriety showed
showed to to best
best ad-ad-
vantage
vantage in
in the
the rigidly reglemented
rigidly reglemented forms
forms of
of the
the chaconne and
chaconne and the Frenchthe French
overture which attest
overture which attest to his boundless
to his boundless rhythmic
rhythmic imagination.
imagination. The para- para-
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism I6I
161
doxical
doxical fact
fact that
that Lully
Lully drew strength
strength from
from thethe very restrictions of the
very restrictions of the
form made him
form made him the
the true
true representative
representative of of the
the precious artificiality which
precious artificiality which
obtained
obtained in in music,
music, asas well asas in
in the
the other
other arts, at the French court. He
arts, at the French court. He
brought baroque
brought baroque music
music in France
France to an acme
to an acme of of stylization which none of
stylization which none of
his successors was able to surpass.
his successors was able to surpass. After
After Lully
Lully the
the heavy orchestral armor,
heavy orchestral armor,
the contrapuntal
^contrapuntal
pretense,
pretense, and thethe stiff
stiff dignity of
dignity of the
the music
music were
were no
no longer
longer
maintained.
maintained. Music was reduced to to a
a less
less austere
austere tone
tone and
and to
to a
a smaller
smaller scale.
scale.
While other
While other countries rose
rose toto the
the heights
heights ofof late
late baroque
baroque style, France
style, France
evolved
evolved inin the
the rococo
rococo style
style an
an idiom
idiom that,
that, although
although an an outgrowth
outgrowth of of baroque
baroque
style,
style, was destined to
was to overthrow
overthrow baroque
baroque music
music altogether.
altogether.

CANTATA, ORATORIO,
ORATORIO, AND CHURCH MUSIC
The opera
opera atat the French court
court held
held such
such aa dominating
dominating position that
position that
other forms of vocal music did
other forms of vocal did not
not develop
develop very
very vigorously.
vigorously.
From the
the be-
be-
ginning
ginning ofof the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century Italian precedents were
Italian precedents were and
and remained
remained
decisive. (d. 1633)
decisive. The sacred compositions of
compositions of Forme (d. 1633) and
and Bouzignac,
Bouzignac,
honorably
honorably mentioned by Mersenne,
by Mersenne, were
were works
works of
of transition, written in
transition, written in
aa conservative idiom. The unaccompanied
conservative idiom. unaccompanied sections
sections in in Bouzignac's motets
Bouzignac's motets
clearly display
clearly renaissance style,
display renaissance style, but
but his
his Latin
Latin gospel dialogues are
gospel dialogues are re-
re-
markable for
markable their terse
for their terse declamation
declamation and and dramatic
dramatic choral interjections
choral interjections
actually anticipate
which actually anticipate the
the choral
choral style
style of
of Carissimi.
Carissimi. The striking pic-
striking pic-
torial chromaticism
torial chromaticism in in the
the polyphonic
polyphonic chansons
chansons of of Bouzignac
Bouzignac is is strangely
strangely
reminiscent of
reminiscent of certain
certain passages
passages in in the
the works
works of of the
the English
English madrigalists.
madrigalists.18 16

Pierre de
Pierre de la
la Barre,
Barre, organist
organist and
and lutenist
lutenist to
to Louis
Louis XIII,
XIII, deliberately
deliberately com-
com-
posed
posed in
in the
the Italian
Italian manner,
manner, so
so successfully
successfully in
in fact
fact that
that when a
a trio
trio of
of his
his
was posthumously
was posthumously printedprinted inin the Mercure Golan
the Mcrcure Galantt (1678)
(1678) it it was mistaken
mistaken
for aa composition
for composition by by Luigi
Luigi Rossi.
Rossi.
outstanding cantata
The two outstanding cantata composers
composers of of the
the French
French middle
middle baroque,
baroque,
Jean de
Jean de Cambefort
Cambeort and Marc-Antoine
Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704), have
Charpentier (1634-1704), have re-re-
ceived very
ceived very little
little attention
attention andand only
only aa few
few ofof their
their works
works are are at
at present
present
accessible. Charpentier
accessible. Charpentier was, was, next
next to to Lully,
Lully, the
the most
most remarkable
remarkable figure
figure in in
French music.
French music. As aa pupil
pupil ofof Carissimi
Carissimi he he was
was well
well grounded
grounded in in the
the Italian
Italian
style and therefore
style therefore never
never succumbed
succumbed to to the
the influence
influence of of Lully.
Lully. InIn aa curious
curious
reversal of
reversal of national
national attitudes
attitudes Charpentier,
Charpentier. the the native
native French
French composer,
composer,
upheld
upheld in
in France
France the
the Italian
Italian style against
style against the
the French
French style
style of
of Lully,
Lully, thethe
native Italian.
native Italian. Charpentier
Charpentier distinguished
distinguished himself
himself by by his
his superb
superb melodic
melodic
16 Compare the
18 Compare the second
second part of Heureux
part of Hfflreux stjour (SIMG VI,
d;our (SIMG VI, 377)
377) with
with the
the last scctioG
last section
of Wedke's
of Weelke's Cease
Cease sorrows
sorrows now (in vol
now (in voL IX
IX of
of The
The English
English Madrigal
Madrigal School),
School).
162 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
cantata Comez
1T
invention,
invention, far
far superior
superior to
to that
that of
of Lully.
Lully. His cantata Coulcz 11 for
for solo
solo voice
voice
and
and three
three instruments,
instruments, written
written in
in the
the pathetic style
pathetic style of
of a
a plaintive pastoral,
plaintive pastoral,
discloses
discloses how he he adapted
adapted a a noble bel-canto melody
noble bel-canto melody to to the
the French style
style by
by
the use
the use ofof the
the French
French type
type of
of embellishments.
embellishments. His obligation
obligation to
to Italian
Italian
style appears also
style appears also in the use
in the use of
of chaconne
chaconne basses,
basses, as
as for example in
for example in the
the
gende
gentle air
air Sans
Sans frayeur
fray cur (Ex.
(Ex. 47),
47), based
based on the
the fourth
fourth type
type of
of chaconne bass
bass

Ex. 47.
Ex. 47. Charpentier: Air on a ground.
Charpcntier: Air ground

_'" .. .,
ILl bOis sell-Ia J, suts ve-UD - a. J'y vols Tlr JSIs lUIS el- tre e-

-, -.,

(see Ex.
(see Ex. 8).
8). The angular squareness of
angular squareness of the bass is
the bass is softened
softened here by the
here by the
overlapping
overlapping asymmetrical
asymmetrical phrases
phrases of
of the voice. Charpentier
the voice. became the
Charpenticr became the
musical
musical collaborator
collaborator of Moli~e after
of Moliere after the
the latter
latter had broken
broken with
with Lully.
Lully. It It

was he who wrote the the music for

for Molib-e's Malade lmaginaire
Moliere's Malade (1673)
Imaginaire (1673) and
and
for
for the
the revival
revival of
of the Manage FOrt:~
the Manage Forct for
for which thethe original
original music
music byby Lully
Lully
discarded. In
was discarded. In the
the comic intermezzi
intermezzi of the MalatJe
of the Malade lmaginaire
Imaginaire and,and,
especially, in
especially, in the
the important opera MU~e
important opera (1~3, libretto
Mtdee (1693, by Thomas Cor-
libretto by Cor-
nei1le)
neille) Charpentier
Charpentier achieved
achieved a vigorous personal style,
vigorous personal style, which,
which, although
although less
less

austere that of
austere than that Lully, was well
of Lully, well suited
suited for
for the
the stage
stage because
because of
of its
its

melodic
melodic appeal.
appeal.
His most original
original contribution
contribution was,
was, however,
however, thethe establishment
establishment of the
of the
oratorio in
oratorio in France.
France. He wrote
wrote the
the music
music for the sacred
for the sacred tragedies
tragedies that
that the
the
Jesuits performed in
Jesuits performed Paris. His Latin
in Paris. Latin and French oratorios
oratorios include Judi-
include Judi-
cium Salomonis,
Salomonis, E::aremum
Extremum Judicium,
Judicium, Josue,
]osui Quatre
Quatre Saison,
t and Le
Saison, and Re-
Le Re-
niement StPierrc** his
nicment de St-Pierre,18 his masterpiece.
masterpiece. As the the Latin
Latin tides
titles indicate,
indicate,

Gastou, in MBtmges 1...t:Jwmcie, 153; see

see also
also the Orphte, repro
cantata OrfJhk,
1T
U Gastoue, Laurencic, 153; the cantata repr. by
by Quit-
in M&anges Quit
tard,
tard, RM, I904.
1904, App.
App. I36.
136.
U lleprinted in Concms~,
"Reprinted in Concerts spirhuels, SeW. Cantorwn, dr.
Schola CtmIOrtIm, sfr. aM. HI, cd.
anc. nI, ed. by
by Charles
Charles
Bordes. See also
Border See also HAM DO.
no. 226.
226.
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism 163
163
Charpentier
Charpentier dealt
dealt with
with subjects
subjects on which
which hishis teacher
teacher also
also had
had composed,
composed,
and it
and it cannot
cannot surprise us that
that he
he leaned heavily on Carissimi's model.
leaned heavily on Carissimi's
surprise model
Likewise the
Likewise the significant
significant dramatic
dramatic function
function ofof the
the chorus
chorus and
and the
the concise
concise
and luCidly
and lucidly profiled
profiled coloraturas
coloraturas ofof the
the soloists
soloists were
were borrowed
borrowed from
from Caris-
Caris-
simi.
simi. However, Charpentier paid greater attention to the instruments
Charpentier paid greater attention to the instruments
and did
and did not
not artificially
artificially restrict
restrict his
his harmonies
harmonies to to the
the popular style of Caris-
popular style of Caris-
simi's denial in
in Le
oratorios. The final
simi's oratorios. final plaint of
of St. Peter
Peter after the third denial
after the third
plaint St. Le
Reniement discloses
Reniement discloses his
his special
special talent
talent for poignant affections.
for poignant affections.

With the
With the concentration of culturalcultural life
life at
at the
the French
French court, the church
court, the church
did
did not hold as
not hold as independent
independent a a position
position as
as it
it did
did in
in Italy
Italy
and
and Germany.
Germany.
For this
For this reason
reason church music music took
took second
second place
place beside
beside court
court music.
music. Com- Com-
positions of
positions of the
the ordinary
ordinary of the Mass on
of the on the
the large
large scale,
scale, very
very common
common in in
Italy
Italy and
and in in Vienna,
Vienna, were hardly hardly cultivated
cultivated in in France
France because
because the the king
king
more
more often
often attended
attended the the short
short lowlow Mass than the
Mass than the lengthy
lengthy high Mass. In
high Mass. In
order to give
order to royal dignity
give royal dignity to the recited
to the recited service
service of the low
of the Mass, it
low Mass, was
it was

transformed into
transformed into the so-called
so-called messe hasse solennelle by
Basse solennelle means of
by means of inserted
inserted
motets with
motets with elaborate instrumental accompaniment.
elaborate instrumental accompaniment. Such
Such stately motets
stately motets
were composed
were composed not
not only
only byby minor masters
masters like
like Gobert
Gobcrt and
and Villot,
Villot, but but
also by
also by such shining lights
shining lights as
as Henri
Henri Dumont (d. 1684), Lully, and
(d. 1684), Lully, and Char- Char-
pentier. The Cantica sacm
pentier. (1652) by
sacra (1652) by Dumont were were oneone of of the
the first
first printed
printed
motet collections to prescribe
motet collections to prescribe thethe Basse
hasse continue.
continue. In In his
his Messes
Messes Royales
Royales
Dumont experimented
experimented with with the
the plainchant,
plainchant, not not only
only by by putting
putting it it into
into
measuredJprm,
me^ureji form~ but
but "enhancing"
"enhancing" it it with
with modern
modern accidentals
accidentals that that forced
forced
the modal melodies
the melodies intointo modern keys. keys. The FrenchFrench modernization
modernization of of the
the
chant to
chant to what was called the plainchant
called the plainchant musical
musical formedformed part part ofof the
the na-
na-
tional reform
tional reform movement which which stressed
stressed the
the independence
independence of of the
the French
Frtnch
church from Rome.
church
solemn motets
The solemn motets of of Lully
Lully andand Charpentier
Charpentier were were expansive
expansive cantatas
cantatas
for solo,
for solo, chorus,
chorus, and orchestra,
orchestra, similar
similar inin form
form to to the
the English
English anthem.
anthem.
Lully transplanted
Lully transplanted the the musical
musical pomp
pomp of of the
the court
court theatre
theatre to to the
the motet
motet by by
levying gigantic
levying gigantic combinations
combinations of
of soloists,
soloists, double
double chorus,
chorus, and
and a
a full
full Of-
or-
chestra with
chestra with trumpets
trumpets and and ketdcdrums,
kettledrums, such such as as we find find inin the
the motet
motet
(1664), universally
Miser-ere (1664),
Miserere universally admired
admired for for its
its splendor.
splendor. Neither
Neither herehere nor nor
in the
in the Te Deum and Dies Dies Irae did LuUy
[rae did Lully set
set aa Gregorian
Gregorian melody,
melody, only only inin
the Dies Irae
the did he
[rae did he quote
quote thethe initial
initial phrase
phrase as as plainchant
plainchant musical
musical with with aa
distorting accidental.
distorting accidental. The hammering
hammering and and fiery
fiery declamation
declamation of of the
the cho-
cho-
ruses, the
ruses, the massive
massive sonorities
sonorities of of the
the orchestral
orchestral symphonies,
symphonies, the redts for
the ricits for the
the
soloists. and the
soloists, the rhythmic
rhythmic counterpoint
cOUDterpoint of of thethe part-writing
part-writing produced
produced an
164 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
overwhelming
overwhelming effect
effect of
of ceremonial
ceremonial brilliance. O all
brilliance. Of all Lully's
Lully's compositions
compositions
these
these motets
motets were
were the
the most contrapuntal,
contrapuntal, but
but even
even here
here frequent
frequent cadences
cadences
interrupted
interrupted the
the flow
flow so
so that
that the
the whole formed
formed aa rhythmic
rhythmic procession
procession of
of
short-winded
short-winded contrapuntal
contrapuntal sections.
sections. The church
church works of
of Charpentier
Charpentier far
far
exceed
exceed those
those of
of Lully
Lully in
in quantity.
quantity. They
They include
include aa number of of Masses,
Masses, Te
Te
Deum, Magnificats, Lefons
Deum, Magnificats, Lefons de Tenebre,
Tnibre and moref than
than thirty psalms, all
thirty psalms, all

of
of which remained
remained in in manuscript.
manuscript. Only
Only the
the Motets
Motets meslez
mcslez de Symphonies
Symphonies
appeared
appeared inin print.
print. Although
Although Charpentier
Charpentier did
did not
not lavish
lavish so
so much splendor
splendor
on his
his church
church compositions
compositions as
as Lully,
Lully, he favorably
favorably compares in
compares in his
his vivid
vivid
themes and his
themes his melodious
melodious counterpoint
counterpoint with
with the
the music
music of
of his
his rival.
rival.

LUTE MINIATURES AND KEYBOARD MUSIC:

GAULTIER AND CHAMBONNIERES

At the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the baroque
baroque period
period the the French composers
composers of of in-
in-
strumental
strumental solosolo music, notably
music, notably the
the lutenists
lutenists and
and the
the clavecinists, developed
clavecinists, developed
idioms
idioms that
that became exemplary
exemplary for for the
the rest
rest ofof Europe.
Europe. The art art of
of the
the
lutenists, which flourished
lutenists, flourished mainly
mainly in in the
the early and middle
early and middle baroque,
baroque, laid
laid
the basis
the basis for that of
for that of the
the clavecinists which flourished
clavecinists which flourished mainly
mainly in in the
the middle
middle
and late
late baroque periods.
baroque periods. The school
school of
of organists,
organists, more conservative
conservative than
than
the other
the other two schools, remained of only
schools, remained of local significance
only local significance throughout
throughout the the
period. Instrumental
period. Instrumental ensemble music music was restricted
restricted in in France
France to to the
the
dance, especially
dance, especially thethe ballet
ballet de
de cour;
cour; thethe only
only exception
exception was was the
the polyphonic
polyphonic
fantasy
fantasy for
for viols
viols which experienced
experienced a
a short
short vogue
vogue in
in the
the early decades of
early decades of
the seventeenth
the seventeenth century,
century, obviously
obviously prompted
prompted by by the
the flowering
flowering of of the
the fancy
fancy
in England.
in England.
high development
The high development of of French
French lute lute music
music cancan only
only bebe understood
understood
from aa sociological
sociological point
point ofof view.
view. According
According to to Mersenne
Mersenne the the lute
lute was
was con-
con-
sidered the
sidered the noblest
noblest of of all instruments,~uite
all instruments, literally
quite literally the
the instrument
instrument of of
nobility since the king
nobility since the king and his noblemen were
his noblemen were more
more or or less
less competent
competent lutelute
players themselves.
players themselves. Lute Lute music
music served
served in in the
the ballet
ballet dede cour
cour notnot only
only asas
accompaniment of
accompaniment of the
the airs
airs de
de cour,
cour, butbut also
also asas independent
independent instrumental
instrumental
introduction, performed
introduction, performed usually
usually in in massed
massed ensembles.
ensembles. The abundance
abundance of of
printed
printed lute
lute collections
collections amply
amply attests
attests to
to the
the wide
wide dissemination and
dissemination and the the
high standard
high standard of of lute
lute playing
playing in in France.
France. The The Trisor
Tresor d'Qrfhcc
d'OrpMe (1600)(1600) 1019
by Francisque
by Francisque and and the
the Thesaurus
Thesaurus (1603)(1603) by by Besard
Besard gave
gave aa comprehensive
comprehensive
survey of
survey all forms
of all forms of of the
the transition
transition period:
period: airs airs de
de cour, dances, and
cour, dances, and
transcriptions
transcriptions of
of vocal
vocal models.
models. The
The dances
dances at
at this
this time
time were
were not yet
not yet ar-ar-
10
Reprinted by
111 Reprinted by Quittard,
Quittard, 1907.
1907.
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism r65
165
ranged
ranged according
according to to suites
suites but
but according
according to to types. Besard's Not/us (Janus
types. Besard's Novus fartus
sifle
sive concmationes
conccrtationes musicae
musicae (1617)
(1617) contained, among other
contained, among other pieces
pieces for
for
concerting
concerting lutes,
lutes, a a version
version of of Dowland's
Dowland's Lachrimae for the
Lachrimac for the exceptional exceptional
composers of
ensemble
ensemble of of three lutes. Nearly all
three lutes.
Nearly all the the composers of the
the ballet
ballet tie
dc cour
cour
contributed to these collections,
contributed to these collections, notably
notably Antoine
Antoine Boesset, Bataille,
Boesset, Bataille,
Vin-
Vin-
cent,
cent, Guedron,
Guedron, and and Chancy.
Chancy.
In
In the
the printed
printed lute pieces each
lute pieces each partpart of of the
the air
air waswas often
often stated
stated twice,
twice,
first
first without
without embellishments,
embellishments, then
then with
with figurate
figurate variations that
variations that cor-
cor-
responded
responded to to the
the improvised
improvised brodws broderics of of the
the sung
sung air air de
de cour.
cour 20 Both
Both thethe
varied
varied repeats
repeats and the the patterns
patterns of of the
the variations
variations stemmed
stemmed from from the the English
English
virginalists.
virginalists. While
While the the earlier
earlier lute
lute books
books contained
contained primarily transcriptions
primarily transcriptions
of
of vocal
vocal works,
works, adapted
adapted to to the
the lute
lute by by idiomatic
idiomatic embellishments,
embellishments, the the later
later
ones
ones shifted
shifted to
to a a completely
completely instrumental repertory. Lute music gained its
instrumental repertory. Lute music gained its

final
final independence
independence in in the works of of the
the Gaultier
Gaultier dynasty,
dynasty, a a family
family
of
of lute
lute
virtuosi.
virtuosi. ItIt rose
rose to fame with Jacques Jacques Gaultier,
Gaultier, known as as le
Ic tlieur,
vicux, whowho
served since 1619
served since 1619 at at the English court,
English court, and
and his
his even
even more
more famous
famous cousin
cousin
Denis
Denis Gaultier (c. (c. I603-I6J2),
1603-1672), called called I'illustre.
I'ittttstre. The works works of of Denis
Denis com-
com-
prise the Pieces de luth (I~)
prise the Pieces de luth (1669) and the the famous
famous RMtorique
Rhetorique des dcs Dieur.
Dieux, not not
printed during his
printed during his lifetime,
lifetime, but but preserved
preserved in in a a sumptuous manuscript.
sumptuous manuscript.
21

The most striking

striking stylistic trait of
stylistic trait of Gaultier's
Gaultier's music music was was the the imaginative
imaginative
utilization of such lute
utilization idioms as
lute idioms as free-voiced texture, intricate
free-voiced texture, intricate ornaments,
ornaments,
and what was known as
and as the
the style /nisI. The quickly
style brise. quickly fading sound of
fading sound of the
the
lute did not lend
lute did not lend itself
itself toto polyphonic
polyphonic voice-leading
voice-leading and and called
called forfor specific
specific
techniques that
techniques that compensated
compensated for for thethe technical
technical limitations
limitations of of the
the instru-
instru-
"broken style"
ment. The "broken style" of of lute
lute music,
music, aa most most ingenious
ingenious and and consistent
consistent
application of
application of such
such aa technique,
technique, may may be be called
called the the glorification
glorification of of the
the
simplest
simplest lute
lute figure:
figure: the
the arpeggio.
arpeggio. The broken
broken style is characterized
style is characterized by by
rapidly alternating
rapidly alternating notesnotes in in different
different registers
registers that that supply,
supply, in in turn,
turn, melody
melody
harmony. Seemingly
and harmony. Seemingly distributed
distributed in in arbitrary
arbitrary fashion
fashion over over thethe various
various
registers,
r
registers, the
the notes
notes produced
produced in
in their
their composite
composite rhythm rhythm a
a continuous
continuous strand
strand
of sound.
of sound. The
The lute
lute composer
composer was was able
able to to articulate
articulate the the even
even flow
flow byby means
means
of double
of double and
and triple
triple stops
stops which
which suggested
suggested the the rhythmic
rhythmic patterns,
patterns, essential
essential
to the
to the dance.
dance. The
The texture
texture of of lute
lute music
music was was of of necessity
necessity free-voiced
free-voiced sincesince
no voice
no voice could
could be be carried
carried through
through and and since
since notes
notes that
that hinted
hinted at at one
one voice
voice
at the
at the beginning
beginning of of the
the measure
measure droppeddropped out out as as soon
soon as as they
they had
had ap- ap-
peared.
peared. The
The intricate
intricate texture
texture will
will become
become clear
clear if
if two
two versions
versions of
of aa Patlane
Pavanc

20
E, 1:3. 1230.
Lavignac E, 1:3,
10 Lavignac 123.0-
See Tessier
21
lit in Publications,
See Tcssicr in SociN
Pub/,eflltOfU, Socictt jran^mse
/rrmflllSC dc musicologic,
de musieologrc. 6-7, 6-7, also
also Fleischer
Flci$chc:r
ViM II.
VfM GMB
GMB no.
1886;
II, 1886; 215.
no. 215, HAM
HAM no.
211.
no. 211,
 I66
1 66 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
by
by Gaultier
Gaultier are
are compared.
compared. The
The first
first version
version (Ex.
(Ex. 48a)
48a) gives
gives the
the literal
literal

transcription
transcription of
of the
the tablature
tablature notation
notation which indicated,
indicated, not
not the
the absolute
absolute
duration
duration of
of each
each note,
note, but
but only
only its
its duration
duration in
in relation
relation to
to the
the next
next one.
one.
It
It contained
contained therefore
therefore no hint
hint with regard
regard to
to voice-leading.
voice-leading. The second
second
version (Ex.
version (Ex. 48b)
48b) reproduces
reproduces the
the transcription
transcription into
into ordinary
ordinary keyboard
keyboard

Ex. 48. Gaultier: Pavane.

48. Gaultier: Pavane.

lil!!
b
Hi -&1 IJ'l pEFJ IOq; QIj 1 J

notation by
notation by Perrine,
Perrine, a a lutenist
lutenist of of the period, who realized
the period, realized thethe chordal
chorda!
and melodic structure,
structure, merely
merely implied
implied in in the
the free-voiced
free-voiced version.
version. ItIt should
should
be noted that that both versions
versions contain
contain the the "identical"
"identical" music.music. The peculiar
peculiar
charm of free-voiced texture cannot
cannot be felt felt if
if lute
lute transcriptions
free-voiced texture transcriptions are played
are played
on the
the piano.
piano. Its texture, more suggestive
Its texture,
suggestive than
than rea~
real, is
is definitely
definitely bound
bound up
up
with the
with instrument. Lute music
the instrument. music represents
represents perhaps
perhaps the the cleverest
cleverest example
example
of making
of making aa virtue
virtue of of necessity
necessity-aa veritable
veritable triumph
triumph of of mind over over matter.
matter.
than any
More than other instrument,
any other instrument, the the lute
lute called
called forfor sustaining
sustaining ornaments
ornaments
in all
in all voices.
voices. While in in the
the lute
lute music
music of of the
the renaissance
renaissance the the florid
florid sections
sections
of the
of the melody
melody were carefully
carefully written
written outout inin the
the tablature,
tablature, they
they were
were in-in-
dicated in
dicated in baroque
baroque tablatures
tablatures by by means
means of of newly
newly invented
invented symbols.
symbols. TheThe
use of
use of ornamental
ornamental symbols
symbols was again again derived
derived fromfrom the the virginalists.
virginalists. Instru-
Instru-
mental ornaments
mental ornaments were as as essential
essential aa factor
factor in in the
the chordally
chordally conceived
conceived lutelute
music as
music as vocal
vocal ornaments
ornaments were in in the
the monody.
monody. In In spite
spite ofof the full accounts
the full accounts
of lute
of lute ornamentation
ornamentation in in Mersenne and and Mace,
Mace, its its variety
variety andand subtlety
subtlety is is
hard to describe.
hard to describe. Aside
Aside from variousvarious symbols
symbols for for appoggiature,
appoggiature, ascending
ascending
and descending
and descending arpeggios,
arpeggios, sudden
sudden dampening
dampening of of the
the string,
string, and
and other
other
niceties, the
niceties, tr~mbZements formed
the trcrnblements formed aa specially
specially refined
refined group
group of of ornaments.
ornaments.
The two
two main trills,
trills, called
called byby Mace the the "hard"
''hard'' andand the
the "soft"
"soft" shake
shake were
were
both executed
both executed by by thethe left
left hand while
while the the right
right hand
hand plucked
plucked thethe string
string
only once.
only once. The hardhard trills
trills prolonged
prolonged the the sound
sound by by aa rapid
rapid scratching
scratching of of the
the
string producing
string producing a
a tremolo
tremolo of
of even
even pitch. The soft shake, called
pitch. The soft shake, called battemem batt~ment
by Mersenne,
by Mersenne, was was aa real
real trill
trill of
of two
two notes
notes in in the
the modern
modern sense,sense, but
but aa most
most
delicate ornament,
ddicate ornament, always
always coupled
coupled with
with aa decrescendo
decrescendo because
because of of the
the quick
quick
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism I67
167
fading
fading ofof the
the sound.
sound. According
According to to Mersenne,
Mcrsennc, the battcment was
the hattement was typical
typical
of
of violin music rather
violin music rather than
than ofof lute
lute music.
music. Other
Other refinements included
refinements included
the vibrato
the or tlen-e
vibrato or verrc cassl,
cassi, and
and several
several forms
forms of
of legato playing of the left
legato playing of the left
hand. The
hand. The extreme delicacy
extreme delicacy of the
of the ornaments
ornaments bespeaks the highly intimate
bespeaks the highly intimate
character
character ofof lute
lute music;
music; it it was
was destined
destined for
for aa solo
solo virtuoso
virtuoso and
and aa very
very
small
small audience.
audience.

gathered in
True to
True to the
the French
French tradition,
tradition, Gaultier
Gaultier gathered in his
his lute
lute collections
collections
mainly
mainly dances,
dances, but but dances in in highly
highly stylized form. They were
stylized form. They were arranged
arranged
in
in groups
groups or or suites
suites with
with no rigidly rigidly established
established order. order. OnlyOnly allemande,
allcmandc,
courante,
courante, andand saraband formed formed the the kernel
kernel of of the
the suite.
suite, thethe gigue being at
gigue being at
this
this time
time still
still an
an optional
optional movement. This This stage
stage is
is reflected
reflected in
in the
the auto-
auto-
graph
graph version
version of of the
the harpsichord
harpsichord suites
suites by Froberger; they
by Froberger; they were cycles were cycles
of variation, in
of three
three oror four
four movements,
movements, sometimessometimes unified unified by by variation. in which
which no no
dance of the same type
dance of the same type occurred
occurred more than than once.
once, except
except
for
for the
the tiouhle.
double.
To the
To the French
French the the suite
suite was an anthology rather
anthology rather than than a a strict
strict sequence
sequence
of
of dances.
dances. This can be seen seen not not only
only in
in the
the fact
fact that
that the
the basic
basic movements
movements
were
were freely
freely interspersed
interspersed with other other dance
dance types
types (pavane,
(pavane, chaconne,
chaconne, canarie,
canarie,
gigue) but, particularly,
gigue) but, particularly, in
in the
the practice
practice of including in a single suite
of including in a single suite several
several
courantes
courantes withwith their doubles. The French
their doubles. French lutenists
lutenists and clavecinists both
and clavecinists both
were more partial
were partial to to the
the courante
courante than than were
were the the composers
composers of
of any
any other
other
nation. It
nation. It was naturally the
naturally the French French type type thatthat appeared
appeared with with Gaultier
Gaultier in in
highly developed
highly developed form.
form. In
In contrast
contrast with
with the
the quick
quick 3/4314 time
time and the straight-
and the straight-
forward melodic
forward melodic style style ofof the
the Italian
Italian correntc,
corrente, the the French
French courante
courante was was
characterized by
characterized by sophistication.
sophistication. Written Written in 6/4 and
in 6/4 and 3/23/2 time
time it it favored
favored
hemiola rhythms,
hemiola rhythms, subtlesubtle syncopations,
syncopations, and and intricate
intricate melodic
melodic patterns,
patterns, all all
of which made aa comparatively
of comparatively slow slow tempo
tempo necessary
necessary without
without whichwhich the the
subtleties would pass
subtleties pass unnoticed.
unnoticed. The high high degree
degree of of stylization
stylization indicates
indicates
that the courante
that the courante had ceased to
ceased to be
be aa ballroom
ballroom dance.dance.
great variety
The great variety and the the frequent
frequent duplication
duplication of of dance
dance types
types almost
almost
obliterated the
obliterated the cyclic
cyclic unity
unity of of the
the suite.
suite. ITie
The onlyonly principle
principle of of unification
unification
the unity
was the unity of of key,
key, and this this unity
unity was was indeed
indeed strictly
strictly observed.
observed. The The
RMtorique
Rhftoriquc ties
des Dieux
Dicux is
is arranged
arranged strictlystrictly in
in the
the order
order of
of the
the twelve
twelve modes,
modes,
each of
each of which
which is is represented
represented not only aurally
not only aurally by by aa suite,
suite, but also visually
but also visually
by an
by an allegorical
allegorical picture
picture describing
describing the the affection
affection of of thethe mode.
mode.
The individual
The individual dancedance movements
movements in in Gaulticr's
Gaultier's suites
suites were
were stylized
stylized genre
genre
pieces carrying suggestive
pieces carrying suggestive titles
titles such
such as
as "The
"The Virtuous
Virtuous Coquettc,"
Coquette," "The "The
Homicide,
Homicide," n or
or names
names of
of mythological
mythological or
or real
real persons
persons to
to whom
whom the
the piece
piece
was dedicated.
was These intimate
dedicated. These intimate titles,titles, which
which had had beenbeen taken
taken over
over from
from thethe
English virginalists,
English virginalists, did did not convey any
not convey any definite
definite program,
program, but but reflected
rc:Bccted
168
1 68 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
the
the French
French penchant
penchant for for literary
literary allusions
allusions in in music;
music; they they frequently
frequently re- re-

ferred
ferred to to the
the mythological
mythological subjects
subjects of
of the
the ballet
ballet de
dc COUTo
cour. Gaultier
Gaultier set
set a a
precedent
precedent to
to future
future lutenists
lutenists and
and harpsichordists
harpsichordists by by the
the creation
creation of
of the
the

tombeau, a
tomheau, a gentle
gentle miniature composed in
miniature composed in memory
memory of of noble persons, rela-
noble persons, rela.
tives,
tives, oror friends.
friends. Gaultier
Gaultier is is known to to have written tom
have written beaux for
tombeaux for several
several

aristocrats,
aristocrats, for for Mlle.
Mile. Gaultier,
Gaultier, and and for for thethe lutenist
lutenist M. de de Lendos,22
Lenclos,
22
the
the
father
father of Ninon de
of Ninon de Lendos
Lenclos who received received lute lute instruction
instruction from Denis Denis
Gaultier himself.
Gaultier himself. How strongly strongly the the dance
dance dominated
dominated French French music music cancan be be
seen
seen in in the
the fact
fact that
that even
even thethe tom beau was
tombeau was based,
based, in in spite
spite of of its
its grave
grave
character,
character, on on the
the stylized pattern of
stylized pattern of the
the allemande.
allemande. Of all all the
the movements
movements
of
of the
the suite
suite only
only the
the prelude
prelude was
was not
not dependent
dependent on the
the dance.
dance. This
This dig.dig-
nified introduction
nified introduction was was composed
composed in in a a most peculiar manner without
most peculiar without fixedfixed

note values
note values like
like a a rhapsodic
rhapsodic toccata.
toccata. The lute player was supposed
lute player supposed to to bring
bring
the
the freely hovering
freely hovering lines
lines into
into a
a rhythmical
rhythmical order
order according
according to
to his
his own
conceit so that no two performances of the
conceit so that no two performances of the same prelude were identical. same prelude were identical.
T omheau and
Tombeau and prelude
prelude can can bebe considered
considered as as the
the most
most significant manifesta
significant manifesta-
tions
tions of of Gaultier's
Gaultier's at at once
once profound
profound and
and playful imagination.
playful imagination.
Gaultier
Gaultier was was widely
widely imitated
imitated by by a a host
host of of French
French lutelute composers
composers many many
of
of whom counted counted among among his his personal pupils. They
personal pupils. They included
included Ennemond
Gaultier
Gaultier (the(the son
son of
of Denis),
Denis), Mouton,
Mouton, Du Faut,
Faut, Pinel,
Pinel, and
and Gallot,
Gallot, a a mem-
ber of
ber of the
the Gallot
Gallot dynasty
dynasty who liked
liked to
to "portray" persons
"portray" persons in
in his
his lute
lute pieces.
pieces.
Mouton transcribed
transcribed a a number of of Lully's
Lully's airs airs for
for the
the lute
lute andand associated
associated

definite
definite affections
affections with with certain
certain dancedance patterns,
patterns, e.g. e.g. the
the gigue
giguc with with the the
comic.
comic. The music music of of the
the second
second generation
generation of
of lute
lute masters
masters was
was so
so overladen
overladen
with
with ornaments
ornaments that that thethe tablatures
tablatures became
became almost almost illegible.
illegible. The exuberance
exuberance
of
of ornaments
ornaments was was symptomatic
symptomatic of of the
the inner
inner decline
decline of of lute
lute music.
music. With the the
increasing importance
increasing importance of
of the
the thorough-bass
thorough-bass the
the theorboe
theorboe and
and the
the chitar-
chitar-

rone, far
rone, far better
better suited
suited to to chordal
chordal playing
playing than than thethe lute,
lute, slowly
slowly pushed
pushed the the
solo
solo literature
literature into into the background. Fleury
the background. Fleury published
published a a theorboe
theorboe methodmethod
of
of continuo
continue accompaniment
accompaniment (1660). (1660). The lute
lute tablature
tablature became
became too
too difficult
difficult

for
for the
the average
average musician
musician and
and fell
fell into
into disuse.
disuse. In
In x680,
1680, the
the lutenist
lutenist Perrine
Perrine

arranged the lute music of Gaultier

arranged the lute music of Gaultier en musique,
en musiquc, that that is,
is, in
in ordinary
ordinary key- key-
board
board notation,
notation, designed
designed for for both
both lute
lute andand harpsichord
harpsichord performance
performance (see (see
Ex. ~b).
Ex. 48b). This
This telling change
telling change in
in notation
notation marks
marks the
the end
end of
of soloistic
soloistic lute
lute

music.
music. The vulgar guitar
vulgar guitar with
with its
its simple technique
simple technique of
of chord
chord strumming'
strumming
took
took over.
over. Supported
Supported by by Spanish
Spanish guitarguitar virtuosos,
virtuosos, Robert
Robert de de VisCc,
Vis&, guitarist
guitarist
of
of Louis
Louis XIV, inaugurated the
XIV, inaugurated the rage
rage for
for the
the guitar
guitar at
at the
the court.
court. He ad- ad-
22
1I2 GMB no.
no. 2IS.
215.
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The Absolutism
The Absolutism 16g
169
mittedly imitated in
mittcdly imitated Liwe de
his Uvrc
in his de Guitarre
Guitarrc (I682) the brittle rhythmic
(1682) the brittle rhythmic
dance
dance style
style of
of Lully.
Lully. The end of
of the
the development
development is clearly reflected
is clearly in the
reflected in the
rococo paintings
rococo paintings of Watteau. His
of His shepherds
shepherds and
and courtesans
courtesans do not play
do not play
the lute
lute but
but pluck.
pluck the
the fashionable
fashionable guitar.
guitar.

Although
Although French lute lute music declined
declined after
after the
the death
death of Gaultier its
of Gaultier its

musical achievements were were not

not dissipated. They
dissipated. They survived
survived in
in the
the music
music for for
the
the harpsichord
harpsichord or clavecin.
clavecin. The clavecinists
clavecinists studiously
studiously imitated
imitated nearly
nearly all
all
the lute idioms on their
the lute idioms their instrument.
instrument. This This astonishing
astonishing and and unique
unique transfer
transfer
of
of idioms had no technical justification because
technical justification because the the clavecin
clavecin did did not have
not have
the
the technical
technical limitations
limitations of of the
the lute.
lute. Here
Here again sociological factors
again sociological factors proved proved
decisive.
decisive. Since
Since lute
lute music enjoyed
enjoyed the the highest
highest social
social prestige it naturally
prestige it naturally
invited
invited imitation.
imitation. As the the keyboard
keyboard composers
composers in
in the
the northern
northern countries
countries
had done,
done, the
the clavecinists
clavecinists of of the
the middle baroque likewise
middle baroque likewise builtbuilt on the
on the
idiomatic
idiomatic keyboard style
keyboard style of
of the
the virginalists,
virginalists, but the lutenists served as in-
but the lutenists served as in-

termediaries
termediaries and transmitted
transmitted the the English
English heritage
heritage in in modified
modified form.form. The
three
three features
features that
that French lute lute music
music shared
shared with
with virginal
virginal music-the
music the pat- pat-
terned variation,
variation, the
the fanciful
fanciful tides,
titles, and
and the
the adoption
adoption of
of symbols
symbols for for orna-
orna-
ments-were
mentswere retained retained also
also inin the
the clavecin
clavecin music.
music. The manner manner in which
in which
the
the clavecinists
clavccinists transformed
transformed the the English
English influence
influence strikingly
strikingly demonstrates
demonstrates
the
the fundamental
fundamental difference
difference between
between the the French
French and and thethe German concep- concep-
tion
tion ofof music.
music. While Sweelinck
Sweelinck and and thethe German harpsichordists
harpsichordists were were at- at-

tracted
tracted primarily
primarily by by the
the idea
idea ofof mechanical
mechanical severity,
severity, thethe clavecinists
clavecinists seized
seized
on the
the idea
idea ofof playful
playful imagination.
imagination. Both Both ideas
ideas had
had lain
lain asas yet
yet undivided
undivided
and
and undeveloped
undeveloped in
in English virginal music;
English virginal music; they they now developed
developed inde- inde-

pendently in
pendendy in the
the two
two national
national branches
branches of keyboard music.
of keyboard music.
Through
Through the
the mediation
mediation of
of the
the lutenists
lutenists the
the harpsichord
harpsichord composers
composers dis- dis-

covered
covered their
their own idiom,
idiom, which
which had
had thus
thus far
far hardly
hardly differed
differed from
from that
that
of
of the
the organ.
organ. Not bound
bound by by the
the technical handicaps of
technical handicaps of the
the lute
lute they were
they were
able
able to
to bring
bring the
the broken
broken style
style to
to aa perfection
perfection not not dreamed
dreamed of by the
of by the lutenists.
lutenists.

In clavecin
In clavecin music
music thethe free-voiced
free-voiced texture
texture was
was no longer
longer a
a necessity
necessity but but aa
calculated
calculated stylistic
stylistic
feature.
feature. They
They substituted
substituted for
for ornaments
ornaments that
that could
could only
only
be executed
be executed on on the
the lute
lute a a great
great number of of new keyboard
keyboard agrlments
agrtrnents whichwhich
gave
gave thethe melody
melody notnot only
only an
an unprecedented
unprecedented flexibility
flexibility but
but also
also a brilliant
a brilliant
rhythmic sparkle.
rhythmic sparkle. The free-voiced
free-voiced style
style of
of the
the clavecinists
clavecinists differed
differed from
that of the virginalists
that of the virginalists by by its
its highly developed "suggestive"
highly developed "suggestive" part-writing part-writing
that
that hinted
hinted atat the
the various
various voices
voices without
without actually
actually realizing
realizing them,them, and by by
I7
1 70 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the
the dualistic
dualistic nature
nature of of the
the music,
music, clearly
clearly brought
brought out out in
in the contrast of
the contrast o the
the
extremely florid
extremely florid melody melody and the
the constantly arpeggiated chords
constantly arpeggiated chords of the of the
accompaniment.
accompaniment.
The French
French school
school had its its first
first great
great representative
representative in in Jacques
Jacques de de Cham-
bonnieres
bonnieres (c. 1602-1672),
(c. 1602-1672), clavecinist
clavecinist to
to the
the French court,
court, whose personal
personal
style
style left
left its
its mark on the the subsequent
subsequent members of
of the
the school,
school, notably Louis
notably Louis
Couperin
Couperin (d. (d. 1661),
1661), Hardelle,
Hardelle, Le Begue Begue (1630-1702),
(1630-1702), Nivers,
Nivers, and Jean Jean
Henri
Henri D' Anglebert (1635-16g1).
D'Anglebert (1635-1691). Chambonnieres exerted exerted also
also a strong in-
a strong in-

fluence
fluence on on Froberger-the
Froberger the latter
latter visited
visited Paris
Paris in
in 1652-and
1652 and thus
thus indirectly
indirectly
on the
the south
south German school school of of keyboard composers. His Pieces
keyboard composers. Pieces de de Claves-
Cloves-
sin
sin
2S
2S (written c. 1640, printed
(written c. 1640, printed 1670) 16]0) which faithfully
faithfully follow the model of
follow the model of
Gaultier's
Gaultier's lutelute suites
suites contain
contain delicate
delicate miniatures
miniatures or or genre
genre pieces
pieces and stylized
stylized
dances
dances with imaginative
imaginative titles.
tides. As with Gaultier,
Gaultier, Chambonnieres'
Chambonnteres' suites suites
consist
consist ofof three
three main types,
types, the
the allemande, courante,
alleinande, courante, and saraband,
saraband, and
and an
an
optional gigue.
optional gigue. The great
great number of
of courantes
courantes with
with their
their ornamental
ornamental
doubles
doubles and other other freely
freely inserted
inserted dance types types inin aa single
single suite
suite showed
showed that that
each
each dance movement was more important important than than the
the order
order ofof the
the cycle
cycle asas
aa whole.
whole. Neither
Neither Chambonni&res
Chambonnieres nor nor his
his successors
successors unified
unified their dances
their dances
in the German manner by
in the by means
means of of common thematic material; they
thematic material; they
strove
strove on the contrary
the contrary for for as contrast between
as much contrast between the the single movements
single movements
as possible,
as possible, observing,
observing, however,
however, the the unity
unity of of key.
key. Except
Except for the tripartite
for the tripartite
pavane
pavane all
all dances
dances fell
fell into
into the
the common bipartite
bipartite form with
with repeats
repeats forfor
each section.
each section. Charnbonnieres's
Chambonnieres's judicious judicious utilization
utilization of of the
the free-voiced
free-voiced
broken style
broken style prompted
prompted at at times
times aa highly
highly intricate
intricate rhythm,
rhythm, especially
especially ap- ap-
propriate for
propriate for the
the courante
courante (Ex. (Ex. 49).
49). In
In the
the quoted
quoted example
example the the typical
typical
rhythm of
hemiola rhythm of the
the bass
bass is is overlaid
overlaid with
with aa network
network of of measured
measured ar- ar-

Ex. 49.
Ex. Chamboxmieres: Courante.
49- Chambonnifcres: Courante.

~: :ml=~:: JPI:r:'At /~J'I;rr :;: I ,I

f
!'

~;:: ~J:J; ~I::~ ~:.I!I:J:J :.=I;'"JJ.:I

2S
.. CE
CE by
by Quittard
Quittard 1911, Brunold-Tessicr 1926.
19II, Brunold-Tessier 1926. Sec also TAM Vn,
See also VII, 30 ff; HAM
3011; no.
HAM no.
212.
212.
 French
French Music Under The Absolutism
Absolutism 17
1711
peggios
pcggios thatthat suggest
suggest four or even even five
five independent voices.
independent voices. The The composite
composite
rhythm
rhythm of of allall voices
voices produces
produces at at the
the beginning
beginning a
a ceaseless
ceaseless eight-note
eight-note
movement The
movement. The great
great importance
importance that that Chambonnieres
Chambonnieres attached attached to to thethe
ornaments
ornaments can can be be seen
seen in in the fact
fact that
that he
he printed an explanatory table of
printed an explanatory table of
symbols
symbols in in his
his publication-a
publication a practicepractice thatthat became
became exemplary
exemplary for
for his
his fol-
fol-
lowers.
lowers.
The next
The next generation
generation of clavecinists,
clavecinists, especially
especially D'Anglebert,
D'Anglebert, substituted
substituted
aa symbol
symbol (a (a slanted stroke)
stroke) for
for the
the measured
measured arpeggio
arpeggio which Chambon-
which Chambon-
nieres
nieres was careful to to write out out in
in his
his music. Louis Couperin, the
music. Louis Coupcrin, the uncle uncle of of
Fran~ois
Francois and the first important
and the first
important master
master of of the
the famous
famous dynasty
dynasty of
of Couperins,
Coupcrins,
deployed
deployed in in his
his few,
few, but remarkable,
remarkable, suitessuites allall the
the keys
keys that
that the
the meantone
meantonc
tuning
tuning made accessible,
accessible, including
including such
such remote
remote ones
ones as
as I-sharp
/-sharp
and
and b.
b. His
His
prdudes
preludes were so
so closdy
closely fashioned
fashioned after
after the
the rhapsodic type of
rhapsodic type of Gaultier Gaultier
that
that they
they even
even retained
retained a feature of
a feature of the
the lute
lute notation.
notation. The rhapsodic parts
rhapsodic parts
were nothing
nothing more than a series series ofof unmeasured
unmeasured semibreves,
scrnibreves, some some of of which
which
were connected by by slurs,
slurs, indicating
indicating here,here, as as inin lute notation, sustained
lute notation, sustained
notes.224' Their rhythmic
notes. interpretation
rhythmic interpretation was again
again the
the responsibility
responsibility of of thethe
performer. Couperin's prdudes, formally more
performer. Couperin's preludes, formally more highly developed than highly devdoped than
those of Gaultier,
Gaultier, were tripartite
tripartite toccatas
toccatas in in which
which two rhapsodic sections
two rhapsodic sections
enclosed a fugalfugal middle part. part. Couperin
Couperin differed
differed from
from his
his fellow
fellow composers
composers
by his
by his very
very serious temperament and gravity,
serious temperament gravity, manifested
manifested not not only
only in in thethe
poignant
poignant modulations
modulations of
of his
his tom beaux,
tombcaux, but
but also
also in
in his
his tendency
tendency to
to combine
combine
the dance
the dance with with contrapuntal
contrapuntal artifices,
artifices, e.g.
e.g. the
the saraband
saraband with with the the canon.
canon.
His chaconne in in gg 25 built on
211 built on aa descending tetrachord consists
descending tctrachord consists of of three
three
parts,
parts, set
set off
off by
by an
an abrupt
abrupt turn
turn to
to the
the major
major mode-a
mode a device
device that
that Lully
Lully
frequently imitated
frequently imitated in in his
his chaconnes.
chaconnes.
clavieristic technique
The clavieristic technique of of D'Anglebert
D'Anglebert surpassed
surpassed that that of of his
his predeces-
predeces-
sors by
sors by the
the richness
richness of of its
its texture
texture andand thethe full
full utilization
utilization of of the
the high
high and and
range of
low range of the
the clavecin.
clavecin. He expanded
expanded the the suite
suite byby lengthening
lengthening the the single
single
dances without
dances without however sacrificing sacrificing the the bipartite
bipartite form.
form. His His tombeau
tom beau in in
memory
memory of
of Chambonnieres
Chambonnieres and
and the
the twenty-two
twenty-two variations
variations on the
the folia
folia
bass 2e
bass are impressive
26 are impressive documents
documents of of his
his resourceful
resourceful keyboard
keyboard style, style, which
which
betrays the
betrays the influence
influence of of Lully.
Lully. D'Anglebert
D'Anglebert in in fact
fact transferred
transferred the the sonorities
sonorities
of the
of the Lullian
Lullian orchestra
orchestra to to the
the clavecin
clavecin-aa striking
striking early
early parallel
parallel to to the the
orchestral expansion
orchestral expansion of of piano
piano technique
technique by by Liszt.
Liszt. It It is
is noteworthy
noteworthy that that
D'Anglebert included
D'Anglebert included in in his Pieces de
his Piices de Clavecin
ClatJecin (1689)
(1689) numerous tran- tran-

TAM VIII,
**TAM
24. VIII, 40.
40. CE ed. by Cauchic
ed. by (OisellU Lyre
Cauchie (Oiscau Lyre Edition);
Edition); sec also HAM no.
see also DO.l.29o
229.
25
TAM VIII,
211 35.
VIII, 35.
**
IS VII, 122,
TAM VII, 122, 148. in Publications,
1413. CE in PubliCflJions, Socictf
Societe jran^atse
jranraise dc
de Mttacotogie, 8.
Mtuit:Ologie, 8.
172 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
scriptions
scriptions ofof airs
airs and even overtures
overtures by by Lully.
Lully. The clavecin
clavecin arrangement
arrangement
27
of the overture
of the overture to
to Cadmus et
et Hermione
Hermione 21 represented
represented thethe first
first step
step toward
toward
the
the independent
independent keyboard
keyboard overture
overture which
which served
served in
in late
late baroque
baroque suites
suites as
as
the
the opening
opening movement.
The suites
suites of
of the
the organist harpsichordist Le Begue
organist and harpsichordist foreshadow in
Bfcgue foreshadow in
their
their rich
rich chromaticism
chromaticism certain
certain features
features of of the
the late
late baroque harmony.
baroque harmony. Le Le
Begue
Begue broke
broke the
the unity
unity ofof key
key and admitted
admitted to to his
his suites
suites notnot only
only the
the op-
op-
posite
posite mode (which
(which can can be be found
found even
even with
with Chambonnieres),
Chambonnifcres), but but also
also
relative
relative major
major oror minor keys
keys such
such as
as occurred
occurred in in the
the ballet entries of
ballet entrees of Lully.
Lully.
He eliminated
eliminated the the fugal
fugal section
section from the
the rhapsodic
rhapsodic preludes and, like
preludes and, like
D'Anglebert,
D'Anglebert, gavegave in
in his
his notation
notation more precise rhythmic indications
precise rhythmic indications than than
Louis
Louis Couperin
Couperin had done, done, though
though they
they still
still preserved a
preserved a good good measure
measure ofof
freedom.
freedom. Le Begue
Begue alsoalso broke with the the habit
habit ofof giving
giving titles
titles to
to the
the dances;
dances;
he substituted
substituted for
for the
the literary
literary means of of characterization
characterization a a purely
purely musical
musical
one by juxtaposing
by juxtaposing a courante grave
grave with
with a
a courante
courante gaie.
gate.
28
28

Although French
Although French organ
organ music 29
29
could not
could not rival the brilliant develop.
rival the brilliant
develop-
ment of
of clavecin
clavecin music, it maintained
music, it maintained its
its independence beside
independence beside the
the German
German
and Italian
Italian schools.
schools. Three traits
traits characterized
characterized the the French
French organists. Firstly,
organists. Firstly,
they were
they were conservatives
conservatives by by profession
profession and and adhered
adhered to to the
the traditional
traditional poly-
poly.
phonic texture,
phonic texture, especially
especially in the fantasies
in the and the
fantasies and the versets,
versets, inin which
which frag-
frag.
ments of
ments of the
the plainchant
plainchant musical appeared in
musical appeared in the
the pedal
pedal inin evenly
evenly sustained
sustained
notes. Secondly,
notes. Secondly, theythey devoted
devoted aa greatgreat deal
deal of of attention
attention to to the
the coloristic
coloristic
possibilities of
possibilities of the
the organ,
organ, as as can
can bebe seen
seen inin the
the consistent
consistent useuse ofof carefully
carefully
specified registrations;
specified registrations; in in French organ organ music
music coloristic
coloristic considerations
considerations
were so so pronounced
pronounced that that they
they sometimes
sometimes took took precedence
precedence over over those
those ofof
structure. Thirdly,
structure. Thirdly, they
they assimilated
assimilated those
those elements
elements of of clavecin
clavecin music
music that
that
lent themselves
lent themselves more or or less
less happily
happily to to the
the organ
organ idiom.
idiom. NotNot only
only were
were
ornaments bodily
numerous ornaments bodily transferred
transferred to to the
the organ,
organ, but but even
even thethe
style bris,
style the very
brise. the very opposite
opposite of of true
true organ
organ idiom.
idiom. The transfer
transfer to to the
the
organ
organ of
of aa lute
lute idiom
idiom demonstrates
demonstrates in
in spectacular
spectacular fashion
fashion that
that whenever
whenever
in baroque
in baroque music
music there
there was aa conflict
conflict between
between the the idiom
idiom of of aa style
style and
and that
that
of
of an instrument, stylistic
instrument, stylistic considerations
considerations prevailed.
prevailed. Disregard
Disregard for for the
the
medium is
medium is aa prominent
prominent feature
feature of of baroque
baroque art in general.
art in general. But But for
for the
the
polyphonic texture,
polyphonic texture, there
there was
was little
little difference
difference between
between organ
organ and and clavecin
clavecin
*lI7
7
TAM VII, 146.
TAMVn, 146.
2S
la TAM VIll. 30.
TAMVin,3o.
29
Archi"es ties mattres de
Guilmant;, Archives dcs mtdtrcs
lie Guilmant^ tie I'orgue;
l'argue; HAM no.
no. 231.
231
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 173
173
style;the
style;
theharpsichord
harpsichordthus thusplayed
playedthe thesame
samerole rolewith
withregardregardtotothe theorgan
organ
asthe
as thelute
lutediddidwith
withregard
regardtotothe theharpsichord.
harpsichord.ItItisisnot notsurprising
surprising that music
that music
forboth
for bothclavecin
clavecinand andorganorganappeared
appearedindiscriminately
indiscriminatelyininthe theorgan
organcollec-
collec-
tions.The
tions. Thenational
nationalcharacteristics
characteristicsofofthe theflorid
floridorgan
organstylestylewere werelaterlatertaken
taken
over
over by by the
the German
German organists,
organists, notably
notably Bahm.
Bohm.
Theorgan
The organworks
worksof ofTitelouze
Titelouze(d. (d.1633)
1633) belong
belonginindissonance
dissonancetreatment treatment
and texture toto the
and texture the last
last flowering
flowering ofofrenaissance
renaissance style,style, except
except for scattered
for scattered
hints of
hints of modern
modern conccrtata
concertato motives motives inin complementary
complementary rhythms. rhythms.303o The The
early baroque organ music
music was
was represented by
represented by Racquet Racquet of
of whose
whose music
music we
we
early baroque organ
know mainly
know mainly through through Mersenne.
Mersenne. One
One of
of the
the Gaultiers
Gaultiers composed
composed aa tombeau
tombcau
in his
in his honor.
honor. TheThe middle
middle baroque
baroque generation
generation comprised
comprised the the three
three teachers
teachers
of Lully:
of Lully: Roberday,
Roberday, Metru, M~tru, and and Gigault
Gigault (d. I'JO'l), and,
(d. 1707), and, in addition,
in addition,
Dumont,
Dumont, Louis
Louis Couperin,
Couperin, Le
Le Begue,
Begue, and
and Nivers,
Nivers, the
the last
last three
three of
of whom
whom
were pupils
were pupils of of Chambonnieres.
Chambonnieres. Roberday Roberday made made in in his
his Fugues
Fugues ct et Caprices
Caprices
( 1660) an interesting experiment by grouping variation
(1660) an interesting experiment by grouping
variation ricercars
ricercars and and
capriccios in
capriccios in pairs
pairs that were bound
that were bound together by together by thematic
thematic unity.
unity. The
The idea
idea

of deriving
of deriving aa sprightly
sprightly capriccio
capriccio themetheme from from the the placid
placid ricercar
ricercar themetheme by by
means of
means of rhythmic
rhythmic transformation
transformation was was obviously
obviously inspired
inspired by by Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi
and
and Froberger, but the contrasting arrangement in
Froberger, but the contrasting arrangement
in pairs
pairs was was aa novelty.
novelty.
Roberday borrowed
Roberday borrowed the
the themes
themes of
of his
his variation
variation fugues
fugues from other
other com-
com-
posers, notably
posers, notably
Louis Couperin, Cambert,
Louis Couperin, Cambcrt, Froberger, Froberger, and Cavalli.
Cavalli. The
The fi"e
five

fugues that D'Anglebert added added to to his

his clavecin
clavecin collection
collection were also variation
were also variation
fugues that D'Anglebert
ricercars
ricercars on
on a
a single
single
theme.
theme.
The
The coloristic
coloristic bentbent of of French
French organ organ music
music is is attested
attested by by numerous
numerous solo solo

recitations and
recitations and echoes echoes for
for specified stops
specified stops
or
or the
the pedal,
pedal, found
found especially
especially in
in

the works of Nivers and

the works of Nivers and Le Begue. TheLe Begue. The latter
latter made
made it
it in
in his
his Livre
Uvrc tfOrgue
d'Orgue
(16ft])
(1667)
aa special point
special point
to
to play
play sur
sur tous
tous les
les jeux.
jeux. Le
Lc Begue
Bfegue and
and Gigault
Gigault were
were
noteworthy not only for their bold chromaticism chromaticism but but also
also forfor their charm-
their charm-
noteworthy not only for their bold
ing and popular noels,
ing and popular noSIs, published
published side
side by
by side
side with
with the
the weighty
weighty liturgical
liturgical

music. The rising

music. The rising influence influence of
of secular
secular music
music made
made itself
itself felt in
felt in the
the in- in-

creased use of agrements

creased use of agrSmcnts and typical and typical dance
dance patterns.
patterns. In
In the
the organ
organ works
works of
of

Andr~
AndreRaison
Raisonthe the dances
dances actually
actually intruded
intruded into intothe liturgical
the liturgical versets; the
versets; the

composer naively remarked

remarked that
thatthethedances shouldbe
dancesshould beplayed
playedon onthetheorgan
organ
composer naively
more slowly
more slowly than than on
on the
the harpsichord
harpsichord inin keeping
keeping with
with "the
"the sanctity
sanctity ofofthethe

place." Raison
Raisongained some notoriety for
gained some notoriety
forthethefact
factthat
thatan anideaideaof ofhis
hispas-pas,
place."
sacaglia in g (Livre a'Orgue. 1688) was immortalized in Bach's organ
sacaglia in g (Livrc d'Orgue, 1688)
was immortalized in Bach's organ
passacaglia ininc.c.Gigault carried the idea
Gigault carried the
ideaof of"functional
"functionalmusic" music"to toso sofine
fine
passacaglia
aapoint that the resultresultbecamebecamequestionable. His compositions could be
questionable. His compositions
could be
point that the
30 HAM no. 180.
HAMnai8o.
I74
174 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
broken
broken off
of? at
at several
several specified
specified places
places in
in order
order to
to allow
allow the
the organist
organist perfect
perfect
timing
timing with
with the
the exigencies
exigencies of the ritual.
of the ritual.

MUSIC IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA,

PENINSULA, NEW SPAIN
SPAIN,1 AND
COLONIAL AMERICA

Throughout
Throughout the the baroque
baroque period
period music in in Spain
Spain maintained
maintained aa distincdy
distinctly
local
local color
color in in spite
spite of
of Italian
Italian influence
influence which made itself
itself increasingly felt
increasingly felt
as
as the
the century
century progressed.
progressed. Spanish
Spanish masters
masters were active active allall over
over Europe,
Europe,
notably
notably the the guitar
guitar virtuosi
virtuosi Doisi
Doisi in in Italy
Italy and Brizeno
Brizeno in in France,
France, and and thethe
bassoon
bassoon virtuoso
virtuoso Bartolomeo
Bartolomeo de de Selma at at the
the Austrian
Austrian court.
court. De Selma's
Selma's
flamboyant
flamboyant solo solo and triotrio sonatas
sonatas forfor bassoon,
bassoon, printed
printed in Venice (1638),81
in Venice (i638),
81

are written in
are written in early
early baroque
baroque virtuoso
virtuoso stylestyle inin the
the vein
vein of of Castello
Castdlo and and
other
other Venetian composers. The Catalan harpsichordists
Venetian composers. harpsichordists Romaiia Romafia and and
Marques,
Marqu&, who also
also belonged
belonged to
to the
the early baroque,
early baroque, deserve
deserve mention
mention for
for
their
their variations
variations on secularsecular dance tunes.
tunes.

Heredia, from 1603

82
Organ
Organ music 82 was represented represented by by Aguilera
Aguilera de de Heredia, 1603
organist at
organist at Saragossa,
Saragossa, the the Portuguese
Portuguese organist Coelho (Flores
organist Coelho (Flores de musica,
de musica,
1620),
1620), and Correa
Correa de Araujo
Araujo (d. (d. 1663). Facultad organica
Correa's Facultad
1663). Correa's orgdnica (1626),
(1626),
the most representative
the representative SpanishSpanish collection
collection of
of early baroque organ
early baroque music,
organ music,
displays a strange
displays strange mixture
mixture of
of archaic
archaic and progressive
progressive features.
features. Correa
Correa com- com-
bined thethe traditional
traditional polyphonic
polyphonic texture
texture with with strikingly
strikingly erratic
erratic melodic
melodic
contours and somber colors,
contours colors, highly
highly reminiscent
reminiscent of of the
the contemporary
contemporary paint- paint-
ings
ings of
of EI
El Greco.
Greco. The bizarre
bizarre melodic
melodic turns
turns to
to be
be found
found in
in his
his ricercars
ricercars or
or
tientos had already
ticntos already occurred,
occurred, if if rarely,
rarely, in in the
the works
works of of Cabezon,
Cabezon, but but with
with
Correa theythey became common practice. practice. He sharedshared withwith Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi the the fre-
fre-
quent use
quent use ofof pre-tonal
pre-tonal chromaticism
chromaticism or falsas, but
or falsas, but the
the music
music of of the
the Spaniard
Spaniard
chaotic and restless.
was more chaotic resdess. The strongly
strongly affective
affective character
character of of Correa's
Correa's
subjects
subjects stands
stands in
in striking
striking contrast
contrast to
to the
the rigid
rigid and
and mechanical
mechanical figures
figures
that he borrowed from the
that the English
English and Dutch Dutch organ
organ style.
style. The fusion
fusion of of
these conflicting
these conflicting elements
elements characterizes
characterizes all all the
the Spanish
Spanish artists
artists ofof the
the time:
time:
.it betrays
-it betrays powerful
powerful affections
affections thatthat are,
are, however,
however, ascetically
ascetically controlled
controlled by by
equally powerful
equally powerful inhibitions.
inhibitions. In In his
his turbulent tiento aa modo
turbulent ticnto modo di di cancion,
canaon,
Correa paradoxically
Correa paradoxically combined
combined the the variation
variation ricercar
ricercar with
with thethe form
form of of aa
quilt canzona,
quilt canzona, moving resdessly in fits
moving restlessly in fits and
and starts
starts as if driven
as if driven by by the
the ascetic
ascetic
lust for
lust for painful
painful affections.
affections.
11
Lavignac E,
at Lavjgnac E, 114,
1=4, 2086.
2086.
99 See the
as See the collections
collections oof Pedrell
Pedrell and
and Villalba (Antologia de
Villalba (Antologta dt: organistas)
organistas),, and
and Bon-
Bon-
net* Historical Organ
net'ss Historical Recilllls, VI. Coelho's
Organ Recitals, VL Tentos have
Coelho's Tentos have been
been edited
edited by Kastner
Kastner by
(1936);
); see also HAM no.
sec: also no. 200.
200.
 French Music
French Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism I75
175
The ascetic
The ascetic spirit
spirit abated
abated in in thethe music
music of of Juan
Juan Cabanillcs (1644-1712),
Cabanilles (1644-1712),
the greatest
the greatest organist
organist of of the
the Spanish
Spanish middle
middle baroque.
baroque. Of Of his
his voluminous
voluminous
works only
works only his his organ
organ musicmusic isis at at present
present accessible.
accessible. Cabanilles
Cabanilles proved
proved his his
keen coloristic
keen coloristic and and harmonic
harmonic sense sense by by his timtos dc
his tientos de jalsas;
falsas; his
his temperate
temperate
and energetic
and energetic counterpoint,
counterpoint, characterized
characterized by by upbeat
upbeat patterns
patterns andand repeated
repeated
notes, was harmonically
notes, was harmonically stable stable enough
enough to to sustain
sustain large
large multipartite
multipartite forms.
forms.
His extended
His tientos are
extended tientos are often
often reduced
reduced to to three
three major
major parts;
parts; combining
combining
the features
the features of of the
the polythematic
poly thematic ricercarricercar andand the the variation
variation ricercar,
ricercar, they
they
include long
include long pedal
pedal points
points on on different
different degrees
degrees of of the
the scale
scale inin which
which thethe
same melodic
same melodic material
material recursrecurs in in various keys.33
various keys. 33 His formal variations on
His formal variations on
secular themes,
secular themes, national
national dances,
dances, and and ostinati,
ostinati, such such as as the passacallu and
the passacalles and
the folia, bespeak
the folia, bespeak aa happy happy imagination,
imagination, no no longer
longer underunder thethe spell
spell of
of self-
self.
denial and
denial and inhibition.
inhibition.
Spanish
Spanish church
church music 3'
music 34 reflected
reflected in in its
its hyper-conservative
hyper-conservative attitude attitude the
the
spirit
spirit
of
of severe
severe orthodoxy
orthodoxy that
that prevailed
prevailed in
in Spain.
Spain. The innovations
innovations of
of
baroque style
baroque style were
were shunned.
shunned. The music music of of Victoria,
Victoria, more advancedadvanced with
respect
respect to
to harmony
harmony than
than that
that of
of Palestrina,
Palestrina, but
but otherwise
otherwise equally
equally conserva-
conserva-
tive,
tive, became
became the
the prototype
prototype of
of the
the Spanish
Spanish church
church composers
composers who studiously
studiously
preserved the stile, antico well into the eighteenth century. The conservative
preserved the stile, antico well into the eighteenth century.
conservative
85
school included
school included the the Catalan
Catalan masters
masters Juan
Juan Comes, Juan Pujol, and Cere..
Comes, Juan Pujol,u: Ccrc-

rols 86 of
rols 86
of Montserrat;
Montserrat; Romero, Romero, known as as "E! Maestro Capitan,"
"El Maestro Capitan," and the
the
Portuguese composers
Portuguese composers Rebello,
Rebello, Magalhaes
Magalhacs and Mclga~o.
Melga$o. The late
late baroque
baroque
church
church music
music was was represented
represented by by Francisco
Francisco VallsVails (d. (d. 1747)
1747) who no longer longer
adhered
adhered to
to the
the stile
stile antico.
antico. He composed
composed an auto-sacramental
auto-sacramental or oratorio
oratorio

in
in Italian
Italian style.
style.
The unprepared
unprepared (though (though very innocuous) dissonances in
very innocuous) in

his Mass Scala

bis Mass Scala Aretina
Aretina aroused
aroused a a lengthy
lengthy controversy
controversy among among the Spanish
the Spanish
musicians,
musicians, comparable
comparable to
to that
that between
between Monteverdi and Artusi.
Artusi.

The
The secular
secular music
music of of Spain
Spain was more thoroughly thoroughly tinged tinged with national
national

color than
color than any any other
other field
field of
of music.
music. The flilJancicos,
ttHlancicos, ensaladas,
ensaladas, tonadas
tonadas
(songs), and
(songs), and other
other secular Spanish
secular Spanish forms
forms displayed
displayed unique rhythmic pat-
unique rhythmic pat-
terns
terns that
that bore
bore thethe traits
traits ofof aa nationally
nationally restricted
Here we have
literature. Here
restricted literature. have
one
one ofof the
the very
very few few examples
examples of of baroque
baroque musicmusic in in which
which thethe influence
influence of of
folk
folk music
music on art music
on art music is is more
more than than mere
mere wishful
wishful thinking.
thinking. SomeSome of of the
the
syncopated patterns of
of Spanish folk
folk music
music that
that are to be
arc to be found
found even in
even in
syncopated patterns Spanish
the renaissance "iJlancico
the renaissance villancico arc are as
as striking today
striking today as
as they
they were
were several
several hundred
hundred
years ago.
years ago.
The
The flillancico,
villancico, the
the favorite
favorite form
form of
of secular polyphonic mus~
secular polyphonic music,

38, eel.
* See CE
CE III,
USee III, no.
no. 38, ed. by
by Angles.
Angles.
8*Eslava, LirQ
.. Eslava, Ura sacro-hispana.
sacro-hispana.
88 CE ed. by
81 CE ed. by Angles;
Angles; seesee also
also GMB
GMB no.
no. 179-
179.
*eM~str~s
as Ucstres de I'Escolania at!
4c /'Esr:olanitz Uvntserra I-lli;
de MonlSerrtd HAM no.
I-HI; HAM no, 22'7.
227.
176 Music in
in the Baroque
Baroque Era
appeared
appeared sometimes also also in sacred music. It
in sacred It corresponded
corresponded formally
formally to the
frottola which had long
jrottola which had long since fallen into oblivion in Italy.
since fallen into oblivion in Italy. Written
Written somo-
some-
times in aa slightly
slightly polyphonic
polyphonic but always always in in an extremely
extremely rhythmic
rhythmic style,
style,

it
it consisted of a a couplet
couplet oror copla
copla for for solo
solo voices
voices and a a choral
choral refrain
refrain or

estribillo.
estribillo. It
It was frequently
frequently inserted
inserted intointo spoken
spoken plays,
plays, ballets,
ballets, and
and other
8T
stage productions.
stage productions. The Cancionero de Sablonara 87 contains
contains many
many examples
examples
of the form by
of the form by Romero and Juan
and Juan BIas
Bias who set to music the lyrics
set to music the lyrics of
of Lope
Lope
de Vega,
Vega, the
the leading
leading Spanish
Spanish poetpoet of of the
the time.
time.

The few but illustrious

illustrious attempts
attempts to to establish
establish a a national
national Spanish
Spanish opera
opera
were overshadowed from the very beginning
very beginning by by Italian
Italian influence.
influence. The
music of the first Spanish
music of the first Spanish opera
opera is not extant,
is not extant, a fate that it shares with the
a fate that it shares with the
first opera
first opera of nearly
of nearly every
every country.
country. It was set to Lope
It was set to Lope de Vega's
de Vega's La Selva
La
sin amor (1629).
sin (1629). From the the preface
preface it it can
can bebe inferred
inferred that
that thethe opera
opera was
through-composed,
through-composed, probablyprobably withwith recitatives.
recitatives. Not Not before
before thethe middle ba-
roque period
roque period diddid the
the music
music of of aa Spanish
Spanish operaopera survive,
survive, at at least
least in
in frag-
frag-
88
mentary form: Celos aun del aire matan (1660)
mentary form: Celos aun del aire matan (1660) 88 by by Juan
Juan Hidalgo
Hidalgo (d. (d.
1685).
1685). It
It was based on
was based on a libretto by
a libretto by Calderon,
Calderon, who had already already written
written a
libretto
libretto for
for another
another opera,
opera, the music of
the music of which is is also
also not
not extant. Although
extant. Although

Hidalgo's
Hidalgo's music
music faithfully
faithfully reflects
reflects in
in its
its short arias
arias and its
its flexible
flexible recitative
recitative

refrains
refrains the
the middle baroque stage
middle baroque stage of
of the Italian
Italian opera,
opera, it
it has
has nevertheless
nevertheless

an unmistakable
an unmistakable Spanish
Spanish flavor.
flavor. HisHis arias
arias include
include modest
modest variations
variations on
simple dance-like
simple basses in
dance-like basses in hemiola
hemiola rhythm
rhythm (Ex. (Ex. 50).
50). These bassesbasses fell
fell into
into
Ex. 50.
Ex. Bass from
Hidalgo: Bass
50. Hidalgo: from Celos.
Celos.

IfJlP'(!ID$)FFIF r IrtLIFr If eriE ErlFJ IF'Hlrr IJ r r IJ_,

two
two parts,
parts, the
the second
second ofof which
which was
was merely
merely aa literal
literal transposition
transposition ofof the
the
first-aa device
first device that
that ffrequently
requently recurs
recurs in
in folk
folk music.
music.
The
The opera
opera in in Spain
Spain held
held second
second place
place beside
beside the zarzuela, aa courtly
the zarzucla, courtly
stage entertainment which derived its
stage entertainment which derived its name from the royal
the royal mansion where
it was
it first performed.
was first zarzuela occupied
performed. The zarzucla occupied the the best
best composers
composers and
poets of
poets of the
the time,
time, including
including Calderon.
Calderon. It It can
can be be described
described as
as the
the Spanish
Spanish
parallel to
parallel to the
the French ballet de
French ballet de cour
cour and
and the
the English
English court
court masque.
masque. The
three courtly
three courtly forms
forms hadhad in
in common the the alternation
alternation of of spoken
spoken and con-con-
certed sections and the emphasis
certed sections and the emphasis on stage
on stage sets,
sets, costumes,
costumes, and ballets.
ballets. Spanish
Spanish
dances with
dances with guitar
guitar accompaniment
accompaniment gave gave thethe music
music of of the zarzuela its
the zarzuela its
character. The
national character.
national The dialogue,
dialogue, choruses, tlillancicos, and seguidillas
choruses, villancicos, that
seguidillas that
87
If Ed. by
Ed. Araca, 1916.
by Aroca, 1916.
w Ed. by
88 Ed. by Subira,
Subira, 1933.
1933.
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 177
177
freely
freely alternated
alternated with
with occasional
occasional recitatives
recitatives were
were written
written in
in an
an unassum-
unassum-
ing
ing style,
style, only
only the
the more pretentious CHatro
more pretentious cuatro de
de empezar.
cmpczar, the
the introductory
introductory
quartet,
quartet, mustered
mustered polyphonic resources. Of
polyphonic resources. Of the
the middle
middle baroque zarztleltZ
baroque zarzttela
only
only very
very little music has
little music has come
come down
down to to us.
us. Its
Its leading masters were Juan
leading masters were Juan
de
de Navas, Marin, and Ber~s
Navas, Marin, and Bercs whose
burlesque tOTJtZda
whose burlesque tonada of of anan enamored
enamored old old
man deserves
man deserves mention
mention for for its
its harmonic
harmonic and and rhythmic
rhythmic characterization.
characterization. a8*
The late
The baroque ztZrzueltZ
late baroque zarzuela is is represented by such such shining lights as Duron,
represented by shining lights as Duron,
Literes, and the
Literes, and prolific Jo~
the prolific Jose dede Nebra who wrote wrote the
the music
music to to Calderon's
Calderon's
La VidtZ es Sueiio. Literes adopted
La Vida cs Sueno. Literes adopted in his zarzueia
in his zarzuela Ads Galatea (1708),.0
Ads yy Galatea (lyoS),
40

a subject
a subject that Handel also
that treated in
also treated in a
a masque,
masque, thethe airy tone of the Neapoli-
airy tone of the Neapoli-
tan opera.
tan opera. Although
Although the late late baroque
baroque zarzuelas
zarzuelas were
were dominated
dominated by
by Italian,
Italian,
especially Neapolitan,
especially Neapolitan, influence
influence they preserved
they preserved in
in their
their dances
dances at at least
least a a
rest of
rest of their former independence.
independence.
Music theory in
Music theory in Spain
Spain and Portugal
Portugal was essentially
essentially eclectic
eclectic except
except for
for
thorough treatises on guitar
thorough treatises guitar and organ playing. The lengthy theory books
books
organ playing. lengthy theory
usually
usually expatiated
expatiated on material
material borrowed
borrowed fromfrom Italian
Italian sources.
sources. The list list of
of
theorists included,
included, aside
aside from the
the ultra-conservative
ultra-conservative Italian Cerone,
Italian Cerone, who
published
published his organist Jo~
his work in in Spanish,
Spanish, Frovo,
Frovo, dada Cruz,
Cruz, the
the organist Jose de
de Torres,
Torres,
Lorente,
Lorente, Nasarre,
Nasarre, and King King John
John IV of of Portugal.
Portugal. The last last was
was notable
notable notnot
only
only as De/eTJsa de la
as author of the Defensa musica moderna,
la musica moderna. butbut also
also asas collector
collector of of
one of the
the most valuable music music libraries
libraries of
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century which
which
unfortunately was later
unfortunately later destroyed
destroyed by by fire.
fire.

The music in in the

the Western Hemisphere,
Hemisphere, New Spain Spain and
and Colonial
Colonial
America, naturally depended
America, naturally depended wholly wholly on musical
musical imports
imports from
from the
the mother
mother
countries. The Spanish
countries. Spanish missionaries
missionaries who regarded
regarded music
music asas an
an important
important
tool in
tool in the
the conversion
conversion ofof natives
natives were
were the
the first
first on
on the
the American
American continent
continent
print music though
to print
to though itit was exclusively
exclusively Gregorian
Gregorian chant.
chant. The part-music
part-music
imported to
imported to Mexico
Mexico consisted
consisted of
of conservative
conservative Spanish
Spanish church
church music.
music. InIn
the second
the second part
part of
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century Lima
Lima waswas an
an important
important center
center
of musical
of musical activity.
activity. Here Jos~ Diaz
Here Jose Diaz composed
composed on on American
American soil
soil the
the music
music
the stage
to the
to stage works
works of Calderon. A Peruvian
of Calderon. Peruvian codex
codex ofof the
the seventeenth
seventeenth cen-
cen-
rury,41
tury,
41
one of
one of the
the very
very few
few musical
musical documents
documents of of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century
that have
that have survived
survived inin the
the Western
Western Hemisphere,
Hemisphere, contain
contain some
some part-music
part-music
written in
written in aa popular
popular Spanish
Spanish style.
style.
99
E, 1=40 2077.
Lavignac E, 1:4, 2077.
III Lavignac
40
Lavignac E,
60Lavignac E, 11:4. 2111.
14, 2111.
'1Vega,
41
MusiCtl de
La Musica
Vega, La tIe un r:6t1ice colonial, 1931.
f41I codtce colonial, 1931.
178 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The
The music
music of of the
the early
early settlers
settlers in in North America was restricted restricted mainly
mainly
to psalm singing.
to psalm singing. The immigrants
immigrants had brought
brought over
over from
from England
England the the
traditional
traditional psalters
psalters of of which only only thosethose of of Ainsworth and Ravenscroft Ravenscroft
belong
belong to to thethe baroque
baroque period.period. Secular
Secular music,music, especially
especially instrumental
instrumental
music,
music, was a a hotly
body contested
contested issue
issue among
among the
the Puritans.
Puritans. That some secular
secular
music
music was cultivated
cultivated can can bebe proved by implication,
proved by implication, namely by namely by the
the numerous
numerous
prohibitions
prohibitions of of the
the useuse of of instruments
instruments and of of dancing.
dancing. However,
However, prac- prac-
tically
tically nono music
music of of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century century has has survived
survived save save the
the psalms.
psalms.
The psalm
psalm singing
singing was done from memory memory and was later later aided
aided by by the
the
practice
practice of
of "lining
"lining out"
out" the
the psalm
psalm line
line by
by line.
line. The oral
oral tradition
tradition distorted
distorted
the
the tunes
tunes more and more by by "graces"
"graces" so so that
that byby the
the end of of the
the century
century a a
unification
unification became necessary necessary because
because the the singing
singing had deteriorated
deteriorated into into
"a
"a horrid
horrid medley
medley of of confused
confused and disorderlydisorderly sounds,"
sounds," as as Thomas Walter Walter
described it.
described it. The Bay Psalm Book (1640), published originally without
Bay Boo\ (1640), published originally without
music, contained in
music, contained in its
its ninth edition (1~8)
ninth edition (1698) a a two-part
two-part version
version of of twelve
twelve
metrical
metrical psalms;
psalms; it
it represents the
represents the first
first part-music ever printed on the
part-music ever printed on the
American continent.
continent. In In spite
spite ofof Puritan
Puritan opposition
opposition the the teaching
teaching and read-
and read-
ing of
ing music made
of music made: progress.
progress. The first first American singing-books, based
singing-books, based on on
English
English models
models (Ravenscroft
(Ravenscroft and Playford)
Playford) were
were John
John Tuft's
Tuft's Introduction
Introduction
to the whole Art of
to of Singing
Singing PsalmsPsalms (c. (c. 1714),
1714), and Thomas Walter's Walter's
Grounds and Rules of
Rules of Music\
Musick (1721)(1721) whichwhich included
included several
several three-part
three-part
settings, copied
settings, Playford's psalter.
copied from Playford's psalter.
The German and Swedish Swedish immigrants
immigrants who settled settled in in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania in- in-
troduced polyphonic
troduced polyphonic chorale chorale singing
singing into into America.
America. Not restricted
restricted by by the
the
Puritan caution
Puritan caution against
against instrumental
instrumental music, music, theythey freely
freely employed
employed organs organs
in their
in their services,
services, thethe novelty
novelty of of which
which served
served "to "to attract
attract many
many of of the
the young
young
people away
people away from the the Quakers,"
Quakers," as as aa contemporary
contemporary report report puts
puts it.
it. The
The Ger-
Ger-
Pietist Conrad Beissel
man Pietist Beissel founded
founded aa mysticmystic sectsect in
in Ephrata
Ephrata andand composed
composed
a great
a great number of of hymns
hymns and chorales chorales for for its services. A reflection
its services. reflection of of this
this
literature can be
literature can be found in the Ephrata
in the Ephrata hymn hymn collection,
collection, published
published without
without
music by
music by Benjamin
Benjamin FranklinFranklin in in 1730.
1730. The highesthighest musical
musical level
level waswas at-at-
tained by
tained by the
the Moravians in in Bethlehem
Bethlehem who in in 1741
1741 organized
organized aa musical
musical
life in
life in their
their secluded
secluded community
community that that surpassed
surpassed all all other
other musical
musical centers
centers of of
the time.
the time. The music music they they brought
brought over over waswas naturally
naturally dependent
dependent on on the
the
German late late baroque
baroque style.style. However,
However, the the greatest
greatest period
period of of Moravian
Moravian
music falls into
music falls into the
the classic
classic era.
era.
Carl Pachelbel,
Carl Pachelbel, aa son son ofof the
the famous
famous GermanGerman organist,
organist, waswas perhaps
perhaps the the
most distinguished
most distinguished professional
professional musician
musician in in America
America before 1750. He
before 1750. He gave
gave
aa public
public concert
concert in in New
New York (1736) and
York (1736) and served
served as as organist,
organist, first
first in
in New-
New-
 French
French Music
Music Under
Under The
The Absolutism
Absolutism 179
179
port, RhodeIsland,
port, Rhode Island, and
and then,
then, until
until his death (I750),
his death
(1750), inin Charleston.
Charleston. An An im-im-
42
pressive Magnificat42 for
pressiveMagnificat forsoli
soliandandchorus,
chorus, written
writtenin in aavigorous
vigorous
late
late baroque
baroque
style,
style, attests
attests to
to his
his attainment
attainment as as composer,
composer, but but the
the piece
piece was
was not
not performed
performed
in
in this
this country
country during
during hishis lifetime.
lifetime. In In Charleston,
Charleston, Pachelbel
Pachelbcl came
came in in con-
con-
tact
tact with
with John
John Wesley.
Wesley. It
It is
is significant
significant in
in view
view of
of the
the close
close relations
relations be- be-
tween
tween Methodist
Methodist hymnody
hyrnnody and
and Protestant
Protestant chorale that Wesley was
chorale that Wesley was well
well
acquainted
acquainted with with the
the German
German chorale chorale andand that
that hehe owned
owned aa copy
copy of of the
the
Pietistic hymn
Pietistic hymn and and chorale
chorale bookbook by by Freylinghausen.
Freylinghausen. Wesley's
Wesley's first
first hymn
hymn
book
book waswas published
published in Charleston (1737),
in Charleston
(1737), but
but itit contains
contains nono music.
music. The The
numerous concerts in
numerous concerts in the
the cities, around 1750,
cities, around 1750, and
and the
the performances
performances of
of the
the
ballad
ballad opera
opera Flora
Flora in
in Charleston
Charleston (1735)
(1735) and
and of
of The
The Beggar's Opua
Beggar's Opera in in

Maryland (1752)
Maryland (1752) show how quickly
show how quickly thethe stylistic
stylistic trends
trends of
of the
the mother
mother
country
country found
found their
their repercussions
repercussions in in the
the colonies.
colonies.

42 Score
'2 edition of the New York Public
Score edition Public Library.
Library.
 CHAPTER SIX

English
English Music During
During the
the Commonwealth
Commonwealth and
and
Restoration
Restoration

THE MASQUE AND THE ENGLISH OPERA: LAWES AND BLOW

T
^HH^HE
HE IMPARTIAL evaluation

JL
I

of
evaluation of
century
century has
of political
of English
English music
has suffered

political and aesthetic

music of
suffered for
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth
for two centuries
centuries from the
aesthetic prejudices.
prejudices. On the
the double
the one
one hand,
hand, the
handicap
double handicap
the effect
effect
of Cromwell's
of political revolution
Cromwell's political revolution on music,music, and its its purported uprooting
purported uprooting
of the English
of the English musical tradition has
musical tradition has been
been overemphasized
overemphasized in in disregard
disregard of of
the facts;
the facts; on the
the other
other hand,
hand, the
the turn
turn to
to baroque
baroque stylestyle has
has been
been judged
judged by by
the standards
the standards of of "Elizabethan"
"Elizabethan" music music withwith the the inevitable
inevitable result
result that
that
English baroque
English baroque music has appeared
music has appeared as a deplorable
as a deplorable degeneration
degeneration of of the
the
high achievements
high achievements of of renaissance
renaissance music.
music. In In consequence
consequence even even thethe term
term
"Restoration music"
"Restoration music" used used toto carry
carry aa rather
rather odious
odious connotation.
connotation. Actually
Actually
the Restoration
the Restoration doesdoes not u~er in
not usjier in aa new stylistic
stylistic period,
period, because
because the the salient
salient
features of
features of what has has been
been called
called "Restoration
"Restoration style" style" are
are already
already clearly
clearly
apparent before
apparent before the
the Commonwealth. The ascendancy ascendancy of of the
the Stuarts
Stuarts coin-
coin-
cides with the
cides the transition
transition from renaissance
renaissance to to baroque. formative period
baroque. The formative period
of English
of English baroque
baroque music falls falls into
into the
the reign
reign of of Charles (1625-1649).
Charles II (1625-1649).
The new stylestyle did
did notnot make its its entry
entry in in England
England with with the
the suddenness
suddenness
of aa revolution;
of revolution; this this isis typical
typical of all countries
of all countries that that imported
imported the the baroque
baroque
style from without.
style without. The ties ties with
with the
the past
past were
were notnot severed
severed at at once,
once, and
and
in works
in works of of the
the transition
transition period
period aa disconcerting
disconcerting wavering
wavering between
between old old and
and
concepts can
new concepts can be be often
often observed.
observed. At At the
the same
same time,
time, the
the daring
daring experi-
experi-
mental features
mental features of of thethe Italian
Italian early
early baroque
baroque are are not
not very
very pronounced
pronounced in in
England so that it becomes at
England so that it becomes at times
times difficult
difficult toto draw
draw aa line
line between
between earlyearly
and middle
and middle baroque
baroque styles.
styles.
The
The first
first drastic
drastic signs
signs of of change
change appeared,
appeared, naturally
naturally enough,
enough, in in the
the
music for
music for the
the stage
stage forfor which
which thethe adoption
adoption of of the
the recitative
recitative hadhad become
become
180
180
 Music During
Music Commonwealth and
During Commonwealth and Restoration
Restoration 181
181
aa burning
burning question.
question. In
In England
England the
the main
main theatrical form
theatrical form to
to rely
rely heavily
heavily
on the
on the musician
musician was
was the
the court
court masque,
masque, not
not the
the opera,
opera, as
as in
in Italy.
Italy. The
The
masque, this
masque, this exclusive
exclusive and
and costly
costly court
court entertainment,
entertainment, corresponds
corresponds inin
scope, so.cial significance,
scope, social significance, and and to to some
some extent
extent inin form
form to to the ball~t dc
the ballet d~ cour.
COUT.
The typical
typical masque
masque hingedhinged roundround threethree specially
specially designed
designed ballets
ballets or or stage
stage
dances of
dances of the
the masquers:
masquers: "entry,"
"entry," "main"main dance,"
dance," and and "going-off,"
"going-off," and and waswas
supplied with
supplied with an an allegorical
allegorical and and spectacular
spectacular plot plot oror "device"
"device" which justi~
which justi-
fied the
fied the sudden
sudden appearance
appearance of of the
the masquers
masquers who performed performed in in dumb show. show.
going-off was followed
The going-off followed by by the
the revels,
revels, inin which
which the the masquers
masquers took took out
out
the noble
the noble ladies
ladies of of the
the audience
audience for series of
for aa series of ballroom
ballroom dances.dances. Although
Although
allowing of
allowing of many
many exceptions,
exceptions, the the form
form of of the
the masque
masque was was stereotyped
stereotyped by by
its three
its three dances.
dances. The main office office of of the
the music
music consisted
consisted in in supplying
supplying the the
musical introduction,
musical introduction, fillingfilling in in the
the transitions,
transitions, accompanying
accompanying the the dances,
dances,
setting such
and setting such sections
sections of of the
the words
words as as were
were sung.
sung. The acting acting of of the
the
prologues, the
prologues, the stage
stage dialogue,
dialogue, and and the the singing
singing was was done,
done, as as aa rule,
rule, byby
professionals
professionals whereas
whereas the
the masquers
masquers were,
were, as
as in
in the
the French
French model,
model, the
the
nobility of
nobility of the
the court.
court. The features
features the the masque
masque had had in in common with with the
the
hallet dc
ballet de cour bespeak the
cour bespeak the close relation between
close relation between the the two forms:
forms: bothboth were
were
centered round
centered round stage,
stage, notnot ballroom
ballroom dances; dances; bothboth followed
followed an an allegorical
allegorical
plot;
plot; both
both were performed
performed in
in their
their essential
essential parts
parts by by members of the
of the
nobility;
nobility; both
both transcended
transcended the
the framework
framework of
of a
a mere
mere spectacle
spectacle by by the
the taking~
taking-
out
out ofof the
the ladies; both set
ladies; both set great
great store
store byby staging,
staging, costumes.
costumes, and, and, before
before all,
all,

elaborate
elaborate machines.
machines.
In
In spite
spite ofof the
the obvious
obvious dependence
dependence of of the masque on plots
the masque plots taken
taken from
the
the ballet
ballet de cour and
de cour and thethe Italian intermezzo the
Italian inkrmezzo the English
English masque became
masque
aa distinctive
distinctive art art form of of its
its own because
because of of the
the literary
literary genius
genius of of Ben Jon~Jon-
son, Milton, and others, and
son, Milton, and others, and the formalism the formalism of
of its
its tripartite
tripartite structure.
structure. The
baroque
baroque masque masque had had crystallized
crystallized after after manifold
manifold renaissance
renaissance antecedents
antecedents
in
in the
the masque
masque Proteus,
Proteus, and Daniel's
Daniel's ViSIon
Vision of
of Twdue
Twelve Goddesses (1604).
(1604).
In
In the
the next
next year began
year began the
the famous
famous collaboration
collaboration of
of Ben Jonson
Jonson with the
architect Inigo Jones (Masque of Blackness.
architect Inigo Jones (Masque of Blackness, 1605). Jones brought IOOs). Jones brought to
to the
the
English
English stagestage the
the Italian
Italian innovations
innovations of of the
the movable set, set, and the change
the change of of
scenery
scenery before
before thethe eyes
eyes of of the
the audience
audience by by means of of machines,
machines, thus setting setting
an
an end
end to to the
the static
static scenery
scenery of
of renaissance
renaissance "mansions:'
"mansions." With Jonson's
Jonson's
Masque
Masque of Queens (1609)
of Queens (1609) the the antimasques
antimasqucs which emphasized emphasized the comic
and burlesque appeared
and burlesque appeared for the first for the first time.
time. They
They very soon spread
very spread to to such

an
an extent
extent thatthat continuity
continuity and and unity
unity of of the argument were well~nigh
the argument well-nigh lost.lost.

These
These developments
developments correspond
correspond to to the
the effusion
effusion of of unrelated entriesentries in the the
ballet a
bdlct & mtrees.
entries.
1 82 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The
The masque
masque as as a
a literary
literary form influenced
influenced in turn the
in turn the drama,
drama, in
in which
music found an increasingly important
music found an increasingly important place, place, as
as the
the plays
plays of
of Beaumont
and
and Fletcher
Fletcher show.
show. Besides
Besides Jonson Milton, whose Comus cannot
Jonson and Milton, cannot be
considered
considered as
as a
a typical masque,
typical masque, the
the outstanding
outstanding poets
poets of
of the
the masque
masque were
were
the
the poet-musician Campion, Shirley,
poet-musician Campion, Shirley, Carew,
Carew, and Davenant who succeeded
succeeded

Jonson as
Ben Jonson as poet
poet laureate
laureate at
at the
the court.
court.

The music
music to to the
the early
early masques
masques was written written on an unpretentious
unpretentious scale scale

with
with the
the resources
resources available
available at at the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the century.
century. The dance
dance
music
music proper
proper consisted,
consisted, likelike that
that of the hallet
of the ballet dede cour.
cour, of simple, if
of simple, if some-
some-
what dry,
what dry, melodies
melodies in bipartite form that
in bipartite that stood
stood outside
outside of of the
the stereotyped
stereotyped
rhythmic patterns'
rhythmic patterns of
of ballroom
ballroom dances.
dances. Most of
of the
the dances
dances have come down
to
to us
us only
only in
in oudine
outline form as
as melody
melody and bass,
bass, and rarely suggest
rarely suggest the
the very
very
elaborate
elaborate orchestration
orchestration and doubling
doubling to
to which the
the stage
stage directions
directions some-
some-
times
times refer. passamezzi. galliardes,
refer. The passamezzi, galliardes, corantos,
corantos, and other other ballroom
ballroom dancesdances
of
of the
the revels
revels were
were unfortunately
unfortunately almost almost nevernever recorded
recorded with the the other
other
extant
extant music.
music.
Since
Since much of of the
the music
music for for the
the masque
masque has has been
been lost,
lost, occasional
occasional ref- ref-

erences in the stage directions are

erences in the stage directions are often our only often our only source
source of
of information
information
about
about the
the character
character of of the music. The extant
the music. extant songs
songs of of the
the early masques
early masques
did
did not
not differ
differ in in style
style from the
the lutenists'
lutenists' songs
songs discussed
discussed in
in Chapter
Chapter II. II.

Campion's Masque
Campion's Masque of of Lord
Lord Hayes (1607)
Hayes (1607)
*
1 of
of which only
only two songs
songs and
and
three
three dances
dances are are known proves proves thatthat thethe music
music of of the
the Jacobean
Jacobean masque masque
showed at at first
first no sign
sign of of operatic
operatic influence,
influence, and not not byby coincidence
coincidence did did
masquing
masquing songs songs appear
appear in in the
the printed
printed lute books of
lute books of the
the time.
time. The tra- tra-

ditional
ditional lute
lute song
song and instrumental
instrumental dances dances and consorts provided at
consorts provided at first
first

enough variety.
enough variety. In the
the Lord's
Lord's Masque
Masque CampionCampion combined spoken
spoken words
words
and music in in the
the manner of of the
the eighteenth-century
eighteenth-century melodrama,melodrama, an an innova-
innova-
tion
tion that
that occurred
occurred also also inin contemporary
contemporary French music (Bouzignac), (Bouzignac), but but
that remained without
that without consequence
consequence at
at the
the time.
time.
The first
first mention of recitative can
of recitative can bebe found in Jonson's Vision
in Ben Jonson's Vision of of
Delight (1617),
Delight (1617), one of
of his
his most charming
charming masques,masques, in
in which the in-
the in-

troductory
troductory speech
speech "Let your shows
"Let your shows be be new and strange"strange" was was sung,
sung, fittingly
fittingly
cnoug~
enough, in in "stylo recitativo." In
"stylo recitativo." In Jonson's Lovers Made Men of
Jonson's Lovers the same
of the same
year
year the
the poet
poet asserted that "the
asserted that "the whole masque masque was was sungsung after
after thethe Italian
Italian

manner, stylo
manner, stylo recitativo.
recitativo, by by Master Nicholas
Nicholas Lanier,Lanier, who ordered ordered and
made both the the scene
scene and the the music."
music." A later later reference
reference to to recitative
recitative occurs
occurs

Arkwright, Old
11 Arkwright. Old Bnglish
English 'Edition.
Edition, I.
i.
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and and Restoration
Restoration 183 183
in Townshend's
in Albion's Triumph.
Townshend's Albion's Triumph. ItIt isis difficult
difficult to to determine
determine how how much
much
recitative was
recitative was actually
actually used
used inin the
the masques,
masques, but but itit isis certain
certain that
that masques
masques
sung throughout
sung throughout were were exceptional.
exceptional.
The first
The first generation
generation of of masque
masque composers
composers comprising
comprising Campion,
Campion, Cope-Cope-
rario,
rario, Alfonso
Alfonso Ferrabosco,
Ferrabosco, Giles,Giles, and
and Robert Johnson was
Robert Johnson was on the whole on the whole
obligated to
obligated to the
the late
late renaissance
renaissance style.
style. Of
Of these
these masters
masters Ferrabosco
Ferrabosco was was
exalted by
exalted by Ben
Ben Jonson
Jonson as as "mastering
"mastering all all the
the spirits
spirits of of music."
music." In In the
the music
music
of the
of the second
second generation
generation the the early
early baroque
baroque style
style isis clearly
clearly apparent
apparent in in the
the
adaptations
adaptations of
of the
the stilc
stile rapprcscntativo
rappresentativo to
to the
the English language,
English language, and
and the
the
monodic conception
monodic conception of of melody.
melody. The The masters
masters to be mentioned
to be mentioned here here are
are
Nicholas Lanier
Nicholas Lanier (d. 1666), William
(d. 1666), William Lawes
Lawes (d. 1645), Henry
(d. 1645), Henry Lawcs
Lawes (d. (d.
1662),
1662), Simon
Simon Ives,
Ives, and
and Wilson,
Wilson, who were
were followed
followed by
by a
a slightly
slightly later
later

group of
group of the
the declining
declining phase
phase ofof the
the masque
masque like like Coleman
Coleman (d. 1664), Cap-
(d. 1664), Cap-
tain
tain Cooke (d. 1~), Christopher Gibbons
(d. 1672), Christopher Gibbons (the son (the son of
of Orlando),
Orlando), and and
Matthew Locke.
Matthew Locke.
adoption of
The adoption of speech
speech rhythm
rhythm in in the
the recitative,
recitative, and and thethe dualism
dualism of of
melody
melody and
and merely supporting
merely supporting bass
bass have
have cast
cast a
a shadow of
of low
low esteem
esteem on
the music
the music of Lanier and
of Lanier and thethe brothers
brothers Lawes.
Lawes. Lanier's
Lanier's cantata
cantata Hero and
Leander, composed
Leander, composed "in recitative musick"
"in recitative musick" for for solo voice and thorough-
solo voice thorough-
bass, gives
bass, us
us an
an idea
idea of
of the
the Englished
Englished form
form of
of recitative (Ex.
recitative (Ex. 51).
51). This
gives

Ah me!
-
Ex. 51. Lanier: Monody Hero and Leander.
II

.... ah metbe Light, tbe Lipls blOWll oat! () Gods!

-
Q-

,
spare my jew.,,1! Pl- ty til<> Cries &lid Tllan; of _tch-ed He- rol

tr-

piece, composed upon Lanier's

piece, composed upon
Lanier's return
return from
from Italy,
Italy, was
was at
at the
the time
time aa famous
famous
composition
composition
which
whidb "for many
"for years
many years went
went around
around from
from hand
hand to
to hand,"
hand/*
as Roger North asserts in his Music-all
as Roger North assorts in his Musicall Gramarian.
Gramarian. The
The plaint
plaint of
of Hero,
Hero,
184 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
"altho
"altho itit comes
comes not not up
up to the spirit
to the spirit ofof the
the Italian
Italian compositions
compositions of of the
the time"
time"

(North), was
(North), was the
the only
only English
English monodymonody that more nearly
that more nearly approached
approached an an
affective
affective recitative
recitative than
than any other by
any other by his
his contemporaries.
contemporaries. It It was obviously
obviously
composed in
composed in imitation
imitation of of the d'Arianna, even
Lamento d'Arianna,
the Lamcnto even more closely closely
imitated
imitated in in Henry
Henry Lawes'
Lawes' lament
lament Ariadne
Ariadne deserted
deserted (c. 1640).2
(c. 1640) ? The dif- dif-

ference
ference between
between Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's and
and Lawes's
Lawes's compositions
compositions strikes
strikes the
the ear
ear
at
at once
once and
and indicates
indicates the
the widewide gap gap between
between Italian
Italian and
and English
English concep-
concep-
tions
tions of
of musical
musical declamation.
declamation.
The English
English composers of
composers of the
the early baroque were
early baroque were unable
unable to to grasp
grasp the the
essence
essence of of the
the recitative,
recitative, the
the affective
affective intensification
intensification of
of the
the word,
word, and
and had
had
to
to find
find a a substitute
substitute for
for it.
it. Like
Like thethe French,
French, theythey emphasized
emphasized the the rhythmic
rhythmic
factor in
factor in the
the recitative
recitative atat the
the expense
expense of of melodic
melodic contour
contour and and harmonic
harmonic
interest.
interest. Although
Although similar
similar with
with regard
regard to
to rhythm,
rhythm, the
the French
French and
and English
English
recitatives
recitatives differed
differed with
with regard
regard to
to prosody;
prosody; whereas
whereas French
French composers
composers
preferred
preferred dactylic
dactylic and
and anapaestic patterns, the
anapaestic patterns, the English
English favored
favored dotted dotted
rhythms
rhythms on on the
the upbeat
upbeat and
and suchsuch syncopations
syncopations as
as occur
occur naturally
naturally in
in "never"
"never"
()
(//)J. ). Compared
Compared with with the the Italian
Italian recitative
recitative those
those of of the
the early
early French
French
and English
English were
were lacking
lacking in
in pathos
pathos and
and flexibility; they
flexibility; they stood
stood on
on the
the
borderline between
borderline between song
song andand recitative,
recitative, with too arid
with too arid and
and stiff
stiff aa melody
melody
for
for song
song andand too
too active
active aa bass
bass forfor recitative.
recitative. NotNot touched
touched by by the
the affective
affective

intensity
intensity of
of Peri
Peri and Monteverdi
Monteverdi they
they had
had also
also little
little of
of the
the spectacular
spectacular
virtuosity
virtuosity of of Caccini.
Caccini. What the the English
English composers
composers shared
shared with
with thethe Italians
Italians

was merely
merely the the declamatory
declamatory principle,
principle, not not its
its affective
affective application.
application. Only Only
in
in the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque did did composers
composers like like Humfrey,
Humfrey, Blow,Blow, and and Purcell
PurceU
infuse
infuse sufficient
sufficient pathos
pathos into
into the
the melody
melody to to achieve
achieve affective
affective declamation
declamation in in
music.
music.
The "songs"
"songs" of of the
the masque
masque were were usually written for
usually written for voice
voice and unfigured
and unfigured
bass, and were interspersed
bass, interspersed with with small
small chordal
chordal choruses.
choruses. The artful man-
artful man-
ner in
ner in which
which Henry
Henry Lawes
Lawes set
set words
words to
to music
music has
has been
been extolled
extolled 'by many
by many
poets of
poets of the
the time,
time, especially
especially by by Milton
Milton in his sonnet:
in his sonnet:

Harry,
Harry, whose
whose tuneful
tuneful and
and well measur'd Song
well measur'd Song
First
First taught
taught our English Music how to
our English to span
span
Words with just note
with just and accent
note and accent . . .

This praise is undeserved

praise is undeserved insofar
insofar as
as it
it raises
raises one
one individual
individual out
out of
of a
a group
group
of composers of
of composers of equal
equal merit.
merit. Milton's
Milton's enthusiasm
enthusiasm is
is all
all the
the more
more exag-
exag-
gerated
gerated because
because the
the poet
poet had
had the
the opportunity his stay
opportunity during his stay in Rome to
during in to

22 OHM m.
HI, 2U.
sir.
 Music During Commonwealth
Music During Commonwealth and Restoration 18
and Restoration 5
185
hear
hear the
the genuinely
genuinely operatic
operatic performance
performance of of Leonora
Leonora Baroni
Baroni (see Chapter
(see Chapter
V),
V), whose praise
whose praise he sang
sang in in his
his Latin
Latin verses.
verses. The
The songs
songs
of
of William
William Lawes
Lawes
betray aa less
betray less vigorous temperament than
vigorous temperament that of
than that of Henry,
Henry, but
but are
are hardly
hardly
inferior in
inferior in "just
"just note and accent."
accent." The fivefive extant
extant songs
songs from
from Milton's
Milton's
Comus (1634) 8
(1634) 8 byby Henry
Henry Lawes are are typical
typical examples
examples of of the
the early baroque
early baroque
continuo song.
continue song. They
They areare quasi-recitatives characterized by
quasi-recitatives characterized by incisive
incisive marking
marking
of the rhyme,
rhyme, frequent
frequent and suddensudden cadences,
cadences, discontinuous rhythm, and
discontinuous rhythm,
an erratically
erratically moving bass. The melody
moving bass. melody is carried forward
is carried forward mainly
mainly by by the
the
prosody
prosody of
of verse
verse fragments.
fragments. The musical
musical rhythm is, however,
rhythm is, however, not
not derived
derived
from the
the regular
regular meter of of the
the verse, but is
verse, but is achieved
achieved by by emphatic repeats
emphatic repeats
of
of single
single words or phrases. The tension
or phrases. between the
tension between the regularity
regularity of of the
the
poetic
poetic meter and the the discontinuous
discontinuous cadential
cadential falls
falls of
of the
the music makes for
music makes for
the
the strong rhythmic
strong rhythmic interest
interest of
of these
these songs,
songs, as
as can
can be
be seen
seen in
in Lawes's
Lawes's music
music
to
to the Eighth Sonnet of
the Eighth of Spenser's Amorett; 4. (Ex.
Spenser's Amoretti* (Ex. 52).
52). Lawes introduces
introduces

Lawes: More tlllm most fair.

than most
Ex. 52.
Ex. 52. Henry
Henry Lawes:

~lorP
- fair*

-
'than mOltI Calr. Cull of IIIP liv - inlf fire kiJl.dJedabCM' UJIoIo the mat -,.. _

ro -11

here three
here three cadences
cadences in the
in the first
first two lines forcefully shifts
lines and forcefully shifts the
the accent
accent
at
at the
the words
words "unto
"unto thy maker." The angular
thy maker." melody, the rhythmic
angular melody, the rhythmic vigor,
vigor,
and
and the
the absence
absence ofof affective
affective skips
skips distinguish
distinguish this
this style
style from thethe Italian.
Italian.

Burney's
Burney's harsh
harsh censure
censure of Lawes's songs-he
of Lawes's songs he speaks
speaks of
of CIa
"a series
series of
of un-
meaning
meaning sounds"
sounds" characterized
characterized by "insipid simplicity"
by "insipid simplicity" -misses
-misses the
the point
point
of the
of the music
music and amusingly
amusingly illustrates
illustrates the
the prejudice
prejudice of
of eighteenth-century
eighteenth-century
judgment, though
judgment, though a a few
few of
of Burney's
Burney's remarks on faultyfaulty accentuation
accentuation arearc
still
still valid
valid today.
today. But
But Burney
Burney could
could not
not comprehend
comprehend the the peculiar rhythmic
peculiar rhythmic
vitality
vitality
of
of the
the songs
songs derived
derived from the
the close
close interdependence
interdependence of poetry
poetry
and music.
music.
Music
Music for
for masques
masques was was often
often composed
composed collectively
collectively byby several com-
several COM-
5
posers. For Milton's Comus and Carew's
posers. For Milton's
Carcw's Coelum Britannicum Ii Henry
Codum Britannicum Henry
Lawes
Lawes alone
alone wrote
wrote the
the music,
music, but
but for Davenant's Triumph
for Davenant's Triumph of of the Prince
Prince
il'
d'Amour* 1636) the
Amour 8 ((1636) brothers Lawes collaborated,
the brothers as did William Lawes
collaborated, as
and Ives in
and Ives in the
the music
music for
for Shirley's Triumph 0/
Shirley's Triumph Pea&e. After
of Peace. After 1630
1630 the
the masque
masque
8 Ed. by Foss,
Ed. by Foss, I938; HAM no.
1938; HAM no. 204-
204.
4 Sec
40 Evans, Henry
See Evans, Henry Lat.ue.r,
Lawes, 67. 6,. .
Evans, op.
Evans, cit. 96,
op. cit. points out certain
96, points certain resemblances between these
resemblances between these atypical
atypical masques.
* masques.
9 Dent,
Dent, Ftnmthtio1U,
Foundations, 30-
30.
186
1 86 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
entered
entered its phase of
its phase of decline.
decline. In
In the
the measure
measure in which splendor
in which splendor and
and costs
costs
mounted, the
mounted, the plotplot of
of the
the masque grew
masque grew more and more chaotic.
chaotic. Luminalia
Luminalia 7
'I
by
by Davenant
Davenant and and Inigo
Inigo Jones
Jones with
with music
music byby Lanier
Lanier illustrates
illustrates the
the decline;
decline;
it
it is
is slavishly
slavishly based
based on an an Italian
Italian model.
model. The innerinner disintegration
disintegration could
could
not be
not be stopped
stopped byby a
a concentration
concentration on the
the musical
musical elements
elements of
of the
the masque.
masque.
Attacks
Attacks from
from without
without hastened
hastened its
its downfall,
downfall, especially
especially the
the Histriomastix
Histriomastix
(1633)
(1633) byby Prynne,
Prynne, whose abusive
abusive denunciation
denunciation of of the
the masque,
masque, the theater
the theater
in
in general,
general, and the the depraved
depraved useuse ofof "lust-provoking
"lust-provoking songs"
songs" epitomizes
epitomizes
earlier
earlier and later
later Puritan
Puritan criticism.
criticism.

When the masque as

the masque as a a regular
regular court
court institution
institution fell
fell with
with Cromwell's
Cromwell's
rise
rise to
to power,
power, it
it was an overripe and doomed form.
overripe form. The Commonwealth
did
did not
not interrupt
interrupt the the musical
musical lifelife as
as severely
severely asas Burney
Burney and others have
others have
claimed.
claimed. Although stage
Although stage plays plays were forbidden,
forbidden, musical
musical shows passed
passed thethe
censorship
censorship andand music
music in in the
the homes of of the
the urban
urban middle
middle classes
classes flourished
flourished
~ore than
more than ever.
ever. Shirley's
Shirley's masque
masque Cupid Cupid and Death
Death (1653)
(1653) was privately
privately
pormed
performed with
with music
music by Christopher
by Christopher Gibbons and Locke.
Locke. s8
In
In 1656 Dave-
1656 Dave-
~t
n^nt received
received permission
permission to
to perform publicly
perform publicly an
an "Entertainment
"Entertainment at
at Rutland
Rutland
House by by Declamations
Declamations and and Musick,
Musick, afterafter the manner of
the manner of the
the Ancients"
Ancients"
with
with music by by Henry
Henry Lawes,
Lawes, Captain
Captain Cooke,
Cooke, and Hudson. In In the in-
the in-
troduction
troduction the the sullen
sullen and cheerful
cheerful dispositions
dispositions of
of Diogenes
Diogenes and Aris-
Aris-
tophanes
tophanes werewere contrasted
contrasted in in music,
music, an an idea
idea obviously
obviously suggested
suggested by by
Carissimi's cantata I Piloloft (see
Carissimi's cantata / Filosoft (see p. 122). p. 122).
The performance
performance of of the
the first
first English
English opera,
opera, The Siege
Siege of Rhodes (1656)
of Rhodes (1656)
by
by Davenant with
with music
music by Henry
by Henry Lawes,
Lawes, Captain
Captain Cooke.
Cooke, and Locke,
Locke, falls
falls

under Puritan
under rule. Davenant cautio~ly
Puritan rule. cautiotfisly called
called his
his work "representation,"
"representation,"
not
not opera,
opera, aa term that might have
that might have aroused
aroused thethe suspicion
suspicion ofof the
the Puritans,
Puritans, and
designated
designated thethe five
five acts
acts asas "entries"
"entries" in the manner of
in the of the
the masque.
masque. The plot plot
was historical,
historical, not
not mythological
mythological like like the
the ID:ajority
majority of
of Italian
Italian operas
operas of
of the
the
day.
day. Davenant informs
informs us
us that
that the
the story
story was
was "sung
"sung in
in recitative
recitative musick"
musick"
and that
that he varied
varied the
the length
length of of the
the verses because "alterations
verses because "alterations of of measure
measure

... are
are necessary
necessary to to recitative
recitative musick for for variation
variation of of ayres."
ayres." Whether
or
or not
not this
this remark implies
implies a a distinction between recitative
distinction between recitative and aria, just
aria, just
becoming
becoming fashionable
fashionable in
in Italy,
Italy, cannot
cannot be
be determined
determined since
since the
the music
music is
is

unfortunately
unfortunately not
not extant
extant However.
However, the
the appearance
appearance of
of stanzaic
stanzaic songs
songs in
in
the
the libretto
libretto suggests
suggests an affirmative
affirmative answer.
answer.
7
OHM m,
'OHM m, 200.
8 Example
Example in Dent, op.
in Dent, op. cit.,
cit., 8g.
89.
 Music
Music During
During Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 18
1877
That the
That the first
first effort
effort toward English opera has
English opera has remained
remained without
without con-
con-
sequence,
sequence, and and that
that also
also subsequent
subsequent attempts
attempts byby Blow
Blow and
and Purcell
Purcell must
must be
be
considered isolated, if
considered isolated, if successful,
successful, experiments,
experiments, has
has been
been explained
explained by
by the
the
theory
theory of opera in
of an
an English
English aversion
aversion to to opera in principle and by temperament.
principle and by temperament.
While it it is
is true
true that
that the
the recitative
recitative had
had toto overcome
overcome in in the
the process of its
process of its
nationalization
nationalization the same kind of of resistance
resistance as
as in
in France,
France, its
its refined
refined and
and
truly
truly affective
affective handling
handling by by typical English composers
typical English composers like
like Blow
Blow and
and Pur-
Pur-
cell
cell refutes the theory.theory. Actually,
Actually, the the opera lacked in
opera lacked in England
England the the social
social
foundation on which it flourished in
it Bourished Italy, France,
in Italy, France, andand Germany, namely
Germany, namely
the spiritual
spiritual center of a representative
representative court.
court. The restored
restored English
English court
court

politically weak and in

was politically in spite
spite of
of its
its aping of
aping of French
French manners
manners had
had
nothing
nothing of the austere,
austere, if
if pompous, spirit
pompous, spirit of
of the
the French
French court.
court. Had the
the
Commonwealth continued, continued, a commercial
commercial public opera
public opera like
like that
that in Venice
in Venice
or
or Hamburg
Hamburg might possibly have developed
might possibly developed outout of
of the
the tentative
tentative beginnings.
beginnings.
After
After the Restoration the court court masque
masque was revived
revived as as aa main form of of
entertainment, and it
entertainment, is symbolic
it is symbolic that
that Purcell's
PurcelFs Dido
Dido and
and Aeneas
Aeneas was
was not
not
written for
written the court
for the court butbut for
for amateurs.
amateurs.
After his
After only and very
his only very successful opera Davcnant
successful opera Davenant wrotewrote two stagestage
works thatthat he called
called "operas" though they
"operas" though they were really masques.
were really masques. The musicmusic
of these is
of these is also lost. They
also lost. They were
were later
later condensed
condensed and combined in
in his
his Play-
Play-
house to
house to be
he Let (1663) in
Let (1663) in which
which he he answered
answered those
those who found
found thethe recitative
recitative
not "natural"
not "natural" withwith thethe following
following veryvery apt
apt definition:
definition:

Recitative
Recitative Musick
Musick is not
is not compos'd
compos'd
matter so
Of matter so familiar,
familiar, as may serve
as may serve
For every
For every low
low occasion
occasion of
of discourse.
discourse.
In Tragedy,
In Tragedy, the
the language
language of
of the
the Stage
Stage
Is rais'd
Is rais'd above
above the
the common dialect.
dialect.

The masques
masques andand theatrical
theatrical plays
plays of
of the
the Restoration
Restoration brought
brought new com-
posers to
posers to the
the fore,
fore, notably (I633?-I6r;) and John
notably Matthew Locke (i633?-i677> John Blow
(c. 1648-1708) who both
(c. 1648-1708)
both held
held court
court positions
positions under
under Charles
Charles"II. In the
II. In the works
of these
of these masters
masters the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque style
style is
is firmly
firmly established. Also the
established. Also the
French
French musician
musician Grabu, a
a pupil
Grabu, pupil of
of Lully
Lully and court
court composer
composer to
to Charles
Charles
II, must be mentioned, whose wretched
II, must be mentioned, whose
wretched English
English declamation
declamation makes that that
of Handel's
of Handel's early
early English
English works appear flawless by
appear flawless by comparison.
comparison. Grabu
wrote the
wrote the music
music for
for Perrin's Ariane (originally
Perrin's Ariane (originally composed
composed by by Cambcrt),
Cambert),
performed
performed in
in London
London by
by the
the newly
newly founded
founded Royal
Royal Academy
Academy of Music
of

(1674), and
(1674), and
also
also for
for Dryden's
Dryden's unsuccessful
unsuccessful opera
opera Albion
Albion and
and AllNmus
Albanus
(1685). The latter is historically important as another attempt
(1685). The latter work is historically important
as another Ilttempt at de-
at <Jc-
I88
1 88 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
veloping
veloping the the masque
masque into into a a real
real opera,
opera, but but musically
musically hardlyhardly absorbing.
absorbing.
99

The distinction
distinction betweenbetween recitative
recitative and aria aria or,
or, asas Dryden
Dryden translates,
translates, "the
"the
songish
songish part,"
part," isis openly
openly acknowledged
acknowledged and observed. observed. The allegorical
allegorical nature
nature
of
o the
the plot
plot and the the frequent
frequent dancesdances areare obvious
obvious survivals
survivals of of the
the masque.
masque.
Matthew Locke, indubitably
Locke, indubitably the
the greatest
greatest theatrical
theatrical talent
talent before
before Pur-
Pur-
cell,
cell, wrote
wrote music for
for numerous stage productions, notably
stage productions, notably Cupid and Cupid and
Death, the
Death, the masque
masque Orpheus
Orpheus and Euridice Euridice (an (an intermezzo
intermezzo in in Settle's
Settle's Em-

press
press of Morocco, 1673),
of Morocco, 1673), Shadwell's
Shadwell's adaptation
adaptation of of the
the comedy-ballet
comedy-ballet PsychePsyche
(1675) by Moliere-Lully,
(1675) by Moliere-Lully, The Tempest,
Tempest, and Macbeth. The two latterlatter works
works
belong
belong to
to the
the group
group of
of bowdlerized
bowdlerized Shakespeare
Shakespeare arrangements which be-
arrangements which be-
10
came the the Restoration
Restoration fashion.
fashion. 10 The music to Tempest and Psyche
to The Tempest
Psyche
was published
published in in 1675
1675 under the the title
tide The English
English Opera.
Opera.
Locke's
Locke's affective
affective vein
vein is is already clearly
already clearly manifested
manifested in
in his
his youthful
youthful Cupid
Cupid
l l Although the style of this work can hardly
and Death.
Death.^ Although the style of this can hardly conceal
conceal its
its in-
in-
debtedness
debtedness to to Italy,
Italy, there
there are are also
also some definitely
definitely non-Italian
non-Italian features,
features,
especially
especially uncouth progressions,
progressions, that that seem to to mar the the curves
curves of of the
the bel
bel
canto.
canto. These progressions
progressions have,
have, in
in the
the case
case of
of Blow,
Blow, become
become famous
famous as
as
"crudities"
"crudities" (Burney); they can,
(Burney) they can, however,
; however, be
be found
found in
in at
at least
least equal meas-
equal meas-
ure in
ure in Locke.
Locke. Awkward harmonic progressions, odd melodic
harmonic progressions, turns, and
melodic turns, and
many simultaneous
many simultaneous or closely closely spaced
spaced cross-relations
cross-relations are are characteristics
characteristics of of
the English
the English middle baroque baroque style,style, which have have incorrectly
incorrectly been been inter-
inter-
preted as
preted symptoms of
as symptoms of aa deficient
deficient artistic training. Actually,
artistic training. Actually, however,
however, theythey
reflect the
reflect the peculiarly
peculiarly "late""late" historical
historical position
position of of the
the English
English musicians.
musicians.
Only toward 16so
Only 1650 diddid Locke and his his contemporaries
contemporaries discover discover thethe pos-
pos-
sibilities inherent
sibilities inherent in in thethe experimental
experimental harmonies
harmonies of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque
recitative, at
recitative, at aa time
time when they they had already
already developed
developed the the elementary
elementary tonal-
tonal-
ity
ity of
of the
the middle baroque.
baroque. The belated
belated fusion
fusion of
of early
early and
and middle baroque
middle baroque
concepts created
concepts created this this unique
unique English
English idiomidiom in in which
which "crudities"
"crudities" werewere
sought after
sought after asas an end in in themselves
themselves for for the
the sake
sake of of harmonic
harmonic richness
richness andand
sheer sonority,
sheer sonority, not, not, as in Byrd's
as in Byrd's music,
music, forfor the
the sake
sake ofof contrapuntal
contrapuntal part-part-
writing. In
writing. In spite
spite ofof strong
strong tonaltonal progressions
progressions an an overall
overall direction
direction ofof har-
har-
mony
mony was lacking in the English
lacking in the English style.
style. The augmented
augmented and and diminished
diminished
steps of
steps of the
the melody
melody with with their
their erratic
erratic and and vigorous
vigorous rhythm
rhythm seemedseemed to to
contradict the
contradict the full
full tonal
tonal cadences.
cadences. The peculiar
peculiar effect
effect of
of the
the English
English idiom
idiom
can be
can be described
described as as the
the cksh
clash between
between the the chromatic,
chromatic, or or rather
rather non-tonal
non-tonal

9
Example in Dent, op. cit., 166.
I Example in Dent, op. cit.t 166.
10 The
10 The music for Macheath has been ascribed to Leveridge and also to Purcell but
music for Macbeath has been ascribed to Leveridge and also to
Purcdl, but
the latter asaiption is highly improbable on stylistic ~ounds.
the latter ascription is highly improbable on stylistic grounds.
11
Dent, op. cit., 890
11 Dent, op. ctt. f 89.
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 189
189
melody and
melody and an
an essentially
essentially diatonic
diatonic harmony.
harmony. To put
put it
it paradoxically,
paradoxically, the
the
chromaticism of
chromaticism of the
the English
English style
style was
was diatonically
diatonically conceived.
conceived.
Locke, one
Locke, one of
of the
the first
first important
important composers inin the
the English idiom, did
composers did not
not
English idiom,
consistently adhere
consistently adhere to
to it. In
In the
it. the vocal
vocal sections
sections to Psyche 12
to Psyche he did
12 he did not
not al-
al-
ways show
ways show himself venturesome,
himself venturesome, because
because his
his growing
growing tonaltonal consciousness
consciousnesll
barred unorthodox
barred unorthodox turns.
turns. The English
English idiom
idiom triumphed
triumphed in in John
John Blow's
Blow's
Venus and
Venus and Adonis
Adonis (c. 1682),18
(c. i682>, 18
written for
written for one
one of of the
the mistresses
mistresses of of Charles
Charles
II. Blow
II. Blow called
called his
his work,
work, the the only
only court
court opera
opera composed
composed by by anan English
English
musician, "masque"
musician, "masque" in
in conformity with the titles of the other
conformity with the titles of the other court enter- court enter-
tainments, but in spite
tainments, but in spite of
of its
its title
title and
and its
its diminutive
diminutive dimensions
dimensions it it was
was aa
full-fledged opera.
full-fledged opera.
Venus and Adonis begins begins with
with aa French
French overture
overture and and the
the French
French model
model
obtains also
obtains also inin the
the pastoral
pastoral prologue.
prologue. AtAt this
this point,
point, however,
however, the the French
French
influence ends.
influence ends. The music of of the
the subsequent
subsequent three
three short
short acts
acts shows
shows aa strong
strong
Italian cast.
Italian cast. Blow hashas little
little regard
regard for
for tonal
tonal unity,
unity, and
and thethe affective
affective style
style
of his
of recitatives goes
his recitatives goes often
often far beyond what
far beyond what any any other
other English
English master
master has
has
ever dared to
ever to write.
write. Especially
Especially the the last
last act,
act, consisting
consisting of of aa passionate
passionate
dialogue between Venus and Adonis
dialogue Adonis (Ex. 53) and
(Ex. 53) and aa final
final chorus,
chorus, sets
sets the
the
Ex. 53. Blow: Recitative
Recitative of
of Venus
Venus from
from Venus and Adonis.
Adonis.
Ex. 53. Blow:
'f\, . Venus and

- .
" A
.
Ias, Death's aleep thou art t;;;' JOWIg to take, '1111 croans

-
II

&I
1h8I1 reilch
- i s ---
_po;.h & "'"-
heaves; ohl_powVs ~ake
tfe beav'Ds;nh
reach the pit.y
a-bov* Take pit-y em
I.
D! II
....
theWl1ltcb4c1 Queen of love!

i=i
III
violence
violence of
of affections
affections above
above any
any other
other consideration.
consideration. The stereotyped
stereotyped tonal
tonal
cadence at the
cadence at the end of
of the
the quoted
quoted excerpt
excerpt strangely
strangely conflicts with the power-
conflicts with the power-
ful
ful melodic
melodic design
design at
at the
the beginning.
beginning. Blow's
Blow's inability
inability to
to master this
this in-
in-

consistency
consistency inherent
inherent in
in the
the English
English idiom
idiom appears
appears in
in his
his music as
as wavering,
wavering,
and
and is
is much more disturbing
disturbing than
than the
the actual
actual "crudities,"
"crudities," such as as the
scarcely disguised parallel
scarcely disguised parallel fifths
fifths on the
the word "groan,"
"groan," which may
may have
been
been written
written for
for descriptive
descriptive purposes.
purposes.

12 Examples in OHM,
12 Examples in OHM. III, 291 and Dent, 01'.
III, 291 m., II7.
Dent, op. cit., 117.
18 Ed.
18 Ed. by Lewis (Ois~au
by Lewis (Oiscau Lyr~),
Lyre), 1939;
1939; a
a less
less complete
complete edition in
Arkwright, 01'.
edition in Arkwright, op. at..
A,
25; also
25; also HAM no.
no. 243-
243.
190 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
The arias
arias which
which are
are clearly
clearly set
set off
off from the
the recitatives
recitatives give
give testimony
testimony
of Blow's influence
of Blow's influence on his
his pupil
pupil Purcell.
Purcell. The characteristic
characteristic gracing
gracing figure,
figure,
the
the written-out
written-out "slide"
"slide" on the
the strong beat, has
strong beat, has wrongly
wrongly been regarded
regarded
as
as a
a personal
personal characteristic
characteristic of
of Purcell; actually, it
Purcell; actually, it is
is typical of
typical of the period and
the period
can
can frequendy
frequently be found in
in Blow's
Blow's music (Ex. 54).
(Ex. 54).

Ex. 54
Ex. 54. Blow: Excerpt from VentlJ'
Blow: Excerpt Venus and A.donis.
- ..
and Adonis.

And a great rea. - der 0(_ ro man-ces

The important
important function
function of of the
the chorus
chorus and instrumental
instrumental music in in Venus
and Adonis
Adonis represents,
represents, of
of course,
course, a
a heritage
heritage of
of the
the masque.
masque. The first
first two

acts
acts end withwith dances, including
dances, including the
the inevitable
inevitable ground
ground on a
a descending
descending
fourth,
fourth, indebted
indebted in in its
its formal
formal rhythmic patterns to
rhythmic patterns to the
the chaconnes
chaconnes of of Lully.
Lully.
That Purcell
Purcell must have have carefully
carefully studied
studied Blow's
Blow's score
score when he he wrote
wrote
Dido and Aeneas Aeneas becomes
becomes evident
evident not
not only
only from occasional
occasional melodic
melodic sim-
sim-
ilarities
ilarities but
but especially
especially from resemblances
resemblances in
in structure,
structure, such
such as
as the
the distribu-
distribu-

tion
tion ofof the
the dances
dances and of choral and solo
of choral passages. Both works end with
solo passages. with
aa chorus
chorus in in g g of
of similar texture and character,
similar texture character, and the the delightful
delightful interlude
interlude
or
or "spelling
"spelling lesson"
lesson" inin Venus veryvery closely
closely corresponds
corresponds to to the
the intermezzo
intermezzo
Oft
Oft she
she flisits
visits in
in Dido.
Dido. It
It seems more than
than coincidental
coincidental that
that the
the basses of
basses of
the
the two pieces resemble
pieces resemble each
each other
other in contour and rhythm.
in contour and rhythm.

JENKINS AND SIMPSON

CONSORT MUSIC: JENKINS

In
In the
the field
field of
of instrumental
instrumental music
music thethe Commonwealth regime regime acted
acted
indirecdy
indirectly as
as a strong furthering
strong furthering factor
factor so
so that
that the
the line
line of
of tradition has in
tradition has in
no other
other field
field been better
better maintained
maintained thanthan here.
here. In
In the
the absence
absence of of courtly
courtly
patronage,
patronage, private
private music
music of of the
the middle
middle class
class and
and the
the nobility
nobility flourished
flourished in
in
unprecedented
unprecedented manner,
manner, and as
as a
a result
result more music
music was
was printed
printed for
for the
the
public than ever before.
public before. Significandy,
Significantly, John
John Playford's
Playford's career
career as music
as music

publisher began with the Co~onwealth.

publisher began with the Commonwealth. Even North, North, whose testimony
testimony
can readily
readily be trusted
trusted because
because ofof his
his anti-Cromwell
anti-Cromwell bias,
bias, attests to the
attests to the great
great
spurt
spurt of
of music "in private society,
"in private society, for
for many
many chose
chose rather
rather to
to fidle
fidle at home,
at home,

then to
to goe
goe out and be knockt on the the head
head abroad."
abroad."
English
English music for
for keyboard
keyboard instruments in the
instruments in the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century does
does
not measure up
not up to the
the great tradition of
great tradition of the virginalists. Surrendering
the virginalists. Surrendering its its
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and and Restoration
Restoration 191 19 1
leadingposition
leading position in in Europe,
Europe, this this music
music assimilated
assimilated first first Italian,
Italian, later
later French
French
influences. Organ
influences. Organ music
music did did notnot develop
develop because
because the the artart of
of organ
organ building
building
lagged behind
lagged behind the the times.
times. UnderUnder the the Commonwealth,
Commonwealth, church church organs
organs were
were
destroyed
destroyed by by official
official order,
order, though
though chamber
chamber organs
organs were
were not
not affected.
affected.
After the
After the Restoration
Restoration HarrisHarris and and the the German
German organ organ builder
builder Father
Father Smith
Smith
inaugurated
inaugurated a
a period of fine organ
period of fine organ construction. construction.
It isis characteristic
It characteristic that that English
English organ organ pieces
pieces for for two
two manuals
manuals were were
often specially
often specially designated
designated as as "for
"for thethe double
double organ"
organ" because
because two two manuals
manuals
were considered
were considered an an exceptional
exceptional resource.resource. The The organ
organ music music of of Tomkins
Tomkins
(d. 1656)
(d. 1656) was the belated product
was the belated product of of the
the old
old school.
school. The The newnew school
school arose
arose
with Christopher
with Christopher Gibbons,Gibbons, Rogers,
Rogers, Cromwell's
Cromwell's organist
organist Hingeston,
Hingeston, Locke,Locke,
14
and Blow,14
and Blow, and was
and was continued
continued by by Purcell,
Purcell, Croft,
Croft, Roseingravc,
Roseingrave, Greene,Greene,
and Handel.
and Handel. One of of the
the main
main formsforms of of organ
organ music,
music, beside
beside thethe verset,
verset, was
was
the voluntary,
the voluntary, roughly
roughly corresponding
corresponding in in its
its imitative
imitative texture
texture andand scope
scope toto
the fancy
the fancy of of viol
viol music
music and and to to the
the Continental
Continental organ organ fantasia.
fantasia. LikeLike thethe
fancy,
fancy, the
the voluntary
voluntary became
became toward
toward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the century
century more sec-
sec-

tional and
tional and fell
fell into
into restless,
restless, contrasted
contrasted passages;
passages; it it absorbed,
absorbed, in in addition,
addition,
improvisatory
improvisatory elements
elements of
of the
the toccata.
toccata. According
According to
to Mace the
the improvising
improvising
lutenist or
lutenist or organist
organist couldcould "Plainly
"Plainly shew shew his his Excellency
Excellency and Ability" Ability" in in
"Voluntary.
"Voluntary, or or Fansical Play." The curious
Fansical Play." overlapping of
curious overlapping of early
early and middle
baroque styles
baroque styles can
can be
be studied
studied in
in aa verse
verse by
by Blow,15
Blow,
15
one section
section of of which
is
is borrowed
borrowed verbatim,
verbatim, without
without acknowledgment,
acknowledgment, from a toccata
toccata by
by Fresco-
Frcsco-
baldi.
baldi.
The
The harpsichord
harpsichord music music consisted
consisted chiefly
chiefly of of single
single dance movements,
movements,
grounds,
grounds,
freely
freely
combined
combined suites,
suites, or
or arrangements
arrangements of
of songs
songs and
and instru-
instru-

mental
mental chamber
chamber music.music. Locke's
Locke's Mdothesia
Melothesia (1673) (1673) gives
gives besides
besides "Certain

Rules
Rules for
for Playing
Playing uponupon a
a continued-Bass"
continued-Bass'* a
a number of
of lessons
lessons and suites
suites

by Locke himself, Gregory,

by Locke himself, Gregory, Banister,
Banister, and
and others.
others. They
They contain
contain in
in varying
varying
order
order thethe familiar
familiar almains,
almains, corants,
corants, gavots,
gavots, but but also
also such titles as
such titles as "country
"country
dance"
dance" and "Round 0"
and "Round O" appear.
appear. The The latter
latter term,
term, an an English
English interpretation
interpretation
of
of the
the French
French rondeau,
rondeau, belongs
belongs to
to the
the large
large group
group of
of more
more or
or less
less happily
happily
Englished expressions,
Englished expressions,
as
as for
for example:
example: consort
consort (concerto),
(concerto), tucket
tucket (toccata),
(toccata),
passing measures (passamezzo), kickshaw
passing measures (passamezzo),
kickshaw (que/que(quelque chose),
chose), and and chacony.
chacony.
Playford's
Playford's
collection
collection Musick's
Musters Handmaid
Handmaid (1678 ff.)
(1678!!.) presents
presents the
the outstand-
outstand-

ing harpsichord music of the

ing harpsichord music of
the period,
period, including
including that that of Purcell. In
of Purcell. In this
this col-
col-

lection
lectionthe theFrench
French influence
influencemanifests
manifestsitself itselfespecially
especially in in the
the partial
partialadoption
adoption
of the French
of the French symbolssymbols for
for graces
graces and
and ornaments,
ornaments, whereas
whereas Locke's
Locke's Meh-
Melo-
14. See
West,Old
SeeWest, OldEnglisk
English Organ
OrganMusU.
14 Music.
15West, op. r:it., no.
11 West, op. ctt., no. 35.
35.
192 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
ihesia is
thesia is restricted
restricted to
to the
the old
old method ofof single
single and double
double dashes.
dashes. Blow
ranks
ranks highest
highest among
among thethe pre-Purcellian
pre-Purcellian harpsichord composers. In
harpsichord composers. In his
his
keyboard
keyboard works
works he he displays
displays less
less harmonic
harmonic wilfulness
wilfulness than
than inin his
his vocal
vocal
music,
music, but
but much rhythmic
rhythmic imagination.
imagination. Some of of his
his grounds
grounds and cha-cha-
connes
connes break
break the
the harmonic monotony
monotony byby sudden changes
changes to
to the
the opposite
opposite
mode inin the
the manner of of Louis
Louis Couperin
Couperin and Lully,
Lully, a
a device
device that
that Purcell
Purcell
was to
to adopt
adopt with such success.
with such success.

The consort
consort music
music for for viols
viols and violins
violins held
held among
among all all other
other instru-
instru-
mental
mental combinations
combinations the the most significant position in
significant position in thethe Caroline
Caroline and and
Commonwealth periods. periods. During
During the the Restoration
Restoration the popular, though
the popular, though
formerly
formerly rather
rather lowly, violins supplanted
lowly, violins supplanted the the viols,
viols, which had nevertheless
nevertheless
staunch
staunch supporters
supporters well
well into
into the
the eighteenth century. The excellence
eighteenth century. excellence of of
English
English violviol music in in the baroque is
the middle baroque is attested
attested notnot only
only byby the re-
the re-
marks of of Christopher
Christopher Simpson, North, Mace,
Simpson, North, Mace, and and others,
others, who could could be be
suspected
suspected of
of speaking
speaking with
with nationalist's
nationalist's pride
pride rather
rather than
than modesty,
modesty, but
but
also
also by
by Continental
Continental authors
authors like Rousseau (Traite
Mersenne, Rousseau
like Mersenne, (Traitt de la la Viole),
Viole),
and Eisel.
Eisel. The latter goes so
latter goes so far
far as to claim
as to claim that
that the
the viol
viol was
was anan instrument
instrument
of English
of English invention,
invention, a a symptomatic
symptomatic error indicating that
error indicating that viol
viol music
music hadhad
associated with
become associated with England.
England.
In consort
In consort music
music "fancies
"fancies are the chief,"
are the chief," as as Simpson
Simpson rightly
righdy asserted.
asserted.
Instrumental elaborations
Instrumental elaborations on on Gregorian or abstract cantus
Gregorian or abstract cantus firmi became firm; became
more and more obsolete. obsolete. William
William Lawes,Lawes, who unlike unlike his his brother
brother waswas
active mainly
active mainly in in the
the instrumental
instrumental field, field, wavered
wavered in in his
his fancies
fancies ,between
between
the retrospective
the retrospective stylestyle ofof his
his teacher
teacher Coperario
Coperario and and aa highly personal, if
highly personal, if

not eccentric
not eccentric oneone inin which
which harmonic
harmonic experiments,
experiments, wide wide skips,
skips, and
and erratic
erratic
rhythms heralded
rhythms heralded thethe new era. era. 16
16
Lawes' conservative
Lawes' conservative Royal Royal Consort
Consort 1T 11

is written
is written for for two violins,
violins, two bassbass viols,
viols, and
and twotwo theorboes
theorboes which which fill
fill in
in
the harmony
the harmony in in the
the old
old manner.
manner. The same same workwork exists,
exists, however,
however, alsoalso in in
a "modernized" version
a version asas trio
trio sonata
sonata with continuo. A number
with continue. number of of Lawes'
Lawes'
dances were
dances were posthumously
posthumously printed printed for for violins
violins (or (or viols)
viols) and and thorough-
thorough-
bass in
bass in Playford's
Playford's Courtly
Courtly Masquing
Masquing Ayres Ayres (1662).
(1662).
stylistic change
The stylistic change thatthat took
took place
place inin the
the fancy
fancy can
can best
best be
be studied
studied in in
the works
the works of of the
the leading
leading composer
composer of of fancies,
fancies, JohnJohn Jenkins (1592-16]8)
Jenkins (1592-1678)
16
See the
16 See the amazing fancy
amazing in cc in
fancy in in Meyer, English Chamber
Meyer, English Chamber Music,
Music, 265.
265.
17
See the
11 See the Patlan in
Pavan IGng's Music,
in King's 50, and
Music, 50, and the Almand in
the Almond in Meyer,
Meyer, op. cit.,
op. dt., 181. The
181. The
oft-quoted statement
oft-quoted statement that
that Charles
Charles II referred
referred to
to William
William Lawes
Lawes as
as "the
"the Father
Father of
of
Music" confuses
Music" William Lawes with
confuses William with an
an older
older musician of the
musician of the same
same name:
name; sec
see Evans,
Evans,
01. cit.,
op. cit., XVI.
 Music
Music During
During Commonwealth
Commonwcaltk and Restoration 193
and Restoration 193
who started in
who started in the
the oldold style,
style, "but
"but afterwards
afterwards turnedturned reformer
reformer and with
and with
great success" (North).
great success" (North). Jenkins'
Jenkins* early
early fantasias
fantasias for for four
four to to six viols still
six viols still

adhered
adhered to to the
the precepts
precepts of the the old
old fancy
fancy in
in their
their austere,
austere, ricercar-like
ricercar-like themes,
themes,
their
their consistently
consistently polyphonic
polyphonic texture,texture, their
their complex
complex rhythmic
rhythmic continuity,
continuity,
and their
and their cautious
cautious handling
handling of of chromatic
chromatic progressions.
progressions. In In his
his later
later works
works
Jenkins
Jenkins obviously
obviously succumbed to
to the
the spell
spell of
of the
the Italian
Italian trio
trio sonata,
sonata, especially
especially
in his
in his three-part
three-part fanciesfancies 18 18
in
in which
which the the viols
viols were,
were, significantly, re-
significantly, re-
placed
placed by by violins.
violins. A modern and somewhat somewhat popularpopular style
style
obtains
obtains in
in his
his
three-part
three-part suites,
suites, and the the suites for solo
suites for solo violin
violin andand organ
organ continuo.
continue. UnderUnder
the Italian
Italian impact
impact the
the fancies
fancies broke
broke up
up into
into dramatically
dramatically contrasted
contrasted and
and
discontinuous sectionssections of of different tempo and varied texture
different tempo and varied texture in the man- in the man-
ner of
of the quilt
quilt canzona. Chordal Chordal triplas
triplas alternated
alternated withwith fugal
fugal passages.
passages.
The themes alreadyalready featured
featured at at times
times the
the typical upbeat patterns
typical upbeat patterns with
with their
their
energetic,
energetic, swift
swift rhythms,
rhythms, and also
also idiomatic
idiomatic violin
violin figures.
figures, such
such as
as rapid
rapid
skips and double stops.
skips stops. The fancy fancy often served in
often served in the
the suites
suites as as opening
opening
movement,
movement, thus thus giving
giving the the form an EnglishEnglish stamp.
stamp. The pavane pavane alsoalso sur-
sur-
vived asas an opening
opening movement in in England
England longerlonger than
than in in Italy.
Italy. Jenkins
Jenkins
liked
liked toto conclude
conclude the the suite
suite with
with a a slow
slow "drag"
"drag" or or coda
coda which
which emphasized
emphasized
the
the cyclic unity
cyclic unity of
of the
the form although
although there
there were no thematic relations
thematic relations
between the
between the single
single movements.
movements.
In his combination of
In his of Italian
Italian and English
English styles
styles Jenkins
Jenkins did did notnot stand
stand
alone, as
alone, as the
the fancies
fancies by by hishis contemporaries
contemporaries 18 prove,
19
prove, notably
notably thosethose by by
Christopher
Christopher Gibbons,Gibbons, John John Hilton,
Hilton, Coleman,
Coleman, Hingeston,
Hingeston, Rogers,Rogers, and
Locke. In
Locke. In Locke's
Locke's instrumental
instrumental music music Italian
Italian influence
influence can can bebe asas clearly
clearly
discerned as
discerned as inin his
his vocal
vocal music.
music. Locke turned turned to to the
the fancy
fancy even
even where it it

was not
not expressly
expressly thus
thus designated,
designated, as
as in
in the
the "curtain
"curtain tune"
tune" to
to The Tem-
pest.20 He made abundant
pest? abundant use use of
of the
the upbeat
upbeat patterns
patterns of of the
the middle baroque.
baroque.
In
In his
his consort
consort for for four
four viols
viols (c.
(c. 1672)
1672) 21 he combined three
21 three dances
dances with an
opening fantasia, in
opening fantasia, in which he pushed pushed the the nervous discontinuity
discontinuity of the
of the
fancy
fancy even
even farther
farther than
than Jenkins.
Jenkins. None of
of Locke's
Locke's instrumental
instrumental music,
music,
not even
not even his his stage
stage music,
music, shows the the harmonic daring daring of of his
his vocal music,
vocal music,

but in
but in T he Tempest
The Tempest the the startling
startling dynamics
dynamics ("so&,"
("soft," "louder
"louder by by degrees,"
degrees,**
and
and even
even "violent"), tremolo sections,
"violent"), tremolo sections, and occasional
occasional strong
strong dissonances
dissonances
sufficiently indicate the stormy temperament of
sufficiently indicate the stormy temperament
of the composer. The little
the composer. JJttle

Consort
Consort of of Three
Three Parts
Parts (1656)
(1656) is
is a
a collection
collection of
of suites,
suites, each consisting of
consisting
four dances in a remarkably
four dances in a remarkably constant
constant order,
order, and the
the usual bipartite
bipartite form.

See Meyer.
18 Sec
18 op.
cit., 288.
Meyer, op. cit., 288.
18 Examples in Meyer.op.
19 Examples in cit.,
Meyer, op. cit., 225
225 ff.,
ft,, 2g4.
294.
OHM
20 OHM III.
10 289;
III, 289; Meyer, op. cit.,
Meyer, op. cit., J.37.
237.
by Warlock
Ed. by
J1 Ed. Warlock and
and Mangeot. 1932; see
Mangcot, I932; see also the fancy
fancy in HAM no. 230-
21 also the 230.
194
194 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
In
In the
the eight
eight suites
suites of of four
four parts
parts 22 the
22
the sequence
sequence of of dances
dances is is quite fanciful.
quite fanciful.
As aa rule,
rule, the English composers followed the French in their disregard
the English composers followed the French in their disregard
for
for aa fixed
fixed order
order of of the
the suite
suite movements. The huge huge collection
collection of of Court
Court
Ayres published by Playford
Ayres published by Playford (1655 (1655 and 1662)
1662) amasses
amasses a
a repertory
repertory of
of more
than
than five-hundred
five-hundred dances dances in in varied
varied orderorder to to which almost
almost every composer
every composer
of
of the
the time
time contributed.
contributed. Rogers'Rogers' collection,
collection, The Nine Muses?* also
Nine Muses,28 also strings
strings
together arbitrary number of
together an arbitrary of dances
dances and airs. airs. Rogers
Rogers enjoyed
enjoyed some
popularity
popularity in in England
England and, and, while
while it it is
is true
true that
that he
he spent
spent some time time on on the
the
Continent
Continent and presentedpresented the
the queen
queen of
of Sweden with
with his
his music,
music, his
his alleged
alleged
fame abroad
abroad seems
seems to to have
have been
been largely
largely a a figment
figment of of his
his own imagination.
imagination.
"Lessons"
"Lessons" for for viols were printed
viols were printed in in several
several of of Playford's
Playford's publications,
publications,
notably
notably the the Banquet
Banquet of Musick (1652)
of Music\ (1652) and Mustek'sMusick's Recreation
Recreation on on thethe
Lyra
Lyra Viol
Viol (1652
(1652 F.) fl.) The latter
latter contains
contains short
short remarks
remarks on viol
viol playing
playing and
and
works by by Coleman,
Coleman, Gregory,Gregory, Hudson,
Hudson, Ives, Ives, Jenkins,
Jenkins, Porter,
Porter, Young,
Young, and and
others
others in in tablature
tablature form. form. However,
However, the the most illuminating
illuminating printed printed source
source
of
of viol
viol music is is the
the Division Violist (I659)
Division Violist (1659) by by Christopher
Christopher Simpson. Simpson.
The so-called division viol
so-called division viol was used used for for purposes
purposes of of improvisation,
improvisation, the the
"applied
"applied art"
art" that
that forms one of
of the
the cornerstones
cornerstones of
of baroque
baroque music.
music. Im-
Im-
provisations on grounds
provisations grounds and cantus cantus firmi had been
firmi had been discussed,
discussed, more more thanthan
a hundred
a hundred years
years before
before Simpson,
Simpson, by by Ortiz
Ortiz and otherother Continental
Continental authors;authors;
by the
by the middle
middle of the seventeenth
of the seventeenth century century this this practice
practice had had declined
declined on on the
the
Continent,
Continent, but
but had survived
survived among
among the
the English
English violists.
violists. Simpson's
Simpson's
grounds could
grounds could be be either
either aa short bass melody
short bass melody in in simple,
simple, dance-like
dance-like rhythm,rhythm,
or a "continued ground
or ground .. , the
. . .the thorough-bass
, thorough-bass of some motett
of some motett or or madri-
madri-
gal." The second,
gal." second, quite quite common form form implies
implies that
that thethe term
term "ground"
"ground" de- de-
noted here
noted here thethe foundation
foundation of of aa composition
composition in in general,
general, not not merely
merely basso basso
Simpson's two types
ostinato. Simpson's
ostinato. types of of "grounds"
"grounds" were were played
played by by the
the organ,
organ, and and
the violist improvised
the violist improvised upon upon them in in three
three manners:
manners: by by "breaking"
"breaking" the the
ground, that
ground, that isis by
by duplicating
duplicating the the bass
bass in in aa highly
highly florid
florid form;
form; by by "descant
"descant
divisions" in
divisions" in which the the bass
bass merely
merely served served as as support
support for for aa new florid florid
counterpoint
counterpoint of
of the
the viol;
viol; or
or by
by a
a mixture
mixture of
of the
the two.
two. In
In any case the
any case the resultresult
essentially aa patterned
was essentially patterned variation.
variation. The frequent frequent shifts
shifts to to higher
higher positions,
positions,
double stops,
double stops, and the the swiftness
swiftness of of the
the divisions
divisions bearbear witness
witness to to the
the high
high
technical attainment
technical attainment of of soloistic
soloistic violviol playing.
playing. It It is
is interesting
interesting that that among
among
me real
die real ostinati
ostinati of of the
the Division
Division Violist
V ioUst some some were
were descendents
descendents of of the
the old
old
romanesca and
romanesca and passamezzo
passamezzo family, family, although
although Simpson
Simpson did did notnot useuse these
these
names and
names and possibly
possibly was no longer longer conscious
conscious of of thethe Italian
Italian roots
roots of of the
the
22
D Ed. by
Ed. by Beck,
Beck, New York Public
Public Library,
Library, 1942.
I942-
28
28 OHM III, 330.
330
III,
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth and and Restoration
Restoration 195 195
tradition. The
tradition. The improvised
improvised divisions
divisions furnished
furnished complements
complements to to the
the formal
formal
compositions of the time
compositions of the time which
which often
often were
were nothing
nothing more
more than
than "frozen
"frozen im-
im-
provisations." A division
provisations." division on aa ground
ground resulted, if written
resulted, if written down,
down, in
in aa
passacaglia or
passacaglia or chaconne;
chaconne; aa division
division onon aa thorough-bass
thorough-bass became
became aa sob
solo
sonata or,
sonata or, when two players
players improvised,
improvised, even
even aa trio
trio sonata.
sonata.

The polyphonic
polyphonic ideal
ideal of
of viol
viol music,
music, characterized
characterized by
by Mace's
Mace's remark
remark
that "our
that "our great
great care
care was,
was, to
to have
haveaU the
all the parts
parts equally
equally heard,"
heard," was
was doomed
doomed
by the advent of the continuo
by the advent of the continuo and
and the
the dualistic
dualistic conception
conception of
of the
the sonata.
sonata.
In spite
In spite of
of the
the opposition
opposition of
of many
many amateurs
amateurs who remained
remained faithful
faithful to
to
viol music,
viol music, the
the ascent
ascent of
of the
the violin
violin could
could not
not be stopped.
stopped. be Mace bitterly
Mace bitterly
complains
complains of
of the
the "High-Priz'd
"High-Priz'd Noise"
Noise" of
of the
the violins,
violins, "fit
"fit to
to make
make a
a man's
man's
Ear Glow,
Ear Glow, and fill fill his
his brains
brains full
full of
of frisks."
frisks." Violins
Violins were were extensively
extensively used used
first in masque
first in masque music where
music where aa penetrating
penetrating sound sound was was desirable.
desirable. TheyThey alsoalso
appeared early
appeared early in in the
the chamber
chamber music music of of Coperario,
Coperario, WilliamWilliam Lawes,
Lawes, Jen- Jen-
kins, and Porter.
kins, Porter. When Charles Charles II II established
established at at his
his court
court aa bandband of of
twenty-four
twenty-four violinists
violinists after
after the
the French
French model,
model, he
he merely
merely followed
followed the
the
trend of
trend favoring the
of favoring the violins
violins over the viols;
over the viols; he he was,
was, however,
however, not not respon-
respon-
sible for
sible for the
the introduction
introduction of of violins
violins into
into England,
England, as legend has
as legend has it.
it. Charles
Charles
had an "utter
"utter aversion
aversion to to fancies"
fancies" and "could "could bearbear no no music
music to to which
which he he
could not
could not beat
beat time.
time. Of songs songs he
he only approved
only approved the
the soft
soft vein,
vein, in
in triple
triple
time" (North).
time" (North). Apparently,
Apparently, the prince absorbed
the prince absorbed only only oneone aspect
aspect of of the
the
French taste
French taste at the French
at the French court,
court, the
the pointed
pointed and
and "airy" style,
"airy" style, but
but not
not the
the
pompous manner of
pompous of Lully
Lully which
which came to to its height only
its height only after
after Charles'de-
Charles' de-
parture
parture from
from France.
France.
As early
early asas the
the Commonwealth period period Continental
Continental violin violin virtuosos
virtuosos came
to
to England.
England. The English
English violinist
violinist Mell
Mell was
was outplayed
outplayed by Baltzar,
by Baltzar, "the "the
Swede,"
Swede,"
24 whose stupendous double stops in
U whose stupendous double stops in the
the German manner and
"frequent
frequent use use ofof high
high positions
positions havehave beenbeen described
described by by Evelyn,
Evelyn, North,
North, and
Wood. Later
Later Nicola
Nicola Matteis
Matteis brought
brought the the Italian
Italian virtuoso
virtuoso style
style toto England.
England.
In
In his
his popular
popular Brief Brief Introduction
Introduction to
to the
the Skill
SfyH of
of Musick
Music^ (1658 if.)
(16585.) Play- Play-
ford
ford gives
gives a
a few
few instructions
instructions for
for the
the violin,
violin, "a
"a sprightly
sprightly instrument
instrument and
much practised of late,"
practised of late," though though he
he is
is mainly
mainly concerned with the
the viol.
viol. His
Division
Division Violin
Violin (2nd (2nd ed.ed. 1685),
1685), obviously
obviously a a complement
complement to Simpson's
to Simpson's
book,
book, contains
contains grounds
grounds and
and other
other compositions
compositions by
by Baltzar,
Baltzar, Mell,
Mell, Banister,
Banister,
Simpson,
Simpson, and
and Farinel
Farinel whose name became famous through
through "Fariners
"FarineFs
ground."
ground." ThisThis much-discussed
much-discussed and and misleading
misleading title title is
is actually just another
actually just
** He
M was
was German born,
born, but
but had served in
had served in Sweden before
before he c:ame
came to
to England.
England.
196
196 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
name for the folia.
for the folia. That
That the sonatas (1653)
the chamber sonatas (1653) by
by William Young
Young
call for two
call for two or
or three
three violins
violins is
is hardly surprising
hardly surprising since
since they
they were composed
composed
25
on
on the
the Continent.
Continent. Two triotrio sonatas
sonatas by
by Blow 25 betray,
betray, on the
the other
other hand,
hand,
a strikingly
strikingly English
English idiom.

The violin
violin also
also appears
appears in Playford's English
in Playford's English Dancing Master (1650)
Dancing Master (1650) 26 as
26
as
the
the use
use of
of the
the French
French violin
violin clef
clef implies.
implies. With this
this collection
collection we approach
approach
the
the large
large body
body ofof popular
popular music and civilcivil songs
songs for
for the
the middle class
class of
of the
the
city. Playford's country
city. Playford's country dances
dances preserve
preserve a
a motley repertory
motley repertory of
of traditional
traditional
ballad
ballad tunes
tunes and instrumental
instrumental dance melodies
melodies of of varied
varied and often
often obscure
obscure
origin.
origin. Some of the
of the "common tunes,"
tunes," as
as Mace calls
calls them,
them, can be traced back
can be traced back
to
to Elizabethan 27
Elizabethan and Jacobean
Jacobean composers
composers or or to
to famous Italian
Italian grounds.
grounds.
27

like Pauls
Tunes like Pauls Steeple
Steeple and Goddesses
Goddesses areare clearly
clearly dependent
dependent on the pas-
the pas-
samezzo antico
antico forfor their
their "harmonization."
"harmonization." That the the tradition
tradition of of these
these
grounds
grounds waswas, not
not yet
yet quite
quite forgotten
forgotten can
can be
be seen
seen in in a
a setting
setting of of Green-
Green-
sleeves, found in
sleeves, in a a seventeenth-century
seventeenth-century virginal
virginal manuscript.
manuscript.
28
28 Here thethe
tune appears
appears as as aa variation
variation upon romanesca bass,
the romanesca
upon the bass, strictly preserved in
strictly preserved in
cantus-firmus
cantus-firmus manner (Ex. (Ex. 55).
55).

Ex. 55. Greensleeves for harpsichord.

~I::I; J;J Jt J:' ': I:. ~ : JI: J: I~ I:.: J

s=?
J P: 1

t::: J:": I:. ~: l~ I; i~l: J'; II;J.; :1

25
:lIEd. by Whittaker
Ed. by (Oiseau Lyre).
Whittaker (Oiseau Lyre).
26
Facsimile edition,
28 Facsimile edition, London,
London, 1933.
1933.
27 See
2'1' See Newton, PMA
Newton, PMA 65, 65, 72, and Gombosi,
'J2, and Gombosi,
PAMS 1940,
PAMS 1940,88.
88.
28 New
lIS New York
York Public
Public Library,
Library, MS
MS Drexel
Drexel 5609.
5609.
 Music During Commonwealth
Music During Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration I97
197
The civil
The civil songs of
songs of the
the time,
time, many
many of
of which
which were
were inserted
inserted in
in stage plays,
stage plays,
moved
moved preferably
preferably in
in triple
triple time and
and observed
observed the
the symmetrical melodic
melodic symmetrical
structure Nearly all
structure of of dance
dance music. Nearly all composers of
composers of the the period, including
period, including
Purcell,
Purcell, havehave written
written songs
songs of
of a
a very
very popular nature, often in imitation of
popular nature, often in imitation of
to be
Scotch and
Scotch and Irish tunes,
Irish tunes, though
though these
these melodies
melodies cannot
cannot claim
claim to be folksongs.
folksongs.
A great
A great variety
variety of of such songs was printed
such songs printed in in Playford's
Playford's collections
collections which
which
drew, in in spite
spite ofof their
their later
later date,
date, inin part
part on
on the
the vocal
vocal music
music of the Caroline
of the Caroline
masque.
masque. As As another
another important
important anthology
anthology of of English
English continuo
continuo songs songs in
in
popular
popular and often also
and often also more elevated
elevated style,
style, John
John Gamble's
Gamble's commonplace
commonplace
book
book should
should be be mentioned which now forms forms one one ofof the
the treasures
treasures of of the
the
New York York Public
Public Library.
Library. The tunes tunes of of country dances
dances and
and civil
civil songs
country songs
were often
were often supplied
supplied with new and sometimes sometimes topicaltopical words,
words, especially
especially by
by
Durfey
Durfey whose Wit
whose Wit and Mirth,
Mirth, or Pills
or Pills to to Pltrg~
Purge M~lanchol'Y
Melancholy (1719-20)(1719-20)
represents
represents one one of of the main musicalmusical and and literary
literary sources
sources of of T h~ B~g
The Beg-
gar's Opera in
gar's Opera in which Gay Gay adopted
adopted the
the same
same principle
principle of
of parody.
parody. The
The
catches
catches and glees glees of the period
period provided
provided musical
musical entertainment, especially
entertainment, especially
for
for gatherings
gatherings of of men in in chambers
chambers and and ale-houses,
ale-houses, as as the words, often
the words, often
unprintable, indicate. Hilton's Catch
unprintable, indicate. Hilton's Catch that Catch Can (1652
that Catch (1652 ff.) which con-
ff.) which con-
tained contributions
tained contributions by by the
the leading musicians, ran
leading musicians, ran through
through many many editions.
editions.
In
In the
the only
only superficially polyphonic catches
superficially polyphonic catches and and thethe openly
openly chordal
chordal glees,
glees,
the convivial
the convivial singing
singing of of the madrigal period
the madrigal period found
found its its rather
rather lowly
lowly con-
con-
tinuation.
tinuation.
The onlyonly significant
significant attempt
attempt at at fusing
fusing thethe thorough-bass
thorough-bass with with thethe mad-
mad-
rigal was made by
rigal by Walter
Walter Porter (1595-1659), aa little-known
Porter (1595-1659), little-known pupil pupil of of
Monteverdi. His set
Monteverdi. set of
of Madrigals
Madrigals and Ayres Ayr~s (1632)
(1632) 29 for from
29 for from two two to to
five voices,
five voices, two violinsviolins (or
(or viols),
viols), and
and thorough-bass,
thorough-bass, is is modelled
modelled in in its
its
variety after
variety after hishis master's
master's seventh
seventh madrigal
madrigal book.book. It It contains
contains one one ofof the
the
first references
first references to to "continued
"continued Base"Base" inin printed
printed English
English music.
music. Porter
Porter care-
care-
fully explained
fully explained the the new device
device to to the
the "practitioner"
"practitioner" and, and, putting
putting little
little
trust in
trust in the
the performer's
performer's improvisatory
improvisatory ability,
ability, advised
advised him to write out
to write out
the continuo
the continuo in in advance.
advance. He also also gave
gave English
English translations
translations of of some
some Italian
Italian
terms, as
terms, as Purcell
Purcell did did in
in his
his trio
trio sonatas
sonatas half
half aa century
century later,
later, and clarified
clarified
the performance
the performance of of the
the tremolo
tremolo or or trillo,
trillo, anan ornament
ornament of of frequent
frequent oc- oc-
currence that
currence that he he always
always notatcd
notated "with
"with division."
division." The compositions
compositions of of
Porter's collection
Porter's collection include
include quite
quite effective
effective continuo
continuo madrigals
madrigals in in Italian
Italian
style with
style with veryvery florid
florid solo
solo passages
passages on on affective
affective or or pictorial
pictorial words.
words. LinksLinks
with the
with the old
old madrigal
madrigal school
school can
can bebe discovered
discovered only only sporadically;
sporadically; usually
usually
29 Examples in
lnI Examples in Arkwright, Musical Antiquary
Arkwright, Musical An'liquary 44 (1913),
(1913). 236,
236. and
and Hughes,
Hughes. MQ 20
20
(I934). 278.
(1934), 278
19
1988 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the
the style
style of
of the
the melodies
melodies presupposes
presupposes aa continuo.
continue. The instruments
instruments merely
merely
double the voices
double the voices and are
are independently
independently employed
employed only
only in
in ritornelli or in
ritornelli or in
introductory
introductory "toccatas,"
"toccatas," a
a term reminiscent
reminiscent of
of Quagliati.
Quagliati.

CHURCH MUSIC:
ANGLICAN CHUItCH MUSIC! PORTER,
PORTER, HUMFREY, BLOW
The sacred
sacred music
music of of the
the Anglican
Anglican church falls falls into
into two main categories.
categories.
The first
first consists
consists ofof the
the traditional
traditional Anglican
Anglican chantchant and the the metrical
metrical psalms,
psalms,
corresponding
corresponding respectively
respectively to to the
the Gregorian
Gregorian chantchant of of the
the Catholic
Catholic church
church
and the
the chorales
chorales of of the
the Protestant church. The second
Protestant church. second comprises "figural
comprises "figural
music,"
music," thethe anthems and the the services.
services. A group
group apart
apart isis the
the sacred
sacred music
music forfor
private
private devotion
devotion withwith freely
freely invented,
invented, not not necessarily
necessarily sC]:iptural
scriptural words.
words.
The metrical
metrical psalms
psalms were the the only
only church
church music to to which the the Puritans
Puritans
did
did not
not object. They
object. They were sung
sung to
to the
the so-called
so-called "church
"church tunes"
tunes" or
or "proper
"proper
tunes."
tunes," distinguished
distinguished by by proper
proper names.
names. The psalms
psalms could
could be be performed
performed
unaccompanied, as
unaccompanied, as the
the Puritans
Puritans preferred;
preferred; withwith instrumental
instrumental accompani-
accompani-
ment;
ment; or,or, finally,
finally, inin simple note-against-note
simple note-against-note harmonizations.
harmonizations. Among
Among the the
metrical psalm books of
metrical psalm the seventeenth
of the seventeenth century Ainsworth (1612),
century Ainsworth (1612), Ravens-
Ravens-
croft (1621).
croft (1621), Playford (107), and Tate and Brady
Playford (1677), Brady (1696)
(1696) were the the most
most
famous. Metrical
Metrical psalms
psalms served
served also as devotional
also as devotional house music, and
house music, and even
even
as aa musical
as musical pastime;
pastime; it it is
is therefore
therefore hardly
hardly surprising
surprising that that Cromwell
Cromwell re- re-
galed a
a
galed partyparty with
with "wine,
"wine, and a
a psalm." Settings
psalm." Settings of
of versified
versified psalms,
psalms, more
more
pretentious than
pretentious than those
those of of the
the psalm
psalm books,
books, appeared
appeared in in Henry
Henry Lawes'
Lawes' music
music
to Sandy's
to paraphrases for
Sandy's paraphrases for one
one voice
voice "set
"set to
to new tunes
tunes for
for private
private devotion"
devotion"
(1638), the
(1638), the Choice
Choice Psalms (1648) (1648) of of the
the brothers
brothers Lawes,
Lawes, John John Wilson's
Wilson's
Psalterium Carolinum (1656),
Psalterium (1656), and Porter's
Porter's Motets (1657), off which
Motets (1657), which the the
last two were also
last also based
based on words by by Sandy.
Sandy. All All these
these works
works had had aa
thorough-bass though
thorough-bass though the the style
style ofof some of of them,
them, e.g. the Choice
e.g. the Choice Psalms,
Psalms.
did not
did not really
really make it it obligatory.
obligatory.
In the
In the second
second category
category of of church
church music,
music, the the anthems
anthems partookpartook moremore
vigorously
vigorously of
of the
the change
change of
of style
style than
than the
the services,
services, which
which ranked second
ranked second
also with
also with regard
regard to to the
the quantitative
quantitative outputoutput of of the
the composers.
composers. The servicesservices
contained, among
contained, among otherother texts,
texts, the
the invariable
invariable canticles
canticles of of the
the liturgy,
liturgy, notably
notably
the Te Deum and Jubilate
the Jubilate of of the
the Morning
Morning Service,
Service, andand thethe Magnificat
Magnificat and and
Nunc dimims
dimittis of of the
the Evening
Evening Service.
Service. The
The first
first two
two were
were alsoalso composed
composed
for special
for special festive
festive occasions,
occasions, suchsuch as as the
the famous
famous examples
examples by by Purcell
Purcell and
and
Handel. The
Handel. The anthems
anthems corresponded
corresponded to to the
the motet
motet in in thethe Catholic
Catholic andand
Protestant rites,
Protestant rites, and,
and, after
after thethe introduction
introduction of of the
the continue
continuo and and the
the con-
con-
style, to
certato style,
certato to the
the church
church concertato
concertato and and cantata.
cantata. In In contrast
contrast with
with thethe
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration I99
199
free
free textual
textual insertions
insertions permissible
permissible in in the
the cantata,
cantata, the the words
words of of the
the anthems
anthems
were
were restricted
restricted to to the psalms, but
the psalms, but both
both cantata
cantata and and anthem belonged to
anthem belonged to
the
the variable,
variable, or or de tempore compositions
de tempore compositions of
of the
the liturgical year.
liturgical year.
By
By the anthems, i.e.
the beginning
beginning of of the seventeenth
seventeenth century the verse
verse anthems,
century the *>. an-
an-
thems with solo sections,
thems with solo sections, far outnumbered
far outnumbered the the full
full anthems,
anthems, as can be
as can be
gleaned
gleaned from
from a a Chapel
Chapel RoyalRoyal Anthem Book Book (1635)
(1635) of
of the
the Caroline
Caroline period.
period.
This
This book
book also
also discloses
discloses thatthat the
the majority
majority of of church
church composers performed
composers performed
at
at the
the time
time belonged
belonged to to the
the oldold school,
school, a a fact
fact also
also borne
borne out out by by Barnard's
Barnard's
important
important church-music
church-music collection
collection of
of 1~1.
1641.
On thethe authority
authority of of Burney
Burney and and Tudway
Tudway 80 it
30
it has
has frequently
frequently been
been
claimed
claimed that
that the new style style ofof anthem
anthem writing originated
writing originated with
with the
the Restora-
Restora-
tion
tion and was broughtbrought aboutabout largely
largely byby the personal taste
the personal taste of of Charles
Charles II. II. It
It

is
is true
true that in 1662
that in 1662 the
the newly
neyvly established
established band
band of violins invaded the
of violins invaded the Chapel Chapel
Royal
Royal by by playing
playing ritornelli
ritornelli "between
"between everyevery pause
pause after
after thethe French
French fan- fan-
tasticallight
tastical light way,
way, better
better suiting
suiting a a tavern
tavern or or playhouse
playhouse than than a a church,"
church," as as
the shocked EvelynEvelyn reports.
reports. Yet Yet the
the features
features of the "Restoration
of the "Restoration anthem" anthem"
with their
their admixture of theatrical style
of theatrical style crop
crop up up as
as early
early asas Porter's Madri-
Porter's Madri-
gals,
gals, which contain
contain the
the verse
verse anthem 0 praise the Lord,
anthem O praise the Lord, and William and William
Child's
Child's First
First set of Psalms (1639).
set of (1639). Child's
Child's collection,
collection, written
written for for three
three
voices
voices and continuo,
continuo, is is the
the first
first important
important document
document of of thethe Italian
Italian in-in-

auence
fluence on English
English church music,
music, and
and its
its style
style and
and its
its importance
importance can
can be
be
compared
compared with that
that of
of the
the Kleine
Kleine geistlide
gcistliche Konzerte
Konzerte by
by Schiitz.
Schihz. Child
Child tells
tells

us
us himself
himself thatthat his psalms had
his psalms had been
been "newly
"newly composed
composed after after thethe Italian
Italian
way,"
way," though
though his his efforts
efforts in in this
this direction cannot be
direction cannot be called
called entirely
entirely suc-suc-
cessful.
cessful.81
81

In
In the
the development
development of of the
the baroque
baroque anthem
anthem 82 82
four
four groups
groups of of composers
composers
can
can be be distinguished.
distinguished. The first, consisting
first, consisting of
of Porter,
Porter, Child
Child (1606-1697),
(1606-1697),
Portman,
Portman, and the brothers Lawes,
the brothers Lawes, already
already occurs
occurs in the Anthem Book of
in the of
1635'
1635. To the the second
second group
group belongbelong composers
composers of of a a somewhat later later date,
date,
notably
notably Captain
Captain Cooke (d. (d. 1672),
1672), Gibbons,
Gibbons, Locke,
Locke, and Rogers Rogers (d. (d. 16c)8).
1698).
The Italian
Italian leanings
leanings of
of Locke
Locke have
have been
been pointed
pointed out
out above,
above, and
and of
of Cap-
Cap-
tain Cooke
tain Cooke it it is
is known that that hehe was
was the best English
the best singer in
English singer in the
the "Italian
"Italian
manner"
manner" (Evelyn).
(Evelyn). The masters masters of of the
the second
second group
group who were were active
active
during
during the
the Commonwealth period
period and
and resumed
resumed or
or assumed
assumed important
important
court
court positions
positions after
after the
the Restoration,
Restoration, were the the immediate model for for the
the
next generation
next generation of
of composers
composers whose
whose activity began
activity began with
with the
the Restoration:
Restoration:

See the
80 See
10 the vividly
vividly written passage in
written passage in Burney,
Burney> 348. 348.
11 OHM m.
81 OHM
HI, 206.
206.
U For
92 For examples
examples see
see Boyce's Cathedral MIUic.
Boyce's CGAetlnll Music,
200 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
Pelham Humfrey (1647-16]4),
Pelham Humfrey (1647-1674), John John Blow,
Blow, Michael
Michael Wise (d. (d. 1687),
1687), Wil-
Wil-
liam
liam Turner
Turner (d. (d. 1740),
1740), and and Henry
Henry Aldrich
Aldrich (d. (d. 1710).
1710). The fourth and last
fourth and last

group is
group is formed
formed primarily
primarily by by Henry
Henry Purcell, together with
Purcell, together with lesser
lesser com-

posers
posers like
like Jeremiah
Jeremiah Clark
Clark (1659"'1707),
(1659-1707), Croft,
Croft, Weldon,
Weldon, and Greene,
Greene, the
the
last
kst three
three of of whom bridgebridge overover to to the period of
the period of Handel.
Handel.
works of
The works of these
these composers
composers are are far
far from being being stylistically
stylistically homo-
geneous
geneous because
because of of the
the coexistence
coexistence of of conservative
conservative and progressiveprogressive tend- tend-
encies.
encies. However,
However, a a continuous
continuous progressive
progressive line line runs
runs from Porter Porter and
Child,
Child, overover Cooke
Cooke and and Locke,
Locke, to to Humfrey
Humfrey and and Blow,
Blow, culminating
culminating and
ending
ending with
with Purcell.
Purcell. The anthems
anthems of
of Aldrich
Aldrich stand
stand somewhat apart; they
apart; they
are influenced by Carissimi,
are influenced by Carissimi, whose works he whose works he admired
admired and diligently
diligently col- col-

lected.
lected.
88
s8 The anthems
anthems of of Wise
Wise greatly
greatly appealed
appealed in in their
their uneventful
uneventful sim- sim-
plicity to Burney's orthodox taste. The progressive
plicity to Burney's orthodox taste. progressive style style manifests
manifests itself itself

less
less in
in the
the instrumental
instrumental accompaniment
accompaniment by strings by strings and the
the organ,
organ, which
was
was familiar
familiar eveneven to to the
the composers
composers of of the
the old
old school,
school, than than in the new
in the
affective
affective conception
conception of of melody
melody and and thethe abandonment
abandonment of polyphonic tex-
of polyphonic tex-

ture.
ture. The concertato
concertato stylestyle with
with frequent
frequent alternations
alternations of
of solo
solo voices
voices and full
full

choral sections
choral sections in in rapid syllabic
rapid syllabic declamation
declamation characterizes
characterizes the
the modern trend
trend
in
in English
English church
church music
music from from ChildChild to to Purcell.
Purcell.
Pelham Humfrey,
Humfrey, Cooke's Cooke's successor
successor as master of
as master of the children in
the children in thethe
Chapel
Chapel Royal,
Royal, received
received part
part of
of his
his training
training in
in France
France and Italy.
Italy. Much has
has
been
been made of of an
an alleged
alleged in1iuence
influence of of Lullian
Lullian dance
dance rhythms
rhythms on on hishis church
church
music.
music. While dotted dotted rhythms
rhythms in
in triple
triple time
time do
do appear
appear in
in his
his anthems
anthems and
and
even
even more frequently
frequently in in his
his secular
secular music,
music, the the Italian
Italian andand notnot thethe French
French
influence
influence must must be be regarded
regarded as as the
the decisive factor in
decisive factor in his
his sacred
sacred music.
music.
Pepys
Pepys refers
refers to
to a
a certain
certain anthem
anthem as
as "a
"a good piece
good piece of
of musique,"
musique," but
but criticizes
criticizes

it by the
it by the remark:
remark: "but "but still
still I cannot call
I cannot call the
the Anthem anything anything but but instru-
instru-
mental
mental musique
musique with
with the
the voice, for nothing
voice, for nothing is is made of
of the
the words
words at at all"
all"

(Diary,
(Diary, Nov. I, i, 1667).
1667). Yet Yet in in works
works like like the
the sacred
sacred songs, published in
songs, published in
Henry
Henry Playford's
Playford's Harmonia Sacra, Sacra, Humfrey surprises
Humfrey surprises by by his
his profound
profound
sincerity
sincerity and and affective
affective intensity
intensity of of which
which it may be
it may be said
said that
that everything
everything is is

made of of the
the words
words (Ex. 56).
(Ex. 56). The delight
delight in
in "false"
"false" intervals
intervals and
and the
the vio-
vio-
lence
lence of of pictorial representation in
pictorial representation in the
the quoted
quoted passage
passage indicate
indicate Humfrey's
Humfrey's
obligation
obligation to to the
the English
English idiom.
idiom. In In comparison
comparison with with Locke,
Locke, however,
however, his his
harmonic progressions
progressions show less
less awkwardness,
awkwardness, firmer
firmer direction,
direction, and
and aa
wider sweep.
sweep. The scrupulous
scrupulous observance
observance of
of verbal
verbal inflections
inflections in
in the
the musical
musical
rhythm
rhythm must must be be regarded
regarded as as one
one of of Humfrey's
Humfrey's greatest
greatest virtues.
virtues. It It set
set anan
88
IS His collections
collections containing
containing important
important source material or
source material for the works of
the works of Carissimi
Carissimi
arc preserved in
are preserved in the library of
the hbrary of Christ
Christ Church
Church College,
College, Oxford.
Oxford.
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 201
201
exemplarystandard
exemplary standardfor
for Purcell,
Purcell,his
hispupil,
pupil,whose
whoseexcellence
excellenceininmatters
mattersofof
setting English
setting English words
words to
to music
music has
has too often been praised at the expense
too often been praised at the expense
ofearlier
of earliermasters.
masters." 8*

Ex. 56.
Ex. Humfrey; Sacred
56. Humfrey: solo cantata.
Sacred solo cantata.

" ...... ..
~
... Lord I ha\"8 slnnl:l I have sinnl:l aJld the black Duml:ier swells to IlX'h a

- -
1L
- ..

!
~+

..,
dis-mal SIIlII
..
that should my sto BY heart and eyes, IDd tbb whole SiD. fill
II.. ...

-
- ...
L~' flood be come, aDd

..--....
~
rllD _ _ _ _ _ _ _+_ to lurs, their

~..,ft

could Dot auf fic:e, to coua-r- my score mach less to

~ drops

."
... pay, but tboll my God hastBlaodiD store aDd art tbe Pa - troD of tbe poor

- 00 l' w ...
As
As successor
successor of
of Humfrey,
Humfrey, John
John Blow
Blow also
also became
became thethe teacher
teacher of
of Purcell.
Purcell.

Blow
Blow wrote more than
wrote more than aa hundred
hundred anthems,
anthems, services,
services, and motets,
and motets, and about
and about
thirty odes (for soli, chorus, and
thirty odes (for soli, chorus,
and orchestra)
orchestra) for
for royal
royal birthdays,
birthdays, St. Cecilia's
St. Cecilia's

Day,
Day,
New
New Year,
Year, and
and similar
similar occasions.
occasions. Much
Much of
of his
his vocal
vocal music
music was
was pub-
pub-
lished in the Amphion Anglicus (1700),
lished in the Amfhian Anglicus (1700), aa collection
collection prompted
prompted by
by the
the suc-
sue-

cess of the Orpheus Britannicus.

cess of the Orpheus Britannicus*
The
The choral
choral works
works ofof Blow
Blow are
arc written
written either
either inin simple
simple chordal
chordal style
style or
or

in aa contrapuntal
in manner thatthat shows
shows atat times
times an
an unrequited
unrequited love for
love for
contrapuntal manner
86 This point
"This is indirectly confirmed by the
point is indirectly confirmed by
the fact
fact that Humfrcy's anthem
that Humfrey's anthem By By the
the
wllkrs Bahylon was erroneously included inthe
includedin theNovdlo editionof
Novelloedition Purcell ssacred
ofPurcell's
watersof
sacitd
of Babylon was erroneously
music
music(1832) and for a long time mistaken
(1832) and for a long time
mistakenfor
foraaPurcdlian
Purcdliancomposition.
composition-
202
202 Music in
Music in the
the: Baroque
Baroque: Era
Era
polyphony. In contrast toto Humfrcy's
polyphony. In contrast
Humfrey's pronounced
pronounced harmonic gift, Blow
harmonic gift, Blow
excelled inin the
excelled the forceful
forceful invention
invention and
and affective
affective design
design of melodies which
of melodies which
unfolded over
he unfolded
he over $limy managed basses.
stiffly
basses. His
managed great melodic
His great melodic imagination
imagination
may
may be
the reason
be the reason for
for his
his penchant
penchant forfor the
the ground
ground bass, which he
bass, which he im-
im-
pl.:mted also in his distinguished pupil. Striking
planted also in his distinguished pupil. Striking
use
use of
of the
the ostinato
ostinato technique
technique
is made
is made inin Blow's
Blow's elegy
elegy onon the
the death
death ofof Queen
Queen Mary,
Mary, published
published together
together
with Purcell's elegies
with PurceH's elegies inin 1695. The I69s.
first part
The first (Ex. 573)
part (Ex. 57a) isis constructed
constructed inin
slow
slow triple meter
meter
triple
on
on a
a modulating ground.
ground.
modulating In
In the
the second
second part
part (Ex.
(Ex. 57 b) ,

Ex. 57.
EJL 57. Blow:
Blow: Ekgy
Elegy on
on Queen Mary
Queen Mary.

..... - -~ - -
liT ........ -. 110,
_Io.
10,10,.,
'.i._ L
I.M . bl. ao, DO, DO DO, 11l1J

c: ;;'; 1;'Jj':'~; Ii
c:::: I:.;~;:::=::
the
the same
same ground is presented
presented in in rhythmic,
rhythmic, but but not melodic transformation.
ground is not melodic transformation.
ItIt appears
appears now
now in
in fait
fast duple
duple meter
meter as
as a
a figure
figure of
of running
running eighth-notes. After
eighth-notes. After
aa third,
third, affective
affective section
section in
in recitative
recitative style,
style, the
the original
original form
form of
of the
the ground
ground
returns and
retUrns and concludes
concludes the the elegy. Aside from
elegy. Aside from the the fact that such
fact that such radical
radical

rhytbrnjc variation is
rhythmic nriation very rare
is very rare in ground basses
in ground basses the
the picte is of
piece is of considerable
considerable
interest bccautC
interest became itk throws
throws light
light on
on the
the latest
latest phase
phase of
of Blow's
Blow's development
development
which
which mala definite clari6c:atioo
reveals a definite clarification of style. The
of style. The violent
violent melodic
melodic strides,
strides,

now disciplined,
DOW disciplined, werewere smoothed
smoothed out out inin unusually perspicuous lines.
unusually perspicuous lines. It
It is
is

poaibIe
potablethat that the newfirm.oeu
theDCW firmness01. melody was
ofmelody wasdue
dueto tothe
the converse
converse inftuence
influence
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 203
203
of the
of the pupil
pupil on
on the
the teacher. If so,
teacher. If so, Blow's
Blow's succession
succession to
to Purccll's
Purcell's post
post at
at the
the
Westminster organ
Westminster organ would
would bebe only
only the
the outward
outward symbol
symbol ofof aa more
more sig-
sig-
nificant, artistic succession.
nificant, artistic succession.

HENRY
HENRY PURCELL,
PURCELL, THE
THE RESTORATION
RESTORATION GENIUS
GENIUS

Henry Purccll
Henry (16s9'"I6gs) not
Purcell (1659-1695) not onlyonly had had "the"the advantage
advantage of of greater
greater
genius,"
genius," as
as has
has been
been justly
justly if
if naively
naively stated,
stated, but
but appeared
appeared at
at aa time
time when
when he
he
could bring
could bring to
to consummation
consummation the
the divergent
divergent tendencies
tendencies of
of the
the English
English
middle baroque,
middle baroque, just just before
before the the wave
wave of of Italian
Italian late
late baroque
baroque style style rolled
rolled
over England.
over England. Nothing
Nothing could could be be farther
farther from from the the truth
truth thanthan the the oft*
oft-
repeated
repeated statement
statement that
that Purcell
Purccll was
was the
the only
only musician
musician who rekindled
rekindled the
the
fire of
fire of English
English music music after
after thethe Golden
Golden Age Age of of the
the rnadrigalists.
madrigalisu. Purcell Purcell
came to
came to fulfill,
fuI611, notnot toto begin
begin anew.
anew. Reared
Reared in in an
an atmosphere
atmosphere of of court
court life
life
and throughout
and throughout his his all-tooshort
all-too-short career career intimately
intimately connected
connected with with the the
court, Purcell accepted
court, Purcell accepted the the conventions
conventions and and mannerisms
mannerisms of of Restoration
Restoration
society without questioning.
society without questioning. Within Within these these limitations
limitations he he made of of the
the
superficialities
superficialities
of
of his
his age a
a profound
age profound work
work of
of art;
art; as
as the
the true
true genius
genius of
of the
the
Restoration, he
Restoration, he shared shared the
the defects
defects of
of its
its virtues
virtues and the
the virtues
virtues of
of its
its de-
de-
fects.
fects. The oftenoften criticised
criticised superficial
superficial and secular secular traiu
traits inin his music, es-
his music, es-

pecially
pecially
his
his church
church music,
music, merely
merely reRect
reflect thethe curious
curious function
function of of music
music in in

Restoration
Restoration society. English
society. English music
music of
of the
the time
time lacked
lacked the
the human pathos
pathos of
of
Italian
Italian music,
music, the the fervor
fervor andand rigid
rigid liturgical
liturgical observance
observance of of German Protes- Protes-

tant music, and the austere spirit of courtly

tant music, and the austere spirit of courtly representation representation of
of French
French music.
music.
The
The prime
prime object
object of of the
the court
court music
music in in England
England was to to provide
provide senmous
sensuous
entertainment
entertainment and and to to serve
serve as as a a sonorous
sonorous ornament.
ornament. Purcell's
Purccll's preoccupa-
preoccupa-
tion
tion with
with sensuous
sensuous effects
effects isis evinced
evinced equally
equally in in his
his choral
choral writing,
writing, his his or-
or-

chestration,
chestration, his
his dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, and
and the
the premeditated
premeditated grace grace of
of his
his

melodic
melodic style. Although he absorbed
style. Although he
absorbed the the human pathos pathos of of Italian
Italian music
music
and
and the
the pompous
pompous spirit of French
spirit of
French music,
music, these these elements
elements took took a more sensu- sensu-
ous,
ous, less
less demanding,
demanding, almost
almost boyish
boyish turn
turn in
in Purcell,
Purcell, and
and in
in their
their adoptioD
adoption
he
he always
always remained
remained his his own inimitable self.
own inimitable self*

The various streams

The various streams of of musical
musical tradition
tradition that Bowed
that flowed together
together in in Pwa:Il
Puroell

cannot easily
cannot be separated. As chorister chorister of of the Chapel
Chapel Royal (since 166g)
Royal (since
easily be separated. As
the 1669)
Purcell
Purcell sang
sang the
the traditional
traditional anthems
anthems of
of Tallis
Tallis and and Byrd,
Byrd. His
His autograph
autograph
copies of works by the older masters
copies of works by the older
masters from from 1681/2
1681/2 pl'OYe
prove thatthat hehe ltUdied
studied
them even after
them even after he he had
had begun
begun to
to compose.
compose. The
The majority
majority of
of anthems
anthems IUDS
sung
at Purcell's time
at Purccll's time in in the
the Chapel
Chapel Royal Royal were
were those
those by Child,
by Child, Blow,
Blow, and
and
Humfrey,
Humfrey, whichwhich the the boy
boy naturally accepted as models. The influeoce of
naturally accepted as models. The inSueoce of
 204
204 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
his
his tcachers,
teachers, Cooke,
Cooke, Humfrey,
Humfrey, and and Blow,
Blow, tended
tended toward
toward the
the Italian
Italian style.
style.
However,
However, the the Lullian
Lullian style
style of
of the
the twenty-four
twenty-four violins
violins must havehave impressed
impressed
the
the young
young Purcell
Purccll veryvery strongly
strongly because
because the the French
French "levity,"
"levity," as as Purcell
Purcell
called
called it himself,
ithimself, appeared
appeared rather
rather early
early in
in his
his anthems,
anthems, and
and because,
because, when
only eighteen,
only eighteen, he
he succeeded
succeeded Locke
Locke as
as composer
composer in
in ordinary
ordinary for
for the
the violins.
violins.

This was
This was oneone ofof the
the most
most "progressive"
"progressive" postsposts of
of the
the musical hierarchy.
musical hierarchy.
Purcell amassed
Purcell amassed a a number
number of of imponant positions held
important positions held simultaneously
simultaneously
throughout
throughout his
his life
life which
which bespeak
bespeak the
the recognition
recognition he
he was
was readily
readily accorded:
accorded:
organist
organist at
at Westminster
Westminster Abbey (1679), organist
Abbey ( 1679) organist
, to
to the
the Chapel Royal (1682),
Chapel Royal ( 1682) ,

and composer
composer to
to the
the court
court under
under Charles
Charles II
II (1683),
(1683), James II,
James II, and William
William
III
III after
after the
the Glorious
Glorious Revolution.
Revolution.
The works
works of of Purcell
Purcell can
can be
be divided
divided into
into four
four groups:
groups: anthems
anthems and and other
other
sacred
sacred music.
music, odes
odes andand welcome
welcome songs. compositions
songs, compositions for
for the
the stage,
stage, and
and
instrumental
instrumental music.music. Of these
these only
only the
the odes
odes and
and welcome
welcome songs
songs run
run almost
almost
continuously
continuously from from the beginning to
the beginning to the
the end
end ofof his
his creative
creative career.
career. The

anthems belong
anthems belong primarily
primarily to to the
the early period from
early period from the
the late
late seventies
seventies to to
about 1685
about 1685 whereas
whereas the the bulk
bulk ofof his
his stage
stage works
works falls
falls into
into the
the last
last six
six years
years
of his life.
of his lift.

That most of of Purcell's anthems must be

PurceU's anthems be classed
classed asas verse
verse anthems
anthems is is in-
in-

dicative
dicative of
of the
the trend
trend of
of the
the time
time away
away from
from the
the full
full anthem.
anthem. In
In his
his relatively
relatively
few full
full anthems,
anthems, the the composer
composer experimented
experimented with with the
the traditional
traditional motet
motet
style
style and ventured
ventured into
into settings
settings for
for five, six,
five, six, and
and even eight voices without
even eight voices without
resorting
resorting toto the
the facile
facile device
device of of double
double chorus.
chorus. He was was grappling
grappling with with
coDtrapuntal
coatrapuntal technique,
technique, and and inin the
the thick
thick spacing
spacing of
of the
the voices
voices he
he resusci-
resusci-
the rich
tated the rich sonorities
sonorities of of the
the polyphonic
polyphonic era.era. However.
However, Purcell
Purcell vigorously
vigorously
transformed rather
rather than revived the Elizabethan
revived the tradition. The
Elizabethan tradition. The difference
difference
between the
between the early
early and the the Restoration
Restoration motet
motet laylay above
above allall in
in the
the character
character
of
of the
the themes.
themes. Purcell's
PurceU's declamatory
declamatory themes
themes no no longer
longer hadhad thethe abstract
abstract
continuity of
continuity of Byrd's motives. Though
Byrd's motives. Though Purcell
Purcell tried
tried atat times
times to recapture
to recapture
the even Row
the even flow ofof themes, typical of the Elizabethan
of the Elizabethan era, era, for
for example
themes, typical example in in the
the
eight-voiced
eight-voiced HeIII'
Hear my I""Yn'.O
prayer* O Lard,
Lard, the
the attempt
attempt was stifled by the under-
stifled by the under-
declamation of
lying declamation
lying shape of melody.
of the words and
the words and the unorthodox shape
the unorthodox of the
the melody.
Polyphonic
Polyphonk devices
devices abound in in the
the full
full anthems,
anthems, but but thethe imitations
imitations are are
oEten
often soso closely
closely spaced that they
spaced that appeal, significantly,
they appeal. significantly, to
to the
the eye
eye rather
rather than
than
the
the ear.
ear.

The harmony of
The bannon, the fun
of the: full anthems turned
turned to to new effect
effect the
the harmonic
harmonic
licenses of the English idiom to which
Iiceuses of the English idiom to which Bvrd
Byrd had already drawn
had aln:ady attention in
drawn attention in
 Music During
During Commonwealth and Restoration 205
and Restoration 205
the
the preface
preface to his Psalms and Sonnets.
to his Sonnets. In
In the
the hands
hands of
of Purcell
Purcell simultaneous
simultaneous
cross-relations and other
cross-relations other dissonances
dissonances were
were deployed
deployed as
as ends
ends in
in themselves
themselves
for
for the
the sake of
of increased
increased sonority,
sonority, not
not merely,
merely, as
as with
with Byrd,
Byrd, as
as the
the result
result of
of
independent part-writing.
independent part-writing. An excerpt
excerpt from one of Purcell's earliest anthems,
one of Purceirs earliest anthems,
In the Midst of
In the of Life,
Lift, makes the
the harmonic
harmonic conception
conception ofof his
his disson:mces
dissonances
abundantly
abundantly clear
clear (Ex. 58). In the
(Ex. 58). the same composition
composition a a strongly
strongly chromatic
chromatic

Ex.
Ex. 58.
58. Purcell:
Purcell: Excerpt
Excerpt from a full
full anthem.
anthem.

3fe
r r r nr r r r
r =
4
s J J^j J

passage
passage occurs
occurs on the the affective
affective words "the bitter pains,"
"the bitter pains," depicted
depicted byby aa suc-
suc-
cession
cession ofof augmented
augmented triads
triads in in first
first inversion.
inversion. TheyThey belong
belong to to the
the experi-
experi-
mental
mental harmonies
harmonies of of the
the early
early baroque
baroque which,
which, in in Purcell's time, were
Purccll's time, were aa
thing
thing of
of the
the past.
past. That Purcell
Purcell was aware
aware of
of the
the oncoming
oncoming tonality can
tonality can bebe
shown by by his
his most
most arresting
arresting revisions
revisions of
of earlier
earlier works.
works. The two states
states of
of
the anthem Hear me,
the me, O 0 Lord are arc a a case
case in point.n85 Whereas
in point. Whereas the the first
first

version turns
version turns twice
twice to colorful, if
to aa colorful, if repetitious,
repetitious, deceptive cadence, the
deceptive cadence, the
second version
second version replaces
replaces it by
it by modern harmonic harmonic progressions
progressions thatthat move
logically through
logically through the the circle
circle ofof fifths.
fifths. Revisions
Revisions of of this
this kind
kind indicate
indicate how
Purcell gradually
Purcell gradually abandoned
abandoned experimental progressions in
experimental progressions in favor of tonally
favor of tonally
directed harmony,
directed harmony, however
however disguised
disguised by by dissonant
dissonant and independent
independent voice-
voice-
leading.
leading. In
In their
their mixture
mixture of
of archaic
archaic and
and modern features
features Purcell's
Purccll's full
full an-
an-
thems figure
thems figure as as the
the complement
complement to to the
the Musicalia
Mus;calia ad ad chorum sacrum
saerum by by
Schutz. Both
Schiitz. Both composers
composers brought
brought polyphonic
polyphonic principles
principles to to bear
bear on affective
affective
motives that
motives that had obviously
obviously gone
gone through
through the the phase
phase ofof declamatory
declamatory melody-
melody-
writing, both
writing, both arrived
arrived atat highly
highly dissonant
dissonant combinations,
combinations, and both both created
created
in their
in their own way way aa unique
unique fusion
fusion of of polyphonic
polyphonic and harmonic concepts. concepts.
emphasis of
The emphasis of PurcelPs
Purcell's church
church music
music lies,lies, however,
however, on his his verse
verse
anthems. In
anthems. In the early works
the early works of of this
this category
category instrumental
instrumental accompaniment,
accompaniment,
save for
save for thethe organ,
organ, was stillstill lacking,
lacking, but but itit became the the rule
rule in
in the
the later
later
anthems. The string
anthems. string accompaniment
accompaniment took took thethe form of of aa French
French overture
overtUre
which was
which was sometimes
sometimes repeated
repeated as as symphony
symphony between the the verses.
verses. Other
instrumental ritornelli
instrumental ritornelli often
often anticipated
anticipated or or repeated
repeated the melodic material
the melodic material
of the
of the choral
choral sections.
sections. The fast fast section
section of the French overture,
of the overture, usually
usually in in
triple
triple time,
rime, likewise
likewise served
served as
as a
a springboard
springboard for
for the
the subsequent
subsequent chorus,
chorus,
* CE xnIa, measures
III Xllla, measures 12-15.
12-15.
 206 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
quite
quite in contrast with
in contrast with Lully
Lully to to whom
whom the the overture
overture usually
usually remained
remained an an
independent
independent introduction.
introduction. The The participation
participation of of the
the instruments
instruments rangesranges
from
from mere
mere duplications
duplications in in the
the heavy
heavy choral
choral sections
sections to completely inde~
to aa completely inde-
pendent
pendent ~o"urtaJo,
eoncertato, linked
linked by
by imitation
imitation to
to the
the voices,
voices, as.
as, for
for example.
example, in in
the
the resplendent
resplendent endingending of
of the
the ten-voice
ten-voice anthem
anthem Behold
Behold now, praise
now, praise the
the
Lord.
Lord. InIn the solo ver~
the solo verses, melody
melody instruments
instruments enter enter only
only for special oc~
for special oc-

casions,
casions, either
either singly
singly in
in form
form of of a
a solo
solo obbligato
obbligato or or even
even jointly
jointly in the man~
in the man-
ncr
ner of
of an
an accompanied
accompanied recitative
recitative of of the
the opera.
opera. My My belov~t1
beloved spake
spa\e illustrates
illustrates

the first, 0 si",

the first, ting unto
unto ,,,( Lord the
the Lmd the second,
second, quitequite rare
rare alternative.
alternative.

How faithfully
faithfully Purcell
Purccll followed
followed the the path
path of of Humfrey
Humfrcy and and Blow is is

nowhere more clearly

nowhere more clearly apparent
apparent than than inin the
the recitative
recitative and
and arioso
arioso verses
verses of
of
the anthems.
the anthems. The dramaticdramatic and and affective
affective power
power of
of wide
wide skips,
skips, "false"
"false" in~
in-

tcrvals,
tervals, and wilfully
wilfully rumed
ruffled rhythms
rhythms could hardly be
could hardly be pushed
pushed any any further.
further.
Purcell
Purcell avidly
avidly seized
seized every possibility
every possibility for
for pictorial
pictorial representation. Great
representation. Great
demands are arc made on tbe the agility
agility of
of the
the voice, especially
voice, especially in
in bass
bass solos, in-
solos, in-

tended for the

tended for the extraordinary
extraordinary singersinger John
John Costling
Gostling of of the
the Cbapel
Chapel Royal.
Royal
Other solo
solo verses
verses are set in
are set in aria
aria fashion
fashion with
with symmetrical
symmetrical melody,
melody, prefer-
prefer-
ably
ably in
in triple
triple time.
time. Here is is the
the place
place where
where the
the overused
overused dotted
dotted rhythms
rhythms
invariably
invariably appear
appear to to such words as
such words joy, praise,
as joy, praise. triumph,
triumph, and alleluia. The
and alleluia. The
excerpt from I wi/I give
excerpt from / will gi,,~ thanfy
thllnks ""to thee
unto thee (Ex. 59) illustrates
(Ex. 59) not only
illustrates not only the
the
Ex.

,:aJ .. -
Ex. 59-
59- Purccll:
*!
Excerpt from /I will
Purcell: Excerpt
- - - It
liw
,Aa~J.
wiD fit* tkax\s.
. . . .~. -III-~

~ :=~!!~:~t:=I~:::e.
Ie aI Ie

~ k~ ~

mannerism of dotted
IDIJIIlaian of dotted rhythms in its
rhythms in its favorite
favorite form,
form, namely
namely parallel
parallel thirds,
thirds,
but abo the
bur also we of
the use of unprepared
unprepared sevenths
sevenths which
which belongs
belongs to
to the
the English
English
c:omrapuntal equipment
contrapuntal equipment of of the
the time. Dotted rhythms
time. Dotted rhythms should
should not
not bebe re-
re-
prded as
garded an exclusively
II an exclusively French
French trait. They were
trait. They were inherent
inherent characteristics
characteristics
ol fanfares and trumpet
of fanfares and mdodics of
trumpet melodies ol the
the Italian opera. For
Italian opera. For example,
example, thethe
trumpet aria
trumpet from Sartorio't
aria from Sartorio'. Adelaide (J67z) at might
AtldliJe (1672) "
very well
might very be mis-
well be IJlis..
for aI "French"
tUeo for
taken "Frcocb" beginning
beginning by PurcelL
by PurcelL
The cborw sections
The chorus of the
lCCtions of "me anthems
the verse anthems differed
differed from
from the
the verses
verses for
for
more than ODe solo 'foicc by
more than one sob voke by a simpler, less
a
simpler, less encting melodic
exacting melodic line.
line. Purcell
Purcell
oba .cd,on
obtcnrcd, the whole, the
onthe whole, the subtle
subtleidiomatic
idiomaticcontrast between sob
contrastbetween soloensemble
ensemble
and full choral
aod full cborallCCting.
letting, unfortunately often
unfortunately uured by
often obscured by modern
modern mass per-
mass per-
M-GMlao.:a,J.
GMBacx, 033.
 During Commonwealth and
Music During and Restoration
Restoration 207
207
formances. For
formances. For the
the full
full chorus
chorus Purccli
Purcell had
had two
two styles
styles at
at his
his disposal
disposal:: massive
massive
chordal declamation,
chordal declamation, and
and ihe
the thick
thick archaic
archaic polyphony
polyphony of
of his
his own
own making.
making.
This latter
This latter manner persisted
persisted even
even in
in mature
mature works
works like
like My h~arl is
My heart is in-
m-
diting (1685),
diting (1685), written
written for
for the
the coronation
coronation of
of James
James II. The
II. The imposing
imposing choruschorus
for eight voices with doubling instruments seems to revive the many-
for eight voices with doubling instruments seems to revive the many-
voiced
voiced concertato
concertato of
of the
the Venetian
Venetian school; the harmony is
school; the harmony is archaic and re- archaic and re-
markably free
markably free from
from the the strong
strong pull pull ofof dominant
dominant relationships.
relationships. The The choral
choral
endings
endings on
on the
the word "alleluia"
"alleluia" range
range from
from heavy
heavy hammerblow
hammerblow style
style to to
rapid declamatory
rapid declamatory style style in
in eighth-notes.
eighth-notes. They They have
have been
been censured
censured as
as one
one
of the
of the worst
worst mannerisms
mannerisms of of the
the Restoration
Restoration anthem,
anthem, but they must
but they must be be recog-
recog-
nized as
nized as aa general
general mannerism
mannerism of of the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque period period and and by by nono
means aa specifically
means specifically English
English one, one, asas Carissimi
CariS$imi and and all all composers
composers dependent
dependent
on him
on him demonstrate.
demonstrate.
There are
There are many
many indications
indications in in PurcelTs
Purcell's choruses
choruses that that his
his imagination
imagination
was vividly
was vividly stimulated
stimulated by
by the
the possibilities inherent
possibilities inherent in in the
the choral
choral medium
and the
and the sonorities
sonorities it suggested. The
it suggested. The celebrated
celebrated Te Dtum Deum and and Jubilate
fuhilau for for
St. Cecilia's Day
St. Cecilia's (Ifl94) gives
Day (1694) gives full
full vent
vent toto the
the display
display of of choral
choral sonorities
sonorities

and many of
and many of its
its striking diS$Onances can
striking dissonances can be be explained
explained as byproducts of
as byproducts of
idiomatic choral
idiomatic choral scoring.
scoring. Written
Written on
on a
a grand
grand scale
scale with
with a
a somewhat
somewhat an-
an*
noying overemphasis
noying overemphasis on on thethe trumpet
trumpet key key ofof D,D. itit anticipated
anticipated the the Handel
Handel
style,
style, or, more correctly,
or, more correctly, Handel
Handel paid paid itit the highest form
the highest form of of compliment
compliment
in his Utrecht
in his Utrecht Te Deum. The anthem anthem 0 sing sing unto
unto tlte the Lord (1688)(1688) is is note-
note
worthy
worthy for
for a
a verse
verse on
on a
a slightly
slightly varied
varied ground bass, a
a comparatively
ground bass, comparatively rare rare
procedure in Purcell's
procedure in PurcelPs anthems. anthems. It
It seems
seems that
that the
the ground
ground bass
bass held
held for
for
Purcell
Purcell a a secular
secular connotation;
connotation; and and if if any distinction between
any distinction between his his chamber
and church style
and church style can
can be
be made
made at
at all,
all, it
it would
would lie
lie in
in the
the sparing
sparing use
use of
of ground.
grounds
in
in his
his church
church music.music. The same same anthem
anthem is is distinguished
distinguished by by an
an overture
overture

that does
that does notnot observe
observe the the French
French pattern.
pattern. Purcell
Purcell adoptedadopted here here thethe Italian
Italian

overture consisting of a full chordal section,

overture consisting of a full chordal section, later taken up later taken up in
in the
the first
first verse,
verse,

and a
and a short
short canzona.
canzona.
Two claS$CS
classes of works other
of works other than
than anthems
anthems must must be be mentioned
mentioned here here though
though
they
they do
do not
not belong
belong to
to church
church music
music proper:
proper: the
the sacred
sacred songs.
songs, and the
the
elegies on the
elegies on the death death of
of Queen Mary
Queen Mary (1695). (1(9,;). The sacred
sacred songs. published
songs, published
in
in Playford's
Playford's HllTmonia
Harmonia Sacra Sacra withwith a score of
a score similar works
of similar works by by Purcell',
PurceE's
ooDtcmporaries,
contemporaries, are arc solo
solo cantatas
cantatas for for private devotion, mostly
private dcvotion, mostly through-
through-
oomposed
composed in
in a
a recitative
recitative style
style that
that surprises
surprises by by its
its unique
unique and atIetDe
extreme sub-
sub-

jectivism
jectivism in
in the
the treatment
treatment of
of the
the words.
words. Here Purcell
Purcell raised the rhapIodic
raised rhapsodic

type of
type of cantata
cantata to to its highest level,
its highest level, at at a
a time
time when it it had ahcady
already run ita it*

course in
coune in other countries. Only
other countries. Only in in a few of
a few o thethe saacd *ong did
sacred ICIIlp did be he make
208 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
the
the b)
b> now
nuw custolllolry
customary distinction
distinction between
between recitative
recitative and
and aria.
aria. The
The elegies
elegies
with
with their
their rich
rich chromaticism
chromaticism and and bold
bold appoggiature
appoggiature show
show thethe pathetic
pathetic
st~'le
style of
of Purcell at its
Purccll :It its best.
best. They
They are steeped in
are steeped in a
a somber
somber pathos
pathos as
as if
if the
the
compoSC'r
composer had.
had, when
when he
he wrote
wrote them.
them, a
a premonition
premonition of
of his
his own
own premature
premature
death.
death.

The twotwo dozen

dozen odesodes and
and welcome
welcome songs,
songs, written
written forfor courtly
courtly occasions,
occasions,
welcomes,
welcomes, and and St.St. Cecilia's
Cecilia's Days,
Days, show
show traces
traces ofof routine
routine and and haste.
haste, al-
al-

though
though they they contain
contain somesome of of Purcell's
Purcell's most
most t.."Cquisite
exquisite music.
music. The fatuous
fatuous
texts
texts contrast
contrast in in their
their artlessness
artlcssness with
with the adroit, if
the adroit. if fawning.
fawning, prologues
prologues
of
of French
French operasoperas and
and reveal
reveal the
the spiritual
spiritual distance
distance betwccn
between the
the French
French
and thethe English
English court.
court. The odes
odes can
can be
be described
described as
as cantatas
cantatas for
for chorus,
chorus,
soloists,
soloists, andand aa string
string orchestra.
orchestra, frequently reinforced by
frequently reinforced by trumpets,
trumpets, re- re-

corders,
corders, and and oboes.
oboes. The orchestration
orchestration follows
follows at at times
times the the thick
thick five.part
five-part
setting
setting of Lully. The solos
of Lully. solos are
are designated
designated as "verses,** a
as "verses," a term
term that
that implies
implies
close
close relations
relations withwith the
the anthem.
anthem. The unity unity of
of key
key is
is stricdy
strictly observed
observed in
in the
the
first
first and
and last
last movements
movements of of the
the odes,
odes, while
while middle
middle sections are set in
sections are set in
related keys.
related keys. ThcThe oftcn
often superficial
superficial splendor
splendor of the trumpet
of the trumpet keys keys D and and C.C>
and thethe perfunctory
perfunctory triumphal
triumphal sections
sections in in dotted
dotted rhythms
rhythms shouldshould notnot
prejudice
prejudice us
us against
against the
the wealth
wealth of
of imagination displayed
imagination displayed in
in the
the arias
arias and
and
solo
solo ensembles,
ensembles, especially
especially in in the
the very
very numerous
numerous ground
ground basses. odes
The odes
basses. The

for Queen
for Queen Mary Mary and
and St.
St. Cecilia's
Cecilia's Day from Purcell's late period
Day from Purccll's late period contain contain
passages of
passages of supreme
supreme mastery,
mastery, such such asas the
the lament
lament But 0.",
But ah I1 seet see Eusebia
Eusehia
Jt'O",,.'J
drown from Arise
It'4t'S from
ill fears
'd in Arise my my Muse (Itigo) with
Mug (1690) with its highly resourceful
its highly resourceful
baud1ing of
handling of the
the Phrygian
Phrygian cadence
cadence (Ex.(Ex. 60).
6o).LA"e's (I6ga) con-
Goddess (1692)
Love's Goddess con-
Ez.6G. Purcdi:
Ex. 60. Purcell: Excerpt "ria
from Arise
E:&a:rpt from M...
,.y Muse.
my
Ik**l*
flVMnKHL
J J. .J.

-
*
A JJ .J
.J J J. .J
J J.

i ....

" ~I
.... ..._1It ... 1"-

IV - 'Uf'" - I'"

II , , I
tains a fupl chorus on
tains a fugal chorus 011 aa sturdy
sturdy sequential theme in
equential theme in simple
simple tonal
tonal harmony,
harmony,
cbancteristic of the grand
characteristic of the ontio style
grand oratorio ci the
style of the late baroque. In
late baroque. choral
In choral
fugues of
fugues 01. this
this type PurcellICt
type purceil the direct
set the model for
direct model for HandeL
Handel. However,
However, not
not
.0 cboruaa oi the odes aod welcome
all choruses of the odes and welcome songs
101181 are
are on
011 this Jcvd; they
this fcvcl; they are
are
 ..
.~
E-
N
.
:...;

"
.:::
'"
t: ,:: ..
;:
... :.
IJ

.......;: ...
I::

IJ .~
~
~ ...
.:::
~
.~

.::.c'"
il
.(

PLATE 5
PLATES
 '.
'.- '

.....

."~-

Htt'rrs, L~
P,.Mi,'"., Lt Ballrt
Ballet de
de CD"r,
Cour, 191J
Entrance
Entrance of
of American
American Music
Music
from the ballet
from the ballet "La Douairiere de
"La Duuairii:rc dc Billcbahaut"
Billebahaut"

Aeolian
Aeolian Modt
Mode
PLATE 6
from
from Denis
Denis Gaulrier. RA"tmqw
Gaultkr, Rketortqnt ti",
des Dinu
Diettx
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and and Restoration
Restoration 209 209
usually less
usually less consistently
consistently polyphonic
polyphonic andand move
move inin chordal
chordal blocks.
blocks. In
In the
the
ode Hail bright
ode Hail C~dlil2 (ri92).
bright Cecilia famous 'Tis
the famous
(1692), the Natllre's voice
'Tis Natures ,'oice was
was sung
sung
by
by Purcell
Purcell himself
himself with
with "incredable
"incrcdablc graces"
graces" which,
which, fortunatdy.
fortunately, ha\'e
have come
down to us (Ex.
to us (Ex. 61).
61). The words
words of
of the
the arioso
arioso deal
deal with
with the power of
the power music
of music

Ex.
Ex. 61.
6x. Purcell:
Purcell: Excerpt from 'Tis
Excerpt from 'Tis natures
natures uoice.
voice.

-
at opcethftjUMkm to prm, to tt-gctn

c: :j,jl: ;7Tj,I~: ;:J;'i:P 2.h~ I

- I , I
$
.11
a ..
J
I

C::: ~H )1;,t:fJ.l'4C :-I:

bale and stra\IIJI: .. rrlne or lIIte, re-Joj

V
, ~ I~ . : I k I , . b

to
to "express the passions" of which Purcell gives, as
"express the passions" of which Purcell gives,
as it
it were,
were, an object les-
an object les-

son.
son. The
The affective, pictorial
affective, pictorial delineation
delineation of
of the
the words
words needs
needs no comment;
comment;
the
the drastic
drastic juxtaposition of major and minor modes on
juxtaposition of major and minor
on "we
"we hear,
hear, and
and
straight we grieve" was a favorite
straight we grieve" was a favorite
device
device of
of Purcell's,
PurcelPs, also
also found
found in
in dra-
dra-

matic
matic places of
of his
his anthems.
anthems. A
A similar
similar arioso
arioso occurs in C~l~brat~
occurs in Celebrate thit
this Fes-
Fes-
places
tival
tival (1693) to the words La
(1693) to the words
Let sullen
sullen discords
discords smile.
smile. The ode Hail
The ode Hail bright
bright
Cecilia
Cecilia stands
stands out
out for
for a
a fine
fine fugal
fugal chorus
chorus in
in the
the Handel
Handel manner
manner and
and the
the
splendid da-capo aria Wondrous
splendid da-capo aria Wondrous
machine
machine which,
which, written
written on
on a
a mechanical
mechanical
ground,
ground,
starts
starts in
in the
the Italian
Italian way
way with
with aa motto
motto beginning.
beginning. In In this
this aria
aria

Purcell
Purcell pays high tribute to the power of organ music.
pays high tribute to the power of organ
music.

In
In the
the discussion
discussion of
of purcelrs
PurcelTs dramatic works Dido
dramatic works Dida a"tI Aeneas (I68g?)
and Aeneas (1689?)
comes first
comes first not
not only
only because
because of
of its
its chronology,
chronology, but
but primarily
primarily because it
because it

isis the
the only real opera by the composer and, at at the
the same
same time, the oo1y
time, the
only real opera by the composer and, only
enduring English opera
enduring English opera
of
of the
the period.
period. When
When Purcell
Purcell was
was called upon to
called upon to
write the opera, his only works
write the opera, his only works for
for the
the stage
stage consisted
consisted of
of some
some incidental
incidental
210
210 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
mlJ,k
muic Jnt! >md s{Jngs
songs to stage plays.
to st3ge plays. However,
However, he he had
had had had ample
ample opportunity
opportunity
to familiarize hHn~df
to f;1!lHliJrize himself with with the the dramJtic:
dramatic 5t}le style inin his
his odes
odes and and anthems.
anthems.
Since Dido
Since Dido .zntlami .1('1I~as
Aeneas was written, like
was written. like many
many otherother masques,
masques, for for ama-
ama-
teurs-in
teur* in this case aa boarding
this case boarding school
school for
for girls-its
girls its scope
scope and
and resources
resources
were
were ne.;essarily
necessarily limited,limited, and fortunately so.
and fortunate1r so, because
because the the result was aa
result was

chamber opera
chamber opera of which there are so few.
of which there arc so few.
The
The chorus
chorus in in Dido
Dido and and .Am~as
Aeneas comments
comments on on andand participates
participates in in the
the
~ction
action in in the
the manner
manner of of aa Greek
Greek tragedy.
tragedy. This
This significant
significant emphasis
emphasis on
on
chor~l
choral dram3,
drama, whkh which is is not
not paralleled
paralleled even
even in
in the
the French
French chorus
chorus opera,
opera,
proves
proves how strongly
strongly the the imaginations
imaginations of of Purcell
Purcell and and hishis librettist
librettist TateTate were
were
conditioned
conditioned by by the
the choral
choral traditions
traditions of of the
the masque.
masque. The arias
arias and redta-
recita-

tives arc
tives are clearly
clearly differentiated
differentiated in in the
the Italian
Italian manner.
manner. Most Most of of thethe solos
solos and
ducts
duets arcare continuo
continue arias arias without
without further
further accompaniment,
accompaniment, save save Dido's
Dido's fare-
fare-

well, and PurJu~

well, Pursue liz}' conqu~sIIOll~.
thy conquest love. The latter
latter parades
parades an
an orchestral
orchestral garb
garb
in
in fanfare
fanfare stylestyle and differs
differs from
from the the other
other concise arias by
concise arias its brief
by its brief da-capo
da-capo
form.
form. For some important important recitatives,
recitatives, such such as as that
that of of the
the sorceress,
sorceress, Puredl
Purcell
resorts
resorts to to an uncanny aecompt.ignalo,
an uncanny accompagnato, in in which
which he he depicts
depicts supernatural
supernatural
fright
fright in in the
the horror
horror key key ofof f.
/. The strings
strings come in in for
for emphasis
emphasis at at the
the end
end
of the
the three
three arias
arias on ground
ground basses,
basses, the
the last
last of
of which,
which, Dido's
Dido*s farewell
farewell W h~
When
II 11m
am LUd.
laid, has justly become
has justly become one one of Purcell's most
of Purccll's most celebrated compositions.
celebrated compositions.
In its deceptive
In its deceptive simplicity
simplicity this this lament
lament standsstands out out as as aa monument
monument to to his
his
dramatic genius.
dramatic genius. The disregarddisregard of of the
the melody
melody for for the
the periodic
periodic returns
returns ofof
the chaconne
the chaconne bass bass (third
(third type)
type) and and the shift of
the shift phra~ structure
of phrase structure and and har-
har-
mony bespeak
mony bespeak his his supreme
supreme mastery.
mastery. Neither
Neither the bass of
the bass of the
the lament
lament nor nor
the asymmetrical
the asymmetrical structure structure of of the
the voice
voice part were original
part were original with with Purcell,
Purcell,
who used
who used similar basses, though
simiLtr basses, though less less successfully,
successfully, on several other
on several other occasions,
occasions,
for example
for example in in the Fairy Queen
the Fairy Qwm and and the the St. Cecilia's ode
St. Cecilia's ode of lli9:z (compare
of 1692 (compare
Ex. 65). The
Ex. 65), fourth ground
The fourth ground bassbass in Dido isis the
in Dido shon chacony
the short chacony or or "Triumph-
"Triumph-
iog Dance"
ing Dance" whkh which concludes
concludes the the first
first scene
scene in in Lullian
Lullian rhythms
rhythms and manner.
and manner.
In each of
In each cl the
the scenes tonal unity
scenes tonal unity prevaUs
prevails as strictly as
as strictly as inin the
the odes,
odes. AtAt first
first
glance the third sceoe seems
glance the third scene ICCIlU to deviate from
to deviate from the the rule,
rule, butbut its instrUmental
its instrumental
introduction must
introduction probably be
must probably be repeated
repeated at at the
the endend forfor thethe dance
dance of of the
the
witches that
witches that thethe libretto
libretto prescribes.
prescribes. This This repeat,
repeat, suggested
suggested also also byby the
the
dc:signatiClll "ritoracBe"
designation "ritomclle" restores
rcstora the tonal unity.
the tonal unity. The The features
features that that Dido
Ditlo
__ Aenems
**d Antdi has bas in in common
cumnoo with with Blow's
Blow's VenusVmIlS and II1Id Adonis
Ado"u have already
have already
been ditcustcd. It goes
been diicuiacd. It without saying
ps without ..ying that that Dido
DUlo isis aa moremore maturemature work,
work,
aDd that
and that the diffac:uces between
the differences between the the two operas are
two operas are more
more decisive thm
decisive than
their similarities
their similarities.
The other
The other dramatic
dramatic works works of importance include
of importance maquea, operatic
iuclude marpiffr operatic
 Music During
Music Commonwealth and
During Commonwealth and Restoration
Restoration 211 211
scenes, and
scenes, and songs
songs inserted
inserted in in plays
plays by by Dryden,
Dryden, Bctterton,
Betterton. Congrevc,
Clngreve, and and
others, notably
others, notably King King Arthur,
Arthur, The Th~ Indian
Indian Queen,
Queen, and D;ocl~sian. To
and Dioclesian. To thethe
same group
same group belong
belong the the oft-abused
oft-abused adaptations
adaptations of of Shakespeare:
Shakespeare: Timon Timon of of
Athens, The
Athens, The Fairy Que~n (after
Fatry Queen (after AA Midsummer
Midsummer Right's ?-";ght's Dream)
Dream), and, and TheTh~
Tempest. In
Tempest. In comparison
comparison with with French
French and and Italian
Italian hack hack writers
writers for for the
the
opera, the libretti
opera, the libretti
of
of Shadwell
Shadwell rank
rank rather
rather highhigh for
for sheer
sheer fantasy,
fantasy, however
however
base aa distortion
base distortion of of the
the Shakespearean
Shakespearean spirit spirit they
they may may be. be. Regrettably
Regrettably
enough,
enough, the
the arrangements
arrangements give
give Purcell
Purcell hardly
hardly a
a chance
chance to
to set
set an original
an original
line by
line by Shakespeare,
Shakespeare, except except for for such
such songs
songs as Come unto
as Come IInto these yellow sands
these yellow sands
and
and FilII
Full fathom
fathom five five from
from Th~
The Tempest.
Tempest.
What isis striking
striking in in Purcell's
Purcell's most most mature
mature music music is, is, above
above all,all, the
the vast
vast
scale on
scale on which
which itit is is conceived.
conceived. Imposing Imposing recitatives
recitatives and and longlong arias,
arias, cither
either
in full
in full orchestral
orchestral setting
setting or or with
with brilliant
brilliant obbligatos,
obbligatos, have have now become become
the rule.
the rule. Purcell
Purcell worked
worked with with large
large units,
units, andand combined
combined chorus chorus and and solos
solos
in extended
in extended rondo
rondo structures,
structures, one
one of
of his
his favorite
favorite forms
forms which
which occurs
occurs also
also

in the
in the odes
odes and and anthems.
anthems. The vocal vocal terzetto
terzetto at at the
the endend of Diodesian
of Dioclesian
presents
presents
a
a chaconne
chaconne bass
bass (fourth
(fourth type)
type) in
in a
a varied
varied da-capo
da-capo form. In
form. In the
the
middle section
middle section the the bass
bass is is suddenly
suddenly given given out
out in
in the
the tonic
tonic minor in
in the
the
manner
manner of
of a
a Lullian
Lullian chaconne,
chaconne, and
and the
the return
return to
to major
major has
has the
the effect
effect of
of a
a
da capo. The same
da capo. The same ground ground bass
bass was
was used
used not
not only
only by by Italian
Italian composers
composers
(Monteverdi) but
but also
also by by Blow who called
called it it MorlaJr./s Ground in in one
one of of
(Monteverdi) Morten's
his
his harpsichord
harpsichord pieces.pieces.
As
As the
the single
single movements
movements expanded, expanded, PurcellPurcell carried
carried the the musical
musical organiza-
organiza-
tion to a higher
tion to a higher plane. plane. In
In the
the gigantic passacaglia
gigantic passacaglia How
HoUi happy
happy th.ethe 1011"
lover
from King Art/lllr he vied
from King Arthur he vied with Lully's with Lully's most
most pretentious
pretentious and ponderous
ponderous
works;
works; itsits interspersed
interspersed
trio
trio episodes
episodes for
for voices
voices oror instruments
instruments enhanced
enhanced the the

rondo
rondo effect
effect of of the
the whole.
whole. Sometimes
Sometimes Purcell Purcell elaborated
elaborated a chaconne twice
with
with such
such ingenuity
ingenuity that
that the
the connection
connection between
between the
the two related
related versions
versions

escaped attention,
escaped attention, as,
as, for
for example,
example, in
in the
the Chinese
Chinese ""'anne
chaconne and air
air of the
the
Fairy Queen, printed in the edition of the Purcell Society
Fairy Queen, printed in the edition of
the Purcell Society as two inde-
as two inde-

pendent pieces. In
In the
the famous
famous frost
frost scene
scene of of King
King Arlhur
Arthur Purcell
Purcell depicted
depicted
pendent pieces.
the
the shivering
shivering
cold
cold by
by an
an instrumental
instrumental and
and vocal
vocal tremolo.
tremolo, an
an idea
idea that
that can
can
again
again
claim
claim Lully
Lully as
as its
its godfather.
godfather. Ltdly Lully introduced
introduced the
the same
same effect in
effect in the
the

frost scene of Isis

frost scene of Ids (1677) (1&n) for
for the
the chorus
chorus of
of the
the TremblnlrS.
Trembleurs. The
The imitation
imitattoa

surpasses the model, however, in

surpasses the model, however,
in harmonic
harmonic interest.
interest. Chromatic
Chromatic progres-progres-
sions
sions lend
lend aa curiously
curiously eerie
eerie quality
quality to
to the
the whole
whole scene,
scene, especially
especially the
the
Neapolitan-sixth chord, otherwise quite rare rare inin Purcell.
Purcell. The The music
music for for the
the
Neapolitan-sixth chord, otherwise quite
airy and airy
airy and fairy
realm
realm of
of the
the Fairy Queen
fairy Queen assumes
assumes aa sprightly
sprightly tone
tone and
and a*
w
gossamer clarity
gossamer
that almost
clarity that almost approach
appl'OQch the
the romantic
romantic conception
conception of
of "cbane-
drac~
212 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
tc:rization."
tcrizatkm." However,
However, only only suchsuch qualities could be
qualities could be represented
represented in baroque
in baroque

music
music as could be
as could characterized by
be characterized by the
the appropriate
appropriate affections.
affections. As a matter
a matter
of course,
of course, Chinese.
Chinese, Indian,
Indian, or or other
other "exotic
"exotic characterizations,"
characterizations," which which
modern
modern musicians
musicians would would strive
strive for
for ifif they
they were
were to
to set
set the
the Indian
Indian Queen
Queen
or Fairy (}u~~n,
the FlJiry
or the cannot be
Queen, cannot be found
found in in Purcell's
Purcell's music.
music,
In
In a a single
single case
case Purcell
Purcell is is known to have borrowed
to have borrowed a a melody
melody from
Lully,
Lully, namely
namely from from the the opera
opera elldmUI
Cadmus et Hwmione which he probably
et Hermione probably
heard at
heard at its
its London performance in in 1686.
i686.37 He adopted Lully's melody
3T
London performance adopted Lully's melody
of
o the
the dancing
"dancing winds"
winds" from
from the
the Entr;e
Entree de
de l'enllie
fenvie for
for his
his dance
dance of the
of the
subterranean
subterranean winds
winds in
in the Temp~II,
the Tempest, using using however
however a
a bass
bass of
of his
his own in-
in-

stead
stead ofof Lully's.
Lully's. TheThe comparison
comparison of of the
the two
two harmonizations
harmonizations is is illuminating
illuminating
though
though the
the melody
melody itself
itself can
can hardly
hardly be
be called
called distinctive.
distinctive. Purcell
Purcell seems
seems to to
have
have borroww
borrowed it onlyit
only because
because he
he readily
readily found
found in
in Lully
Lully what was
was called
called
for
for at
at this
this particular
particular placeplace in in the Tempest: a
the Tempest: music suggesting
a music suggesting the the dancing
dancing
of
of the
the winds
winds by by bustling
bustling string
string passages.
passages. French
French influence
influence could could be be proved
proved
in Purcell's music
in Purcell's music without
without this this conclusive
conclusive bit bit of
of evidence.
evidence. The style style ofof the
the
chaconncs
chaconnes and and ovenures.
overtures, the the ever-prescnt upbeat
ever-present upbeat patterns patterns in
in his
his vocal
vocal and
and
instrumental
instrumental music, music, the bass arias
the bass arias with
with doubled
doubled continuo
continuo of his middle
of his middle
period,
period, and
and the
the frost
frost scene
scene speak
speak an
an unmistakable
unmistakable language.
language. Yet
Yet toward
toward
the end
the end ofof his
his career
career Italian
Italian inRuence
influence came strongly strongly to to the
the fore
fore again, this
again, this
time
time the late baroque
the late baroque style just being
style just being developed
developed in in Italy.
Italy.
The stylistic
stylistic change
change manifests
manifests itself
itself most clearly in
most clearly in the
the works
works of the last
of the last

three years.
three years. The prominent
prominent traits
traits of
of this
this change
change are
are the
the adoption
adoption of
of the
the
daapo
da<apo aria,aria, the
the sudden
sudden sparseness
sparseness of
of the
the English idiom, and
English idiom, and the tentative the tentative
use
use ofof the
the concmo
concerto style.
style," In
1 In thethe Fairy Queen da-capo
Fairy Queen da-capo arias arias onon thethe grand
grand
scale appear
scale appear several
several times
times in in combination
combination with with aa ground,
ground, a
a combination
combination
that
that also
also occurs
occurs in in Wondrous mllC";ne machine from St. St. Cecilia's
Cecilia's Ode.Ode. Fair Fair andand
mnl~ from the
serene the T~mpest
Tempest is
is an
an experiment
experiment with
with the
the modern rondo
modern rondo aria, aria,
and thethe delightful
delightful song song 1 / tllkmp'
attempt from Itwe's sicJclless
from love's richness to to flyfly from
from the the
I_,ii
Indian.. Owo
Queen is is also
also written
written in rondo form.
in rondo form. Extraordinary
Extraordinary da-capo da-capo arias
arias
with subdivided first
with IIa subdivided first part and a
part a tonally
tonally contrasting
contrasting middle middle section
section can can be be
found
found in in the
the TmI/lfsl (Htalt:ytm
Tempest (Halcyon Days). .o.,s). The energetic concerto
energetic concerto style, style,
described by
daaibed by North u as ..
"the fire and fury
the fire fury of of the
the Italian
Italian style," prevails in in
style," prevails
the outstanding aria
the outstanding arias ofof the
the Tempest:
Tempest: Arise Arist: 11: ye sublnTtm"_
subterranean winds, winds, WhileWhile
tA~" pas*,
these /MIS. and Sn Seethe tile "e1ll101
heavens smile.smile. The first first two of of these
these arc: written in
are written in
the large
the bipartice
large bipartite aria
aria form with repeated
repeated second
second part,
part, the
the favorite
favorite Italian
Italian
aria form of
aria of the time. It
the time. should also
It should also bebe DOted
noted thatthat they
they make
make use use of the
of the

Weftnip* I'wrd
"WaIl"IIp, Pwtrtf,
**
146.
* Pew dacuakn ~
tbc dieawion
For abe concerto M:JIc
of Cl'D:atD style _ Chapter vn.
tee CbapII!r VII.
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 213
213
Italian motto
Italian motto beginning
beginning which
which cannot
cannot be be found
found in in PurccII's
Pun:dl's earlier
e..lrlier works.
works.
The manner
The manner in
in which
which Purcell
Purcell seized
seized upon
upon thethe continue
continuo homophony
homophony of of the
the
concerto style
concerto style can be illustrated
can be illustrated by
by the
the ritornello
ritornello to W hi/~ these
to While Ih~s~ pafs which.
polts which,
like the
like the very
very similar
similar ritornello
ritornello toto See h~at'ens smile,
the heavens
See the smil~. is
is characterized
characterized
by aggressive rhythm,
by aggressive rhythm, a
a steady
steady bass
bass line,
line, and
and clearly
clearly directed
directed harmony
harmony
(Ex. 62). Characteristically, Purcell also adopted.
(Ex. 62). Characteristically, Purcell also adopted, along
along with
with the
the concerto
concerto

62. Purcell:
Ex. 62.
Ex. Purcell: Ritornello
Ritornello from The Tempest.
from The Tempest.

=:::r:;:I;:~?;;~
ra n

style, the
style,
the language
language of of fully
fully established
established tonality
tonality and
and nearly
nearly abandoned
abandoned the the
harmonic archaisms
harmonic archaisms andand tonal
tonal ambiguities
ambiguities of of the
the English
English idiom,
idiom, not
not com-
com-
patible with
patible
with the
the late
late baroque
baroque conception
conception of of harmony.
harmony.
It has
It has not
not yet
yet been
been determined
determined exactly
exactly which
which Italian
Italian operas
operas were
were known
to Purcell, but his familiarity
to Purcell, but his familiarity with
with them
them cannot
cannot be
be questioned. visit
questioned. The visit
of the
of the famous castrato Siface
famous castrato Siface toto the
the English
English court
court may
may have been instru-
have been instru-

mental in
mental in acquainting
acquainting him
him with
with the
the latest Italian
latest Italian developments.
developments, especially
especially
the
the early operas
early operas
of
of Scarlatti,
Scarlatti, in
in which
which Siface
Siface had sung
sung himself to
to fame.
fame.
Purcell commemorated
Purcell commemorated the
the singer's departure
singer's departure from
from England
England in
in a
a "fare-
"fare-

well"
well" forfor harpsichord.
harpsichord.

Among
Among Purcell's
Purceirs instrumental
instrumental works
works the the harpsichord
harpsichord piecespieces are
are least
least

representative of the composer,

representative of the composer,
several
several of
of them being merely arrangements
being merely arrangements
of
of other
other compositions. The suites or lessons
compositions. The suites or
lessons forfor harpsichord.
harpsichord, written
written in in the
the

French
French manner,
manner, are are more
more distinguished
distinguished than than the the few
few organ
organ pieces
pieces that
that

have
have come
come down
down to to us.
us. The exceptionally
exceptionally fine
fine organ
organ toccata
toccata in
in A, written
written

in the
in the Italian
Italian vein,
vein, was
was erroneously
erroneously included
included in
in the
the volumes
volumes of
of the
the Bach
Bach
Gesellscha/t.1I
Gtsettschaft**
The
The chamber
chamber music
music for
for strings
strings can
can be
be classed
classed intointo anan archaic
archaic and
and modern
modern
group, depending on on the
the absence
absence oror presence
presence of of thethe continuo. To
continue. To the first
the first
group, depending
group belong the fantasias for
group belong the fantasias
for from
from three
three to to seven
seven parts,
parts, and
and the
the chacony
chacony
in g. These
in g. These works
works show
show that
that Purcell
Purcell at
at the
the age
age of
of twenty-one
twenty-one had
had already
already
fully mastered
fully mastered
the polyphonic
the polyphonic art
art of
of the
the fancy
fancy for
for viols.
viols. They
They are
are the
the last
last

examples of the: kind and include

include even
even thethe In nomine, by
In nomine, by now almost ex-
now almost ex-
examples of the kind and
D11The
Thewc:rk
work bas
has also beenascribed
also been to Michelangelo
ascribed to Michelangelo RCIISSi;
Rossi; see Wcstrup, op.
see Westrup, of.tiL,
at. 2,3&.
23!
 214
214
Music in
Music in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
tinct. Purcell
tinct. Purcell carried
carried thethe sectional
sectional fancyfancy oof Jenkins
Jenkins toto its its point
point of of perfec-
perfec-
tion with sudden
tion with sudden "drags" "drags" and
and other
other contrasts
contrasts of
of tempo,
tempo, and
and aa restless
restless

harmony, distinguished
harmony, distinguished by by the
the boldest
boldest and and most
most radical
radical utilization
utilization of of thethe
English idiom.
English idiom.
The two
The two sets
sets ofof trio
trio sonatas
sonatas 40 for violins
40 for violins (1683
(1683 and 1~7) form
and 1697) form the the
second and
second and modern
modern group.group. Written
Written in in "just
"just imitation
imitation of of the
the most
most fam'd
fam'd
Italian masters"
Italian masters" theythey were ~upposed to
were supposed to bring
bring the
the "gravity"
"gravity" of of Italian
Italian music
music
into vogue and
into vogue and combat combat the
the "levity"
"levity" of
of the
the French
French neighbor.
neighbor. It
It may
may seem
seem
strange to hear levity smugly
strange to hear levity smugly denounced by
denounced by aa composer
composer whose
whose anthems
anthems
openly
openly
belie
belie his
his own
own words.
words. However,
However, Purcell
Purcell referred here
referred here solely
solely to to in-in-
strumental music,
strumental music, associated
associated in in France
France mainly
mainly with
with the dance. The
the dance. The question
question
as to
as to PurceH's
Purcell's models
models can can bebe answered
answered by by North's
North's assertion
assertion that that the
the works
works
of Cazzati
of Cazzati and
and Vitali
Vitali were
were known in
in England;
England; Matteis
Matteis also
also may
may have
have
made Purcell
made Purcell familiarfamiliar with
with the
the Italian
Italian literature
literature then
then current.
current. The trio
trio

sonatas are divided into four or

sonatas are divided into four or five contrastingfive contrasting movements and
and fall
fall into
into

the pattern
the pattern ofof the
the church
church sonatasonata of of the
the Vitali type. On the
Vitali type. the other
other hand,
hand, the the
close bonds
close bonds with
with thethe English
English fancy,
fancy, which
which come to to light
light in in highly
highly imitative
imitative
movements, belatedly
movements, belatedly called
called canzonas,
canzonas, should
should notnot be overlooked. What
be overlooked.
distinguishes
distinguishes
Purcell
Purccll from
from Vitali
Vitali are
are such
such features
features as the
as the length
length of of the
the single
single
movements, the
movements, the skilfulskilful use
use of
of contrast
contrast motives,
motives, the
the English
English harmonic
harmonic idiom
(especially noticeable
(especially noticeable in
in the second
the second set), set), and the
the absence of thematic
relations
relations between
between the the movements.
movements. Purcell Purcell gained
gained considerable
considerable length length by by
adroitly postponing
adroitly postponing
cadences
cadences with
with suspensions
suspensions and sequential
sequential devices. It
devices. It

should
should bebe noted
noted thatthat the
the church
church sonata
sonata appears
appears at
at times also
also in the guise
in guise
of
of orchestral
orchestral overtures;
overtures; the the symphony
symphony to to the
the second act act of the Indian

Queen, for example,

Queen, for example, is
is a
a church
church sonata
sonata designed
designed on a large
large orchestral
orchestral scale.
scale.

If
If Purcell's
Purcell's artistic
artistic achievements
achievements are are surveyed
surveyed as as a
a whole,
whole, the
the intimate
intimate
ties
ties with
with insular
insular tradition
tradition appear
appear to
to be
be the
the outstanding
outstanding single
single factor. His
factor. His
dissonance
dissonance treatment
treatment especially
especially can
can only
only be
be understood
understood as
as an
an English
English char-
char-

acteristic. It
acteristic. It differs
differs from
from continental
continental practice
practice less
less in
in the
the nature
nature of of the
the
41
harmonies involved
harmonies involved than
than in
in the
the reason
reason for
for their
their application.
application.
41 Purcell
Purcell

40The
.0 The second
second set set is
is called
called "in
"in four parts," aa designation
four parts," designation Purcell
Purccll himself
himself would
would not
not
have chosen.
have chosen. In In botb
both sets the bass
sets the bass and
and the
the continuo
continue do do not
not always
always coincide,
coincide, as
as was
was
common in
common many trio
in many trio sonatas.
sonatas.
41 It
It seems
seems hardly
'1 hardly necessary
necessary to to point
point out
out that
that no
no single
single feature
feature in in music
music can
can be
be re-
re-
~ded
garded as as the monopoly of
the monopoly of anyone
any one nation.
nation. The
The attempt
attempt of of Sir
Sir Walford Davies
Walfprd Davies
{Kings M~t:,
(Kin(s Music, 1937)1937) t? to arrive at a~~ute
arrive at criteria of
absolute criteria of what
what isis "English"
"English" inin music
music isis
asnal~
as naiveas isamateurish.
as ItitIS amateurish. If IfPurcell S SImultaneous
Purcell's simultaneous cross-relations
cross-relationsare arecompared
compared with
with
the~talian
the Italian~ples
examples of ofthe
theearly baroque (En
earlybaroque 3, 15.21)
(Exs. 30 15, 21) itit will
will become dear that
becomeclear thatall
all
"Datiooal
"oattooaT .. cflteria
criteria arc
are relative
relative and
and subject to very
subject to distinct historical
very distinct historical changes.
changes.
 Music During
Music During Commonwealth
Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 215
215
brought
brought to to perfection
perfection whatwhat Locke,
Locke, Humfrey,
Humfrey, and and Blow
Blow hadhad begun:
begun: theythey
all
all sought
sought dissonances
dissonances not
not merely
merely for
for pictorial
pictorial reasons
reasons (as the continental
(as the continental
composers did),
composers did), but
but forfor the
the sake
sake of of thick
thick sonority.
sonority. InIn the
the remarkably
remarkably dis-
dis-
sonant overture to the anthem I will
sonant overture to the anthem I will give
give thanks
thanks unto
unto thee,
thee 0 Lord,
t Lord, there
there
isis no
no pictorial
pictorial justification
justification for for the
the constant
constant frictions
frictions between
between the the parts.
parts.
The clashes
The clashes are
are achieved
achieved by by two
two favorite
favorite devices
devices of
of Purcell's:
PurceU's: thethe simultane-
simultane-
ous
ous use
use of
of suspensions
suspensions and and retardations,
retardations, and and the
the resolution
resolution of of aa suspension
suspension
in new harmony.
in aa new harmony. Another
Another harmonic
harmonic peculiarity,
peculiarity, the
the insistence
insistence on
on cross-
cross-
relations, especially
relations, especially in
in cadences, represents
cadences, represents an
an attempt
attempt to unite modal and
to unite modal and
tonal concepts. In
tonal concepts. In its
its typical form
typical form the the cadence
cadence combines
combines majormajor andand Mixo-
Mixo-
lydian,
lydian, or or minor and Dorian respectively.
respectively. From countless
countless examples
examples of of
this
this practice
practice a chorus from from thethe Tempest
Tempest has
has been
been selected
selected in
in which
which the
the
tolling
tolling of the bellbell is
is depicted (Ex. 63). This
depicted (Ex. 63). This ambiguous
ambiguous cadence,
cadence, expressly
expressly

Ex. 63.
Ex. Purcell: Bell
63. Purcell: Bell chorus
chorus from The Tempest.
Tempest.
A ding dong belt

codified
codified Purcell in
by Purcell
by Introduction to
Playford's Introduction
in Playford's to the
the Skill of
Styll of Music%
Musick asas
"half cadence,"
"half cadence," presupposes
presupposes for
for its cadential
cadential effect
its effect the
the distinct, if elementary,
distinct, if elementary,
feeling for
feeling for tonality
tonality of
of the
the middle
middle baroque. In its
baroque. In its most condensed
condensed formform the
the
cadence entails simultaneous
cadence entails a simultaneous cross-relation,
cross-relation, as in the
as in the anthem
anthem My My heart is
heart is
inditing (Ex.
inditing (Ex. 64).
64). In
In this
this example,
example, which,
which, incidentally,
incidentally, has
has been "im-
been "im-
64- Purcell:
Ex. 64.
Ex. Purcell: Allcluja
Alleluia from
from My heart
My Mart is inditing.
is inditing.
Afle - ht - -
A ja'

proved" in older
proved" in older editions
editions by
by the
the elimination
elimination of
of the
the b-flat, the
b-flat, the dissonant
dissonant
notes of
notes of the
the middle
middle parts
parts do
do not
not essentially
essentially alter
alter the
the underlying
underlying harmony,
harmony,
but they
but they do
do substantially
substantially increase
increase the
the sonority. In contrast
sonority. In contrast with
with the
the narrow
narrow
spacing of the
spacing of the simultaneous
simultaneous cross-relation
cross-relation found in Ex.
found in 58, itit isis spaced
Ex. 58, spaced
here
here an
an octave apart.
octave apart. This
This far
far more
more satisfactory spacing, which,
satisfactory spacing, which, in
in the late
the late
works, supplants
works, supplants the
the cruder
cruder archaic
archaic method,
method, illustrates
illustrates PurcelTs
Purcell's growing
growing
tonal consciousness.
tonal The difference
consciousness. The difference between
between Continental
Continental and
and English
English con-
con-
trapuntal practice
trapuntal practice is born
is born out
out not
not only
only by
by the
the above
above examples,
examples, but also
but also
216 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque EraEra
by the theoretical recognition of
by the theoretical recognition
of unprepared
unprepared consecutive
consecutive sevenths,
sevenths,to
to which
which
Purcell devoted
Purcell devoted aa whole
whole paragraph
paragraph in
in his
his contribution
contribution to Playford's
to Playford's theory
theory
book.
book.
Purcell's melodic
PurcelTs melodic fecundity,
fecundity, which which stands
stands directly
directly opposed
opposed to to Lully's
Lully's
rhythmic approach to
to melody, brightens
melody, brightens even
even his
his weaker
weaker works.
works. However
However
rhythmic approach
uniform his
uniform his melodies
melodies maymay be,be, they
they always
always have
have personal
personal distinction.
distinction. Tunes
Tunes
like II Loves
like // Lot/e's aa sweet
sweet passion
passion fromfrom the Fairy Queen
the Fairy Queen have
have never been
never been
forgotten,
forgotten,
thanks
thanks to
to broadsides,
broadsides, Durfey's
Durfey's Pills,
Pills, and
and The
The Beggar's
Beggar's Opera.
Opera.
The almost
The almost mannered
mannered partiality
partiality to to augmented
augmented and and diminished
diminished steps,
steps, and
and
to softly syncopated minuet rhythms
to softly syncopated minuet rhythms represents represents an
an external,
external, if
if characteristic,
characteristic,

feature of
feature of his
his melodies.
melodies. MoreMore significant
significant areare certain
certain angular
angular qualities
qualities to
to
which the
which Purcell ian grace
the Purcellian grace owes,
owes, paradoxically,
paradoxically, much of of its
its peculiar
peculiar charm.
charm.
Especially in tunes that approach the sphere of
Especially in tunes that approach the sphere
of folksong
folksong and morrismorris dance,
dance,
unvocal progressions
unvocal progressions cancan bebe found
found which
which sharply
sharply contrast
contrast with
with thethe smooth-
smooth-
ness of
ness of the
the Italian
Italian bel-canto
bel-canto style.
style. In
In their
their angularity
angularity theythey recall
recall fiddle
fiddle
tunes, as
tunes, as for
for example
example the the studiously
studiously naive
naive dialogue
dialogue of of Corydon
Corydon and and Mopsa
Mopsa
from the
from Fairy Queen.
the Fairy Queen. Purcell's
Purcell's relation
relation toto folksong,
folksong, which wishful
wishful think-
think-
ing
ing is
is apt
apt
to
to aggrandize,
aggrandize, is
is actually a
a
actually very very loose
loose one.
one. Only
Only on two occasions
occasions

did he
did he actually quote ballad
actually quote tunes: Cold and raw,
ballad tunes: raw, and Hey boys, up
Hey boys, up we
go,
go, and
and here
here they were, significantly
they were, significantly enough, merely foils for his own
enough, merely foils for his

mUSIC.
music.
The discussion
discussion ofof Purcell's
Purcell's compositions
compositions cannotcannot be closed
closed without a a word
about
about his
his obbligo
obbligo forms.
forms. His resourcefulness
resourcefulness in
in inventing
inventing canons and
grounds was without limits
grounds was without limits though though he rarely attempted
rarely attempted such artifices
artifices as
the
the canon
canon forfor two
two recorders
recorders on a a ground
ground bass bass (Dioclesian).
(Diodesian) In the Skill
.
Styll 01
of
Musick
Music^ Purcell
Purcell asserted
asserted that
that composing upon
composing upon ground a
a ground was "a very
very easy
easy
thing
thing toto do,"
do," aa remark
remark that that bears
bears witness
witness of of his
his great
great facility
facility in
in these mat-
ters. His ground
ters. His ground bassesbasses show a
a wide variety
variety of
of types (Ex.
types (Ex. 65). The most
65).
frequently
frequently usedused basses
basses include
include thethe chromatic
chromatic type (nos. 1-3),
type (nos. 1-3), the
the triadic
triadic

type
type (nos.
(nos. 55 and
and 7),
7), the
the running
running or or patterned
patterned type
type (no.
(no. 9),
9), and
and the
the widely
widely
spaced type, obviously
spaced type, obviously derived
derived from
from the
the idiom
idiom of
of the
the string
string instrument
instrument
(nos.
(nos. 77 and
and 8).
8). One
One feature
feature thatthat all
all the
the quoted
quoted basses
basses have
have inin common
common may may
be easily overlooked: they all
be easily overlooked: they all elaborate elaborate the
the melodic
melodic pattern
pattern of the
of the descend-
descend-
ing
ing fourth,
fourth, though
though it it is
is often
often disguised
disguised by by broken
broken "divisions."
"divisions." The The quasi-
quasi-
ostinato
ostinato basses
basses form
form aa groupgroup by by themselves;
themselves; since
since the
the rhythmic
rhythmic pattern,
pattern,
not
not the
the melody,
melody, is is the
the fixed
fixed element
element here,here, they
they allow
allow of of more
more harmonic
harmonic
freedom
freedom thanthan the strict ostinato.
the strict ostinato. Purcell's
PurcclPs grounds
grounds frequently appear in
frequently appear in
transpositions
transpositions to to related
related keys keys or or the
the opposite
opposite mode
mode so so that
that contrasting
contrasting
tonalities
tonalities are
are brought
brought into into play
play in in the
the manner
manner of of aa rondo.
rondo. TheThe occasional
occasional
 Music During
During Commonwealth and
and Restoration
Restoration 217
217
disregard,
disregard, in
in the upper parts,
the upper parts, for
for the
the recurring
recurring pattern
pattern of
of the
the ground
ground
produces sophisticated overlaps
produces sophisticated overlaps of
of phrases, so smoothly effected that
phrases, so smoothly effected that the
the
hearer is
hearer is scarcely
scarcely aware of the
aware of the constraint at all.
constraint at all. Much of
of Purcell's
PurcelTs elabo-
elabo-
ration
ration on grounds
grounds is
is purely musician's
purely musician's music
music which
which may
may have
have been
been lost
lost

on
on his
his courtly
courtly audience.
audience.

Ex.
Ex. 65. Purcell: Ground basses.
65. Purcell: basses.

1 ,i
WelcClD1I!
Welcome Song

Dido
t
Son? 1687

Dido and Arnea.

Aeneas
1687

r 'F Ii; -r It pdt r It r 1 I' r J

2 ,:.. r 3B 1hi 'I I
^=t1'- 'rS JI J I. III
^PI
Fairy
Fairy QUl!en.
Queen, Plaint
Plaint

3 ,,~ f lte= f Il-- t 1_ a r (a ( I r II r I I _ II

King Arthur. ChacOlUle
4 'Ii, r s rI t t r I r t r 1 J t J IJ t J I J;; J Il' J 1 Wi II
Dioclesian
15 ,: ~ r 1rtF I~r
r r It r J Ir r til III
Dioclesian
6 'Ii i b L IJ. Ii 1 I J t r IF r J I t J ,II
Ode 1689
1689

, ,: i Jtttr Err FIJ rr. 1 JIJ ElL

Fairy Quem ...

8 2'1 GIfEEilIEiJ EJ ;1

r WlJ I r trEJ Q GN
Ode 169!&~ 11ft.. ~ h
9 ,Ii EWG
From
From the
the days
days of
of Burney
Burney until
until recently Purcell has
recently Purcell has been appraised mainly
been appraised mainly
in the
in the light
light of
of what
what has
has come
come after
after him.
him. Only
Only the
the latest
latest phase
phase of his
of his stylistic;
stylistic

development, characterized
development, characterized by by the
the tentative turn to
to late
tentative turn kte baroque
baroque style, has
style, has
been taken
been taken to
to represent
represent the
the "real"
"real" Purcell.
Purcell. Since
Since the
the works of
of the
the early
early and
middle
middle periods
periods dodo not
not conform
conform to to this distorted picture
this distorted picture ofof Purcell's
PurcdTs style,
style,

they
they had
had to
to be
be forced
forced into
into line
line by
by the
the notorious
notorious Victorian
Victorian "revisions."
"revisions." To-
To-
day
day aa reversal
reversal ofof opinion
opinion has
has occurred.
occurred. Works that seem to
that seem. to anticipate
anticipate
Handel hold less
Handel hold interest for
less interest us than
for us than the
the earlier
earlier ones
ones in
in which the English
English
idiom of the middle baroque
idiom of the middle baroque reaches
reaches its
its consummation.
consummation. The "Handdian"
"Handeljan"
compositions
compositions strike
strike us
us today
today asas works
works of of transition, the others
transition, the others more nearly
more nearly
218
2i8 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
as works
as works of of perfection,
perfection, not in spite
not in spite of,
of, but
but because
because ofof their
their being
being "clog'd
"clog'd
with somewhat of the
with somewhat of the English English vein"
vein" (North).
(North). The
The stylistic position of
stylistic position of

Purcell has
Purcell has been
been succinctly
succinctly summarized
summarized by by North
North who refers to him as one
who refers to him as one
who "began
who "began toto shew
shew his
his Great
Great skill
skill before
before the
the ref
reforme
orme of musick, d
of musick, Italli-
al Italli-
ana,
ana, and
and while
while he
he was
was warm
warm in
in pursuit
pursuit of
of it,
it, Dyed,
Dyed, but
but aa greater
greater musical
musical
genius England never had." The last
genius England never had." The
last clause
clause ofof this
this quotation
quotation merely
merely para-
para-
phrases the title
phrases the tide of the
of the most famous seventeenth-century
most famous seventeenth-century collection
collection of
of
Purcell's music,
PurcelTs music, which
which has
has justly
justly become
become his his honorary
honorary title: Orpheus
tide: Orpheus
Britannicus.
Britannicus.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
CHAPTER SEVEN

Late Baroque:
Late Baroque: Luxuriant
Luxuriant Counterpoint
Counterpoint and
Concerto Style
Concerto Style

THE CULMINATION OF LATE BAROQUE MUSIC IN ITALY

I T IS
ure
IThave
IS aa strange
ure of
strange though
of baroque
have succeeded
succeeded in
though incontestable
baroque music
music only
in finding
incontestable fact
only certain
finding aa permanent,
fact that
that of
certain compositions
of the
the immense treas-
compositions in late baroque
permanent, if
in late

if subordinate,
treas-
baroque style
subordinate, placeplace in
style
in the
the
present-day
present-day
musical
musical repertory
repertory and that,
that, as
as a
a consequence,
consequence, the
the characteristics
characteristics

of
of late baroque style
late baroque are commonly
style are commonly mistaken
mistaken for for those
those of thethe baroque
baroque as as a
whole. It
whole. would be
It would be wrong to
to
wrong explainexplain this
this preference by contending
preference by contending that
that the
the
late
late baroque
baroque masters
masters were
were "greater"
"greater" than
than their
their predecessors;
predecessors; this
this interpre-
interpre-
tation
tation would only only confirm
confirm the the lack
lack of
of familiarity previous periods
familiarity with the previous periods
of
of baroque
baroque music.
music. The reason
reason lies
lies deeper
deeper than
than that.
that. Late
Late baroque
baroque music
music
does
does indeed differ from
indeed differ from that
that of
of the
the earlier
earlier phases
phases of of baroque style in one
baroque style in
important
important respect:
respect: it
it is written in
is written in the
the idiom of of fully
fully established tonality.
tonality.

After the
After the pre-tonal experimentations
pre-tonal experimentations of
of the
the early
early baroque
baroque and the use of
aa rudimentary tonality
rudimentary tonality in
in the
the middle
middle baroque period,
baroque period, the definitive
definitive realiza-
realiza-

tion of
tion of tonality
tonality in
in Italy about 1680
Italy about 1680 marks the the decisive
decisive turning
turning point
point inin the
the
history of harmony which
history of harmony which coincides
coincides with
with the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque
period. It is precisdy the
period. It is precisely
the use
use of
of tonality
tonality in
in the
the late
kte baroque
baroque thatthat connects
connects
this
this period more closely than any other with
period more closely than any other
with the
the living
living musical
musical repertory
repertory ofof

today.
today.

THE
THE RISE
RISE OF TONALITY
OF TONALITY
Tonality
Tonality was
was not
not "invented"
"invented" by by aa single
single composer
composer oror aa single
single school.
school. It
It

emerged at approximately the

emerged at approximately the same
same time
time in
in the
the Neapolitan opera
Neapolitan opera and
and in
in the
the

instrumental music of
instrumental music of the
the Bologna
Bologna school
school and and was
was codified
codified by Rameau
by Rameau
more than
more than aa generation
generation after
after its
its first
first appearance
appearance in music. Tonality
in music. Tonality es-
es-

tablished
tablished aagradated
gradated system
system of
of chordal
chordal relations
relations between
between a tonal
a tonal center (the
center (the
219
2IQ
22O
220 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
tonic triad in
tonic triad in major
major or or minor)
minor) and and thethe other
other triads
triads (or (or seventh
seventh chords)
chords)
of the diatonic
of the diatonic scale.
scale. None
None of of these
these chords
chords was was in in itself
itself new,
new, butbut they
they nownow
served
served aa new new function,
function, namely
namely that that ofof circumscribing
circumscribing the the key.
key. While
While in in
middle
middle baroque harmony
baroque harmony this
this function
function had
had been
been performed chieB.y
performed chiefly by by the
the
two
two dominants,
dominants, it it was
was nownow extended
extended to to all
all chords. Significantly, this
chords. Significandy, this in~in-

elusive
clusive system
system of
of chordal
chordal functions
functions is
is known as
as functional
functional harmony.
harmony.
The
The functional
functional or or tonal
tonal chord
chord progressions
progressions are are governed
governed by by the
the drive
drive to to
the
the cadence
cadence whichwhich releases
releases thethe tension
tension that that thethe movement
movement away away fromfrom the the
tonic produces. The technical
tonic produces. technical meansmeans of of achieving
achieving key-feeling
key-feeling were, were, aside
aside
from the the cadence
cadence itself,
itself, diatonic
diatonic sequences
sequences of
of chords
chords that
that gravitated
gravitated toward
toward
the tonal center.
the tonal center. The degree degree of of attraction
attraction depended
depended on on the
the distance
distance of of the
the
chords
chords from the the tonic,
tonic, and this this distance
distance was was measured
measured and and determined
determined
by
by the
the circle
circle of
of fifths. sequence in
fifths. The sequence in fifths
fifths crystallized
crystallized as as the
the most
most com-
com-
mon and conspicuous
conspicuous harmonic
harmonic formula
formula that
that underlay
underlay the
the harmonic
harmonic struc-
struc-
ture
ture ofof an extended
extended piece.
piece. The diatonic
diatonic circle
circle always
always included
included a a diminished
diminished
fifth and precisely
fifth and precisely thisthis irregularity
irregularity gave gave it it its
its defining
defining power power with with regard
regard
to
to key.
key. The logiclogic of of chord
chord progressions
progressions was was heightened
heightened by by melodic
melodic means,
means,
such as as dovetailing
dovetailing suspensions
suspensions of of the
the seventh (compare Ex.
seventh (compare Ex. 68 68 below).
below).
Seventh chords
chords on every degree of
every degree of the
the scale,
scale, oneone of of the
the most
most characteristic
characteristic
earmarks of of late
late baroque music,
baroque music, were
were uncommon in
in early
early and and middle
middle
baroque harmony.
baroque harmony. Also Also thethe seventh
seventh chordchord on on thethe leading
leading tone tone in minor
in minor
(diminished-seventh chord)
(diminished-seventh chord) became
became an an important
important resource resource of of tonality.
tonality. It It
was considered
was considered not not as as aa chromatically
chromatically alteredaltered chordchord but but as as aa member
member of of the
the
diatonic family. It
diatonic family. It had
had already
already occurred
occurred in in early
early baroque
baroque harmony,
harmony, though though
only sporadically
only sporadically and
and not
not in
in the
the strictly tonal function it
strictly tonal function it acquired now. acquired now.
Its dissonant
Its dissonant quality
quality made itit the the favorite
favorite chordchord at at climactic
climactic pointspoints placed
placed
directly before
directly before thethe release
release ofof the
the accumulated
accumulated tension tension in in the
the final
final cadence.
cadence.
Among the
Among the various
various harmonic
harmonic formulas
formulas and and sequences
sequences that that tonality
tonality em- em-
ployed,
ployed, the
the descending
descending series
series of
of sixth
sixth chords
chords stands
stands out as another
out as another im- im-
portant resource. Tonally
portant resource. Tonally less conclusive
less conclusive than than the the circle
circle ofof fifths
fifths and
and still
still
subservient to
subservient to contrapuntal
contrapuntal part-writing,
part-writing, itit harmonized
harmonized the the steps
steps ofof the
the
scale in
scale in diatonic
diatonic fashion
fashion and and thus
thus also
also served
served as as aa means
means of of circumscribing
circumscribing
the key. This
the key. formula occurred
This formula occurred in in its
its barest
barest form form with with Corelli
Corelli (Ex.(Ex. 66)66)
who
who was was the first to
the first to put
put the tonal formulas
the tonal formulas to to systematic
systematic use. use.
Both formulas
Both formulas appearappear so so often
often in in late
late baroque
baroque style style that
that itit can
can bebe cate-
cate-
gorically stated that
gorically stated that there
there isis hardly
hardly aa composition
composition in in late
late baroque
baroque stylestyle in in
which they
which they arcare notnot present.
present. The,The formulas
formulas presentedpresented the the tones
tones of of the
the
diatonic scale
diatonic scale in
in systematic
systematic form,form, preferably
preferably in in descending
descending order, order, andand de-do-
fined the
fined the key;
key; however,
however, since since they
they could
could be be interrupted
interrupted at at any
any point
point they
they
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 221
22I
served at
served at the
the same
same time
time as
as the
the main
main means
means of
of modulation.
modulation. Simple
Simple as
as they
they
may seem
may seem today,
today, they
they were
were elaborated
elaborated time
time and
and again
again with
with astonishing
astonishing
resourcefulness.
resourcefulness.

Ex. 66. Corelli:

Ex. 66. Corelli: Excerpt
Excerpt from violin sonata
from violin sonata op.
op. 5, 7.
5, 7.

~Pi
~
I: E::'I:
i.. c
r:r :rl::~:EI:r:r :rl:![::J
C~
:J:l~:J
I:IJ:~J::I:
I

The establishment
establishment of of tonality
tonality naturally
naturally affected
affected all all aspects
aspects of of compo-
compo-
sition. Above all,
sition. Above all, it
it permeated
permeated the the contrapuntal writing. The absorption
contrapuntal writing. absorption of of
tonality
tonality into
into counterpoint
counterpoint gave
gave the
the melodic
melodic design
design and the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal
texture
texture unprecedented
unprecedented harmonic harmonic support.
support. The poignant poignant mdodicmelodic dis- dis-

sonances
sonances or or "false"
"false" intervals could now be
intervals could be integrated
integrated into
into the
the tonal
tonal system.
system.
The
The interpenetration
interpenetration of of harmony
harmony and counterpoint
counterpoint resultedresulted in in the har-
the har-
monically
monically saturated
saturated or or "luxuriant"
"luxuriant" counterpoint
counterpoint of of the
the late
late baroque
baroque period,
period,
which
which began
began with
with Carelli
Corelli and culminated
culminated in
in the
the works of
of Bach. Tonality
Tonality
provided also a framework of harmony able to
provided also a framework of harmony able
to sustain
sustain large
large forms.
forms. It It set
set

up harmonic
up harmonic goals goals without
without which
which the
the extended
extended forms of
of late
late baroque
baroque
music
musk would
would not not have
have been
been possible.
possible. ItIt gave
gave aa new perspective
perspective to to the
the two
structural
structural voices
voices ofof the composition. In
the composition. In the
the rdation
relation between melody melody and
chord
chord progression
progression the
the consideration
consideration of
of the
the latter
latter began
began to weigh
weigh more
heavily
heavily than
than the
the former.
former. The mdodies
melodies were increasingly
increasingly conditioned by
by
and dependent on the harmonic
and dependent on the harmonic accompaniment accompaniment-a a process
process that
that led finally
finally
to
to the
the homophony
homophony of of the
the Mannheim school. school. However,
However, in in late
late baroque
baroque
music
music thethe homophony
homophony was
was hdd
held in
in check
check by
by the
the continuo
continuo which preservedpreserved
the
the dualistic
dualistic conception
conception of of musical
musical structure.
structure. The The harmonic
harmonic orienta-
orienta-

tion was
tion was thus thus counterbalanced
counterbalanced by
by the
the mdodic
melodic orientation
orientation of
of the bass.
bass.

This most characteristic

This most characteristic idiom may idiom may be
be designated
designated as
as continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony
after
after its
its two
two constituent
constituent dements.
elements. Luxuriant
Luxuriant counterpoint
counterpoint and and continuo-
continuo-
homophony represent opposite
homophony represent opposite poles poles in
in the
the texture
texture of
of late
late baroque
baroque music.
music.
Continuo-homophony
Continuo-homophony differed
differed from
from the
the plain homophony
plain homophony of
of the
the Mann-
Mann-
heim school in
heim school in its
its fast
fast harmonic
harmonic rhythm
rhythm and and itsits energetic
energetic and and sweeping
sweeping
rhythmic in both
rhythmic patterns
patterns that
that prevailed
prevailed in both melody
melody and bass.
and bass.
222
222 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
Continuo-homophony originated
Continuo-homophony originated in in the
the concerto
concerto stylestyle which
which must
must be be
regarded as the most
regarded as the
most significant
significant stylistic
stylistic innovation
innovation of the late baroque
o the late baroque
period
period
because
because it
it pervaded
pervaded not
not only
only the
the concerto
concerto but
but also
also all
all other
other forms
forms of
of

music,
music, both
both instrumental
instrumental and
and vocal.
vocal The
The concerto
concerto style
style realized
realized a
a strictly
strictly

instrumental ideal
instrumental ideal ofof abstract
abstract oror "absolute"
"absolute" music.
music. It It was
was characterized
characterized by by
its consistent
its consistent adoption
adoption of of continuo-homophony,
continuo-homophony, frequent frequent unison passages
unison passages
in all voices,
in all voices, fast
fast harmonic
harmonic rhythm,
rhythm, and and themes
themes that
that emphatically
emphatically circum-
circum-
scribed the
scribed the key
key by by stressing
stressing the
the fundamental
fundamental triads triads andand the
the diatonic
diatonic scale.
scale.
Contrapuntal writing disintegrated
Contrapuntal writing disintegrated in
in the
the concerto
concerto style
style under
under the
the impact
impact
of continuo-homophony
of continuo-homophony and and remained
remained essential
essential only
only to to the
the outermost
outermost
voices. In
voices. In the allegro movements
the allegro movements the the instrumental
instrumental naturenature of of the
the concerto
concerto
style
style
became
became particularly
particularly
obvious
obvious in
in such
such features
features as
as rapid
rapid tone
tone repetitions,
repetitions,
fast scale
fast scale passages,
passages, andand the
the wide
wide range
range of of the
the themes.
themes. The rhythmic
rhythmic energy
energy
manifested by the mechanical
manifested by the mechanical and
and ceaselessly progressing
ceaselessly progressing beats
beats was
was aptly
aptly
described by
described by North
North as as the
the "fire
"fire and fury of
and fury of the
the Italian
Italian style."
style."

CONCERTO GROSSO AND SOLO CONCERTO

Although the
Although the concerto
concerto was
was essentially
essentially aa creation
creation of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque
some
some of
of its
its elements can be
elements can be found in isolated
found in isolated form much earlier. Suffice
earlier. Suffice

it
it to
to recall
recall the
the widespread
widespread use
use of
of the
the tutti-solo contrast in
tutti-solo contrast in the concertato
concertato
style, especially in the ensemble canzonas of
style, especially in the ensemble canzonas
of Gabrieli
Gabricli and the Venetian
school
school (Vsper
(Usper and
and Neri). Important
Neri). Important factors
factors in
in the
the genesis
genesis of the con-
certo were the French orchestra
certo were the French orchestra discipline discipline and the
the trio
trio episodes in
episodes in the

Lullian
Lullian chaconnes.
chaconnes. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the trumpet
trumpet sonatas
sonatas ofof the
the early
early Bologna
Bologna
school
school mustmust be be mentioned,
mentioned, notably
notably those
those of
of Cazzati.
Cazzati, Stradella,
Stradella, and Gio-
vanni
vanni Vitali,
Vitali, which
which led
led directly
directly upup to
to the
the concerto
concerto proper.
proper. In
In these
these sonatas,
sonatas,
so
so far
far little
little known,
known, the the trumpet
trumpet waswas accompanied
accompanied not not by
by aa solo
solo ensemble,
ensemble,
but
but byby aa full
full string
string orchestra.
orchestra. Stradella,
Stradella, finally,
finally, clearly distinguished in
clearly distinguished in his
his

operas
operas and
and oratorios
oratorios and
and in
in his
his Sinfonie
Sinfonie a
a pi"
piti instrumenti
instrument* (c.
(c. 1680)
1680) be-
be-
tween
tween aa concertino
concertino and and aa concerto
concerto grosso.
grosso. In In spite
spite of
of the
the use
use of of contrasting
contrasting
sonorities
sonorities nonenone of of these
these incipient
incipient concertos
concertos was
was written
written in
in concerto
concerto style.
style.
It
It is
is this style
this style that
that distinguishes
distinguishes the
the late
late baroque
baroque concerto
concerto from
from its
its fore-
fore-
runners.
runners.
The
The decisive
decisive stepstep in
in the
the development
development of of the
the concerto
concerto proper
proper was was taken
taken
by
by Corelli
Corelli and
and Torelli.
Torclli, both
both closely
closely associated
associated with
with the
the late
late Bologna
Bologna school
school
Arcangelo
Arcangelo CorelliCorelli (1653-1713)
(1653-1713) can can take
take the
the credit
credit for the full
for the full realization
realization
of
of tonality
tonality in the field of
in the field of instrumental
instrumental music.music. HisHis works auspiciously in-
works auspiciously in-

augurate
augurate the period of
the period of late
late baroque
baroque music.
music. The The tide
tide pages
pages of of his
his first
first
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 223
223
publications
publications refer
refer to to him as as ceil Bolognese."
*'il
Bolognese." He actually belonged to the
actually belonged to the
Bologna
Bologna school only only by virtue of
by virtue of the
the musical
musical training he received there;
training he received there;
the place
place of his
his main activity
activity was Rome. His His visits
visits to
to Germany
Germany and and France
France
have not yetyet been conclusively
conclusively documented.
documented. Although closely
Although closely bound
bound to
to the
the
contrapuntal
contrapuntal tradition
tradition of
of the
the early Bologna school, Corelli handled
early Bologna school, Corelli handled the the new
idiom
idiom with
with amazing
amazing assuredness.
assuredness. Of his his comparatively
comparatively few few printed
printed works works
only
only twelve concerti grossi grossi (op. (op. 6,
6, 1714?) belong
1714?) belong to
to the
the concerto
concerto literature.
literature.

The date of publication

publication is is misleading: according to
misleading: according to the the testimony
testimony of of hishis
pupil Georg
pupil Gcorg Muffat the concertos
concertos were played
were pkyed in in Rome as early as
as early as 1682; 1682;
they
they represent
represent in factfact thethe earliest
earliest known examples
examples of of the
the concerto
concerto grosso.
grosso.
11

The innovation was instantly instantly successful

successful and widely imitated.
and widely imitated.
Corelli
Corelli divided the orchestra
orchestra into into two groups,
groups, the
the tutti
tutti or
or concerto
concerto grosso
grosso
in
in the strict
strict sense,
sense, and the
the solo
solo or
or concertino,
concertino, both of which were
both of which were supplied
supplied
with a continuo
continue of theirtheir own so so that
that they
they could
could also
also be
be spatially
spatially separated.
separated.
He selected
selected for hishis concertino
concertino a a string
string trio,
trio, thus
thus projecting the
projecting the idiom
idiom of of the
the
trio sonata against
trio against the
the background
background of
of the
the orchestra.
orchestra. Even
Even if
if we did
did not
not
have external
have external evidence
evidence for for the
the early
early date
date of of Corelli's
Corclli's concertos, their very
concertos, their very
conception in
conception in terms
terms of the trio
of the trio sonata represents so
sonata represents so conservative
conservative a feature
a feature
that
that it
it could serve
serve as as internal
internal evidence stylistic grounds.
evidence on stylistic grounds. This point is
This point is

borne out by
borne by the formal
formal aspectsaspects of of the concertos, which
the concertos, which seem
seem in in the
the light
light
of the
of the later
later development,
development, primitive primitive and and tentative.
tentative. The first of these
first of these relates
relates
to the
to the form as as aa whole.
whole. Corelli
Corelli did not evolve
did not evolve aa new formal scheme for
formal scheme for thethe
newly
newly -created
-created medium in
in any
any of
of his
his concertos,
concertos, but
but merely
merely transferred
transferred to
to
them thethe two traditional
traditional types types ofof chamber
chamber music:
music: the
the church
church andand the cham-
the cham-
ber sonata. He thus
ber sonata. thus established
established the the church
church and chamber concerto, concerto, spe- spe-
cifically distinguished
cifically distinguished as concerto da
as concerto da chiesa
chiesa and concerto da
and concerto da camera
camera on
many
many tide
tide pages
pages of
of the
the time.
time. The first
first eight
eight concertos
concertos belong to the
belong to the first
first
type
type and are
are formally
formally even
even less
less advanced
advanced than
than Corelli's
Corelli's own trio
trio sonatas.
sonatas.
cast them not
He cast not into
into the the four-movement
four-movement form form that
that hehe himself
himself stereo-
stereo-
typed in
typed in his
his chamber music, music, but but into
into thethe more conservative
conservative form of of five
five
or more movements.
or movements. However,
However, the the diminutive adagio sections
diminutive adagio sections often
often merely
merely
veil ah
veil aD. underlying
underlying four-movement
four-movement structure structure since
since they
they serve
serve only
only as as tran-
tran-
sitions between
sitions between the the main movements.
movements. That the church
the church concertos
concertos of of thethe
collection are
collection are in in the
the majority
majority cannotcannot surprise
surprise because
because thisthis form corre- corre-
sponded to
sponded to the
the function
function of of the
the music:
music: it it was
was played
played before,
before, after,
after, or or even
even
during
during HighHigh Mass.
Mass. Only
Only the
the last
last four
four concertos
concertos of
of op.
op. 6
6 are
are chamber con-
con-
1 Fischer's categorical
1 Fischer's categorical statement
statement (Adlcr
(Adler HMG, 555) 555) that
that Giovanni
Giovanni Mark Bononcini
Maria Bonoacini
published the first
published the first concerti
concerti grossi in 1677
grossi in be questioned.
must be
1677 must questioned. The list
list of prinb:d
of printed
works by
works by Bononcini
Bononcini does
does not
not include
include aa set of concerti
set of concerti grossi.
grossi.
 224 Music
Music in in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
certos
certos containing
containing a prelude and the
a prelude the suite
suite proper.
proper. Here also also we findfind at times
at times
brief transitional
brief transitional sections
sections between
between the movements.
the
The second
second primitive
primitive trait trait relates
relates to to the
the musical
musical texture,
texture, especially
especially the the
distribution
distribution of of solo
solo and tutti.
tutti. Significandy enough,
Significantly enough, hardly hardly ever
ever is
is a
a struc-
struc-

tural
tural distinction
distinction between
between the the two bodies
bodies of of sound made. made. The extreme brevity
extreme brevity
of the contrasted
of the contrasted sections
sections and the
the lack
lack of
of thematic
thematic differentiation
differentiation clearly
clearly
indicate
indicate that
that the
the mere alternation
alternation between concerto concerto grosso
grosso and concertino,
concertino,
the
the contrast
contrast between
between loud loud and soft soft as
as such,
such, was as as yet
yet more important
important than than
aa musically
musically well-defined
well-defined tutti
tutti and solo.
solo. The two ensembles
ensembles frequendy
frequently
merely
merely echo echo oneone another
another on a a small
small space,
space, or or play
play oneone continuous
continuous phrase phrase
in quick alternation, as, for example, in the first
in quick alternation, as, for example, in the first allegro of the Christmas allegro of the Christmas
Concerto
Concerto (no. (no. 8). Also in
8). Also in technical
technical respect
respect Corelli
Corelli put put the
the tutti
tutti and solo solo
on
on almost
almost equal footing,
equal footing, as
as shown by
by the
the indiscriminate
indiscriminate distribution
distribution of
of
violinistic
violinistic figuration.
figuration. It
It seems
seems significant
significant in
in this
this connection
connection that
that Corelli
Corclli
did
did notnot actually prescribe the
actually prescribe the orchestral
orchestral doubling
doubling of of the
the concerto
concerto grosso,
grosso,
but
but merely
merely suggested
suggested it it as
as optional.
optional.
The third
third primitive
primitive feature
feature relates
relates to to the
the internal
internal organization
organization of the
of the
concertos.
concertos. The chains chains of of brief,
brief, almost
almost fragmentary parts
fragmentary parts vividly vividly recall
recall

the
the Venetian
Venetian overture, which has
overture, which has obviously
obviously left left its
its mark on the the first
first move-
move-
ments
ments of of the
the concertos
concertos nos.
nos. Z
2 and 7.
7. The latter example consists of
latter example consists of six
six

sharply
sharply contrasted
contrasted units units which would fall fall completely
completely apart apart had had Corelli
Corelli
not
not obviated
obviated this this danger
danger by by making
making the the first three sections
first three sections correspond
correspond to to
the
the last
last three.
three. He thus thus produced
produced a large bipartite
large bipartite form.
form, which
which obtains
obtains in
in
many
many of of his
his movements. In the Christmas
In the Christmas Concerto,
Concerto, both both the first allegro
the first allegro
in
in fugal
fugal style
style and the last one (a
the last one (a stylized
stylized gavotte
gavotte without
without dance
dance title) are
title) are
dependent
dependent on the the bipartite
bipartite scheme of of the
the suite.
suite. Occasionally,
Occasionally, CorelliCorelli em- em-
ployed
ployed the the da-capo
da-capo form with a a clearly
clearly set-off
set-off middle
middle part,part, as
as for
for example
example
in
in the first allegro
the first allegro movements of
of concertos
concertos nos.
nos. 6
6 and
and 12, very similar
12, very similar also
also
with regard
with regard to to harmony.
harmony.
However undeveloped
undeveloped in in respect
respect to to form,
form, the the concertos
concertos are progressive
are progressive
in respect to
in respect to the
the idiom of of continuo-homophony.
continuo-homophony. Long Long passages amount
passages amount to to
nothing
nothing more than meager
meager elaborations
elaborations of
of the
the typical
typical formulas
formulas which
which
make different
different concertos
concertos almostalmost identical
identical as as toto harmonic progressions, as
harmonic progressions, as
we can see by comparing
by comparing the
the sequential treatment in
sequential treatment in the first allegro
the first move-
allegro move-
ments of nos. nos. 6,6, and 12, 12, and the the allemande
allemandc of of no. n. Harmonic
no. II. Harmonic sequences
sequences
also
also dominate the violinistic violinistic figuration.
figuration. Corelli's
Corelli's musicmusic is is perhaps more
perhaps more
idiomatic for violin than
for the violin than anything
anything written before his
written before time. The figura-
his time. figura-
tion
tion rests
rests entirely
entirely on a few broken-chord
broken-chord patterns.
patterns. Although nothing
Although nothing new new
in themselves they
in themselves they acquired
acquired new musical musical interest
interest by means of
by means of sequences
sequences
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 225
225
that
that carried
carried them through
through the
the keys.
keys. The contrapuntal
contrapuntal movements, however,
movements, however,
present
present aa sharp
sharp contrast to the
contrast to the movements with figurative
movements with harmony. The
figurative harmony.
church
church concertos
concertos contain
contain atat least
least one
one fugal
fugal movement,
movement, and and the
the prelude
prelude
of
of the
the chamber concertos
concertos is
is more contrapuntal as
contrapuntal as a
a rule
rule than
than the
the subsequent
subsequent
dances.
dances. The luxuriant
luxuriant counterpoint
counterpoint of of the
the fugal
fugal movements
movements faithfully
faithfully
guards
guards the
the heritage
heritage of the Bologna
of the Bologna school.
school. Ponderous
Ponderous and and solemn be-
solemn be-
ginnings
ginnings like
like that
that of
of concerto
concerto no. n (Ex.
no. II 67),
(Ex. 67), in
in which
which a
a contrapuntal
contrapuntal duet
duct

Ex. 67.
Ex. 67. Corelli:
Corclli: Excerpt
Excerpt from
from Concerto
Concerto grosso
grosso XL
M^A . ^_ ^_ ^
. .

unfolds
unfolds over
over a a steadily
steadily moving
moving bass,bass, have been imitated
have been imitated timetime and
and again
again by by
late
late baroque composers.
baroque composers. Late
Late baroque polyphony
baroque polyphony derived
derived its
its vigorous
vigorous and and
heavy
heavy pathos
pathos from the the clearly
clearly defined
defined tonality
tonality ofof the
the chord progressions
chord progressions
that
that allowed
allowed the the voices
voices to to move more independently
independently than than ever
ever before.
before.
Continual
Continual suspensions
suspensions and
and retardations
retardations constantly
constantly deferred
deferred the
the cadence
cadence
and
and produced
produced a a weft
weft ofof great
great complexity
complexity and and sustaining
sustaining power,
power, hitherto
hitherto
unknown.
unknown. In In the first grave
the first grave of the Christmas
of the Christmas Cone-eno
Concerto the the endlessly
endlessly inter-
inter-

twining
twining parts
parts move from beginningbeginning to to end without ever
end without ever arriving
arriving at at aa
single intermediary
single intermediary cadence.
cadence. It
It should
should be
be noted
noted that
that Corelli
Corelli wanted
wanted this
this

particular movement played

particular played without embellishments come st&.
without embellishments sea. The cus- cus-

tomary
tomary improvised
improvised ornaments
ornaments of of the
the soloist
soloist would havehave ruined
ruined the hymnic
the hymnic
and broad adagio
and broad adagio cantilena
cantilena which
which Corelli
Corelli was striving
striving for.
for. The last move-
last move-

ment of the Christmas

of the Christmas Concerto,
Concerto, the the famous Pastorale for
famous Pastorale for Christmas
Christmas that that
has
has given
given the
the concerto
concerto its
its name,
name, is
is only
only an
an optional
optional addition.
addition. A favorite
favorite

form
form of the time,
of the time, it occurs also
it occurs also inin the concertos of
the concertos of Torelli
Torelli andand Locatelli
Locatelli.

orchestral adagio
The orchestral adagio cantilena
cantilena of the slow
of the slow movements
movements had had its
its comple-
comple-
ment
ment inin the orchestral allegro
the orchestral style
allegro style in
in which
which Corelli
Corelli adapted
adapted the
the French
orchestral
orchestral discipline
discipline to
to Italian
Italian music.
music. The influence
influence of
of Lully
Lully on Corelli
Corelli is
is

confirmed not
confirmed not only byonly by the
the testimony
testimony of
of Geminiani,
Geminiani, but
but also
also by
by the
the first
first

movement of of concerto
concerto no.
no. 33 which,
which, though
though not not thus
thus designated,
designated, is is a
a French
overture
overture seen
seen through
through the
the eyes
eyes of
of an
an Italian.
Italian. The concerto
concerto style
style appears
appears
with
with Corelli
Corelli only
only in
in tentative
tentative and
and melodically undeveloped
melodically undeveloped form.
form. He came
closest to it in the first allegro
closest to it in the first allegro of of concerto
concerto no.
no. 12.
12 (Ex. 68)
(Ex. 68) which may
may wellwell
have been
have been composed
composed somewhat
somewhat later later than
than the
the other
other concertos.
concertos. The quotedquoted
226 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
excerpt also
excerpt also illustrates
illustrates the
the use
use of
of the
the sequential
sequential circle
circle of
of fifths in
fifths in inter-
inter-
locking suspensions.
locking suspensions. It
It should
should not
not bebe overlooked
overlooked that
that the
the first
first
violin
violin part
part
an indication
receivesmore
receives emphasis than
more emphasis than the the rest
restof
of the
the concertina
concertin()-Qn indication that
that
Corelli stood at the very beginning of the road that led to the solo concerto.
Corelli stood at the very beginning of the road that led to the solo concerto.

Ex. 68. Corelli: From Concerto grosso XII.

Corelli's innovations
Cordli's in Rome
innovations in Rome had
had their
their counterpart
counterpart in
in the
the revolutionary
revolutionary
works of
works of the
the guiding
guiding spirit
spirit of
of the
the late
late Bologna
Bologna school,
school, Giuseppe
Giuseppe Torelli
Torelli
(d. 1708), since
(d. 1708), 1686 active
since 1686 active at
at San Petronio and later for some
San Petronio and later for some time time also
also in
in
Germany and
Germany and Austria.
Austria. His
His outstanding
outstanding contribution
contribution toto the concerto was
the concerto was
the convincing
the convincing realization
realization of
of the
the concerto
concerto style
style and
and the
the establishment of
establishment of
the baroque
the baroque concerto
concerto form.
form. In
In his
his Sinfonie
Sinfonie atre
a tre ee Concert!
Concerti aa quattro
quattro (op.
(op.
5, I~) Torelli
5. 1692) Torelli clearly
clearly distinguished
distinguished between
between sinfonie
sinfonie andand concertos.
concertos. This
This
distinction is
distinction is r'^lfeEJfr^nisc
puzzling because the the .CTflCTtBS
concertos completely
completely lack1
Q
the i-nm^nln
rV *hr tutti solo
contrast and.thus
contragand thus seem
seem to
to contradict
contradict the
the mea^inj^g^gtciqp.
meaning of the term. They They mustmust be
be
classified as
classified as "orchestral
"orchestral concertos,"
concertos," aa type of baroque
type of baroque concerto
concerto that
that has been
has been
minimized in
minimized in favor
favor of
of the
the concerto
concerto grosso
grosso and
and the
the solo
solo concerto. This type
concerto. This type
is characterized not by
is characterized not by opposed
opposed groups
groups or contrasted sections,
or contrasted sections. but
but byby
melodic emphasis
melodic emphasis on on aa uniformly
uniformly reinforced
reinforced violin
violin part and the
part and the bass.
bass. This
This
feature, typical of
feature, typical of continuo-homophony,
continuo-homophony, explainsexplains thethe mystery
mystery why why thethe
pieces
pieces are
are called
called concertos:
concertos: they
they are
are without
without exception
exception written
written in
in concerto
concerto

style,
style, quite
quite in contrast with
in contrast with the
the luxuriant counterpoint of
luxuriant counterpoint of the
the sinfonie.
sinfonie.
It is a vital point for the correct understanding
It is a vital point for the correct understanding of the concerto that
of the concerto that the dis-
the dis-
tinction between
tinction between sinfonia
sinfonia and
and concerto
concerto waswas originally
originally oneone ofof style, not one
style, not one
of
of form
form oror orchestration.
orchestration. The
The useuse of
of the
the term
term concerto
concerto in in the
the orchestral
orchestral
2
compositions of
compositions of Torelli
TorcJli was justified only
was justified because of
only because of stylistic
stylistic reasons'!!
reasons. TheThe
*
In his
:I In Getckichte 4es
his GesrlUe,* les 111S1nm1n1li1ll(otnterls Schcring introduces
lnstrumcntd\onzcrts &hering introduces the term concerto-
the term concerto-
siDfonia
sinfonia for this bm.
for this Tbe term
form. The term cn:hestral
orchestral concerto,
concerto, proposed here, seems
proposed here, seems preferable
preferable
bc:cau8c
because it it docs
docs not confuse the
not cxmfuse concerto with
the amccrto with the sinfonia which
the mania which Torelli took paiDJ
Torelli took pains
110 distiugujsh.
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 227
same
same stylistic
stylistic distinction
distinction obtainsobtains also also inin the
the collections
collections of of Taglietti, Al-
Taglietti, Al-
binoni, dall'Abaco, and others,
binoni, dall'Abaco, and others, who who allall contributed
contributed to to the
the orchestral
orchestral con- con-
certo.
certo. It It was
was cultivated
cultivated alongside
alongside of of the
the other
other concerto
concerto types throughout
types throughout the
the
late
kte baroque
baroque period
period and
and finally
finally reached
reached its
its consummation
consummation in
in the
the works
works of
of
Handel.
Handel.
Torelli cast
Torelli cast his
his concertos
concertos at at first
first in
in the
the mold
mold of of the
the church
church and and chamber
chamber
sonata
sonata but soon soon threw
threw off off the shackles of
the shackles of the
the sonata
sonata forms
forms and and established
established
the
the typical
typical concerto
concerto form,form, consisting
consisting of of three
three movements
movements in in the
the order
order of of
allegro-adagio-allegro.
allegro-adagio-allegro. This form
form obviously
obviously stressed
stressed the
the favorite tempo
favorite tempo of of
the
the concerto style, style, the allegro,
allegro, oftenoften even
even to to aa point
point where
where the the intermediate
intermediate
slow movement was reduced reduced to to aa few chords.
chords. The new formal formal scheme
scheme was was
dosdy
closely bound up up with the the evolution
evolution of of the
the solo
solo concerto,
concerto, the the first
first examples
examples
of
of which fall fall into
into the
the early
early eighteenth
eighteenth century.
century. The manner manner in in which
which the the
first violin took the lead
first violin lead in in Corelli's
Corelli's concerti
concerti grossi (see Ex. 68)
grossi (see Ex. 68) shows how shows how
imperceptibly
imperceptibly the the one
one formform couldcould approach
approach the the other.
other. Similarly, Torelli's
Similarly, Torelli's
orchestral
orchestral concertos
concertos op.6 op. 6 (1698)
(1698) contained
contained shortshort interludes
interludes for for thethe violin
violin
for
for which the composercomposer explicitly prescribed
explicitly prescribed solo
solo performance.
performance. Thus
Thus both
both
the concerto
the concerto grossogrosso and the
the orchestral
orchestral concerto
concerto laid
laid the
the ground
ground for
for the
the solo
solo
concerto,
concerto, the
the most fertile
fertile of
of the
the three
three types of baroque
types of baroque concerto.concerto.
Torelli's collection of
Torelli's collection of concertos
concertos op. op. 88 (1709)
(1709) contrasts
contrasts sixsix concerti grossi
concerti grossi
with six six full.Hedged
full-fledged solo solo concertos.
concertos. Since Since thethe collection
collection was was published
published
posthumously, it
posthumously, it is difficult to
is difficult decide whether
to decide whether Torelli's
Tordli's solo solo concertos
concertos actu- actu-
ally
ally antedated
antedated the
the first
first printed
printed violin
violin concertos
concertos by Albinoni (1']00)
by Albinoni (1700) and the and the
first cello concerto by
first cello concerto Jacchini (1701).
by Jacchini Since both
(1701). Since both Albinoni
Albinoni and and Jacchini
Jacchini
were presumably
were presumably younger younger~oth began to
-both began to publish
publish after
after Torelli
Tordli-the latter
the latter
may well
may well have
have thethe priority
priority in in the
the establishment
establishment of of the
the form.
form. However
However this this
may
may be, be, Torelli
Torelli established,
established, possiblypossibly even
even before
before Albinoni,
Albinoni, aa distinct
distinct bal-
bal-
ance between
ance between turn tutti and
and solo;
solo; thethe solo
solo ceased
ceased to to bebe merely
merdy aa transitional
transitional in- in-
terlude so
terlude so that
that orchestra
orchestra and and soloist became rivals
soloist became rivals of of equal
equal importance.
importance.
For the
For the first
first time
time the
the tutti-solo
tutti-solo contrast
contrast was also musically
was also musically defined
defined by means
by means
of virtuoso
of virtuoso figuration
figuration in the solo
in the solo and
and aa pregnant
pregnant idea idea in the tutti.
in the This
tutti. This
thematic diferentiati~n, which
thematic differentiation, which obtainsobtains alsoalso in Tordli's concert!
in Torelli's grossi,
concerti grossi,
represents the
represents the great
great advance
advance over over thethe primitive
primitive organization
organization of of CorcllTs
Carelli's
concertos.
concertos.

The musical
The musical differentiation
differentiation of of orchestra
orchestra and and solosolo was also decisive
was also decisive for for
the form
the form of of the
the single
single concerto
concerto movement,
movement, the the ritornello
ritornello form,form.,88 so called
so called
8
The term
I The concerto form
term concerto form presents the same
presents the same difficulty
difficulty as
u die
the term Both
sonata form. Both
term sonata form.
are ambiguous
are ambiguous because
because they used to
are used
they are the form
designate the
to designate form asas aa whole
whole (three of four
(three of four
movements) and
movements) the form
and the form of
of aa single
single movement
movement.
228 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
because the
because the writers
writers ofof the
the time
time referred
referred toto the
the periodic
periodic returns
returns of of the
the tutti
tutti
idea as
idea as ritornello.
ritornello. The
The ritornello
ritornello recurred
recurred throughout
throughout the movement in
the movement in
rondo fashion,
rondo fashion, however,
however, not not inin the
the tonic
tonic (as(as the
the rondo
rondo refrains
refrains did)did) butbut
each time
each time inin aa different
different keykey except
except for
for the
the first
first and
and last ritornello. The
last ritornello. The
concerto had
concerto had a mucha much wider
wider formal
formal and
and tonal
tonal scope
scope than
than the
the rondo,
rondo, since
since

the various
the various keys
keys ofofthe
the ritornello
ritornello served
served asas the
the pillars
pillars ofof the
the formal
formal architec-
architec-
ture and
ture and circumscribed
circumscribed at at the
the same
same time
time the
the main
main key key ofof the
the whole
whole move-
move-
ment. Once
ment. Once established,
established, the the ritorncllo
ritornello form
form was was transferred
transferred from from thethe solo
solo
concerto back
concerto back to to the
the concerto
concerto grosso although
grosso although here
here the
the tradition
tradition of
of the
the

church sonata could never be completely

church sonata could never be completely uprooted. uprooted.
With Torclli
With Torelli thethe concerto
concerto style
style assumed
assumed its its classic
classic features
features and and crystal-
crystal-
lized in
lized in typical
typical mannerisms,
mannerisms, such such asas consistent
consistent use use of
of extremely
extremely prolonged
prolonged
upbeat patterns, impetuously driving rhythms, triadic
upbeat patterns, impetuously driving rhythms,
triadic themes
themes that that clearly
clearly
set the key, and three chordal
set the key, and three chordal "hammerstrokes"
"hammerstrokcs" on
on the
the tonic
tonic or
or I-V-I
I-V -I which
which
drastically signalled the beginning of
drastically signalled the beginning
of the
the ritorncllo.
ritornello. The last
last two features
features

were derived
were derived from
from thethe fanfare
fanfare style
style of
of the
the trumpet sonata. A trumpet
trumpet sonata. trumpet sonata
sonata
((1682)
1682) byby Grossi,
Grossi, aa little-known
little-known composer
composer of of the
the Bologna
Bologna school,
school, discloses
discloses
how early
early the
the concerto
concerto style
style appeared
appeared in in works of of this
this category
category (Ex. ~).
(Ex. 69).

Ex. 6g.
Ex. 69. Grossi:
Grossi: Trumpet
Trumpet sonata.
sonata.

Trumpet

The
The tradition
tradition ofof such
such stereotyped
stereotyped beginnings
beginnings on a broken triad triad can be be
traced
traced from
from the
the trumpet
trumpet sonata
sonata to
to Torelli
Torelli and his contemporaries,
and his contemporaries, and and
from
from here
here to
to Vivaldi
Vivaldi and
and Bach
Bach (violin concerto in
(violin concerto in E).
E). It It was taken over over
into
into the
the opera
opera overture
overture and
and thence
thence transmitted
transmitted to the
to the symphonies
symphonies of
of the
the
4
classic
classic school.
school* Torelli's
Torelli's double
double concerto
concerto for
for two
two violins
violins (op. 8),4'
(op. 8), for
for ex-
ex-

ample, begins with

ample, begins with three
three chordal
chordal "hammerstrokes"
"hammerstrokcs" that
that sound
sound like
like an
an
anticipation of the first measures of
anticipation of the first measures
of Bach's
Bach's fourth
fourth Brandenburg
Brandenburg Concerto,
Concerto,
which
which stands moreover in
stands moreover in the
the same
same key.
key.
Torelli
Torclli did
did not
not entirely
entirely abandon
abandon thethe contrapuntal
contrapuntal texture
texture ofof the
the church
church
sonata.
sonata. In
In his
his remarkable
remarkable violin
violin concerto
concerto in
in d
d (op. 8),5
(op. 8),
5
one
one of
of his
his most
most
4 See Jensen, KJastisde
6See Jensen, Klassische V;o/inmtuit Augener Edition;
VioKnmusH, Augener Edition; and
and Wasielewski,
Wasielewski, lnstru-
Instru-
mentllls4t:re.
menUtlsatze.
Score edition
*Score: edition by by the New York
die New York Public
Public Library, GMB 00.
Library, GMB no. 2.57,
257, sec
sec also
also the
the organ
organ
arrangement by
arrangement Johann Gottfried
by Johann Gottfried Walther, DDT 26-27,
Walther, DDT 26-27, 343.
343* For
For another
another example
example
see HAM
sec HAM no. no, 2.46.
246.
 Late Baroque
Baroque 229
229
mature works,
works, he presents
presents his
his tutti
tutti theme in
in fugal fashion. It is based on
fugal fashion. It is based on
the third type
third type ofof chaconne bass,
bass, here
here tonally
tonally interpreted
interpreted with
with a a sequential
sequential
violin figure.
violin figure. Its
Its mechanical and precise rhythms and
precise rhythms and itsits driving harmonies
driving
harmonies
aptly
aptly illustrate
illustrate his
his highly
highly energetic
energetic concerto
concerto style.
style.

After the death of Torelli Torelli the the center

center ofof concerto composition shifted
concerto composition shifted
from Bologna
Bologna to Venice where Antonio Antonio Vivaldi
Vivaldi (c. I676-I74I),
(c. 167^-1741),
a
a pupil
pupil
of
of Lcgrenzi, brought
Legrenzi, brought the trend
trend toward
toward the
the solo
solo concerto
concerto to
to its
its height.
height. TheTTie
concerti
concerti grossi
grossi of the "Red Priest"
Priest" were
were so
so closely
closely fashioned
fashioned after
after the solo
the solo
concerto
concerto that the line
that the line between the
the two forms
forms cannot
cannot always
always be be drawn.
drawn. He
treated
treated thethe concertino
concertino not not only
only as as aa self-contained
self-contained group group in' in concerto-
concerto-
grosso
grosso manner,
manner, but preferably
preferably as
as a
a flexible
flexible ensemble
ensemble of
of several
several independent
independent
soloists. His double,
soloists. double, triple
triple oror quadruple
quadruple concertos
concertos stand midway between
stand midway between
concerto
concerto grosso
grosso and solo
solo concerto.
concerto. Vivaldi's
Vivaldi's keen
keen and often capricious
often capricious
imagination
imagination finds finds itsits external
expression in
external expression the variety
in the variety of of instrumental
instrumental
combinations
combinations which clearly clearly reflect
reflect the
the Venetian
Venetian fondness
fondness for for coloristic
coloristic ef-ef-

fects. His concertos

fects. concertos rangerange from solo
solo concertos
concertos for
for violin
violin or
or flute
flute to
to concerti
concerti
grossi
grossi with wind ensembles.
ensembles.
Only
Only a small part of
small part Vivaldi's incredibly
of Vivaldi's incredibly prolific
prolific production
production has has ever
ever
been
been published.
published. More than any any other
other composer
composer of of the
the time
time he devoted
devoted him- him-
self
self to
to the
the writing
writing of of concertos
concertos almost
almost to exclusion of
the exclusion
to the of other
other instru-
instru-
mental music. In his
mental music. his concerto
concerto collections
collections hehe was givengiven to
to using
using fanciful
fanciful
titles, such as
titles, such Estro armonico
as Estro armonico (Harmonical Whim), La Strrwagansa,
(Harmonical Whim),14 Stravaganza, or or
II Cimento
// Cimento dell'Armonia
dell'Armenia e e delrIntlmtione
dell'lnvcntione (The (The Contest
Contest between
between Har-
Har-
mony Invention). The Cimento
mony and Invention). Cimento contains
contains several
several programmatic
programmatic con- con-
certos
certos (The Tempest,
(The Tempest, The Hunt,
Hunt, The Pleasure)
Pleasure) and a
a group
group of
of four
four
concert! grossi,
concerti grossi, entitled
entitled Le Lt: Stagioni,
Stagioni? which represent
represent an important baroque
important baroque
parallel
parallel to
to Haydn's
Haydn's oratorio
oratorio The Seasons.
Seasons. Each
Each season
season is
is described
described in
in a
sonnet that
sonnet that furnishes
furnishes the the program
program for for the
the concerto.
concerto. Although
Although Vivaldi Vivaldi
revelled in
revelled naive, if
in naive, if delightful,
delightful, imitations
imitations of bird calls,
of bird calls, the
the murmuring
murmuring of of
the
the brook,
brook, or or the
the unsteady
unsteady gaitgait of
of a
a drunk,
drunk, he did
did not
not become the
the slave
slave of
of
the
the programs;
programs; he strictly
strictly maintained
maintained the
the formal
formal structure
structure of
of the
the ritornello
ritornello

form and indulged

indulged in in playful
playful descriptions only in
descriptions only in the
the solo
solo sections.
sections. The

program served
program served at at the
the same timetime as as a
a welcome pretext
pretext for for virtuosity
virtuosity which
Vivaldi
Vivaldi expanded
expanded far
far above
above the
the level
level of
of his
his predecessors,
predecessors, notably by
notably by the
resourceful
resourceful use use ofof arpeggios
arpeggios in
in the
the highest
highest and lowest
lowest registers,
registers, hariolage,
bariolage,
and extended
extended scale passages. More than Torelli
scale passages. Torelli hehe exploited
exploited the relentless
relentless
eICMI
ICMI 35
35
 23
230
Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
mechanical beat
mechanical beat of
of the
the concerto
concerto style.
style. The
The insistence
insistence on
on running
running basses
basses
and on even
and on even subdivisions
subdivisions of of the
the beat
beat in
in the
the violin
violin part
part lent his concerto
lent his concerto

movements not
movements not only the characteristic
only the characteristic breathless
breathless drive
drive but
but also
also aa uniform
uniform
continuity.
continuity.
Vivaldi owed
Vivaldi owed his
his European
European fame
fame toto the
the gestic simplicity and
gestic simplicity and precision
precision
of his
of his themes
themes (Ex. 'JO) which
(Ex.70) all progressive
which all progressive concerto composers
concerto composers of his
of his time
time

Ex. 70.
Ex. Vivaldi: Concerto
']0. Vivaldi: Concerto themes.
themes.
Andanf.
Jndanl* A14f11'i! ~
'~jj Ci D!FQl PILir prJ"'" OJ in r =-.;:ct'C-rJ' J
",IU qEfcr_a 1'1
imitated.
imitated. With aa few
With few bold
bold strokes
strokes he
he designed
designed pregnant
pregnant and
and vivid
vivid ideas
ideas
which, though
which, all built
though all built on
on only
only aa few
few patterns,
patterns, set
set the
the characteristic
characteristic seal
seal to to

each one
each one of
of his
his innumerable
innumerable concertos.
concertos. They
They served
served as
as the
the easily
easily remem-
bered motto
bered motto of
of the
the ritornello.
ritornello.
In the
In the works
works of
of Vivaldi
Vivaldi the
the concerto
concerto form is definitely
is definitely standardized
standardized as as
aa cycle
cycle of three movements
of three movements that that may
may be be exceptionally
exceptionally extended by
extended by a slow
a slow
introduction.
introduction. As As the
the length
length of
of the
the single
single movements increased,
increased, the tutti
the tutti
ritornellos took
ritorne1los took on on greater importance
greater importance for
for the
the formal design.
design. Vivaldi
Vivaldi
raised
raised the
the number
number of of tuttis
tuttis toto as
as many
many as as five
five and further emphasized
emphasized the the
tutti idea by breaking it up into
tutti idea by breaking it up into fractions fractions that
that were thrown into
into the
the solo
solo

sections-a
sections a technique model. Of par-
technique that that Bach perfected
perfected after
after Vivaldi's
Vivaldi's model. par-
ticular
ticular interest
interest is is his
his manner of of presenting
presenting the thematic material of the
the

solo.
solo. Three
Three methods
methods can
can be
be distinguished:
distinguished: (i) (I) virtuoso figuration,
figuration, not re-
re-

lated to the tutti theme,

lated to the tutti theme, (2) (2) soloistic
soloistic figuration
figuration and
and expansion
expansion of
of the
the tutti
tutti

idea, and
idea, and (3)(3) aa solo
solo idea
idea distinct
distinct from
from that
that of
of the
the ritornello.
ritornello. While
While Albinoni
Albinoni
and
and Torelli
TorcBi favored
favored the the first,
first, most
most primitive
primitive method
method and and made
made occasional
occasional

use
use of
of the
the second,
second, Vivaldi
Vivaldi favored
favored thethe second
second method
method and and made
made occasional
occasional

use of
use of the
the third. The last
third. The last one,
one, the
the most
most arresting
arresting of
of the
the three,
three, seems
seems to to

anticipate the idea of

anticipate the idea of thematic
thematic contrast
contrast that
that prevails
prevails in
in the
the classic
classic period.
period.
However,
However, an examination of
an examination Vivaldi's tutti
of Vivaldi's tutti and
and solo
solo themes
themes reveals
reveals that,
that,

while
while the
the twotwo ideas arc distinctly
ideas are distinctly independent
independent of of each
each other,
other, theythey are
are not
not
dramatically
dramatically contrasted
contrasted but
but actually
actually unified
unified by key
by key and
and the
the uniform
uniform

rhythms of
rhythms of the
the concerto
concerto style.
style. The
The concerto
concerto in in aa from
from thethe Estro
Estro armonico
armonico

(op. 3>
(op. 3, 8)
7
8) 7 presents
presents thethe two
two themes
themes in in this
this manner;
manner; it it is
is significant
significant thatthat

f fSee
See Cluzmkr
Chamber Sflilt:s
States IIIIIl
and Ccmcerli
Concert* Grosst (Longmans Miniature
Grossi (Longmaos Miniature Score
Score Library)
Library),
390;
; compare
comparealso HAM DO.
alsoHAM no. 'ZJO.
270.
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 23
231I
the solo
solo idea
idea is
is succeeded by a motive
by motive derived
derived from
from the
the tutti
tutti and
and thus
thus
serves to unify
serves to unify the two sections. Bach transcribed
the two sections. transcribed this
this concerto,
concerto, like
like many
many
others,
others, for
for organ.
organ. As one of the the best
best ofof its
its kind
kind it
it gives the
gives the essence
essence of of
Vivaldi's
Vivaldi's style.
style. The first
first movement begins with
begins with the
the stereotyped
stereotyped
three
three
hammerstrokes,
hammerstrokes, and then proceedsproceeds with
with bustling
bustling scale
scale passages and the
passages and the
typical
typical diatonic
diatonic sequence
sequence in
in fifths, touching
fifths, touching on all
all degrees
degrees of
of the
the scale.
scale.
The second movement is is built
built on thethe first
first type of
type of chaconne
chaconne bass,
bass, stated
stated
in
in unisono byby the whole orchestra
orchestra in in aa powerfully
powerfully rhythmized
rhythmized form;
form; also
also
the last
last movement displays
displays the
the characteristic
characteristic unison
unison passages
passages of
of the
the con-
con-
certo
certo style.
style.

The three central

central figures
figures of
of the
the concerto:
concerto: Carelli,
Corelli, Torelli,
Torelli, and
and Vivaldi
Vivaldi
were surrounded by by a host of
of brilliant
brilliant composers
composers whose
whose works
works cannot
cannot
even be outlined here. They
even be outlined here. They fall roughly
fall
roughly intointo a a conservative
conservative and and a a progres-
progres-
sive
sive group though many
group though many composers
composers cannot
cannot be be categorically classified. The
categorically classified. The
conservatives
conservatives continued the the tradition
tradition of of the
the church
church concerto
concerto in the poly-
in the poly-
phonic style
phonic style of Carelli, notably Albicastro,
Corelli, notably Albicastro, Albinoni,
Albinoni, Bonporti,
Bonporti, Gregori,
Gregori,
Mascitti,
Mascitti, and also
also Alessandro Scarlatti
Scarlatti whose
whose retrospective concertos and
retrospective concertos and
sinfonie
sinfonie contrast
contrast with the progressive
the progressive style
style of his operas.
of his progressive
operas. The progressive
group comprised
group mainly Venetian
comprised mainly Venetian composers
composers who emulated emulated the the concerto
concerto
style
style of
of Vivaldi,
Vivaldi, notably
notably the
the Germanized
Germanized Italian
Italian dall'Abaco, Gasparini,
dall'Abaco, Gasparini,
Manfredini,
Manf Marcello, Montanari,
redini, Marcello, Montanari, Taglietti,
Taglietti, Tessarini,
Tessarini, and Giuseppe Val-
and Giuseppe Val-
entini.
entini.

younger generation
The younger generation was represented
represented by by Geminiani
Geminiani (d. 1,00) and
(d. 1762) and
Locatdli (d. 17&J).
Locatelli (d. Geminiani, aa pupil
1764)* Geminiani, pupil ofof Corelli
Carelli andand Scarlatti,
Scarlatti, belonged
belonged
the conservative
to the
to conservative camp.camp. He enlarged
enlarged the the traditional
traditional triotrio of
of the
the con-
con-
certino to
certino full string
to aa full string quartet
quartet by
by the
the addition
addition of of the
the viola
viola and arranged in
and arranged in
this heavy
this heavy medium the trio die trio sonatas
sonatas of of Corelli
Carelli as as concerti
concerti grossi clear
grossi-aa clear
indication that
indication that for
for the
the conservatives
conservatives the the trio
trio sonata still dominated
sonata still dominated the the
conception
conception of
of the
the concerto
concerto grosso.
grosso. Geminiani's
Gcminiani's leanings
leanings toward
toward strict
strict coun-
coun-
terpoint come to
terpoint light in
to light in his
his use
use of
of canonic writing *8 and
canonic writing and such
such significant
significant
titles as
titles Am dclla
as Arte della Fuga. In spite
Fuga. In spite of
of its
its contrapuntal
contrapuntal complexity,
complexity, however,
however,
his style
his style seems
seems pallid
pallid and lacks
lacks individual
individual distinction. Locatelli; on the
distinction. Locatelli; the
other hand,
other also aa pupil
hand, also pupil of
of Corelli,
Carelli, turned
turned the the modern concerto
concerto in in aa highly
highly
personal manner into
personal into aa vehicle
vehicle ofof stupendous
stupendous virtuosity.
virtuosity. The technical
technical
demands of his Caprice*
of his Capricd-optional
optional cadenzas
cadenzas for
for the
the solo
solo concertos-have
concertos have
8 See the
a Sec the last of concerto
last movement of grosso
concerto grosso op.
op. 2, in
2, 3, in 3, Chamber Suites tmtI Concerti
Suites and CMlrli
Gtwsi,3315,
Groui, I 5.
23
2322 Music
Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
hardly
hardly been
been surpassed
surpassed even
even byby composers
composers of of the
the classic
classic period.
period. In his
his con-
con-
certi
certi grossi
grossi Locatelli
Locatelli adhered,
adhered, like
like Geminiani,
Geminiani, to to Corelli's
Corelli's solid
solid contra-
contra-
puntal
puntal style,
style, but
but his
his harmonic
harmonic imagination
imagination was far far superior
superior toto that
that of
of
Geminiani.
Geminiani. The powerful
powerful influence
influence of
of the
the opera
opera can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the Pianto
Pianto
d'Arianna in
d'Arianna in which the
the late
late baroque
baroque recitative
recitative is
is transferred
transferred toto instrumental
instrumental
music.
music. The numerous solo solo concertos of Tartini (d.
concertos of Tartini (d. 1770) 1770) are
are already
already in-
in-

debted
debted to
to the
the style galant which set
style galant set an end toto the
the music of of the
the baroque
baroque era.
era.

ENSEMBLE SONATA AND SOLO SONATA

The composers
composers of of the
the Bologna
Bologna school
school held
held thethe key
key position
position in the field
in the field

of
of chamber music.music. Next to to Corelli,
Corelli, Giovanni
Giovanni Battista Bassani (1651-1716)
Battista Bassani (1657-1716)
stood out
out asas the
the leading
leading composer
composer of of sonatas.
sonatas. He was seconded seconded by by Aldro-
Aldro-
vandini,
vandini, Giuseppe
Giuseppe Alberti,
Albcrti, Pietro
Pietro degli
degli Antonii,
Antonii, and Tommaso Vitali
Vital! (the
(the
son of
of Giovanni
Giovanni Battista)
Battista)
9
8 who brought
brought the
the brilliant
brilliant history
history of
of the
the school
school
to aa close.
to close. A large
large group
group of of composers
composers who did did not
not belong
belong to the Bologna
to the Bologna
school
school likewise
likewise cultivated
cultivated sonatasonata composition,
composition, notablynotably dalFAbaco,
dall'Abaco, Al- AI-
binoni, Bonporti,
binoni, Bonporti, Caldara,
Caldara, Carlo Marini, Taglietti,
Carlo Marini, Taglietti, Antonio
Antonio Veracini,
Veracini, and
Vivaldi.
Vivaldi.
works of
The works of Corelli
Corclli areare asas fundamental
fundamental to to the
the development
development of chamber
of chamber
music as
music to that
as to that of
of orchestral
orchestral music.
music. They
They include
include fourfour sets of trio
sets of trio sonatas,
sonatas,
equally divided into
equally into church
church sonatas
sonatas (op. I, 1681,
(op. i, and op.
1681, and op. 3,3, 1689)
1689) and cham-
ber sonatas 5, 1707),
ber sonatas (op.
(op. 2 and op.
2 and op. 4),
4), and
and one setset of
of solo
solo sonatas
sonatas (op.(op. 5, each
1707), each
containing aa dozen
set containing
set dozen sonatas.
sonatas. In In his
his church
church sonatas
sonatas (with
(with organ
organ continuo)
continuo)
Corelli established
Corelli established the the standard
standard four-movement form form (slow-fast-slow-fast)
(slow-fast-slow-fast)
though he
though he occasionally
occasionally reverted
reverted to to the
the old
old practice
practice of of combining
combining more more than
than
four movements and even
four even toto the
the transformation
transformation technique
technique of of the
the variation
variation
survives in
canzona which survives in the
the trio
trio sonata
sonata op.
op. i,I, 10. In the
10. In first movements
the first movements
usually projects
he usually projects two imitative
imitative voices
voices against
against aa steadily
steadily running
running bass bass
(compare Ex. 67
(compare Ex. &j above).
above). The complete
complete integration
integration of of the
the bass
bass into
into the
the
imitative texture
imitative texture of of the
the upper
upper voices
voices accounts
accounts for for the
the complex
complex harmonic
harmonic
that characterizes
idiom that characterizes Corelli's
Corelli's chamber
chamber music.
music. The second second movements
movements
begin
begin with
with a
a fugue subject. frequently
fugue subject, frequently coupled coupled to
to a
a brief
brief countersubject
countersubject in in
double counterpoint.
double counterpoint. The combined combined subjects
subjects serve
serve as as concise
concise contrapuntal
contrapuntal
cells that
cells that often
often prevail
prevail throughout
throughout the the movement in in repeated
repeated or or modified
modified
form. It
form. It is
is worth notingnoting that
that the
the fugal
fugal movements often often sound
sound more more
polyphonic
polyphonic than
than they actually
they actually are
are because
because of
of numerous
numerous redundant
redundant entries
entries
merely pretend
which merely pretend to to introduce
introduce aa new voice voice-a favorite Italian
a favorite Italian device
device
8GMB no.
*GMB ~I. HAM no.
no. 341, 2630
no. 263.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 233
233
that can
that can be
be found
found as
as early
early as
as Frescobaldi.
Frescobaldi. Melodically
Melodically little
little developed,
developed, the
the
fugal movements
fugal movements can
can hardly
hardly be
be considered
considered as
as real
real fugues, especially those
those
fugues, especially
in
in which the
which the subject
subject drops
drops out
out in
in the
the course
course of
of the
the composition
composition to be re-
to be re-
placed by
placed by aa continuous
continuous expansion
expansion of
of thematically
thematically free,
free, though
though similar,
similar,
material.
material.
last movements both
The two last both depend
depend on
on the
the dance;
dance; the
the third
third movement
movement
is usually
is usually aa broad
broad and
and chordal adagio cantilena
chordal adagio cantilena in
in the
the stylized
stylized triple
triple time
time
of the
of the saraband,
saraband, the
the last
last one aa lively
lively gigue.
gigue. This
This inclusion
inclusion of
of dance
dance pat-
pat-
terns in
terns in the
the church sonata
church sonata marks the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the internal
internal disintegra-
disintegra-
tion of
tion of the
the coincides
form which coincides in the
in the works of
works of Corelli
Corelli with
with its
its external
external
stabilization in
stabilization in four
four stereotyped
stereotyped movements. The chamber
movements. chamber sonatas
sonatas (with
(with
harpsichord continuo) open
harpsichord continue) open with
with a
a prelude
prelude in
in strict
strict style,
style, which
which in
in turn
turn
betrays
betrays the
the influence
influence of
of the
the church
church sonata,
sonata, and
and then
then present
present two
two or
or three
three
dances written
dances in continuo-homophony
written in continuo-homophony but
but not
not without
without slight
slight contra-
contra-
puntal touches.
puntal touches.
twelve solo
The twelve solo sonatas
sonatas are
are equally
equally divided,
divided, like
like the
the trio
trio sonatas,
sonatas, into
into
church and chamber sonatas.
church sonatas. In
In spite
spite of
of their
their later
later date
date of
of publication
publication the
the
church sonatas
church sonatas for
for solo
solo violin
violin seem
seem formally
formally less stereotyped than
less stereotyped than the
the trio
trio
sonatas. Here also
sonatas. also Corelli
Corelli availed
availed himself
himself ofof dance
dance patterns
patterns although
although hehe
suppressed
suppressed dance titles.
tides. Like
Like all
all composers
composers of
of the
the Bologna
Bologna school
school he
he did
did
not indulge
not indulge inin virtuosity
virtuosity for
for its
its own sake. greatest demands on violin-
sake. The greatest violin-
istic technique are
istic technique are made in perpetuum mobile movements (see
in pcrpctuum Ex. 66),
(see Ex. 66),
which set
which set the
the model forfor the
the technical
technical "study"
"study" ofof later
later times.
times. The printed
printed
form
form of of the
the solo
solo sonatas
sonatas does
does not
not faithfully reproduce the
faithfully reproduce the intentions
intentions of the
of the
composer. According
composer. According to
to the
the Italian
Italian tradition
tradition the
the performer
performer was expected
expected
to
to ornament
ornament the the slow
slow movements by by improvised
improvised virtuoso
virtuoso embellishments.
embellishments.
One edition
edition of
of the
the time,
time, significantly
significantly a a non-Italian
non-Italian publication,
publication, actually
actually
records
records thethe ornaments
ornaments in in full (Ex. 71).
full (Ex. 71). However,
However, thethe strangely
strangely rhapsodic
rhapsodic

Ex. 71.
Ex. 71. Corelli:
Corelli: Violin sonata with
Violin sonata with embcllishments.
embellishments.

-
7
I

taste they
taste they reveal
reveal throws
throws some suspicion
suspicion on the publisher's claim
the publisher's claim that
that they
they
represent
represent Corelli's graces com
Corelli's own graces me illes
commc il les foue.
jouc.
234
234 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
In
In view
view of
of the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal organization
organization of of his
his music it it is
is not
not surprising
surprising
that Corelli
that Corelli made only
only little
little use
use of
of obbligo
obbligo forms.
forms. His chaconne on aa
descending
descending fourth (op. 2, 12)
fourth (Op.2, 12) forms
forms a a worthy
worthy complement
complement to to his
his celebrated
celebrated
variations
variations on the folia bass
the folia bass for
for violin
violin and continuo.
continue. The rich rich tonal
tonal idiom
of
of his
his harmonies,
harmonies, his his noble
noble counterpoint,
counterpoint, the the hymnic
hymnic pathos
pathos of his adagio
of his adagio
melodies,
melodies, and the
the classic
classic simplicity
simplicity of
of his
his lines
lines aroused
aroused the
the enthusiasm of
of
the
the time
time and became a a symbol
symbol of of baroque
baroque chamber music. music.
What has has been
been said
said about
about Carelli
Corelli applies
applies on the
the whole also
also to
to the
the other
other
composers
composers of
of the
the late
late Bologna
Bologna school.
school. The chamber works of
of dall'Abaco,
dalTAbaco,
Albinoni,
Albinoni, and Bonporti
Bonporti were were highly
highly esteemed
esteemed by by Bach,
Bach, as as his
his borrowings
borrowings
and manuscript
manuscript copiescopies show.
show. Four of of Bonporti's
Bonporti's valuable Invcnzioni
valuable Invenzioni
(1712)
(1712) forfor violin
violin and continuo
continue existexist in
in Bach's handwriting-he
Bach's handwriting he copied
copied them
without adding
without adding thethe author's
author's name-and
name and have been been included
included in in the Bach
the Bach
Gcscllschaft
Gescllschaft edition
edition
10
10 as
as genuine
genuine works.
works. The error
error is
is easily
easily understand-
understand-
able
able since
since they
they anticipate
anticipate the the characteristic melodic turns
characteristic melodic turns and the the profuse
profuse
harmonies of
harmonies Bach's style.
of Bach's style. Bonporti's dignified and solid
Bonporti's dignified workmanship
solid workmanship

strongly
strongly contrasts with the
contrasts with the purely melodic gift
purely melodic gift of
of Ariosti.
Ariosti. His Lezioni I"I
Lezioni
for the viola
for the viola d'amore inaugurated the
d'amorc inaugurated the special literature for
special literature this instrument
for this instrument
which later
later became a favorite
favorite in in eighteenth-century
eighteenth-century chamber
chamber music.
music. The
lessons
lessons were written in
written in a peculiar
a peculiar tablature notation that
tablature notation also enabled
that also enabled the
the
violinist to
violinist to play
play the
the instrument
instrument without
without knowledge
knowledge of the viola
of the viola d'amore
d'amore
fingering.
fingering.
last phase
The last phase of
of baroque
baroque chamber music
music was
was characterized
characterized by
by aa con-
con-
spicuous
spicuous shift
shift of emphasis from
of emphasis ro~ the
the trio
trio sonata
sonata toto the
the solo
solo sonata
sonata which
which
was also to
also remain the
to remain the leading
leading form in in the
the classic
classic period.
period. The generation
generation
after Corelli
after Corelli comprised
comprised Geminiani,
Geminiani, Locatelli,
Locatelli, Meneghetti,
Meneghetti, SomisSomis (a (a pupil
pupil
of Corelli),
of Corelli) , Tessarini
Tessarini (a (a pupil
pupil of
of Vivaldi),
Vivaldi), andand Francesco
Francesco Veracini (1~
Veracini (1690-
1']50), the
1750), the nephew
nephew ofof Antonio.
Antonio. Of thesethese the
the first
first was
was the
the most
most conservative,
conservative,
the last
and the last the
the most
most important
important violinist.
violinist.
Like Gcminiani,
Like Geminiani. Veracini
Veracini spent
spent much of of his
his life
life outside
outside ofof Italy.
Italy. Al-
Al-
though he
though he was the
the leading
leading and mostmost brilliant
brilliant virtuoso
virtuoso of of his
his day
day hehe kept
kept
his thoroughly
his thoroughly idiomatic
idiomatic solosolo sonatas
sonatas (op.
(op. i, 1721; op.
I. 1721; op. 4, 1744) free
40 1744) free from
from
the passage
the passage work of empty
of empty virtuosity.
virtuosity. His
His individual,
individual, if if not
not subjective,
subjective,
style has
style has no precedent
precedent in in baroque
baroque music
music and clearly heralds
and clearly heralds the
the end
end ofof the
the
entire era*
entire era. The capriciously
capriciously ruffled
ruffled contours
contours of of his
his melodies
melodies andand hishis far-
far-
fetched harmonies
fetched hannonies form only only one
one aspect
aspect of his style.
of his style. We alsoalso find
find sudden
sudden
passages
passages in
in a
a simple style galant.
simple style galant. Veracini's
Veracini's international audiences
international audiences in Lon- in Lon-
1. Volume 45:
lf
45: 1,
I, 172.
172-
U Boyden, MQ 32
"Boyden, 32 (1946)
(1946) sU
562.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 235
235
don and
don and Dresden
Dresden were
were quick
quick toto appreciate
appreciate the
the virtuoso
virtuoso but
but found
found little
little
pleasure in his compositions.
pleasure in his compositions.
The sonatas
The sonatas of
of Veracini
Veracini and
and his
his contemporaries
contemporaries are
are interesting
interesting par-
par-
ticularlywith
ticularly
withregard
regardto toform.
form.In Inthe
thelatest
latestphase
phaseof ofsonata
sonatadevelopment
developmentthe the
classification into church
classification into church and and chamber
chamber sonatasonata became
became almost
almost meaningless
meaningless
becausethe
because theforms
forms merged
merged and andbecause
becausethe theformal
formal innovations
innovationsof ofthe
theopera
opera
and the concerto intruded into the sonata, the universal
and the concerto intruded into the sonata, the universal meeting ground of meeting ground of
all styles.
all styles. Taglietti
Taglietti hadhad already
already fashioned
fashioned his his sonatas (Pensieri musical!)
sonatas (Pensicri musicall)
deliberately
deliberately
after
after the
the grand da-capo
grand da-capo aria.
aria. Veracini
Veracini frequently
frequently began
began the
the
sonata with
sonata with an an Italianized
Italianized French
French overture
overture and and adopted
adopted thethe ritornello
ritornello
12
form of
form of the
the concerto
concerto in in subsequent
subsequent movements,
movements, for for example
example in op. i,1,8.
in op. 8. 12

The da
The cia capo
capo ofof the
the opera
opera aria
aria and
and the
the ritornello
ritornello of of the
the concerto
concerto form
form in-in-
troduced aa new
troduced new formal
formal element:
element: thethe return
return to to the
the beginning
beginning in in the
the tonic
tonic
key. In the sonatas of Somis the bipartite form
key. In the sonatas of Somis the bipartite
form of of the
the chamber
chamber sonata
sonata was
was
regularly
regularly
extended
extended by
by such
such a
a return.
return. Retaining
Retaining its
its bipartite
bipartite division
division and
and
key structure Somis expanded the second part by aa rudimentary recapitu-
key structure Somis expanded the second part by rudimentary recapitu-
lation in
lation in the
the original
original key. key.13
18 This scheme, around
This scheme, around 1720, 1720, became the the
standard form
standard form ofof the
the monothematic,
monothematic, late late baroque
baroque sonata.
sonata. The triotrio sonatas
sonatas
of Pergolesi
of Pergolesi and and the
the solo
solo sonatas
sonatas of of Tartini
Tartini solidified
solidified the
the form,
form, but
but the
the pro-
pro-
nounced goat galant
nounced gofa galant in in their
their music
music marks the
the end of the
the baroque
baroque sonata
sonata in
in

Italy.
Italy.

After
After the
the ebb
ebb ofof keyboard
keyboard composition
composition in in the
the middle
middle baroque
baroque Italian
Italian

keyboard music of the late baroque rose

keyboard music of the late baroque
rose toto prominence
prominence againagain with Pas-
with Pas-

quini who stood on the borderline

quini who stood on the
borderline between
between middle
middle and and late
late baroque
baroque styles.
styles.

The first generation

The first generation of
of the
the late
late baroque keyboard
baroque keyboard composers composers included
included

Bencini,
Bencini, della
della Ciaja (a pupil of Pasquini). Casini, Grieco, Alessandro
Ciaja (a pupil of Pasquini), Casini, Grieco,
Alessandro Scar-Scar-

latti, and Zipoli. Only

latti, and Zipoli.
14
14
Only the the late
late works
works of of Pasquini
Pasquini betray,
betray, in their rich
in their rich

tonal
tonal idiom,
idiom, thethe advent
advent of of the
the late
late baroque
baroque style.
style. His main contribution
His main contribution

was the transfer of the violin sonata to the harpsichord, should be be

was the transfer of the violin sonata to the harpsichord, but but itit should
noted that not all compositions
noted that not all compositions he
he designated
designated as
as sonatas
sonatas belong
belong to
to this
this

class.
class. The
The "sonatas"
"sonatas" in in Gregorio
Gregorio Strozzi's Caprice* (I687)
Strozzi's Capricci (1687) still
still belong
belong to to

the
the conservative
conservative canzona
canzona type. While Pasquini cultivated the then old-
type. While Pasquini
cultivated the then old-

fashioned
fashioned variation
variation technique of
of Frescobaldi in
Frescobaldi in his
his canzonas,
canzonas, he wrote
he wrote
technique
his
his ricercars
ricercars asas monothematic
monothematic fugues fugues with
with distinctive
distinctive themes, giving full
themes, giving full

lIICMI 34- .

1a"Einstein,
Einstein, AASharl History,Ex.
ShortHiswry, Ex.32.
32.
1414For
Forvarious
variousexamples of this group of composers see
examples of this group of composers Farrenc,Trlsor;
secFarrcnc, Trtsor;Torc:hi AM
TorcHiAM
m;
HI;
TAM
TAM VIII-X.
VIII-X.
236 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
range
range to to tonal
tonal harmones.
harmoncs. His partite on
His partite on the folia and the
the folia the hergamasca
bergamasca UI
15

attest
attest toto his
his thoroughly
thoroughly idiomatic
idiomatic handling
handling of of aa rippling
rippling harpsichord
harpsichord style style
and hishis enriched
enriched harmonic vocabulary. vocabulary. The sonatas sonatas for for the
the unusual
unusual com-com-
bination
bination of of two harpsichords
harpsichords are are stenographically
stenographically sketched sketched out out asas two

thorough-basses
thorough-basses leaving leaving the
the realization
realization to
to the
the skill
skill of
of the
the performers.
performers.
The strictly polyphonic Pensier;
strictly polyphonic Pcnsieri for organ (1714)
for organ (1714) by by Casini
Casini areare extremely
extremely
interesting
interesting compositions
compositions which carry carry thethe idea
idea of of the
the variation
variation ricercar
ricercar to to
its
its very
very limits.
limits. Casini
Casini wrote
wrote a
a cycle
cycle of
of three
three independent
independent fugues fugues on aa
single subject
single subject that
that appears
appears in
in each
each fugue
fugue in
in rhythmic
rhythmic and melodic
melodic trans-
trans-
formation.
formation. He thus thus anticipated
anticipated a a technique
technique Bach put put toto systematic
systematic use use inin
the Art
the Art ofof thethe Fugue.
Fugue. Italian
Italian fugue
fugue writing
writing culminated
culminated with Bencini Bencini 16 16

whose music
music is is noteworthy equally for
noteworthy equally for his his audacious
audacious and profiled profiled themes
themes
and thethe lucid
lucid distinction
distinction between thematic thematic and episodic episodic sections.
sections. The
17
keyboard
keyboard works of
of Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti,1'1
Scarlatti, especially
especially the
the toccatas,
toccatas, areare
curiously
curiously conservative,
conservative, like like hishis orchestral
orchestral music,
music, although
although the the dazzling
dazzling
variations
variations of of the folia bass
the folia bass show his full command of
his full of the keyboard style.
the keyboard style.
While the the harpsichord
harpsichord compositions
compositions do not
not represent
represent Alessandro
Alessandro Scar-
Scar-
latti from his
latti his most significant
significant side, the contrary
side, the contrary is is true
true ofof his
his son
son Domenico,
Domenico,
the undisputed
the undisputed leader of the latest generation of harpsichord
leader of the latest generation of harpsichord composers. composers.
The younger
younger Scarlatti (1685-1757) was so
Scarlatti (1685-1757) so eminently
eminently the the over towering
overtowcring
virtuoso of
virtuoso the harpsichord
of the harpsichord that that his works in
his works in other
other media seem insig- insig-
nificant by
nificant by comparison.
comparison. Scarlatti
Scarlatti and Handel were were united
united by by aa cordial
cordial
friendship that
friendship that rested
rested onon thethe mutual
mutual admiration
admiration they they felt for each
felt for each other;
other;
in the famous,
in the famous, thoughthough perhaps
perhaps legendary, contest in
legendary, contest Scarlatti frankly
in Rome Scarlatti frankly
Handel's supremacy
conceded Handel's supremacy on the the organ,
organ, but hut held
held hishis own on the the
harpsichord.
harpsichord. Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's teeming imagination
teeming imagination was directly inspired
directly inspired by by and
and
inseparably bound up
inseparably up with
with the the harpsichord
harpsichord idiom. idiom. Much of of his
his music
music
looks inconsequential
looks inconsequential on paper paper and comes to to life
life only
only through
through the the sparkling
sparkling
sonorities of
sonorities of the
the instrument.
instrument. About six-hundredsix-hundred sonatassonatas havehave survived
survived 18 18

of which only
of only thirty
thirty were published
published by by the
the composer
composer himself himself under
under the the
modest tidetitle Esercizi (1J29?, Madrid).
Esercizi (1729?, Madrid). Like Like Pasquini,
Pasquini, Scarlatti
Scarlatti associated
associated
with thethe sonata
sonata no definitedefinite type
type of of composition;
composition; his his sonatas
sonatas consist
consist of of
only one movement,
only movement, many many of of which must indeed indeed be be classified
classified as as "exercise"
"exercise"
or study
or study because
because they they consistently
consistently utilizeutilize aa single
single technical
technical device
device at at aa
time, such
time, such as as trills,
trills, arpeggios,
arpeggios, crossing
crossing of of the
the hands,
hands, wide wide skips,
skips, repeated
repeated
11 TAM VIII.
"TAMVHI.
Ie Torch!
16 AM m,
Torchi AM III, 412. piece is
412. The piece is erroneously called sonata.
erroneously called sonata.
1T
IeMIB 12, TAM IX.
IT ICMIBr2,TAMIX.
18
sonatas are
18 The sonatas are quoted
quoted here
here according
according to the numbers
to the numbers of of the
the Longo
Longo edition
edition
The editor
(Ricordi). Tfee
(Ricordi). editor grouped the sonatas
grouped the sonatas arbitrarily in "suites."
arbitrarily in "suites." See
See HAM no. 214-
no. 274. HAM
 Late
Irate Baroque
Baroque 237
237
notes (in
notes (in toccata
toccata manner),
manner), scales,
scales, and measured
measured tremolos
tremolos produced
produced by
by
the
the rapid
rapid alternation of the left
alternation left and right hand
right hand in
in the
the same
same register. register.
Like all
all members of the Neapolitan school
Neapolitan school Scarlatti Scarlatti showed
showed little
little interest
interest
in
in genuine polyphony.
genuine polyphony. The free-voiced
free-voiced texture
texture of
of his
his keyboard
keyboard style aided
style aided
much in the disintegration
disintegration of
of contrapuntal devices. His
contrapuntal devices. His works actually works actually
mark the the turn
turn of of Italian
Italian keyboard
keyboard music music fromfrom the the baroque
baroque to to the
the early
early
classic
classic period.
period. Only
Only his his presumably
presumably early early sonatas
sonatas can can bebe said
said to to belong
belong
fully
fully toto the baroque
baroque era; era; they
they elaborate
elaborate a a single
single ideaidea and
and maintain
maintain the the
polyphonic
polyphonic texture and the ceaselessly running rhythmic
ceaselessly running rhythmic patterns of the patterns of the
invention
invention (no.(no. 2727 inin I, no. 32
/, no. 32 inin I-sharp).
/-sharp). His His fugues,
fugues, among
among whichwhich the the so-
so-
called
called "cat
"cat fugue"
fugue" is is best
best known,
known, give give with
with their
their continual
continual parallel thirds
parallel thirds
and octave
octave doublings
doublings only only thethe semblance
semblance of of really
really independent
independent part-writing.
part-writing.
The catcat fugue
fugue which has received
received its
its sobriquet
sobriquet only after
only after the
the death
death of the
of the
composer
composer is
is only
only one of
of the
the many examples
many examples of
of studiously bizarre
studiously bizarre themes, themes,
very common in
very in the Neapolitan
Neapolitan school. school. The oncoming
oncoming classicclassic style mani-
style mani-
fests itself
fests openly in
itself openly homophonic types
in homophonic types of of melody,
melody, Alberti basses (no.
Alberti basses (no. 358358
in C),
in C), and especially
especially in
in dramatically
dramatically contrasted
contrasted themes
themes and
and key
key areas.
areas. In
In
his poly
his thematic
polythematic sonatas
sonatas Scarlatti
Scarlatti liked
liked to
to present
present aa distinct
distinct second
second theme
theme in
in
the minor dominant (no.
the (no. 461461 in D)
in D) as became
as became the the custom
custom withwith Emanuel
Bach.
Bach. While the the first
first themes
themes often retain polyphonic
often retain polyphonic texturetexture the the second
second
themes are
themes are asas aa rule
rule plainly
plainly homophonic.
homophonic. The use use of of polyphony
polyphony and and ho- ho-
mophony
mophony as
as a means of
of underscoring
underscoring the
the contrast
contrast of
of themes
themes and
and keys
keys is
is aa
striking symptom
striking symptom of
of the
the new stylistic
stylistic situation:
situation: polyphony obviously
polyphony obviously rep- rep-
resents no longer
resents longer an obligatory
obligatory style style butbut merely
merely an an optional technical
optional technical
device.
device.

It is
It is characteristic
characteristic of of Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's typical
typical Italian
Italian conservatism
conservatism in in respect
respect
to form that
to that he expressed
expressed his his stylistic
stylistic innovations
innovations regularly
regularly in in the
the traditional
traditional
bipartite sonata
bipartite sonata form,
form, thus thus turning
turning aa most most pliable
pliable formal
formal scheme
scheme to to new
use. Fundamentally,
use. Fundamentally, the the form was was based
based on the the modulation
modulation from from tonictonic
to dominant in
to in the
the first
first part,
part, and the the reversed
reversed modulation
modulation in in the
the second
second
part. The end
part. end ofof the
the second
second part part usually
usually rqpeated
repeated that that of
of the
the first
first inin the
the
tonic key.
tonic key. Within the the bipartite
bipartite division
division Scarlatti
Scarlatti moved with with complete
complete
freedom. In
freedom. his most
In his most regular
regular polythematic
polythematic sonatas sonatas he he emphatically
emphatically identi-identi-
fied the
fied the two key key areas
areas of of the
the first
first part
part byby their
their respective
respective themes
themes and and
exactly
exactly mirrored
mirrored this
this structure
structure in
in the
the second
second part
part so
so that
that a
a completely
completely
symmetrical sonata
symmetrical sonata form resulted resulted that that waswas fraught
fraught with with possibilities
possibilities for for
the future.
the future. But this this type
type is is only
only oneone among
among aa greatgreat number of of other
other types:
types:
the second
the second part
part often
often begins
begins withwith aa sudden
sudden assumption
assumption of of aa third-related
third-related
key, or
key, or with
with anan entirely
entirely new idea idea which
which supplants
supplants eithereither the first or
the first or the
the
 238 Music in
11usic in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
second
second theme.
theme. The
The second
second part
part sometimes
sometimes alsoalso brings
brings an
an incipient
incipient harmonic
harmonic
development
development of
of the
the themes
themes which
which leaves
leaves the
the baroque concept
baroque concept of
of sequential
sequential
and
and continuous expansion far
continuous expansion far behind.
behind. Scarlatti
Scarlatti carried
carried the
the transfer
transfer of
of forms
forms
to
to the
the keyboard
keyboard medium
medium even even further
further than
than Pasquini:
Pasquini: hehe adopted
adopted notnot only
only
the
the violin
violin sonata,
sonata, the
the idiom
idiom of of which
which exerted
exerted a a strong
strong influence
influence onon his
his
music
music (no. 93
(no. 93 in
in a),
a), but
but also
also the
the orchestral
orchestral unisono
unisono style
style of
of the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan
(no.. .pi in c), 19 In spite of the
overture
overture (no 406 in c) and
and the
9 the concerto style (Ex.
concerto style (Ex. ']2).18
72) In spite of the
,

Ex. 72. Domenico

Ex. 72. Domcnico Scarlatti:
Scarlatti: Sonata.
Sonata.

Attegro

deliberate
deliberate useuse of
of virtuoso
virtuoso devices,
devices, especially
especially the
the crossing
crossing of
of hands
hands at at light-
light-
ning speed
ning speed on which he he drew invariably
invariably in in his
his most
most dazzling
dazzling sonatas
sonatas (no.
(no.
215 in d),
215 in d), his
his compositions,
compositions, because
because of of their
their purdy
purely musical
musical interest,
interest, never
never
became mere showpieces.
showpieces.
The harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary of of Scarlatti
Scarlatti isis steeped in
steeped in the the rich
rich harmonic
harmonic
idiom ofof the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan operaopera school
school. Some of
of his most startling chords
his most startling chords areare
due
due toto the
the so-called acciaccatura or
so-called tl&citl&catura or "crush"-a practice that
"crush" a practice that can also be
can also be
found inin the works of
the works of his
his father
father and
and his contemporaries. The
his contemporaries. The accia&catura.
acciaccatura,
minutely described
minutely described in in the Armonico pratico
the Armonico pratico by by Gasparini
Gasparini (the teacher of
(the teacher of
Domenico),
Domenico), was a
a harmonic
harmonic embellishment
embellishment consisting
consisting of
of a
a sharply
sharply dis-
dis-
sonant attack
sonant attack to full chord
to aa full chord that
that was
was instantly
instantly released
released while
while the
the consonant
consonant
members of of the
the chord
chord were
were held.
held. Scarlatti,
Scarlatti, little
little concerned
concerned with
with thethe release
release
of the
of the dissonance,
dissonance, usesuses biting
biting "crush
"crush chords"
chords" in in aa highly
highly individual
individual manner
manner
transforming the
transforming dissonances to
the dissonances inner pedals
to inner pedals thatthat underlie
underlie thethe harmony
harmony
and thus
and achieving combinations
thus achieving combinations of of unmatched
unmatched harmonic
harmonic punch
punch (Ex. (Ex. 73).
73).
Ex. 73.
Ex. 13- Domcnico Accitzcclllflre.
Scarlatti: Acciaccatore.
Domenico Scarlatti:

The strumming
The strummingeffect
effect of these passages
of these passages suggests
suggests the
the technique
technique of
of Spanish Spanish
guitar music. Since Scarlatti spent the greatest of his life Spain, he
he
in Spain,
part of his life in
guitar music. Since Scarlatti spent the greatest part
was obviously influenced by the accompaniment of Spanish
guitar accompaniment of
was obviously influenced by the guitar Spanish popular
popular
l Thk sonata does
18'1'hissoaata does not appear in
DOt appear in the Longo editioa. Since the completion
of this
the Longo edition. Since the completion of this
cdiIioa scn:ral new
edition several wwks have been
DeW worb have been discovered,
discovered, see
see Newton, Foil/" Sonatas bv Dome-
Newton, Four Sonatas by Dome-
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 239
239
music (no.
music (no. 449 in b)
449 in b) and byby the
the harmonic
harmonic and
and rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns of
of
Spanish
Spanish dances
dances (no. 338
(no. 338 in
in g).
g). These
These Spanish sonatas represent significant
Spanish sonatas represent significant
excursions into
excursions into "exotic"
"exotic" regions,
regions, rarely
rarely considered by the
considered by the composers
composers of
of
the time,
the time, but
but they
they do not
not touch
touch Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's essentially
essentially Italian
Italian attitude.
attitude. It
It
would therefore
would therefore be an exaggeration
exaggeration to call Scarlatti
to call Scarlatti aa Spanish
Spanish composer.
composer.
His works arc
His are too
too similar
similar in style
in style to
to those
those of
of his
his fellow
fellow Neapolitan
Neapolitan Fran-
Fran-
20
cesco
cesco Durante
Durante 20 whose Studii
Studii ce Divertimenti pursue a similar trend though
Divertimento pursue a similar trend though
they cannot
they cannot rival
rival the
the dazzling
dazzling brilliance
brilliance and
and coloristic
coloristic astuteness
astuteness of Scar-
of Scar-
latti.
latti.

Opera Sena
Opera Seria AND Opera
Of Buffa
era Buffa

CANTATA AND SACRED MUSIC

vocal music
The vocal music of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque period
period received
received its
its decisive
decisive impulse
impulse
from instrumental
from instrumental music.
music. This preponderance of
This preponderance of the
the instrumental style
instrumental style
brought
brought the
the exact
exact reversal
reversal of
of the
the situation
situation we saw
saw in
in the
the early baroque
early baroque
period.
period. increasing instrumentalization
The increasing instrumentalization of of the
the vocal
vocal idiom,
idiom, thethe be-
be-
ginnings
ginnings of
of which are
are noticeable
noticeable even
even in
in the
the late
late phase
phase of
of middle
middle baroque
baroque
music, is
music, one of
is one of the
the most
most fascinating processes of
fascinating processes of music
music history.
history. The in- in-
strumental
strumental stylization
stylization of the bel-canto
of the deeply affected
bel-canto deeply affected the
the virtuoso
virtuoso singing
singing
which at
which the height
at the height ofof its
its development
development could could successfully
successfully compete
compete withwith
virtuoso playing.
virtuoso playing.
The most conspicuous
conspicuous innovation
innovation in in the
the field of opera
field of was the
opera was the differen-
differen-

tiation between opera

tiation between sma and opera
ofera seria ofera buffa.
buffa. The opera originated in
sma originated
opera seria in
the
the reform
reform of of the
the Italian librettist Zeno
Italian librettist Zcno (d. 1750),
(d. 1750), who purged
purged the
the libretto
libretto

of
of comic
comic characters
characters and rigidly
rigidly divided
divided the the action
action according
according to the musical
to the musical
contrast
contrast ofof recitative
recitative and aria.
aria. Since
Since thethe dramatic
dramatic action
action was reserved
reserved forfor
the recitative, the
the recitative, the ariaaria became a static
a static and contemplative
contemplative pointpoint of
of rest
rest of
the
the "inner
"inner action."
action.** The "simile
"simile aria"
aria" comparing
comparing the the affection
affection ofof the
the hero
to
to a
a state
state of
of nature
nature crystallized
crystallized as
as a
a literary type;
literary type; it
it reigned
reigned supreme
supreme in
in the
librettos
librettos of
of Metastasio,
Mctastasio, the
the successor
successor of
of Zeno in
in Vienna. The librettos
librettos of
these
these two poets,
two poets, set
set to
to music
music time
time and again
again byby all
all major composers
major composers of
of the
nko
wco Scflf"ltUti
Scarlatti (Oxford
(Oxford University
University Press),
Press), and Gcrstenbcrg, Die Kbmierkomposilionen
and Gcrstenberg,
Domenico
Domcnico Scflf"Zrrttis.
Scarlattis. Whether
Whether all all of
of these
these are genuine works is,
are genuine is, however,
however, an openopen
question.
question. Gerstenberg's
Gerstenberg's thematic catalogue of
thematic catalogue of the newly found sonatls
die newly sonatas contains
contains at
at
least
least one
one item
item (no.
(no. 8
8 b)
b) that definitely not
is definitely
that is by Domenico. It
not by It turned out to to be iden-
iden-
tical with
tical with the
the aria
aria Le Vioiette (RJlgiadose
Le Violette (Rugiadose odorose)
odorose) from Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's opera
opera
Pirro
Pirro e Dcmctrio (1694).
e Demetrio (1694). There
There is is reason
reason to believe that
to believe that more arias
arias were artaJJgtd
arnuitged
for
for harpsichord
harpsichord and
and passed off by
passed off by the
the publishers as works of
publishers as of Domeaico.
Domcnico.
IOICMI
"ICMII9. 190
 240
240
Music inin the
Music the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
period.influenced
influencedeven eventhethespoken
spokencourt courtdrama
dramaofofthe thetime.
time.AfterMterthe themodel
model
period,
of Racine.
of Racine,
Zcno
Zeno bestowed
bestowed onon the
the opera
opera sena
stria its
its classic
classic dignity
dignity and
and heroic
heroic

grandiloquence which which dominated

dominated the the scene
scene till
till the
the day Gluck and
day ofof Gluck and
grandiloquence
Mozart. The arias
Mozart. The arias of the opera of the opera sma
seria were
were written
written in
in polished
polished and
and terse,
terse,

if sententious and abstract, poetry. They providedthe

if sententious and abstract, poetry. They provided
thecomposer
composerwith withonlyonly
onebasic
one basic affection
affection and andruled
ruled out outthethe detailed description of single
detailed description of single words.
words.

The affection
The affection was
was musically represented
musically represented byby aa suggestive
suggestive motto
motto beginning
beginning
the sequential expansion of
of which
which dominated
dominated the
the entire
entire form.
form. The
The second
second
the sequential expansion
part of
part of the
the aria text which
aria text which usually usually formulated
formulated aa slightly
slightly contrasting
contrasting aspect
aspect
of the
of the affection
affection furnished
furnished the the words
words for for the
the middle part
middle part of the aria, after
of the aria, after
which
which the
the first
first part
part
was
was repeated.
repeated.
The
The form
form of
of the
the aria
aria text
text was
was conceived
conceived

in musical
in musical terms terms and and was
was therefore
therefore the the ideal
ideal vehicle
vehicle for for the
the grand
grand da-capo
da-capo
aria, the leading
aria, the leading vocal form
vocal form of
of the
the time.
time.
The change
The change to to late
late baroque
baroque style style in in the
the opera
opera coincides
coincides with with the the rise
rise ofof
the Neapolitan
the Neapolitan opera opera school.
school. The The opera
opera in in Naples
Naples had so far been sup-
had so far been sup-
ported mainly by the
ported mainly by
the Venetian
Venetian opera. opera. Monteverdi's
Monteverdi's Popfea Poppea was was performed
performed
there after the
there after the composer's composer's death
death in
in a
a revised
revised and
and enlarged
enlarged version,
version, but
but

except for the performance of Cirillo's

of Cirillo's Orontea
Orontea (16s4) little
little is
is known
known about
about
except for the performance (1654)
the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan opera
opera of
of the
the middle
middle baroque.
baroque. The Neapolitan
Neapolitan school school can can
be
be said
said to
to begin
begin
with
with Francesco
Francesco Provenzale
Provenzale (d.
(d. 1704),
1704), perhaps
perhaps the
the most
most
neglected of the great composers of
neglected of the great composers
of baroque
baroque opera.opera. His numerous stage
numerous stage
works include the humorous opera II Schiavo
Schiwo della
dclla sua
sua moglie (1671), La
moglie (1671), La
works include the humorous opera II

StelliJaura vendicata (1678)

Stettidaura flendicata and Candaule (1679)' The melodic inven-
The melodic inven-
(1678) and Candaule (1679).
tiveness,
tiveness,
harmonic
harmonic imagination, and fiery pathos of
imagination, and fiery pathos
of thethe operas
operas bespeak
bespeak aa
musical
musical dramatist
dramatist of the first
of the first water.
water. The The ariaaria Fra
Fra tanti martin from
tanti martiri from Seelli-
Stelli-

daura 74) shows one of his favorite favorite aria aria types,
types, aa stylized
saraband in
stylized saraband
dattra (Ex.
in
(Ex. 74) shows one of his
which the background of
which the background of the chromatic the chromatic chaconne
chaconne bass
bass is
is still
still faintly rccog-
faintly recog-

nizable.
nizable. The
21
21
The intensely dramatic "false"
intensely dramatic
"false" intervals
intervals are are harmonized
harmonized in in the
the

idiomof
idiom oftonality which Provenzale established established in in the
thefield
field ofof vocal music.
vocal music.
tonality which Provenzalc
Although his
Although his profuse
profuse harmonies
harmonies were
were indicative
indicative ofof late
late baroque
baroque style
style hehe
did not yet observe Zeno's
did not yet observe Zcno's opera opera reform
reform and
and mixed
mixed tragic
tragic and
and comic
comic scenes
scenes

asasCirillo
Cirillo did didin in Orontea.
Orontea.
The
TheNeapolitan
Neapolitan school
school moved movedinto intothe thelimelight
limelightwith withAlessandro
Alessandro Scar- Scar-

latti
latti (1660-1125). Commonly regarded asasthe
(1660-1725). Commonly regarded
main representative
the main representative of of the
the

school, he was actually a descendant ofof the

school, he was actually a descendant
theRoman
Roman and and Venetian
Venetian opera opera
and only gradually developed
and only gradually developed the typical the typical traits
traits of
of the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan opera. opera.
There
Thereisisno noevidence
evidencefor forthe oft-repeatedclaim
theoft-repeated claimthat Provenzalewas
thatProvenzale washis his

a An arkofofthe
Anaria thesame
sametype befound
canbe
typecan Rolland,Hittoire
foundininRolland, HistoirctIe
dcrOpIm,
fOptra,App;
App;sec
sec
also HAM DO. 221.
also HAM no. 222.
 g

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from Lusl und Arl1!l4"n4"y-Ga'-I4"n d~s Proph~le" Da"ids. 167;
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 241
241
teacher;ononthe
teacher; thecontrary,
contrary,the
theclaim
claimisissuspect
suspectfor
forstylistic reasons.Of
stylisticreasons. Ofthe
the
II5operas
115 operasthat
thatScarlatti
Scarlattilisted
listedhimself
himselfnot
nota asingle
singleone
onehas
hasbeen
beencompletely
completely
reprinted-a
reprinted a fate
fate that
that he
he shares
shares with
with many
many other
other great
great baroque
baroque masters.
masters.

Scarlatti'sopera
Scarlatti's operastyle
stylebrought
broughttwotwoimportant
importantinnovations:
innovations:the
thevigorous
vigorous
Ex.74.
Ex. 74.Provenzale: Ariafrom
Provenzale:Aria LaStellidaura.
fromLa Stellidaura.

e::?f:~ ~~;':;~ ~:~:~~~:;~r;rij;::1

[Strings] jtj J J U, J Jb \ \ y ^ J , J\ \ . , h It. t I .

,II Arm'mdoro

I~

"
oT
Jl'ra
.-
tlJltl mar.tl ri l'alma non spi. rl

~.~"~~~
_ T T,~. --li2k~"''' .~. -4/0 .... 1-
cor, sel di sas so, 0" - sel dl
~r, sas so

00 i
development of
development of continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony and the transferof
and the transfer ofthe
the concerto
concerto style
style
to the
to the aria.
aria. The
The clear-cut
clear-cut separation
separation between
between seccosecco recitative and
recitative aria be-
and aria be-
came definitive
came definitive and
and absolute;
absolute; thethe resources
resources of of tonality
tonality endowed
endowed the the recita-
recita-
tivewith
tive with the
theluxuriant
luxuriantharmonics
harmoniesthat thatdistinguish
distinguish the thelate
latebaroque
baroquerecitative
recitative
from the earlier one. The
The downward
downward skip of
of the
the fourth
fourth was
was formalized
formalized as
as
from the earlier one. skip
the obligatory
the obligatory clichS
cliche of of the recitative cadence. It must be noted, however,
the recitative cadence. It must be noted, however,
that Scarlatti's
that Scarlatti's formal
formal and and harmonic
harmonic innovations
innovations appear appear distinctly only in
distinctly only in
the works
the works ofof his
his late
late period.
period.
The early
The early period (x678-c. 1696)
period (1678-*. x6i) which
which beganbegan with with Gli equitloci and
Gli equivod and
ended with Pirro e Demetrio is characterized
characterized by concise
concise aria
aria forms.
forms. The
The
ended with Pirro e Dcmetrio is by
continuo aria
continue aria with
with motto
motto beginning
beginning still still predominates,
predominates, the the extended
extended bi-bi-
partite form ABB'
ABB' still holds
holds its own
own against the
the da-capo
da-capo aria,
aria, and
and modula-
modula-
partite form still its against
tory ostinato basses still
tory ostinato basses
still supply
supply the the framework
framework for for the aria. The
the aria. The already
already
old-fashioned strophic aria
aria has
has not
not yet fallen
fallen into
into disuse,
disuse, and
and sometimes
sometimes
old-fashioned strophic yet
the middle
the middle section
section of of aa strophic
strophic da-capo
da-capo ariaaria appears
appears in in varied form, as
varied form, as itit
22
does for
does for example
example in in La Rosaura
Rosaura (II, (II, 66 and 7).
and 7)22
in
The period
The period oof maturity
maturity whichwhich beganbegan withwith Scarlatti's employment in
Scarlatti's employment
"Eimer
ft Eitner PAM, 14. See
PAM, 14. See also
also the examples in
the numerous examples Lorenz. Die
in Lorcnz, Die 1llgenJopern
Jugendoper*
Alessandro Scarlattis.
Alessandro Scarlattts, IL
IL
 242 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Rome (1703-1706)
(1703-1706) includes
includes hishis most
most famous
famous and significant
significant operas:
operas:
Mitridate (1707), Tigrane
Uitridatc (1707), Tigrane (1715),(1715), and Griselda
Griselda (1']21 ),28
28
(i72i), based on a libretto
libretto

by
by Zeno.
Zeno. The last last two must be be regarded
regarded as as his
his masterworks. In the the late
late

operas
operas the
the da-capo
da-capo aria
aria leads;
leads; the
the continuo
continuo accompaniment
accompaniment is
is frequently
frequently
expanded by
expanded by aa small
small string
string orchestra
orchestra that
that may
may be be reinforced
reinforced in in extraordi-
extraordi-
nary
nary scenes
scenes by trumpets, woodwinds,
by trumpets, woodwinds, or
or horns.
horns. The ostinato
ostinato bass
bass is
is sup-
sup-
planted by the patterned quasi-ostinato
planted by the patterned quasi-ostinato bass.
bass. The harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary in-in-

cludes
cludes Neapolitan-sixth
Neapolitan-sixth chordschords and diminished-seventh
diminished-seventh chords, chords, quite
quite rare
rare
in
in the
the early
early period.
period. With his his essentially
essentially melodic
melodic gift
gift Scarlatti
Scarlatti adopted
adopted the
the
concerto
concerto style
style in
in his
his arias
arias but
but transformed
transformed it
it by cantabile
by cantabilc elements
elements without
without
obscuring
obscuring itsits instrumental
instrumental origin.
origin. Ottone's
Ottone's aria
aria Mi dimostra from GriseldaGriselda
(Ex. 75) clearly
(Ex. 75) clearly shows the
the typical running
typical running basses
basses and the
the mechanical
Ex.
Ex. 75.
75. Alessandro Scarlatti: Aria
Alessandro Scarlatti: Aria from Griselda.
Griselda.
Andante

Mi di - mostrall tuo bel do-no

'I' II 8 'I' " 3 8

za, Ja grm,du - za cle!

'l'1e I 8 8 8 8 $

rhythms of the
rhythms of the concerto
concerto style and
style and the
the use of instrumental
use of instrumental coloratura
coloratura (on
(on
the
the It should
grandezza). It
word grandezza). be noted,
should be noted, however,
however, that
that his
his coloraturas
coloraturas arc
are
never as
never as excessive
excessive as in the
as in the later Neapolitan
Neapolitan school.
later school. The unique
unique appeal
appeal of
of
Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's music
music is is due to
due to the
the
clear tonal
clear tonal direction
direction of
of his
his melodies
mdodies and
and to
to
the spdl-binding
the spdl-binding power
power ofof his
his rhythms,
rhythms, especially
especially the
the siciliano.
siciliano.
Ensembles are
Ensembles are comparatively
comparatively rare rare even
even inin the
the latest
latest works
works and
and often
often
still adhere
still adhere to
to the
the primitive
primitive technique
technique ofof alternate
alternate singing.
singing. Accompanied
Accompanied
recitatives, reserved
recitatives, reserved for
for the
the scenes
scenes of
of greatest
greatest pathos,
pathos, bring
bring the full tonal
the full tonal
resources to
resources to masterly effect.
masterly effect.
"GMB
II GMB no. 258/7.59-
DO. 358/2591.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 243
243
overtures to
The overtures to the
the early
early operas
operas were
were fashioned
fashioned almost
almost without
without excep-
excep-
tion after
tion after the
the orchestral
orchestral church
church sonata
sonata in
in four
four movements.
movements. The
The so-called
so-called
Neapolitan overture
Neapolitan overture consisting
consisting of
of two
two fast movements
fast movements and
and aa slow,
slow,
often transitional,
often transitional, middle
middle part
part was
was completely
completely dependent
dependent on
on continuo-
continuo-
homophony.
homophony. Form and style
style of
of the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan overture
overture were
were obviously
obviously
derived from the
derived the concerto;
concerto; we find
find here
here even
even the
the mannerism
mannerism ofof the
the three-
three-
fold
fold beginning and
hammerstroke beginning and the
the tutti-solo contrast, for example
tutti-solo contrast, for example in in
the overture
the overture to
to Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's oratorio Sedecia.24
oratorio Sedecia?* The single
The single movements
movements of of
Scarlatti's overtures
Scarlatti's overtures are are still
still undeveloped
undeveloped-they they dodo not
not exceed
exceed about
about twenty
twenty
measures 25
measures 211-and are hardly
and are hardly comparable
comparable in in scope
scope toto aa concerto
concerto movement.
movement.
first movement of
The first of the
the overture
overture gained
gained its
its formal
formal independence
independence only only
after 1']1.0
after with the
1720 with the rise
rise ofof the
the younger
younger generation
generation of of Neapolitan
Neapolitan composers
composers
in whose
in whose hands
hands continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony was was slowly
slowly transformed
transformed to to the
the ho-
ho-
mophony
mophony of
of the
the early
early classic
classic style.
style. It
It comprised
comprised two
two pupils
pupils of
of Provenzale:
Provenzalc:
Sarro and Fago,
Sarro Fago, and in in addition
addition the the brilliant
brilliant Porpora,
Porpora, Feo, Feo, Leo
Leo (a (a pupil
pupil
of Fago),
of Fago) , Vinci,
Vinci, and the the Italianized
Italianized German Hasse Hasse (a pupil of
(a pupil of Scarlatti).
Scarlatti).
The da-capo
da-capo aria assumed in
aria assumed the works
in the works of of these
these composers
composers the the dimensions
dimensions
of aa vocal
of vocal sonata
sonata or or concerto
concerto and and thethe excessive
excessive use use ofof coloratura
coloratura and
cadenzas indicated
cadenzas indicated thatthat the
the opera
opera had
had become
become the
the absolute
absolute domain of of the
the
castrato. With Hasse
castrato. Hasse the the transition
transition to to the
the early
early classic
classic style
style was an ac-
ac-

complished fact.
complished fact.

The development
development of of the
the late
late Venetian
Venetian opera opera closely
closely paralleled that of
paralleled that the
of the
Neapolitan
Neapolitan school.
school. Except
Except for
for its
its propensity for
propensity for lavish
lavish orchestrations
orchestrations the
the
Venetian opera
Venetian opera did
did not
not differ
differ stylistically
stylistically from
from the
the Neapolitan.
Neapolitan. The opera
opera
seria was
seria was international
international in in scope
scope and and style
style and itsits repertory
repertory triumphed
triumphed not
only
only inin Venice,
Venice, Rome,
Rome, and Naples, Naples, but but also
also in
in the
the European
European centers
centers of of
opera, notably
opera, notably Vienna,
Vienna, Dresden,
Dresden, and London.
London. The influence
influence of
of the
the con-
con-
certo
certo style
style on thethe overture
overture and the the ritornello
ritornello of of the
the aria
aria was as as obvious

in the Venetian school as in the

in the Venetian school as in the Neapolitan. Neapolitan. The da-capo
da-capo aria
aria assumed its
its

vastest
vastest dimensions
dimensions in in the
the grand
grand da-capo
da-capo form in in which the the first
first and main

part
part was
was subdivided
subdivided into
into two
two units
units both
both consisting
consisting of
of a
a ritornello
ritornello and a

long
long vocal
vocal section.
section. The first first ofof these
these modulated
modulated to to the
die dominant while the
second expanded
second expanded the
the main idea
idea of
of the
the aria
aria and reversed
reversed the modulation.
This
This aria
aria became
became the the vehicle
vehicle of of vocal bravura which vied with
vocal braflUra vied with the
the instru-
instru-

mental
mental "divisions"
"divisions" of of the concerto. We know from the
the concerto. the testimony
testimony of
Agricola
Agricola that
that the
the stupendous
stupendous cadenzas,
cadenzas, sung
sung without accompaniment
accompaniment at
at

the
the end
end ofof each
each part
part of
of the
the da-capo aria. originated
da-capo aria, originated after
after 1710,
1710, that is
is shortly
shortly

** Botstiber, G~schicht~
I' Quvertfoe, Ex.
dcr OUVmUTe,
Botstiber, Geschicktc tier Ex. 7.
7.
B, 207;
Haas B, no. 259-
207; HAM no.
25
2G 259.
2-J4
244 Music
Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
after
after the
the solo
solo concerto
concerto had
had been
been established.
established. The trend trend toward homophony
homophony
came to the fore in the arias all'unisono
came to the fore in the arias all'unisono in
in which the
the violins
violins or
or even thethe
entire
entire orchestra
orchestra accompanied
accompanied the voice in
the voice unison and octaves
in unison throughout.
octaves throughout.
Even
Even thethe instrumental
instrumental idioms
idioms of of the
the concerto
concerto style forced on the
style were forced the
voice.
voice. The arias
arias of
of the time abound with
the time with rapidly repeated
rapidly repeated notes,
notes, sweeping
sweeping
sequential
sequential scale patterns, extreme
scale patterns, extreme skips,
skips, and triadic
triadic motives
motives which until until

the late days of the opera have remained

the late days of the opera have remained the
the earmark of
of the
the aria
aria di
di Dravura.
bravura.
The composers
composers active
active inin the
the international
international centers
centers of of the
the Venetian school
school
are so
are so numerous that that only
only a a selective
selective list
list of
of names can be given here. It
given here. It

includes
includes Carlo
Carlo Pollaroli
Pollaroli and
and his
his son
son Antonio,
Antonio, the the prolific,
prolific, but
but often
often dull,
dull,
Caldara
Caldara andand the
the theorboe-player
theorboe-player ContiConti (both
(both active
active in in Vienna), Agostino
Vienna), Agostino
Steffani
Steffani and
and Torri
Torri 26 (both brilliant composers, active
28 (both brilliant composers, active mainly
mainly in
in Munich),
Munich),
Lotti
Lotti (a(a pupil
pupil ofof Legrenzi)
Legrenzi) whose operas were performed
operas were performed allover
all over Europe,
Europe,
Albinoni, Vivald~
Albinoni, Vivaldi, Pistocchi
Pistocchi (the
(the founder
founder of
of an influential
influential school
school of
of sing-
sing-
ing
ing in
in Bologna),
Bologna), Perti
Perti (likewise
(likewise in
in Bologna),
Bologna), Ariosti,
Ariosti, the
the theorist
theorist and
composer Gasparini,
composer Gasparini, and the
the brothers
brothers Marc-Antonio
Marc-Antonio and Giovanni Battista
Battista
Bononcini
Bononcini (the (the sons
sons ofof Giovanni
Giovanni Maria).2T
Maria).
27
Giovanni
Giovanni Battista
Battista Bononcini
Bononcini
(x67o-c.
(i670-c. 1748)
1748) was so so highly
highly regarded
regarded for the captivating
for the captivating lyricism
lyricism of of his
his
melodious
melodious operas
operas that
that he
he could
could become the
the serious
serious rival
rival of
of Handel in
in
London.

The formal establishment of

formal establishment the opera
of the opera Duffa
buffa cannot
cannot bebe dissociated
dissociated from
from
that
that of the opera
of the opera sma.
seria. Although
Although comic
comic scenes
scenes were
were a
a traditional
traditional feature
feature
of
of Italian
Italian opera
opera in
in the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century,
century, thethe opera
opera Duffa
buffa did not become
did not
a form inin its
its own right
right before
before the early eighteenth century. Only
the early eighteenth century. Only with with the
the
relegation of
relegation of the
the comic elements
elements from the the opera
opera sma
seria to
to the burlesque in-
the burlesque in-
termezzo,
termezzo, played between its
played between its three
three acts, was the
acts, was the contrast
contrast between
between thethe
two types
types recognized
recognized in rising opera
principle. The rising
in principle. opera Duffa precipitated im-
buffa precipitated im-
portant
portant social
social changes (see Chapter
changes (see Chapter XII) XII) and gained
gained momentum by
by its
its

conscious
conscious opposition
opposition to
to the
the stilted
stilted conventions of the op~ra
conventions of the opera seria. sma.
the vaudeville
Unlike the vaudeville and the the ballad
ballad opera
opera which
which were based essentially
were based essentially
on traditional
traditional music, the opera
music, the Duffa belonged to music. Consisting
Consisting of
on opera buffa belonged to art
art music. of
arias
arias and rccitatives,
recitatives, it
it was composed in
composed in a
a deliberately popular
deliberately popular tone
tone that
that
matched perfectly
perfectly the
the stereotyped
stereotyped characters
characters of the commedia
of the commedia dell' me
dett'arte

*III For
For Steffani
Steffani see
see Chapter
Chapter IX;
IX; DTB 6:2, 11:2, and
6:2, n:2. 12:2; for
and 12:2; for Terri
Torri DTB 19/ 2 0.
19/20.
^IT The three Bononcinis have
three Bononcinis have created
created a good deal
a good confusion in
of confusion
deal of in modern publi-
modern publi-
c:-~ See
cations. See note 33, and Parisotti,
note 33. Parisotti, Anthology
Anthology of Ita/ian Song.
of Italian Song. In
In the
the latter
latter pub-
pub-
lica~ the ascription
lication t;he c! an ~ia
ascription of an aria ~
to Giovanni
Giovanni Maria Bononcini must
Maria Bononcini be changed
must be changed
on
OIl stylistic grounds
stylistic to GlOVallDJ
grounds to Battista, or
Giovanni Batbstt. possibly his
or possibly brother. Sec
his brother. See HAM no.
no. 262.
262.
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 245
which
which populated
populated its its librettos.
librettos. ItIt was
was in the opQ'a
in the opera hliDa
Buffa that the style
that the galant
style galant
made its first inroads
its first inroads on the the baroque
baroque style. With complete disregard for
style. With complete disregard for
polyphony the
polyphony the continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony was was reduced
reduced to to aa plain
plain homophony
homophony
and itsits typical
typical harmonic periods.
periods. Brief
Brief and
and repetitive phrases formalized
repetitive phrases formalized in in
melodic cli~s
melodic cliches such
such as the harmonically
as the harmonically static
static feminine
feminine cadence
cadence with
with an
an
anticipatory
anticipatory triplet,
triplet, characteristic
characteristic of many huDo
of many melodies; they
buffo melodies; they even
even forced
forced
their
their wayway intointo the
the serious
serious operas
operas and
and oratorios
oratorios of of Pergolesi
Pergolcsi and and Hasse.
Hassc.
Drum bassesbasses merely
merely dissembled
dissembled the the rhythmic
rhythmic motion
motion that the hasso
that the basso con-
con-
tinuo
tinuo had previously actually provided.
previously actually provided. The rapid parlando
rapid parlando effect
effect which
which
had
had already
already beenbeen employed
employed by by Landi
Landi became
became the the main
main means
means of of comic
comic
effect.
effect. The most important musical innovation of the opera
important musical innovation of the opera buffa was the bllDa was the
ensemble
ensemble finale finale 28 in which
28 in
which the the characters
characters sangsang short
short snatches
snatches of phrases
of phrases
in
in quick
quick alternation
alternation with with drastic
drastic humor.
humor.
Neither Provenzale's
Neither Provenzale's Schiavo Schifltlo nor
nor Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's two
two comic operas (Dal
comic operas (Dal
male il
male Bene and II
il Bene // Trionfo
Trionfo dell'
dell' On ore)
Onore) had
had yet
yet abandoned
abandoned the
the elevated
elevated
style
style of of the
the serious
serious opera. typical buDo
opera. The typical buffo style
style emerged
emerged firstfirst in PatTe
in Poire

Cdlenno (1709)
Calienno (1709) by by the
the Neapolitan
Neapolitan composer
composer Orefice
Orefice and and inin Vinci's
Vinci's mas-mas-
terly
terly Zite'n
Zite'n galera
galera (1722)
(1722) which.
which may
may be
be regarded
regarded as
as the
the first
first fully
fully de:-
de-
veloped
veloped exampleexample of
of the
the opera buDa.
opera buff a. With Pergolesi (1710-1736),
Pergolesi (1710-1736), the
the
extremely
extremely gifted pupil of
gifted pupil of Durante
Durante and and Fee, the opera
Feo, the opera buDa reached its
buffa reached its

first peak.
first peak. His intermezzo lA SeN/a
His intermezzo La Padrona (1733)
Serva Padrona (1733) owes
owes its fame
its fame more
to
to the
the sensation
sensation it it made during
during the
the War of of the
the Buffoons
Buffoons in in Paris than to
Paris than to

its
its refreshing
refreshing musical
musical qualities. They
qualities. They are
are in
in fact
fact easily
easily surpassed
surpassed not
not only
only
by Vinci's
by Vinci's works
works but but also
also by
by Pergolesi's
Pergolesi's own UviettaLivietta ee Tracollo
Tracollo and the the
Neapolitan
Neapolitan dialect
dialect comedy
comedy Frate
Prate 'nnamorato
'nnamorato which
which contains
contains an amusing
amusing
parody of
parody of the conventional aria
the conventional aria di
di bravura.
bravura.

The Italian
Italian chamber cantata, also
chamber cantata, also known as as serenata, chamber duet
serenata, chamber duet or
or
trio, represented by far the
trio, represented by far the most most valuable
valuable vocal
vocal music
music of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque
because it
because it was
was written
written for
for a
a select
select audience
audience of of connoisseurs
connoisseurs irrespective
irrespective of
of
popular success.
popular success. It
It was strictly musician's
was strictly musician's music
music in in which the the composer
composer was
free to indulge
free to indulge in
in harmonic
harmonic experiments
experiments and to
to test
test novel
novel constructive
constructive
methods
methods at at his
his heart's
heart's content.
content The chamber
chamber cantata
cantata had not not changed
changed
formally
formally since
since the
the middle
middle baroque.
baroque. It It still
still presented
presented in in operatic
operatic manner
aa dramatic, purely lyrical, arias were now fully
lyrical, or
or pastoral
pastoral scene, but its
scene, but its arias fully
dramatic, purely
grown da-capo
grown da-capo forms
forms and
and its
its recitatives
recitatives had assumed
assumed corresponding
corresponding dimen-
sions
sions and
and had
had gained
gained inin harmonic
harmonic depth.
depth. InIn the
the Italian
Italian "academics,"
"academies," thethe
..
28 See
See Dent,
Dent, SIMG XII, u6. and Lorenz,
XII, 116, Lorcnz, 0[1.
op. m. n,
dt. na 42.
H, no. 42.
 246 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
meeting
meeting place
place of
of connoisseurs
connoisseurs and and professional
professional musicians,
musicians, cantatas
cantatas were
were
often
often extemporized
extemporized by by the
the poet, immediately
poet, immediately set
set to
to music
music by
by the
the composer
composer
and performed-a
and performed a practice
practice inin which
which both
both Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti
Scarlatti and
and Handel
Handel
excelled.
excelled. In
In the
the absence
absence of of the
the stage
stage the
the cantata
cantata depended
depended entirely
entirely on
on
musical characterization and,
musical characterization and, asas a result,
a result, achieved
achieved aa musical
musical intensity that
intensity that
the
the opera
opera rarely
rarely attained.
attained.

The
The tremendous
tremendous output
output ofofScarlatti-more
Scarlatti more than than 600
600 cantatas-makes
cantatas makes him him
29
the
the leading
leading composer
composer of of the
the form.
form.29 Only
Only in
in his
his cantatas
cantatas does
does the
the full
full
range
range of
of his
his musicianship
musicianship really really become
become apparent.
apparent. They They are
are full
full ofof
the
the most
most audacious
audacious harmonic
harmonic progressions,
progressions, especially the recitatives; his
especially the recitatives; his
boundless
boundless imagination
imagination manifests
manifests itself
itself in
in his
his superb
superb melodic
melodic characteriza-
characteriza-
tions which have set
tions which have set the
the model
model for for the
the last
last generation
generation of of baroque
baroque com-
com-
He imbued his
posers. He
posers. his arias
arias with the the complex
complex harmonies
harmonies of of the
the tonal
tonal idiom
idiom
achieving
achieving startling,
startling, yet
yet most convincing
convincing melodic progressions. The
melodic progressions. The ariaaria
Per
Per unun momenta (Ex. 76),
(Ex. 76), taken
taken from one
one of
of his
his unpublished cantatas,
unpublished cantatas,

EL
Ex. 76.
76. Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti:
Scarlatti: Aria from a
a chamber cantata.
cantata.

illustrates not
illustrates not only
only the
the plastic
plastic realization
realization of
of the
the idea
idea ofof torment
torment (see
(see the
the
coloratura on
coloratura tormentar) but
on tormentor) also the
but also the use
use of
of the
the stereotyped motto
stereotyped motto begin-
begin-
ning. Scarlatti
ning. Scarlatti and
and Gasparini
Gasparini exchanged
exchanged experimental
experimental cantatas
cantatas written
written
on the same
on the same text,
text, of
of which Andale o0 miei
which Andate sospiri isis the
miei sospiri the best
best known
known ex- ex-
80
ample. Scarlatti composed
ample. 80 Scarlatti composed itit twice,
twice, once in idea
once in idea humana
"umana in in his
his best
best
operatic vein
operatic veinand
and aa second
second time in idea
time in ideainhumana
inhumana in in experimental
experimentalfashion,
fashion,
*
iiiICMI
leMI 30, GMB
30. GMB no. 260, HAM
DO. 260, HAM no. ~58.
no. 258.
10
110Dent, Ait:sumdro SeIlTlIllli.
Dent, Alessandro Scarlatti, 140-43.
140""43.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 247
deliberately designed
deliberately designed to
to confuse
confuse the
the performer
performer by
by its remote
its remote modulation
modulation
and bizarre
and bizarre accidentals
accidentals which
which puzzle
puzzle even
even aa modern
modern musician.
musician. Also La
Also La
Stratlaganzaby
Stravaganza byMarcello
Marcello 3131belongs
belongsto
tothe
thegroup
groupofofstudiously
studiously"extravagant"
"extravagant"
cantatas. Nearly
cantatas. Nearly all
all opera composers
opera composers of
of the
the time
time wrote
wrote cantatas; it must
cantatas; it must
suffice here
suffice here to
to mention
mention only
only those
those of
ofAgostino
Agostino Steffani,
Steffani, d'Astorga,
d'Astorga, Porpora,
Porpora,
and Francesco
and Francesco Durante. Steffani isis best
Durante. Steffani best known
known for
for his
his noble
nohle chamber
chamber
duets 82
duets the smoothly
82 the smoothly finished
finished counterpoint
counterpoint of of which
which even
even Handel
Handel could
could
only
only
imitate:
imitate but
but not
not surpass.
surpass.

The Italian
The Italian oratorio
oratorio was was completely
completely underunder thethe spell
spell of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque
opera. Serving
opera. Serving
as
as an
an opera
opera substitute
substitute for
for the
the Lenten
Lenten season
season it
it faithfully
faithfully
observed Zeno's
observed Zeno's opera
opera reform.
reform. Only
Only in in the
the occasional
occasional use
use ofof chorus
chorus did did the
the
oratorio
oratorio differ
differ from
from the
the opera.
opera. The
The prominent
prominent oratorio
oratorio composers
composers whose
whose
works were
works were performed
performed at at all
all European
European centers
centers were Giovanni
Giovanni Bassani,
Bassani,
Giovanni Battista
Giovanni Bononcini,as Ariosti,
Battista Bononcini, 83 Ariosti, Marcello,
Marcello, Lotti,
Lotti, and the Neapoli-
the Neapoli-
tans Alessandro
tans Alessandro Scarlatti
Scarlatti (fourteen
(fourteen oratorios),
oratorios), Feo, Feo, Vinci,
Vinci, and Pergolcsi.
Pergolesi.
However progressive
However progressive: in in their
their operas
operas andand oratorios,
oratorios, these
these masters
masters adhered
adhered
in their
in their church
church music
music to to aa dignified
dignified contrapuntal
contrapuntal texture
texture which gradually
gradually
became the
became the earmark
earmark of of sacred
sacred music
music altogether.
altogether. Lotti
Lotti returned
returned at at times
times toto
the strict
the strict Palestrina
Palestrina style
style with
with doubling
doubling instruments,
instruments, deploying
deploying the
the old
old
84
contrapuntal artifices in calculated archaism. The masses of
contrapuntal artifices in calculated archaism.
of Caldara 84 and
other
other Italian masters in
Italian masters in Vienna were written in luxuriant counterpoint
written in luxuriant counterpoint
which
which did did not
not lose
lose its severity by
its severity by the
the absorption
absorption of of the
the concerto
concerto style
style and
and
the
the aria
aria with
with obbligato
obbligato instruments.
instruments. Even the die strictly
strictly liturgical
liturgical music dis-
music dis-

played lavish orchestral settings but

played lavish orchestral settings
but it little use of the
it made little the da-capo
da-capo aria aria

and
and recitative.
recitative. Church
Church musicmusic became
became the the bulwark of a retrospective
retrospective style,
style,

the
the sole
sole domain
domain where
where contrapuntal
contrapuntal writing
writing could retreat
retreat to,
to, and here here
it survived as
it survived as the the "learned"
"learned" or
or "strict"
"strict" style
style of
of the classic
classic era.
era.

LATE
LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO
BAROQUE AND ROCOCO STYLE
STYLE IN FRANCE
IN FRANCE

ENSEMBLE AND CLAVECIN

ENSEMBLE AND MUSIC
CLAVECIN MUSIC

At
At the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque period,
period, instrumental
instrumental ensemble
ensemble
music in France stood
music in France stood under
under the
the sign
sign of
of the
the struggle
struggle between
between national
national se1-
self-

preservation and submission

preservation and submission
to
to the
the Italian
Italian style.
style. The
The clear
clear recognition
recognition of
of

81Haas B. 212-
81 Haas B, 212.
MDTB
DTB 6:2 GMB
81
6:2, no. 242.
GMB no. 242. ...
88 See &hering.
"See Gf:schiclzte des Oratoriums, App. (the composition isis erroneously
Schering, Gcschichte des Oratoriutns, App. (the composition
erroneously
ascribed
ascribed here Giovanni Maria
to Giovanni
here to Mark Bononcini).
Bononcini).
U GMB no.
"GMB no, 273.
273.
248 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
the
the national
national differences
differences in in style
style gave
gave French musicians musicians solid solid ground
ground to to
stand
stand on on and
and they
they tenaciously
tenaciously refused
refused to to surrender
surrender it. it. Mter
After the the death
death of of
Lully
Lully theythey stripped
stripped his
his music
music of
of its
its heavy
heavy armor,
armor, broke his
his massive
massive and
unwieldy
unwieldy lines lines into
into small
small and flexible
flexible units, repeated and varied
units, and repeated varied themthem
with innumerable agrements.
with innumerable agrtments. The austere
austere baroque
baroque style disintegrated to
style disintegrated to
the intricately chiselled
the intricately chiselled and ornamented rococo
rococo style
style which rose
rose to its
to its

height during
height during the Regence (1715-1723)
the Regence (1715-1723) and the the subsequent
subsequent reign reign of of
Louis
Louis XV.xv.
Nothing
Nothing can can illustrate better the
illustrate better the deeply
deeply ingrained
ingrained conservatism
conservatism of of the
the
French
French composers
composers than
than the
the fact
fact that
that their
their reluctance
reluctance to
to take
take over
over the
the
Italian
Italian concerto
concerto style
style even
even surpassed
surpassed that that of of the
the Italians
Italians to to adopt
adopt the French
the French
overture.
overture. Instrumental
Instrumental music,music, traditionally
traditionally bound up up in in France with with the the
dance
dance and and the
the opera,
opera, could
could hardly
hardly find
find an independent
independent place. place. The concerto
concerto
was very
very slow
slow toto gain
gain a a foothold
foothold in in French music, music, and even when it it did-
did
more than a
a generation
than generation later
later than
than in
in Italy-it
Italy it played only a
a secondary
played only secondary role. role.
It
It is
is symptomatic
symptomatic that Brossard's Dictionnaire
that Brossard's Dictionncdrc de musique (1703),
de musique (1703), one one of of
the
the first
first musical
musical dictionaries
dictionaries of of the
the period,
period, does
does not
not list
list the
the term concert
concert at
at

all,
all, but
but only
only concertato,
conccrtato, and only
only in
in the
the supplement
supplement is
is concerto
concerto explained
explained
as
as "approximately
"approximately the the same as as concertante."
concertante" It It should
should be noted noted thatthat thethe
French term concert concert denoted
denoted not not a a concerto,
concerto, but but ensemble music in in gen-
gen-
eral;
eral; forfor the
the concerto
concerto proper
proper the the Italian
Italian spelling
spelling was retained,
retained, clearly
clearly in- in-

dicating
dicating the
the Italian
Italian background
background of
of the
the form.
form.
Characteristically
Characteristically enough,
enough, it it was the Italian Mascitti
the Italian Mascitti who publishedpublished the the
first
first concertos
concertos in Paris (1727).
in Paris (1727). OnlyOnly two important
important Frenchmen followed
followed
his model: Jean
his Jean Aubert (d. (d. 1753)
1753) and Jean Marie Leclair
Jean Marie Lcclair l'Atne (1~7-
PAin6 (1697-
1764)
1764) whose concertos,
concertos, thethe first
first French example example of of the
the kind,
kind, appeared
appeared in in
1735
1735 and 1737 respectively.
1737 respectively. Both composers
composers were dependent
dependent on Vivaldi,
Vivaldi, as as
the allegro
the themes, notably
allegro themes, notably those
those of
of Aubert clearly
clearly show.
show. However,
However, the the
delicately
delicately embroidered themes of the slow movements reveal
themes of the slow reveal the the French
French
penchant
penchant for the air
for the air tendre.
tendre.
The triotrio and solosolo sonata
sonata was cultivated
cultivated by by two
two generations
generations of of com-
com-
posers
posers of
of which the
the first
first began
began to
to compose
compose in
in the
the late
late seventeenth
seventeenth and
and early
early
eighteenth
eighteenth centuries.
centuries. It It comprised
comprised Marais,Marais, Fran~is
Francois Couperin,
Couperin, Jean Jean Ferry
Ferry
Rebel
Rebel (the(the member of of aa large
large dynasty
dynasty of of composers),
composers), Loeillet,
Loeillet, and and Duval.
Duval.
The celebrated
celebrated gambist
gambist Marin Marais (d. (d, 1728),
1728), a a pupil
pupil of of Lully, wrote
Lully, wrote
one of the first Pieces en
first Pieces trio (l~)
en trio (1692) ever
ever to
to be
be published
published in
in France.
France. The
characteristic
characteristic titles
titles show how closely closely the
the French instrumental
instrumental music
music was
was
associated
associated with programprogram music.
music. His witty description
witty description of
of a
a gall-stone opera-
gall-stone opera-
tion in
tion in a
a solo
solo sonata for for gamba
gamba and continuocontinue (see Lavignac En:
(see Lavignac E II: ,3, 17J6)
3, 1776)
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 249
249
represents probably
represents probably the
the non
non plus
plus ultra
ultra of
of the
the illustrative
illustrative trends
trends of
of the
the
time. The
time. The playfully
playfully programmatic
programmatic titles titles that
that abound
abound in in French
French instru-
instru-
mental music
mental music did did not
not always
always designate
designate aa concreteconcrete programprogram but, as Cou-
but, as Cau-
perin pointed
perin pointed out,out, often served
often served merely
merely the the same
same function
function as as aa general
general mark-
mark-
ing like
ing tendrement.
like tendrement.
Fran~ois Couperin
Francois Couperin le Ie Grand (1668-1733), the
Grand (i66&-i733), the famous
famous clavecinist
clavecinist to to the
the
French court,
French court, has
has been
been extolled
extolled so so exclusively
exclusively for for his
his harpsichord
harpsichord music music
that his
that his important
important contribution
contribution to to chamber
chamber music music has has been
been unduly
unduly mini-mini-
mized. His
mized. Concerts Royaux,
His Concerts Royaux, quartet
quartet sonatas
sonatas for for violin,
violin, flute,
flute, oboe,
oboe, andand aa
continuo for
continuo for bassoon
bassoon and and clavecin,
clavecin, were were composed
composed for for thethe chamber
chamber con- con-
certs of
certs of the Roi Soleil.
the Roi Soleil. His
His other
other ensemble
ensemble sonatas sonatas include
include Les Les Nations,
Nations, Les Les
Goats reunis,
Gouts rcunis, and and the ApothCose dc
the Apotheose de Lully.
Lully. All All of of them
them are are works
works of of the
the
highest
highest rank.
rank- As suggested
suggested by by the
the title
title of
of the
the second
second collection
collection Couperin
Couperin
strove for
strove for aa union
union ofof the
the French
French and and thethe Italian
Italian tastetaste which would, would, in in his
his
opinion,
opinion, bringbring about
about "the
"the perfection
perfection of
of music."
music."
The "United
"United Tastes"
Tastes" contain
contain aa musical
musical apotheosis
apotheosis of of Corelli:
Corelli: Le Par- Par-
nasse which bespeaks the high
nasse which bespeaks the high personal admirationpersonal admiration of
of Couperin
Couperin for
for the
the
Italian master.
Italian master. It It may
may seem seem strange
strange that that aa composer
composer whose keyboard keyboard
works are
works are the
the very
very essence
essence of of French
French style style was the the first
first toto open
open thethe door
to Italian
to music. He imitated
Italian music. imitated Corelli's
Corelli's style style with
with surprising
surprising self-effacement
self-effacement

and
and even
even wentwent so so far
far asas toto pass
pass offoff his
his first
first trio
trio sonata
sonata as as an Italian
Italian com-

position, admitting
position, admitting
his
his authorship
authorship only only after
after it
it had been favorably favorably re- re-

ceived. Certain
ceived. Certain movements of
of the
the Parnasse,
Parnasse t e.g.
e.g. "Corelli's
"Corelli's arrival
arrival at
at

Parnassus"
Parnassus" and and "The Thanks of of Corelli,"
Corelli," could well be
could well be mistaken for aa
for

work of
work of Carelli.
Corelli. The final grand sonade
final grand sonade en en trio
trio inin four
four movements repre- repre-
sents
sents the
the "Peace
"Peace at at Parnassus."
Parnassus." It It begins,
begins, significantly,
significantly, with a French over-
ture--a
turea token token of of the
the partial
partial victory
victory of of French music-butmusic but the rest rest of the

sonata
sonata is is more
more Italian
Italian than
than French
French in in style. Except
style. Except for
for his
his church music
Couperin
Couperin has
has not
not written
written anything
anything that
that can compare
compare with the dignified
dignified and
carefully wrought counterpoint
carefully wrought counterpoint
of
of this
this sonata
sonata which seems
seems to belie
belie thethe
thin
thin texture
texture of of the
the rococo The ApotMose
style. The
rococo style. Apothcose de Lully,de Lutty, Couperin's
Couperin's monu- monu-
ment in
ment in honor
honor of of Lully,
Lully, clearly
clearly discloses
discloses that that the the Florentine
Florentine had had byby this
this

time attained an
time attained an almost
almost legendary
legendary position
position in in French
French music.music. In In this work
this work

also
also Corelli
Corelli makes
makes an an appearance,
appearance, this
this time
time as
as the
the delegate
delegate of
of the
the muses
muses
who
who welcomes
welcomes Lully Lully among
among the the exalted
exalted spirits.
spirits. In In aa delightful
delightful contest
contest

between Italian
between Italian and and French
French music,
music, far
far more
more elaborate
elaborate than
than Luily's Ba1let
Lully's Ballet

de la Raillerie (see p. 153),

de la Raitterie (sec p. 153), Corelli Carelli and
and Lully
Lully match
match forces
forces and
and accompany
accompany
each
eachother
other in in alternation.
alternation. Here Here again
again we we cancan see see how
how profoundly
profoundly CouperinCouperin
had
had penetrated
penetrated
into
into the
the secrets
secrets ofof thethe Italian
Italian idiom.idiom.
250 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
The Belgian
The Belgian composer
composer Loeillet
Loeillet (d.(d. 1728),
1728), a a little-known,
little-known, but important important
master of
master of chamber
chamber music,music, stood
stood outside
outside of of the
the French tradition
tradition as as his
his pro-
pro-
gressive
gressive style
style indicates.
indicates. During
During his
his residence
residence in
in London he came in contact

with the
with the Italian
Italian concerto
concerto style.
style. His
His sonatas
sonatas for for flute,
flute, viola
viola d'amore and

other
other instruments
instruments carry
carry the
the indelible
indelible stamp
stamp of
of the
the concerto
concerto style and also
style also

the ritornello form

the ritornello form of certain of certain movements bespeaks
bespeaks this
this influence.
influence. His
music is
music is noteworthy
noteworthy for for thethe Handelian
Handelian solidity
solidity of of his
his themes,
themes, the the fine
fine

workmanship
workmanship of
of his
his counterpoint,
counterpoint, and
and for
for Bachian
Bachian touches
touches in
in his
his har-
har-
mony which which distinguish
distinguish also also his
his harpsichord suites.s5
harpsichord suites.
35
mony
The rococo
The rococo style came to the fore in the chamber music of
style came to the fore in the chamber
of the
the second
second
generation: Anet (a pupil of Corelli),
generation: Anet (a pupil of Corelli), Senaille (a pupil Senaille (a pupil of
of Tommaso
Vitali), Aubert, Dieupart, Rameau, Leclair, Corrette, and the
Vitali), Aubert, Dieupart, Rameau, Leclair, Corrette, flutists La
the flutists
Barre, Blavet,
Barre, Blavet, Boismortier
Boismortier and and Hotteterre.
Hotteterre. Although
Although tinged with
tinged with the the
Italian style
Italian style their
their music
music upholds
upholds the the French
French tradition,
tradition, as
as can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the
graceful curves
graceful curves of their
of their rococo
rococo melodies.
melodies. Aubert
Aubert very nearly
very nearly succumbed
succumbed
to the
to influence of
the influence of Corelli,
Corelli, butbut inin the
the preface
preface to to his
his Concerts
Concerts de de Sympho-
Sympho-
nies he
nies he pointed
pointed out out that
that the
the Italian
Italian style
style
was
was not
not everybody'S
everybody's taste,
taste, especially
especially
not "that
not "that of the ladies
of the ladies whose
whose judgment
judgment has has always
always determined
determined the the pleas-
pleas-
ures of
ures the nation."
of the nation." Aubert's
Aubert's numerous
numerous "concerts"
"concerts" are are actually
actually
delicate
delicate trio
trio

sonatas in suite form, composed in the "neatness and nice simplicity of

sonatas in suite form, composed in the "neatness and nice simplicity of
the French
the taste." It
French taste." It is
is very
very characteristic
characteristic of of his
his French
French attitude
attitude thatthat hehe
faithfully retained in his sonatas the agrements of vocal music. We see here
faithfully retained in his sonatas the agrements of vocal music. We see here
the
the exact
exact opposite of the Italian instrumentalization of the vocal idiom.
opposite of the Italian instrumentalization of the vocal idiom.
Dieupart and Rameau also contributed to chamber music with c1avecin
Dieupart and Rameau also contributed to chamber music with clavecin
suites
suites arranged en concert as
arranged en concert as ensemble
ensemble sonatas.
sonatas. Rameau
Rameau includedincluded in in his
his
Pieces
Pieces de de clatJccin
clavecin en concerts (1741)
en concerts arrangements
(1741) arrangements
of
of famous
famous harpsichord
harpsichord
pieces like La Paule which recalls the programmatic canzonas of Poglietti,
pieces like La Poule which recalls the programmatic canzonas of Poglietti,
and L'Enharmonique, noteworthy
and L'Enhartnonique, for its harmonic audacities. Boismortier
noteworthy for its harmonic audacities. Boismortier
made a name for himself by his
made a name for himself by his galanteries for galanteries for flute
flute oror even
even such
such instru-
instru-
ments
ments as the bagpipe and the hurdy-gurdy the vogue for which was
as the bagpipe and the hurdy-gurdy the vogue for which was duedue
to the
to the rococo
rococo period's
period's
enthusiasm
enthusiasm for
for rustic
rustic naivete.
naivctt
The
The greatest French master of the solo and trio sonata, Jean Marie Le-
greatest French master of the solo and trio sonata, Jean Marie Lc-
clair
dair (a pupil
(a pupil
of
of Somis), actually achieved the fusion of the French and
Somis), actually achieved the fusion of the French and
Italian
Italian style of which Couperin had
style of which Couperin had only dreamed. His sonatas (five books,
only dreamed. His sonatas (five books,
1']23 fl_)
1723 ff.)
as
86 contain remarkably few programmatic hints-quite exceptional
contain remarkably few programmatic hints quite exceptional
for
for a a French
French composer-and
composer and adopt Italian tempo markings. Leclair ad-
adopt Italian tempo markings. Leclair ad-

"See
**
Sec the
the sonatas ed. by
sonatas cd. by Bean
Bon (Lemoine),
(Lemoine), and the harpsichord
and the suite in c in Monu-
harpsichord suite in c in Monu-
~ Mtutcae B~/gic(g
mcnta MJUiag I, and Oesterle, Early Keyboard Music I, 181.
I, and Ocsterlc, Early Keyboard Music I, 181.
Bdgicae
" Eitner PAM,
PAM, 27;
27;
HAM no. no. %:;8.
278.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 251
hered to
hercd to the
the late
late baroque
baroque sonata
sonata form
form with
with rudimentary
rudimentary recapitulation
recapitulation of
of
aa single
single theme
theme and occasionally
and occasionally tied
tied the
the movements
movements together
together by
by means
means of
of
similar thematic material. His
similar thematic material. His advanced
advanced violinistic
violinistic technique
technique callscalls for
for
multiple stops
multiple stops in
in high
high positions, perfect
positions, perfect control
control of
of the
the bow,
bow, left-hand
left-hand
tremolo, and
tremolo, and even such eccentricities
even such eccentricities as
as the
the use
use of
of the
the thumb
thumb forfor low
low triple
triple
stops.
stops. Leclair's
Leclair's music
music is
is distinguished
distinguished for
for the
the sustaining power
sustaining power of
of its
its long
long
sequential phrases,
sequential phrases, thethe graceful
graceful tenderness
tenderness ofof its
its melodies,
melodies, itsits rhythmic
rhythmic
subtlety, and
subtlety, and the
the fiery
fiery pathos
pathos ofof its
its harmonies.
harmonies. Leclair
Leclair fused
fused the
the outstand-
outstand-
ing virtues
ing virtues of
of the
the two
two national styles into
national styles into an
an imaginative
imaginative style
style of
of his
his own,
own,
unmatched either
unmatched either inin French
French or or in
in Italian
Italian music.
music.

The French
The French schoolschool of of clavecinists
clavecinists culminated
culminated in in the
the works
works of Fran~ois
of Frangois
Couperin, justly
Couperin, justly called
called "the
"the Great."
Great." The four
four books
books of
of Pieces
Pieces de
dc datlecin
clavecin

(1713-30)
(1713-30) consist
consist of
of suites
suites or
or ordres
ordres (as
(as the
the author
author called
called them)
them) the
the length
length
of which varied from a few to as many as
of which varied from a few to as many as twenty compositions. twenty compositions. The flexible
flexible

contents of
contents the suites
of the corresponds to
suites corresponds their flexible
to their Bexible length.
length. Although
Although Cou- Cou-
perin
perin
continued
continued to
to utilize
utilize traditional
traditional dance
dance patterns,
patterns, he
he abandoned dance
titles
titles and
and replaced
replaced them them by by fanciful
fanciful designations
designations or or names of allegorical or
of allegorical or

real persons
real persons that
that the
the music
music allegedly portrayed.
allegedly portrayed. Such
Such collections
collections of
of aristo-
aristo-

cratic
cratic and
and intimate
intimate genre genre miniatures
miniatures and and highly
highly stylized
stylized dances
dances scarcely
scarcely
deserved
deserved the the name ordre. ordre, particularly
particularly since since they
they were only only superficially
superficially
held
held together
together by by oneone key.
key. Even
Even the the unity
unity of of key
key was observed
observed laxlylaxly enough
enough
to
to allow.
allow, of
of the
the opposite
opposite mode and
and relative
relative keys. Many
keys. Many of
of the
the character
character

portraits formed part of

portraits formed part
of aa semi-operatic
semi-operatic program,program, such such as as the
the various
various "acts"
"acts"

of Les
of Les Fastes
Pastes de de la la grande
grande Mlnestrandise
Mencstrandise or or Les Folies Franfaises
Les Folics Francises ou les ou Ics

Dominos.
Dominos. Only Only exceptionally
exceptionally did did Couperin
Couperin transfertransfer the the French opera opera
overture
overture to to the
the clavecin
clavecin as as D' Anglebert
D'Anglebcrt had done before
before him.
That Couperin was
That Couperin was fully
fully conscious
conscious of of the
the possibilities
possibilities inherent in the
in the

harpsichord idiom is convincingly

harpsichord idiom is convincingly proved by
proved by his
his L'Art de
dc toucher
toucher Ie
le clave-
clave-

cin (1716)
cin in which he advocated
(1716) in which he
advocated a a modernized
modernized and rational fingering.
and rational fingering.
Although
Although not
not the
the first
first method
method of
of keyboard
keyboard playing
playing it
it was
was the
the most
most authori-
authori-

tative
tative book
book on on thethe subject. The style /;rise
subject. The style
brisi of of the
the lute
lute or,
or, inin Couperin's
Coupcrin's
terminology, les
terminology, les parties
parties lulles
luties formed
formed by
by now
now an
an integral
integral part of
part of the
the

harpsichord idiom. The

harpsichord idiom. The two manuals
two manuals of
of the
the instrument
instrument became
became an
an absolute
absolute

essential for his

essential for his music.
music. Couperin use of
of arpeggiated
Couperin criticized
criticized the the excessive
excessive use arpeggiated
figures in
in the
the left
left hand, which
which were
were in
in his
his opinion
opinion characteristic of
characteristic of the
the
figures hand,
Italian
Italian sonata rather than
sonata rather than of of French
French music.
music. Symptomatically,
Symptomatically, he he putput the
the

greatest emphasis
greatest emphasis
on the
on the correct
correct realization
realization of
of the
the symbols
symbols fQr
for the
the1I,.e-
252 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
menU.
merits. The
The significance
significance of
of the
the ornaments can justly
justly be appraised
appraised only
only in
in
connection
connection with with hishis musical
musical style
style inin which late late baroque
baroque and rococo rococo traits
traits

are
arc inseparably
inseparably joined
joined together.
together.
In
In his
his clavecin
clavecin miniatures
miniatures he dismantled
dismantled the the expansive
expansive sequences
sequences of o the
the
severe
severe baroque
baroque stylestyle and reduced
reduced them to
to short
short repetitive phrases
repetitive phrases typicaltypical
of
of the
the early
early rococo
rococo style.
style. These phrases,
phrases, always
always overlaid
overlaid with
with the the gilt
gilt of
of an
an
intricate
intricate ornamentation,
ornamentation, were often often repeated
repeated for for color
color effect
effect in in different
different
registers
registers of of the
the instrument.
instrument. In Couperin's
Couperin's art art intimate
intimate elaboration
elaboration of of detail
detail
mattered
mattered more than than the
the great
great outline.
outline. He wisely
wisely limited
limited himself
himself to
to the
the
small
small forms most suitable suitable for
for his
his genius,
genius, and though
though some of
of them stemmed
stemmed
from the the opera,
opera, notably
notably thethe air
air tendre
tendre or or gracieux,
gracieux, he thoroughly
thoroughly instru-
instru-
mentalized
mentalized them by by means of of his
his ornamentation.
ornamentation. The most extended extended form form
the rondeau.
was the rondeau. This favorite
favorite French form gained length
gained length by by the
the repetition
repetition
of
of the
the refrain
refrain rather
rather than by by internal extension. Les
internal extension. Les bergmes,
bergeries, a a fine
fine example
example
of
of the
the form from the sixth ordre,
the sixth ordre, found its its way
way even
even into
into thethe Clavier-
Clavier-
buchlein
buchlein of of Anna Magdalena
Magdalena Bach. Bach. His remarkably
remarkably vigorous
vigorous passacaglia,
passacaglia,
one of
of hishis most weighty
weighty clavecin
clavecin pieces,
pieces, also
also adopts the rondeau
adopts the rondeau form. form. This
This
piece clearly
piece clearly demonstrates
demonstrates that
that he did
did not
not yet
yet sacrifice
sacrifice solidity
solidity of
of harmony
harmony
and texture
texture to to the
the scintillating
scintillating sonorities
sonorities of the instrument.
of the instrument.
The clavecinists
clavecinists and organists
organists after Couperin hardly
after Couperin hardly surpassed
surpassed his his deco-
deco-
rative imagination;
rative imagination; only only the
the wider scope of
wider scope of their
their harmonies
harmonies disclosed
disclosed thatthat
tonality finally
tonality victorious also
finally was victorious also inin French
French music. music. We meet meet herehere with
with aa
number of of superior masters: 37
superior masters: Marchand, well-known
37 Marchand, well-known through
through the the anec-
anec-
dote of
dote of his
his projected
projected meeting
meeting with with Bach;
Bach; Clerambault,
Clerambault, aa pupil pupil of of Raison;
Raison;
Dieupart whose works Bach found worth
Dieupart worth his his while
while to to copy;
copy; the the Bel-
Bel-
88
gian masters
gian masters FioccoFiocco and Boutmy,
Boutmy,88 both strongly
both strongly indebted
indebted to to Couperin;
Couperin;
D'Agincourt, noteworthy
D'Agincourt, noteworthy for for his
his pronounced
pronounced interest in complex
interest in complex harmonic
harmonic
progressions;
progressions; Dandrieu,
Dandrieu, the
the author
author of
of an
an important
important treatise
treatise on
on accompani-
accompani-
ment; Daquin,
ment; Daquin, aa pupilpupil ofof Marchand,
Marchand, famous famous for his rondeau
for his rondeau Le Le Coucou;
Coucou;
finally
and finally Rameau.
The three
three books
books of Pieces de
of Pieces de Clavecin
Clavecin by by Jean-Philippe
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683- (168,3-
1764) sum up
1764) up the
the entire
entire development
development of of clavecin
clavecin technique
technique in in France.
France. In In
the prefaces
the prefaces Rameau codified codified the the fingering
fingering and and the agrements in
the agriments in definitive
definitive
form. It
form. It is
is hardly
hardly surprising
surprising that
that the
the author
author of of the T raite de
the Traitf de I'harmonie
l'harmonie was was
preoccupied with harmony,
preoccupied with harmony, as as his
his calculated
calculated modulations
modulations and and modestly
modestly
chromatic experiments
chromatic experiments show.show. He subordinated
subordinated his his melodic
melodic invention
invention to to the
the
invention of
invention of harmonic
harmonic progressions
progressions which, which, elaborately
elaborately figurated
figurated by by precise
precise
*T
a1 Fanrcnc, TAM
Trisor. TAM X-3OI,
Farrenc. Tr&or, X-XII, and numerous recent
and numerous recent editions.
editions.
**
Monllmenla Musictte
III Monumenta Musictze Belgicae
Bdgicae III
III and
and V.
V.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 253
253
rhythmic motives,
rhythmic motives, bestowed
bestowed on on his
his clavecin
clavecin pieces
pieces aa hitherto
hitherto unknown
unknown con-con-
sistency, if not uniformity,
sistency, if not uniformity, ofof structure. In his
structure. In his contention
contention that
that melody
melody waswas
not more
not more than
than anan outgrowth
outgrowth of of harmony
harmony Ramcau
Rameau merely
merely rationalized
rationalized the
the
virtues and defects
virtues defects ofof his
his own
own talent,
talent, which
which waswas inspired
inspired byby harmony
harmony and and
rhythm rather
rhythm rather than
than melody.
melody.
Following
Following the
the path
path ofof D'Anglebert
D'Anglebert he he expanded
expanded the the keyboard
keyboard technique
technique
by quasi-orchestral
by quasi-orchestral and percussive batteries, extreme
percussive batteries, extreme skips,
skips, crossing
crossing of
of the
the
hands, and measured
hands, measured tremolos.
tremolos. Although
Although these
these innovations closely parallel
innovations closely parallel
those of
those of Domenico Scarlatti both composers
Scarlatti both composers arrived
arrived at at them
them independently.
independently.
Moreover,
Moreover, the
the fact
fact that
that they
they used
used them
them in
in entirely
entirely different
different manner strik-
manner strik-
ingly
ingly illustrates
illustrates the
the conspicuous
conspicuous contrast
contrast between the Italian
between the Italian and
and the
the
French conception
French conception of of instrumental
instrumental music:
music: Scarlatti
Scarlatti applied
applied them
them toto the
the
absolute music
absolute music ofof his
his sonatas,
sonatas, Rameau made them them subservient
subservient to to coloristic
coloristic
and illustrative
and illustrative purposes.
purposes. Deeply
Deeply affected
affected byby French
French aesthetics,
aesthetics, Ramcau
Rameau
conceived instrumental
conceived instrumental music
music primarily
primarily in in terms
terms ofof the
the opera,
opera, the
the dance,
dance,
and
and the
the representation
representation of
of non-musical
non-musical objects.
objects.

OPERA AND CANTATA IN FRANCE

The domineering position which vocal
domineering position vocal music traditionally held
music traditionally held in France
in France

could only
could only be weakened, not
be weakened, not upset
upset in the late
in the baroque period.
late baroque period. Character-
Character-
istically,
istically, the
the opera
opera resisted
resisted the
the Italian
Italian influence
influence even
even more stubbornly
stubbornly than
than
instrumental music. The vocal
instrumental music. vocal idiom
idiom did not become
did not become as as thoroughly
thoroughly instru-
instru-

mentalized
mentalized as as itit did
did in in Italy.
Italy. The Italian
Italian concerto
concerto style
style was gradually
gradually
recognized, but
recognized, but only
only as as one
one possible
possible style
style which,
which, forfor the
the sake
sake ofof variety,
variety,
was
was used
used side
side by
by side
side with
with thethe traditional
traditional French one. one.
The interim
interim period
period between
between LullyLully and Rameau saw the the disintegration
disintegration of of
the
the towering
towering edifice
edifice that
that Lully
Lully had built.
built. Lully's operas
Lully's operas still
still dominated

the
the stage, but it is significant that they were modernized in
stage, but it is significant that they
in performance
performance
by means of profuse ornaments
by means of profuse ornaments that forcibly that forcibly softened
softened the
the stiff
stiff lines
lines to a

more
more flexible
flexible rococo
rococo style.
style.
The leading
leading composers
composers of of the
the interim:
interim: Colasse,
Colasse,
Desmarets,
Desmarets, Campra,
Campra, and
and Destouches
Destouches S9 could not
39 could not rid
rid themselves
themselves of
of Lully's
Lully's
overwhelming
overwhelming influence
influence but
but they
they substituted
substituted for
for his
his frigid
frigid melodies short-
short-

breathed
breathed airs
airs in
in rococo
rococo style
style which lacked
lacked dramatic significance. Only
significance. Only
Marais (Alcyone,
Marais (Alcyone, 1706) Mont&lair (Jephte,
1706) and Monteelair (]epht, 1732)1732) achieved
achieved a a dra-
dra-

matic
matic grandeur
grandeur worthy
worthy of of their predecessor. The incidental
their predecessor. incidental music (recita-
(recita-
tives
tives and
and choruses)
choruses) to
to Racine's
Racine's tragedies
tragedies by
by Moreau (1656-1733),
(1656-1733), the
the

89 Reprinted in
89 COR
COP.
Reprinted in
254
254 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
teacher of
teacher of Dandrieu,
Dandrieu, Clerambault,
Clerambault, and Monteclair,
Monteclair, should
should also
also be
be men-
men-
tioned here.
tioned here.
Andre Campra
Andre (16&r1744), the
Campra (1660-1744), the most
most successful
successful opera
opera composer
composer be-be-
fore Rameau
fore Rameau captivated
captivated his his audiences
audiences by by his
his extraordinary
extraordinary lyrical
lyrical talent*
talent.
His graceful
His graceful airs
airs were
were illill suited
suited for
for his
his ponderous
ponderous tragedies
tragedies lyriques; sig-
lyriques; sig-
nificandy, he earned his greatest
nificantly, he earned his greatest fame
with his opera-ballets
with his opera-ballets L'Europe
L'Europe
galante (1~8)
galante (1698) and
and Les
Les Fetes
Fetes Venitiennes
Venitiennes (1710)
(1710)
40
.40 The opera-ballets
.
opera-ballets re-
re-

duced the
duced the opera
opera toto rococo
rococo dimensions
dimensions and
and soso laxly
laxly observed
observed thethe demands of of
dramatic unity
dramatic unity that
that the
the whole
whole became
became only
only aa pretext
pretext for
for aa succession
succession of of
incoherent danced and sung divertissements.
incoherent danced and sung divertissements. Here was the
the place
place where
Campra could
Campra could show
show off off with
with his
his tunes.
tunes. One of of his
his popular
popular airs
airs from the
the
(Ex. 77)
Fetes (Ex.
Fites 77) almost
almost literally
literally anticipates
anticipates the
the pseudo-folksong
pseudo-folksong Si Si des
des galans
galans

Ex. 77.
Ex. Air from
Campra: Air
7}. Campra: Les Ftes
from Les Fetes Venitiennes.
Veiitiienncs.

A feindrqpne
A f1a-ma,_ent
a-moureu-se fla-
felnd~ a-mou-rea-se pour
me, comment poor - ny-je
- ny-je ~n-sen -- tlr?
cgn-sen tir?
^~
""
~ -
try J-jL r i r r S=3
f
- ttr i r
*
f * ^= .
.fl:1=~ . ~ .fl.
- ._-
... 8,
6$ 8 8.
6* j, t=
&.
"* a 6a
6 I
ff

from the
from the Devin Vittage by
Devin de Village Rousseau (compare
by Rousseau (compare also
also Ex. 38).
38). It
It is
is one

of the
of the many
many examples that prove
examples that prove the
the affinity between the
affinity between the rococo the
rococo and the
ccreturn-to-nature"
"return-to-nature" movement.
movement.
With all his French
all his French features
features Campra
Campra was also also thoroughly
thoroughly familiar with
familiar with
the concerto
the concerto style
style which
which he slavishly
slavishly imitated
imitated in
in arias
arias that
that were
were Italian
Italian

not
not only
only in
in style
style but even in
but even in their
their texts (F&es, IV,
texts (Fetes, IV, 2).41
2).
41
Vividly
Vividly contrasting
contrasting
with
with his
his French
French recitatives
recitatives they bore all
they bore all the traits of
the traits of the
the Italian
Italian opera:
opera: ex-
ex-
tended
tended da-capo
da-capo form,
form, motto
motto beginning,
beginning, and fiery
fiery instrumental
instrumental coloraturas.
coloraturas.
These
These imitations
imitations of of Italian arias were known in
Italian arias in France by by the
the name of of
arictte. It
anette. It is
is most confusing
confusing that
that the
the brief
brief air
air tendre
tendre in
in rondo form was
was
called
called "air"
"air" while
while the
the full-fledged
full-fledged da-capo
da-capo aria
aria was given
given thethe diminutive
diminutive
term.
term. However illogical,
illogical, the
the distinction
distinction atat least
least implies
implies how clearly
clearly the
the
French
French perceived
perceived the
the national
national differences
differences in
in style.
style.
The French opera opera entered
entered itsits most glorious
glorious phase
phase with
with Rameau whose
operas represent
operas represent one of
of the
the highest
highest achievements
achievements of
of French music
music alto-
alto-

gether.
gether. Deeply stirred by
Deeply stirred by the
the performance
performance of Mont&lair's Jephtt
of MontecIair's ]cfhti Rameau
came later to the
later to stage than
the stage than perhaps
perhaps anyany other
other opera
opera composer.
composer. The fact fact

40 Reprinted in
40 Reprinted in COF.
** Campra was of
U Campra of Italian
Italian extraction
extraction which may account or
may account for his
his facile imitation of
facile imitation of
the
the IItalian
tallan style.
style.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 255
255
that
that he did
he did not
not begin
begin to
to compose
compose operas
operas before
before he
he was
was fifty
fifty explains
explains why
why
his first
his first opera, Hippolyte et
opera, Hippolyte et Aricic,
Aricie, was
was aa fully
fully mature
mature work
work and
and why
why his
his
operas on
operas on the
the whole
whole show
show aa regressive
regressive rather
rather than
than progressive
progressive develop-
develop-
ment. His
ment. His first
first opera
opera period
period (1733-39)
(1733-39) comprises
comprises his
his most
most significant
significant works,
works,
notably
notably the
the tragedies lyriques Hippolyte
tragedies lyriques Hippolyte et
et Anne
Aricic (1733), Castor
(1733), Castor et
et Pollur
Pollux
(1737), Dardanus
Dardanus (1739),
( I 737)> (1739), and the
the opera-ballet us Indcs
opera-ballet Les In des Galantes
Galantes (1735).
(1735).
second opera
The second opera period
period began
began with
with Rameau's
Rameau's appointment
appointment to
to the
the court
court of
of
Louis
Louis XV (1745).
(1745). In In this
this period
period he he turned
turned to to aa less
less demanding
demanding and and enter-
enter-
taining
taining rococo
rococo style
style that
that seems
seems shallow
shallow in
in comparison
comparison with
with his
his first
first

operas.
operas.
Rameau composed Hippolyte with
composed Hippolyte with infinite
infinite care
care and
and patience.
patience. ItsIts per-
per-
formance in
formance in the
the house
house of of La Poupliniere,
Poupliniere, aa gentleman
gentleman composer
composer influential
influential
for the
for the development
development of of symphonic
symphonic music, music, prompted
prompted aa typically
typically French
French
reaction: it
reaction: it released
released the the paper
paper war war between
between the the Lullistcs
Lullistes andand Ramistes
Ramistes
which came to
which to an
an end
end only
only with
with thethe Buffoon
Buffoon War.
War. By By that
that time
time Rameau was
recognized as
recognized as the
the genius
genius of of French
French opera
opera although
although the the Lullistes
Lullistes had for- for-
merly
merly denounced
denounced him as
as the
the destructive
destructive element
clement in
in French
French music.
music. Rameau
was convinced
was convinced that that hehe followed
followed the the precepts
precepts of of Lully
Lully much more closely closely
than
than the the Lullistes
Lullistes wanted
wanted to
to admit.
admit. With the
the perpetual
perpetual metrical
metrical changes
changes
in his
in his recitatives,
recitatives, dance
dance airs,
airs, airs with doubled
airs with doubled continue,
continuo, and choralchoral oror in-
in-
strumental
strumental chaconnes
chaconnes he he unquestionably
unquestionably upheld upheld the the tradition
tradition of of Lully,
Lully,
but he
but was not,
he was not, as
as he put it,
he put it, "a servile copyist."
"a servile copyist." He filled the formal
filled the formal shell
shell of
LulIy's operas
Lully's operas with
with his
his coloristic
coloristic and
and harmonic
harmonic imagination
imagination and realized
realized

scenes
scenes of of overwhelming
overwhelming human pathos pathos by turning the
by turning the harmonic innova-innova-
tions
tions of of the
the late
late baroque
baroque to to startling
starding stage
stage effects.
effects. The dramatic
dramatic intensity
intensity
of
of his
his music
music is is due
due toto the
the wide
wide scope
scope of
of his
his harmonies,
harmonies, the
the frequent
frequent use
of
of the
the diminished-seventh
diminished-seventh chord chord (denounced
(denounced by by the
the Lullistes
Lullistes as
as Italian),
Italian),
the
the chord
chord of of the
the added
added sixth,
sixth, andand the
the extreme
extreme rangerange of of his
his modulations

which
which encompassed
encompassed keys keys with
with fivefive or
or more accidentals,
accidentals, generally
generally avoided
avoided
in
in his
his day.
day. Unable
Unable to to grasp
grasp thethe march of of his
his harmony
harmony the the contemporaries
contemporaries
called
called Rameau "the "the distiller
distiller of of baroque
baroque chords,"
chords," a
a name that,
that, aside
aside from

its
its derogatory implication,
derogatory implication, still
still remains
remains valid
valid today.
today. His early
early operas
operas do
indeed contain
indeed contain more musician's
musician's music
music than
than any
any other
other opera
opera of the period.
period.
His tragedies isolated in a rococo sur-
His tragedies lyn'ques
lyriques stand
stand likelike erratic
erratic blocks
blocks isolated in a rococo sur-

rounding.
rounding.
In
In the
the dance
dance air air and
and the Italian anette,
the Italian ariettc, sometimes also also designated
designated as as

air gracieux (Dardanus,

air gracieux (Dardanus, Prologue), Prologue), the
the harmonic rhythm
rhythm moves at
at a
a rela-
rela-

tively slow pace. The other other airsairs and thethe recitatives,
recitatives, however,
however, are are steeped
tively slow pace. steeped
in
in the
the rich
rich idiom
idiom of of tonality.
tonality. The preludeprelude to to Puissant
Puissant maItre from Hip-
maitre from Hip-
256 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
'/Jolyte (Ex. 78)
polyte (Ex. 78) unfolds
unfolds over
over the
the well-defined
well-defined and
and steady
steady harmonies
harmonies of
of
the
the bass
bass aa restlessly
restlessly shifting
shifting mdodic
melodic line
line that
that produces
produces aa great number of
great number of
iridescent
iridescent harmonies
harmonies and
and aa very
very fast
fast harmonic
harmonic rhythm,
rhythm, not
not shared
shared byby the
the
underlying
underlying bass.
bass. The
The double-barrelled
double-barrelled effect
effect of
of his
his harmonic
harmonic style parallels
style parallels

Ex. ,so
Ex. 78. Ramcau:
Rameau: Excerpt from Hippolyet!.
Excerpt from Hippolytc.

~::: :~:I::=:=:lf:::1
^
c::rrr I~Jr=;
J r*g'

=
Efe

r r r r r

his
his theoretical
theoretical distinction
distinction between
between the the fundamental
fundamental bass bass and
and the
the actually
actually
realized
realized harmony.
harmony. It
It reveals
reveals the
the dependence
dependence of
of the
the melody
melody on
on harmony
harmony
and a sparseness
sparscness of of counterpoint
counterpoint that that characterizes
characterizes all all his
his music.
music. It this
was this
It was

harmonic richness
richness that that Campra
Campra had in in mind when he he admiringly 0:-
admiringly ex-
claimed that
that the musicmusic of Hippolyte was
of Hippolytc enough for
was enough for ten
ten operas.
operas.
True to the French operatic
to the operatic tradition
tradition thethe airs
airs stand very close
stand very close toto the
the
arioso,
arioso, so close
close in
in fact
fact that
that according
according to
to an
an anecdote
anecdote of
of the
the time an Italian
time an Italian
sat through
sat through an entire entire opera
opera waiting
waiting in in vain
vain for
for the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the first
first
aria. Unforgettable
aria. Unforgettable beginnings
beginnings like like that
that of Tristes apprSts
of Tristcs apprlts from Castor ct
from Castor et
Pollux (I,
Pollux (I, 3)
3) show Rameau's
Rameau's rational
rational economy
economy of of means,
means, his his sober
sober and
and
harmonically conceived
harmonically conceived melody,
melody, andand his
his cautious
cautious handling
handling of of counterpoint.
counterpoint.
Also his
Also his choral
choral or or solo
solo ensembles
ensembles emphasize
emphasize chordal
chordal effects
effects at the expense
at the expense
of counterpoint
of counterpoint. This point
This point is best illustrated
is best illustrated byby the
the awe-inspiring
awe-inspiring trio trio of
of
the Fatal
the Fatal Sisters Hippolyte (II,
Sisters from Hippolytc (n, 5);
5); far
far surpassing similar trio
surpassing aa similar trio in
in
Lully's Isis, itit contains
Lully's Isis f contains enharmonic
enharmonic modulations
modulations that that presented,
presented, likelike Wag-
Wag-
ner's Tristan. unsurmountable
ner's Tristan, unsurmountable difficulties
difficulties atat the
the time.
time. His
His ensemble
ensemble scenesscenes
assume at
assume at times
times gigantic
gigantic proportions.
proportions. The The dream
dream sequence
sequence in Dardanus
in Dardanus
(IV), for
(IV), for example,
example, is is designed
designed on on so
so large
large aa scale
scale for
for an
an ensemble
ensemble of of chorus,
chorus,
soloists, and
soloists, and orchestra
orchestra thatthat the
the ensemble
ensemble scenes
scenes of
of Lully
Lully seem
seem diminutive
diminutive in in
comparison.
comparison.
With
With hishis superb
superb coloristic
coloristic sense
sense Rameau
Rameau managed
managed the the orchestration
orchestration more more
adroidy than any
adroitly than any of his contemporaries.
of his contemporaries. The The important
important function
function of of the
the
instruments comes
instruments comes to to light
light not only in
not only in his
his accompanied
accompanied recitatives
recitatives butbut
 Late
Late Baroque
Baroque 257
257
particularly in
particularly in the
the numerous programmatic
programmatic symphonies
symphonies and and overtUres
overtures of of
the operas.
the operas. Following
Following the path
the path of
of his predecessors, especially
his predecessors, especially that
that of
of Campra,
Campra,
Rameau gradually
gradually abandoned
abandoned the the Lullian
Lullian form
form and and designed
designed his
his overtures
overtures
as
as grand
grand landscapes
landscapes oror as
as representations
representations of
of elemental
elemental events
events (sea
(sea storms,
storms,
earthquakes).
earthquakes). These overtures
overtures lead
lead into
into the
the opera
opera without
without a
a break.
break. His or-
His or-
chestration
chestration standing
standing at
at the
the threshold
threshold of
of the
the modern coloristic technique
modern coloristic technique
calls
calls for
for woodwinds,
woodwinds, horns,
horns, and even
even the
the modern
modern clarinets.
clarinets. Sustained
Sustained chords
chords
of
of the
the wind instruments
instruments coupled
coupled with
with sweeping
sweeping scalescale passages
passages of
of the
the strings
strings
conjure
conjure up up tone
tone pictures
pictures ofof unwonted
unwonted realism.
realism. Singers
Singers and
and critics
critics alike
alike
objected
objected to
to the
the overbearing
overbearing role
role of
of the
the instruments
instruments and
and Rousseau
Rousseau ridiculed
ridiculed
it in the
it in the bon mot thatthat in
in Rameau's
Rameau's operas
operas thethe voice
voice formed
formed merely
merely ""the
"the
accompaniment
accompaniment of of the
the accompaniment."
accompaniment." But But it it is
is precisely
precisely the
the simultaneous
simultaneous
use of
use of extremely
extremely rhythmic
rhythmic instrumental patterns and
instrumental patterns and sustained
sustained vocal
vocal sec-
sec-

tions that
tions that accounts
accounts for
for his
his most
most powerful
powerful musico-dramatic
musico-dramatic effects.
effects.

Even before
before the the establishment
establishment of of the
the opera buffa in
opera buDa in Italy
Italy the
the French
French
developed
developed aa comic
comic counterpart
counterpart to
to the
the tragUie lyrique
tragSdie lyriquc in
in the
the Vfludetlille
vaudeville
comedy.
comedy. ItsIts development
development began began with
with the
the Italian
Italian comedians
comedians at at the time of
the time of
Lully
Lully who performed
performed low
low Scaramouche
Scaramouche comedies
comedies with
with inserted
inserted Italian
Italian

and French songs.

and French Because of
songs. Because of their
their political
political aggressiveness
aggressiveness the the Italian
Italian

troupes were
troupes were expelled
expelled from
from Paris in x6w,
Paris in 1697, butbut their
their tradition
tradition was continued
continued
by
by French
French comedians
comedians who
who supplied
supplied civil
civil songs, operatic
songs, operatic airs,
airs, and
and brunettes
brunettes
with
with topical
topical and
and satirical
satirical words.
words. The music
music of
of these
these vaudevilles
vaudevilles appeared
appeared
in Gherardi's
in Gherardi's TMdtre [talim (x~ff.),
Theatre Italien (1694 ff.), the
the numerous
numerous brunettes
brunettes collections
collections

of
of Ballard (1703 if.),
Ballard (x703 ff.), and
and La ClefClef des Chansonniers (1717).
des Chansonniers French
(1717). The French
comedians,
comedians, too, too, were
were severely
severely restricted
restricted by political censorship,
by political censorship, but but they
they
cleverly
cleverly outwitted
outwitted the
the censor.
censor.
Unlike
Unlike the
the opera buffa the
opera buBa vaudeville comedy
the vautleuille comedy had spoken
spoken dialogue
dialogue and
its music
its music consisted
consisted of of traditional
traditional material borrowed indiscriminately
material borrowed indiscriminately from
respectable
respectable and
and lowly
lowly sources. After 1715
sources. After 1715 the vaudeville became
the tlaudeuille became alsoalso known

opera comiqu~
as opera
as comique-^ term term that
that had
had originally
originally a parodistic connotation
a parodistic connotation sincesince
42
it
it applied to
applied to parodies
parodies of
of serious
serious operas. Lesage's
operas. Lesage's TIMmaque
TiUmaque (1715),42
(*7i5)> for
for

example, parodies
example, parodies the
the opera
opera of
of the
the same
same name by
by Destouches.
Destouchcs. The extensive
extensive

repertory of
repertory of the vaudeville comedy
the vaudeville comedy waswas published
published under the the significant
significant tide
title

Le TM4tre
Theatre de de la
la Foire
Poire ou L'opba comique
ou Vopcra comique by by Lesage
Lesage and Dorneval
and Dorncval
(I']22).
(1722). The vaudeville
vaudeville comedy
comedy which
which set
set the
the precedent
precedent to
to the ballad opera
the ballad opera
in
in England,
England, entered
entered a
a new phase
phase with
with the
the poet
poet Favart.
Favart. In
In his
his time spe:ciaJly
specially

Ed. by Calmus,
Ed by Calmus, ZlIJei
Zwei O[Hf'nbu"lesk,en
Opernburles1(cn der Rokok,o.l'eil.
42
f t dcr Rofafyzeit.
258 Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
composed
composed music
music gradually
gradually superseded
superseded borrowed tunes.
tunes. However,
However, the riserise

of the opEra
of the ofera comique
comique in
in the
the modern sense
sense belongs
belongs to
to the
the early
early classic
classic period.
period.

It
It is
is characteristic
characteristic that
that France never
never developed
developed an important
important song
song liter-
liter-

ature
ature apart
apart from the the opera.
opera. The only
only forms of of vocal
vocal music that
that continued
continued
to
to flourish
flourish beside
beside the
the omnipotent
omnipotent operaopera were the cantata and the motet.
the cantata motet.
The cantata
cantata was cultivated
cultivated by by Morin,
Morin, Campra,
Campra, Montcklair,
Monteclair, Boismortier,
Boismortier,
Rameau,
Rameau, and, and, above all,
all, by
by Clerambault (d. (d. 1749).
1749). They
They all
all betray
betray aa strong
strong
Italian
Italian influence
influence which is is frankly
frankly admitted
admitted in
in Monteclair's
Monteclair's Cantates
Cantates fran-
fran-
faises et
faises et italiennes.
italiennes. Clerambault's
Clerambault's five books of
five books of cantatas (1710 ff.)
cantatas (1710 repre-
ff.) repre-
sent
sent the
the most valuable
valuable French contribution
contribution to to the
the cantata.
cantata. Clerambault
Clerambault
favored
favored mythological
mythological subjects
subjects which he set to music
set to music in
in masterpieces
masterpieces likelike

OrpMe,
Qrphte, HEro
Hero et
ct Uandre,
Lcandrc, and Pigmalion.
Pigmalion. Like Campra
Campra he deliberately
deliberately
juxtaposed recitatives
juxtaposed recitatives inin French style
style with arias
arias in
in Italian
Italian style.
style. This con-
con-
trast
trast comes clearly to light
clearly to light in the excerpt
in the Pigmaiion (Ex.
excerpt from Pigmalion 79) in
(Ex. 79) in which
which

Ex..
Ex. 79.
79. ClerambauIt:
C16rambault: Recitative
Recitative and Air from
and Air Pigmalion.
from Pigmalion.
.... - ...
AImablp_ob jl", dit ii, tip mps ardeDs de. sirs, Quandvousm'ar.ra.

II~ ... .. .;,~ ~ ... - II" ..... ....

'PIt .
cht'z

1-=
-
dP~

'&
"Ou pm, Qw
QlI4'
pirs, De pou-vez
ne pou.vez vous

'It
vous

I
Ips
IPS PD
en

8 ~
dre?

..
"

the simphonie to
the simphonic to the air de
the mr de mouvcmcnt
moutJement bears
bears witness
witness to
to Clerambault's
Clerambault's
mastery of
mastery the concerto
of the concerto style.
style.
 Late Baroque
Late Baroque 259
Hardly any
Hardly any of
of the
the French
French composers
composers mentioned
mentioned in in this
this chapter
chapter neglected
neglected
church music,
church music, but
but none
none of
of them
them made
made it
it his
his specialty.
specialty. As
As the
the only ex-
only ex-
ception Lalande (d. 1726) must
ception Lalande (d. 1726)
must be be mentioned,
mentioned, whosewhose requiem,
requiem, motets,
motets,
and lessons
and lessons with
with orchestral
orchestral accompaniment
accompaniment were were recognized
recognized at at the
the time as
time as
exemplary.
exemplary. Written
Written in
in luxuriant
luxuriant counterpoint
counterpoint they they afford
afford the
the most
most con-
con-
servative aspect
servative aspect ofof the
the period.
period. It is noteworthy
It is noteworthy thatthat even
even inin sacred
sacred music
music
the vocal
the vocal lines
lines were
were overcharged
overcharged with rococo ornaments.
with rococo ornaments. Couperin's
Couperin's care-
care-
fully wrought ufons
fully wrought Lefons
de
de T enebres
Ttnibres** 43 (Lessons
(Lessons for
for Holy Week) give aa
Holy Week) give
good idea
good idea of
of the
the extremely
extremely florid, yet dignified,
florid, yet dignified, part-writing
part-writing in in French
church music.
church music.
" Music
4SMusic Press
Press edition.
c:dition.
 eiGHT
CHAPTER eIGHT

Fusion
Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach

THE STATE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN GERMANY

BEFORE BACH

T
THE
HE FATE of
the
the Italian
posers
posers alike
alike
of late
Italian and the

as
as
late baroque

the
the
baroque music hung
the French style,
two
two poles
poles of
of late
late
hung in

baroque
baroque
in the

recognized by
style, recognized
the balance

music.
music.
balance between

by theorists
The
between
theorists and comcom-
harmonic
harmonic
resources of
resources tonality, the
of tonality, the concerto
concerto style
style in instrumental and vocal
in instrumental music,
vocal music,
the concerto
and the concerto and sonata sonata forms of of "absolute" music passed
"absolute" music passed asas the
the charac-
charac
teristics of
teristics the Italian
of the Italian style;
style; the
the coloristic
coloristic andand programmatic
programmatic trends trends in in in
in-
strumental
strumental music,music, thethe orchestral
orchestral discipline,
discipline, overture
overture and dance suite, and
dance suite, and
the highly
the highly florid
florid ornamentation
ornamentation of of the
the melody
melody passed
passed as as the
the characteristics
characteristics
of the
of the French
French style.
style. The German style, style, universally
universally recognized
recognized as as the
the third
third
in the
in the group
group of
of national
national styles,
styles, was characterized
characterized by
by its
its marked proclivity
proclivity
for a solid
for harmonic and contrapuntal
solid harmonic contrapuntal texture.
texture. Serving
Serving as as the
the mediator
mediator be- be-
tween the
tween the two poles poles it it brought
brought the the reconciliation
reconciliation of of the
the opposed
opposed Italian
Italian
French techniques
and French techniques in in aa higher
higher unity. music that
unity. The music that finally
finally culminated
culminated
in Bach attained
in attained its its universality
universality and and distinction
distinction through
through the the deliberate
deliberate
fusion of
fusion of national
national styles.
styles.
the French and the
Both the the Italian
Italian style
style exerted
exerted aa decisive
decisive influence
influence on on the
the
formation of
formation of late
late baroque
baroque style in Germany.
style in Germany. The essentialessential factors
factors of of the
the
former were the
former the orchestral
orchestral innovations
innovations of of Lully
Lully and
and the
the keyboard
keyboard technique
technique
of Couperin,
of Couperin. thosethose ofof the
the latter
latter the
the concerto
concerto style in instrumental
style in instrumental music music and
and
the instrumentalized
the instrumentalized bel bel canto
canto of of the
the opera. influence of
opera. The influence of Lully
Lully comes
comes
strongly to
most strongly to light
light inin the
the orchestral
orchestral suites
suites ofof three
three composers
composers who were were
all pupils
all pupils ofof the
the Florentine:
Florentine: Cousser,
Cousser, thethe Austrian
Austrian Georg
Georg MuflEat
Muffat (d. 1704),
(d. 1704),
Johann Fischer
and Johann Fischer (d. 1721). Cousser
(d. 1721). Cousser whose collection
collection bears
bears the sym~
the symp-
tomatic tide
tomatic Composition dc
title Composition de Musiquc
Musique suivant
suit/ant la la mfthodc
methode Franfoisc
Franfoise
(1682 ff.)
(1682 ff.) *1 enriched
enriched the the German suite suite byby the
the French
French overture
overture which
which since
since
* Nllgels Must^archiv.
One overture: reprinted in Negcls
:I. One overture reprinted in Musil{architl.
260
260
 Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 261
his
his day
day was frequendy used as
frequently used as a
a pompous
pompous introduction
introduction to
to the
the subsequent
subsequent
chain
chain of
of dances.
dances. Muffat's
Muffat's Florilegium
Florilegium (I, 16gs; II, 1~8) 22 which
(1, 1695; II, 1698) which contains
contains an an
illuminating
illuminating discourse
discourse about
about the
the difference between the
difference between the French
French and and Ger-
Ger-
style of
man style of violin playing, andand Johann
Johann Fischer's Tafelmusi^ (1j'02)
Fischer's Tafelmusik (1702) 8 are
violin playing, 8
are
likewise
likewise obligated
obligated to
to Lully.
Lully. The Journal
Journal de
de Printemps (16gs)
Printemps (1695) by
4
4 by Ferdi-
Ferdi-
nand
nand Fischer
Fischer must must bebe regarded
regarded as as one
one of the finest
of the finest documents
documents of of German
Lullianism. This Fischer
Lullianism. Fischer (not to be
(not to be confused
confused with with Lully's
Lully's notiste
notiste Johann
Johann
Fischer)
Fischer) commanded great
great melodic
melodic inventiveness
inventiveness and
and solid
solid workman-
workman-
ship see for
ship-see for example
example the the overture
overture and and chaconne
chaconne of of his suite in
his suite in g-that that
put
put such
such minor
minor composers
composers as
as Aufschnaiter,
Auf schnaiter, Schmicorer
Schmicorer 6
IS and
and Mayr
Mayr 8 to
6 to

shame.
shame. The orchestraorchestra suite
suite was
was alsoalso cultivated
cultivated by by Erlebach,
Erlebach,T Philipp
7
Philipp
Krieger
Krieger (a (a pupil
pupil ofof Rosenmiiller
Rosenmuller and and Pasquini),
Pasquini), Fasch Fasch (a (a pupil
pupil of
of Kuhnau
and
and Graupner),
Graupner), and T elemann. Philipp
Telemann. Philipp Krieger
Krieger wrotewrote his
his delightful
delightful suitessuites

Lustige Feldmusik
Lustige Feldmusil^
8
8 for
for wind
wind ensembles
ensembles in
in the
the vein
vein of
of Pezel.
Pezel. Telemann's
Tclemann's
Musique de
Musique de Tahle
Table 99 displays
displays thethe graceful
graceful French
French style
style more pronouncedly
more pronouncedly
than
than dodo the
the ponderous
ponderous overtures
overtures of of Fasch
Fasch whosewhose contrapuntal
contrapuntal style was
style was
highly
highly esteemed
esteemed by
by Bach.
Bach. The Austrian
Austrian Fux showed
showed in
in the
the weighty
weighty
fugues
fugues ofof his
his orchestral music 10
orchestral music
10
that
that his
his contrapuntal
contrapuntal proficiency
proficiency was was notnot
merely
merely theoretical
theoretical paper knowledge.
paper knowledge. Like
Like all
all composers
composers of
of the
the south
south he
kept always
kept always closeclose to
to Italian
Italian rather
rather than
than French
French style.
style.
The Italian
Italian concerto,
concerto, especially
especially the the solo
solo concerto,
concerto, became known in in

Germany through
Germany through the
the works
works of
of Vivaldi
Vivaldi which
which were imitated
imitated by by Heinichen,
Hcinichen,
Pisendel,
Pisendel, Graupner,
Graupner, Fasch,Fasch, Hurlebusch,
Hurlebusch, and and Telemann.
Telemann.l11l These concertos concertos
represent the most progressive
represent the most progressive
music
music of
of the
the Bach period
period in
in which the
the in-
in-

cipient disintegration of
cipient disintegration
of baroque
baroque stylestyle is is at times unmistakable.
at times unmistakable.
The
The role
role of of Lully
Lully as
as an
an exemplar
exemplar in
in the
the field
field of
of orchestral
orchestral music music was
paralleled
paralleled by
by that
that of
of Corelli
Corelli in
in the
the field
field ofof chamber
chamber music.
music. To the the German

composers the
composers the two national styles
styles were
were not
two national not alternatives
alternatives that precluded one
that precluded

another,
another, asas isis convincingly
convincingly shown shown by by Georg
Georg Muffat
Muffat who studied first
studied with
first with

Lully and
and then
then with
with Corelli.
Corelli. Muffat
Muffat was the first German to follow Carelli
the first to follow Corelli
Lully

I2 DTOe 1:2 (vol. 2)

1:2 (vol. 2) and II:2
11:2 (voL
(voL 4).
4).
I8 Ed.
Ed. by
by Engel,
Engcl, Biirenrciter.
Barcnrciter.
*DDT 10.
6DDT 10.
Ijbid.
16
ibid.
6 See
See Ulrich, Die Pythagorischen
Ulrich, Die PytTzagorischen ScTzmitls-Fu1Ir:lc.ldll,
Schmidsfuncblein, in SIMG IX.
in SIMG IX, 75-
75.
r Two overtures
7 overtures in
in Organum.
Organum.
XIV, GMB no.
ER XIV, no. 2~ b; see
236 b; see also
also Organum.
Organum. .
Chamher
Chamber Suitl!s (Lo~), 3I8;
Suites (Longmans), 318; sec
sec also
also Schermg, Perlen altt:T
Schering, Perlen Kammt:rmflSlt
alter Kammermus*%.
10DTOe
10 DTOc IX:2IX:2 (vol. musico-instrumentdis in
19); see also the Cona1ltru musir:o-instTumentJis in DTOc
(vol. i<$> sec also the Concentus
XXffl:2 (vol
XXDI:2 (voL 47).
47).
"DDT 29/30.
uDDT 29/30.
262 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
in
in the
the field
field ofof the
the trio
trio sonata.
sonata. In In his
his Armonico tributo tribute (1682) 12
(1682) 12 he paid paid
aa "harmonic
"harmonic tribute"
tribute" toto his
his second
second teacher,
teacher, whom he imitated imitated not not only
only inin
this
this sonata
sonata collection
collection but
but also
also inin his
his valuable,
valuable, if
if conservative,
conservative, concerti
concerti grossi
grossi
(1701
(i70i).
13 The Hortus musicus (1687) 14
).13 musicus (1687) 14 by by thethe Hamburg
Hamburg organist
organist Jan Jan
Reinken
Reinken must also also bebe mentioned here, here, from which Bach transcribed transcribed two two
sonatas
sonatas forfor the keyboard. In
the keyboard. In his
his two sets
sets of
of trio sonatas (1696)
trio sonatas (1696) 15 Buxtehude
15
Buxtehude
turned
turned the the concise
concise movements of of the
the Corelli
Corelli type
type into
into profound
profound contra-contra-
puntal
puntal studies,
studies, drawing frequently
drawing frequently on ground
ground basses
basses which appear
appear at
at times
times
even
even inin rhythmic
rhythmic transformation.
transformation. One of
of his
his chaconnes
chaconnes on a
a descending
descending
fourth is
fourth is marked con concitato (II, 2)
citato (II, 2) which almostalmost symb.olizes
symbolizes the the unruly
unruly
imagination
imagination of
of the
the composer
composer and also
also indicates
indicates the
the Italian background of
Italian background of
his
his style.
style. The remarkably
remarkably rhapsodic
rhapsodic interludes
interludes which disclose strong af-
disclose strong af-

finity
finity to
to his
his organ
organ toccatas
toccatas have no equalequal in in the
the music
music of of his
his time.
time. Pachdbel's
PachelbeFs
trio sonatas call
trio sonatas call for
for the violin scordatura.
the violin scordatura. While T demann preferred
Telemann preferred to to
write
write hishis innumerable sonatas sonatas 18 18
in
in aa facile
facile French
French style, Fux,
style, Fux, Fasch,Fasch,1'117

and Graupner
Graupner adhered
adhered to
to a
a fugal,
fugal, if
if not
not actually canonic, style
actually canonic, style which which
thoroughly
thoroughly Germanized the the Italian
Italian counterpoint
counterpoint of of Corelli.
Corclli. ItIt is
is significant
significant
that
that Bach was especially
especially fond of of the
the works of of Graupner,
Graupner, a a pupil
pupil of Kuhnau
of Kuhnau
and one of the best
of the best German composers
composers of of the
the Bach
Bach period.
period.

In the
In the field of orchestra and chamber music
of orchestra
field music the
the Germans
Germans faithfully
faithfully fol-
fol-
the trends
lowed the trends of
of Italian and French
Italian French music;
music; while
while they
they were
were imitators
imitators
they were not
they not eclectics
eclectics since
since they
they Germanized the the forms
forms they
they took
took over
over
assimilated them into
and assimilated into the
the rich
rich harmonic
harmonic and
and contrapuntal
contrapuntal idiom
idiom ofof the
the
German style. However, in
style. However, the field
in the field of
of keyboard
keyboard music,
music, especially
especially organ
organ
music, they
music, they held
held the
the leading
leading position.
position. In
In Germany
Germany thethe organ
organ was
was afforded
afforded
the highest
the highest rank in in the
the hierarchy
hierarchy ofof instruments.
instruments. This
This predilection
predilection for
for
keyed
keyed instruments
instruments was aa natural
natural outgrowth
outgrowth of
of the
the contrapuntal bent
contrapuntal bent in in
music which forced
German music forced even
even the
the violin,
violin, an
an instrument
instrument hardly
hardly suited
suited
for polyphonic
for polyphonic playing,
playing, into
into submission.
subInission. The polyphonic
polyphonic style
style of
of violin
violin
playing remained
playing remained throughout
throughout the the period
period an essentially
essentially German
German charac-
charac-
teristic.
teristic

the impressive
With the impressive development
development of
of the
the school
school of
of German
German harpsi-
harpsi-
chordists
chordistsand organists
and organists from Froberger
Froberger to
to Bach,
Bach, the
the distinction
distinction between
between

"DTOeXIn
11 DTOe XI::z (vol
(voL 23).
23).
iA
11 ibid.
"VNMi*
I'VNM 1,3-
"DDT
Iii DDT II. 1 1.
18
Reprints in
111 Reprints Nagels Mustfyrchitr,
in Nagcls Mrui!carcnitl. Collegium
Collegium Musicum,
Musicum. and Perlm alter
and Pericn alter Kammer-
Kammer-
usi\; HAM no.
m.nk; no. 271.
;17I.
11
u See NQg~ls Musi^arckitf
See Nagels Mrui/t.arcAitl and Coll~gium Musicum.
and Collegium Musicum.
 Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 263
the harpsichord
harpsichord and organ organ idioms crystallized mainly
crystallized mainly through through the
the media
media-
tion of thethe French clavecinists,
clavecinists, but but itit did
did not
not come to to an
an absolutely
absolutely final
final
separation,
separation, even as late
late as
as Bach.
Bach. Although
Although the harpsichord music was
the harpsichord music was
oriented primarily
oriented primarily toward France the the organistic
organistic background
background of of the
the Ger
Ger-
man harpsichordists
harpsichordists remained strong strong enough
enough to to give
give their
their music
music a a decidedly
decidedly
German flavor.flavor. The decisive
decisive stimuli
stimuli forfor the
the development
development of
of the
the keyboard
keyboard
sonata and suite suite came,
came, as as they
they had done so so often
often before,
before, from
from other
other media.
media.
It
It was now the Italian Italian sonata
sonata and the the French
French overture
overture that that was
was transferred
transferred
to
to the keyboard.
keyboard. Johann Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722), (1660-1722), Bach's Bach's predecessor
predecessor in in Leip-
Leip-
zig,
zig, was the first
first German composer
composer to
to transfer
transfer the Italian church sonata to
the Italian church sonata to
the
the harpsichord,
harpsichord, as can be
as can be seen
seen in in Part
Part II II of his Clavieriibung
of his Clavicriibung (1689-92)(I~2)
and even more clearly clearly in in the Frische Clavier/ritchte
the Frischc Clavierjriichtc (1).18(i696).
18 The latter
latter

collection
collection consists
consists of of church sonatas sonatas in in four
four oror five
five movements
movements in which
in which
free-voiced
free-voiced keyboard
keyboard style style alternates
alternates withwith the the contrapuntal
contrapuntal texture texture of of thethe
trio sonata.
trio sonata. Some of the fugal
of the f ugal movements can can be considered as
be considered as fully grown
fully grown
fugues.
fugues. With his his Biblischc Historien (1700)
Biblische Historian (1700) Kuhnau continued continued and and ex- ex-
panded
panded the
the French tradition
tradition of
of program
program music.
music. These amusing
These amusing sonatas sonatas
draw on all the instrumental
all the instrumental forms forms from the the dance
dance to to the
the chorale
chorale prelude.
prelude.
Kuhnau's manner of introducing introducing the the chorale
chorale at at widely
widely spaced intervals
spaced intervals
sounds sometimes surprisingly
surprisingly like Bach, for
like Bach, example in
for example the sonata
in the sonata "The
Agonizing
Agonizing and Recuperated
Recuperated Hezekiah (Hiskia),"
(Hiskia)," in
in which
which the chorale
the chorale
appears
appears twice,
twice, the
the second
second time
time in
in rhythmic
rhythmic transformation.
transformation. The music
music
vividly "represents"
vividly "represents" various
various biblical
biblical incidents
incidents and
and in
in order
order to
to remove
remove any
any
possible
possible doubt
doubt about
about its
its "meaning"
"meaning" Kuhnau has
has added
added an
an elaborate
elaborate and
and
informative preface
informative preface which expounds expounds the the baroque
baroque conception
conception of of program
program
music.
music.
newly established
The newly established keyboardkeyboard sonata sonata influenced
influenced the the other
other forms,
forms,
notably
notably the
the prelude.
prelude. Its
Its development
development can
can best
best be
be studied
studied in
in the
the Clavier-
Clavier-
"hung
ubung by by Kuhnau,
Kuhnau, the the suite
suite collection
collection Musif^alisches Blumenbuschlein w
Musikalisches Blumenbuschlein ID
by
by Ferdinand
Ferdinand Fischer,
Fischer, and Johann Krieger'S Anmutige
Johann Krieger's Anmutigc Clavimtbung?* Clavierijbung. 20

aa collection
collection of of ricercars,
ricercars, preludes,
preludes. and fugues fugues of of which Handel was es- es-
pecially fond.
pecially fond. Kuhnau's preludes preludes elaborate
elaborate one one technical
technical problem
problem at at aa time
time
and arc
and are inin this
this respect
respect related
related to to Domenico Scarlatti's
Scarlatti's sonatas.
sonatas. The preludespreludes
of Fischer
of Fischer and Krieger,
Krieger, too, too, are
are not
not bound by by the
the stereotyped
stereotyped forms forms of of the
the
dance but freely
dance but freely unfold
unfold aa pregnant
pregnant harmonic
harmonic or or rhythmic
rhythmic idea. idea. In In these
these
works the
works the ground
ground was laid laid forfor the
the preludes
prdudes of of thethe Bach type.type.
The latelate baroque
baroque suite suite was known in in Germany
Germany as partie or
as panic panila, a
or partita,

18
18 DDT 4.
... For the Hezekiah
For the Hezekiah sonata
sonata quoted
quoted below see HAM no.
below see ZL
JIA 261.
19 Ed.
1e Ed. by Wcrra,
by Werra, 1901; compare HAM no.
1901; compare 248.
no. 248.
wJ)TB 18.
264 Music in in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
rather
rather ambiguous
ambiguous term because because it it was usedused to to denote
denote not not only
only suite,
suite, but
but
also
also variation
variation (the
(the original
original meaning
meaning of o the
the term)
term).. To add to to the
the confusion
confusion
the
the French
French term overture
overture was universally
universally adopted
adopted as as synonymous
synonymous with with
suite.
suite. We have seen seen inin the
the preceding chapter
preceding chapter that
that D'Anglebert
D'Anglebert and Cou-
Cou-
perin
perin transferred
transferred the the overture
overture to to the
the keyboard;
keyboard; Bohm and Johann Johann Krieger
Krieger
were among
among the the first
first to
to follow
follow this
this example
example in in Germany.
Germany.
The list
list of
of suite
suite composers
composers includes
includes Pachelbel
Pachelbel (Hexachordum
(Hexachordum Apol- Apol*
linis),21 Johann
linis)^ Johann Krieger, Krieger, Bohm,22
Bohm,
22 Buxtehude,23
Buxtehude,
23 Reinken,24
Reinken,
24 Buttstedt,21S
Buttstedt,
26

Gottlieb 27
Gottlieb Muffat
Muffat (Componimenti),26
(Componimenti)?* Hurlebusch,21Hurlebusch, Telemann, Telemann, and and others.
others.
These composers
composers paid paid their
their tribute
tribute to to profusely
profusely embellished
embellished a-Ia-mode
b-la-mode
dances
dances but
but atat the
the same time
time diddid not
not neglect
neglect thethe traditional
traditional patterned
patterned varia-
varia-
tion.
tion. Both the the French and the the German aspects aspects of
of the
the suite
suite are
are clearly
clearly
represented by
represented by Bohm,
Bohm, aa composer
composer noteworthy
noteworthy equally equally for for his thorough
his thorough

command of of the
the French agrements
agrements and of the resources
of the resources of of tonal harmony.
tonal harmony.
Buxtehude's suites
Buxtehude's suites and variations,
variations, which have have only only recently been dis-
recently been dis-

covered,
covered, do not quite come up
not quite up to
to the
the high
high level
level of
of his
his organ
organ works.
works. Ar-
Ar-
ranged strictly according
ranged strictly according to
to the
the four
four main dance
dance types: allemande, courante,
types: allemande, courante,
saraband,
saraband, gigue,
gigue, which became the the rule only in
rule only the late
in the late baroque suite, they
baroque suite, they
contain
contain a a few doubles
doubles butbut none of of the
the inserted
inserted dances
dances which gave variety
gave variety
to the main types.
to the types. The French influenceinfluence in Buxtehude's harpsichord
in Buxtehude's harpsichord worksworks
confirmed by
is confirmed
is the variations,
by the variations, one one theme of of which
which is is based
based on on Lully's
Lully's
famous brunette
brunette (see Ex. 43).
(see Ex. 43). On the the other
other hand,
hand, the the German background
background
of the
of the patterned
patterned variation
variation is is unmistakable.
unmistakable. His -partite partite La Capricciosa
Capricciosa seemseem
like aa modest
like modest prefiguration
prefiguration of of Bach's
Bach's Goldberg Variations. We do
Goldberg Variations. do not
not
whether or
know whether or not
not Bach knew this this work,
work, but
but at at any
any rate
rate the
the key
key of
of both
both
sets is
sets is the
the same,
same, there
there are
are thirty-two
thirty-two variations,
variations, and and-most important-
most important
Buxtehude's theme reappears
Buxtehude's reappears as as the tune Kraut und Ruben in
the tune in Bach's final
Bach's final
quodlibet.
quodlibet.
latest generation
The latest generation of of harpsichord
harpsichord composers,
composers, notably notably Gottlieb
Gottlieb
(Theophil)
(Theophil) Mufi'at,
Muffat, Telemann,
Telemann, and Mattheson,
Mattheson, tended
tended to
to merge
merge forms
forms that
that
earlier composers
earlier composers had kept kept distinct.
distinct. Gottlieb
Gottlieb Muffat
Muftat (the (the son
son ofof Gcorg
Georg andand

11 DTB 4:1; see also

4:1; sec also HAM no.
DO. 250.
250.
2S
22 CE by Wolgast.
CEbyWoIgasL
** Ed. by
18 Ed. by Bangert,
Bangert, 1944.
1944-
I'VNM
**VNM 14.
14.
25
,,. He is
is said
said to been the
to have been the first (?) to
first (?) to adopt
adopt the
the term suite
suite in his Musifalischc
in his Musilcalisclu:
Vorrathslcammer, 1713.
Vorraths^ammer, I7I3.
IG DTOe 111:3
III:3 (vol.
(voL 7), also Handel Gcsellschaft,
7), also Gesellschfl/t, SuppL 5; HAM no.
SuPpl5; DO. 280. col-
The col-
280. The
lection contains
lection contains aa valuable preface discussing
valuable preface discussing harpsichord
harpsichord playing
playing and
and the execution
the execution
ornaments.
of ojroainents*
oc
I'rVNM 32-
"VNM32.
 Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 265
aa pupil
pupil of
of Fux)
Fux) introduced
introduced thethe sonata
sonata finale
finale into the suite
into the suite and
and thus prepared
thus prepared
the ground for the fusion
the ground for the fusion of of suite
suite and
and sonata
sonata inin the
the classic
classic period. The
period. The
toccata-like
toccata-like recitatives
recitatives of
of his jantaisies which
his jantaisics which sometimes
sometimes take take the
the place of
place of
the
the prelude
prelude bespeak
bespeak a a composer
composer of
of great individuality.
great individuality. The
The facile
facile Telemann
Telcmann
showed hishis versatility in the
versatility in the three
three dozen jantaisies 28
dozen fantaisies 28 in which he com-
in which he com-
bined
bined the
the French galanterie
galanteric style with the Italian concerto style.
style with the Italian concerto Unlike
style. Unlike
Leclair,
Leclair, Telemann did not succeed
did not succeed inin fusing the styles
fusing the styles into
into a a higher
higher unity,
unity,
and also
also his
his attempt
attempt toto arrive
arrive atat an
an extended
extended cyclic
cyclic form
form by
by means
means of
of dove-
dove-
tailed
tailed repeats
repeats remained an interesting,
interesting, but
but isolated
isolated experiment.
experiment.

The three leading composers

three leading composers of of organ
organ music:
music: thethe Swedish-born
Swedish-born DietrichDietrich
Buxtehude (I63']-I70'])
(1637-1707) in
in Liibeck, Pachelbel (1653-1706)
Liibeck, Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706) in
Johann in Nu-
remberg,
remberg, and Georg Bohm (1661-I733)
Georg BOhm (1661-1733) in in Liineburg,
Luneburg, were were surrounded
surrounded by by
aa host
host of
of remarkable
remarkable organists
organists belonging
belonging to the north
to the north oror central
central German
German
school,
school, notably
notably Johann
Johann Christoph
Christoph Bach, Nikolaus Bruhns
Bach, Nikolaus Bruhns (a (a pupil
pupil of of Bux-
Bux-
tehude), Buttstedt,
tehude), Buttstedt, Ferdinand
Ferdinand Fischer, Johann Krieger,
Fischer, Johann Krieger, Kuhnau, Kuhnau, Vincent
Vincent
Lubeck
Liibeck (a (a pupil
pupil of of Buxtehude),
Buxtehude), VetterVetter (a pupil of
(a pupil of Pachelbel),
Pachelbel), Gottfried
Gottfried
Walther
Walther (a (a cousin
cousin of of Bach),
Bach), andand Zachow
Zachow (the (the teacher
teacher ofof Handel)
Handel)..211 The
29

Austrian
Austrian school
school ofof Catholic
Catholic organists:
organists: Georg
Georg MufIat
Muffat (who
(who had had studied
studied also
also
with
with Pasquini),
Pasquini), Murschhauser
Murschhauser (a pupil
(a pupil of
of Kerll),
Kerll), Gottlieb
Gottlieb Muffat,
Muff at, Richter,
Richter,
and
and Reutter
Reutter stood
stood apart
apart from the the German school.school. The Catholic
Catholic liturgy
liturgy
called
called only
only for
for toccatas
toccatas and versets
versets such
such asas can
can be
be found
found in in Georg
Georg Muf- Muf-
fat's
fat's important musico-organisticus (I~)
Apparatus musico-organisticus (1690) 80 and
and the works of
the works
80
important Apparatus of
his
his son
son Gottlieb
Gottlieb Muffat.
81
Muffat. 81 The multipartite toccatas of
multipartite toccatas of Georg Muffat be-
Georg Moffat be-
tray
tray the
the growing
growing inBuence
influence of of the
the church
church sonata.
sonata.
Buxtehude
Buxtehude 82 32
who was
was to
to take
take a a decisive
decisive inBuence
influence onon the
the musical
musical develop-
develop-
ment of Bach
of Bach endowed both
both the
the free
free forms
forms of
of organ
organ music
music (toccata,
(toccata, and
fugue)
fugue) and the ohhligo
and the obbligo forms
forms (passacaglia,
(passacaglia, and and organ
organ chorale)
chorale) withwith thethe
fire
fire of
of his
his impassioned
impassioned individuality.
individuality. His toccatas
toccatas disclose
disclose in
in their
their harmonic
harmonic
ventures,
ventures, their sweeping pedal
their sweeping pedal solos,
solos, and their
their phantastically
phantastically shaped
shaped melodic
melodic
contours aa composer
contours composer of
of a
a restive
restive and
and profoundly
profoundly stirring imagination. His
stirring imagination. His
fugues are still imbedded
fugues are still imbedded in
in the
the rhapsodic
rhapsodic Bow
flow of
of his
his toccatas
toccatas and
and are
are fre-
fre-

quently
quently tiedtied together
together through
through thematic
thematic transformation
transformation in the manner of
in the of

Reprint VeroffentUckungen, Mustkbibliothcl^ ptztd Hirsch,

28 Reprint VeroDentlichutJgen, Musikhibliothek Paul
28 Hirsch, 40
4, also
also Broude Bros.
Broudc Bros.
Alee Mdster
McisUr des
des Orgelspiels Chordvorspicle alter
sets), Ch.orrJuorspiele
29 See
See Straube.
III Straube, Alte Qrgelspiels (two
(two sets). Mds-
alter Mcis-
ter,
ter, and
and Dietrich,
Dietrich, Blf Orgelchorale, 1932-
Elf Orgelt:norile, 1932.
aD Ed by
80 Ed.
by de Lange, 1888,
de Lange, 1888, also Liher Organi
Organi V (Schott,
(Schott, 1933);
1933); HAM no.no. 240-
.1
81 DTOc XXIX:2 (vol. 58)

works ed.
also Liber
(vol. 58).
cd. by
240.

Organ works
2 Organ Spitta, a
by Spitta, a more
more complete
complete edition
edition by Sei&ert; HAM nos.
by Seiffert;
82 DOS. 234
234
and 235.
235.
266
266 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
the variation
the variation ricercar.
ricercar. The fugue fugue themes
themes frequently
frequently affect affect tonetone repeti-
repeti-
tions and
tions and sometimes
sometimes outline outline tonal
tonal harmonies
harmonies by by means of of diminished
diminished
sevenths.
sevenths.
Pachelbel ss
Pachelbel transmitted the
33 transmitted the virtuoso
virtuoso style style of of keyboard
keyboard playing playing that that
prevailed in
prevailed in the
the Austrian
Austrian schoolschool to to central
central Germany,
Germany, and thus brought
thus brought
about the
about the rapprochement
rapprochement between between the the Catholic
Catholic and Protestant
Protestant organists.
organists.
His toccatas
His toccatas lacklack elaborate
elaborate fugalfugal sections
sections and are are built
built on monumental
pedal points
pedal points which
which support a
a dazzling
support dazzling display display of
of virtuoso
virtuoso figuration in
figuration in the
the
two manuals. A less
two manuals. less profound
profound musician
musician than than Buxtehude,
Buxtehude, he was concerned concerned
with playfully
with playfully ingenious
ingenious rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns ratherrather thanthan withwith stirring
stirring har- har-
monies. That
monies. That his his harmonic
harmonic idiom idiom was markedly
markedly less absorbing than that
less absorbing than that of of
Buxtehude is
Buxtehude is shown
shown in in his
his ninety-four
ninety-four (!) (I) magnificats
magnificats for for the
the organ.
organ. They They
are short-winded
are short-winded fughettas
fughettas composed
composed as as functional
functional music music for for the
the service.
service.
Like Johann
Like Johann Krieger,
Krieger, Pachclbel
Pachelbel was still still clearly
clearly dependent
dependent in in hishis fugues
fugues
on the
on the transformation
transformation techniquetechnique of of the
the variation
variation ricercar.
ricercar.
Pachelbel's music
PachdbeFs music alsoalso heralds
heralds thethe coming
coming of of the
the "well-tempered"
"well-tempered" tuning tuning
which hadhad in in Werckmeister
Werckmeister one of
one of itsits most ardent
ardent advocates.
advocates. One of his
of his
sets of
sets of suites
suites calls for seventeen
calls for seventeen of the twenty-four
of the twenty-four keys keys theoretically
theoretically avail- avail-
able. Ferdinand
able. Ferdinand Fischer
Fischer brought
brought the the number up up toto nineteen
nineteen in in his Ariadn~
his Ariadne
Musica (1715)'
Musica (1715). ThisThis collection
collection of preludes and fugues
of preludes fugues represents
represents the the most
important
important document in
in the
the evolution
evolution of
of the
the temperament
temperament before
before Bach. It
Bach. It

served
served as the direct
as the direct model for the Well-Tempered
for the Well-Tempered Clavier, Clavier, not only
only with
with
regard to
regard to the
the order
order of of keys,
keys, butbut sometimes
sometimes even with regard
even with regard to to the
the fugue
fugue
84
themes. The title
84 of the
the collection indicates thatthat Fischer
Fischer wanted to to give
give
themes. tide of collection indicates
the
the organist
organist an an "Ariadne thread" through
"Ariadne thread" through the the labyrinth
labyrinth of remote keys,
of remote keys,
rarely, if
rarely, if ever.
ever, adopted before his
adopted before his time.
time.
Of the
the "bound" forms forms of of organ
organ music
music the the organ
organ chorale
chorale was closest closest to to
the hearts
the hearts of of the
the Protestant
Protestant organists.
organists. Four types
types can be distinguished,
distinguished, all
all

of
of which were ultimately
ultimately perfected
perfected and transformed
transformed by by Bach.
Bach. The first first

type;
type, the
the chorale
chorale partita
partita or
or chorale
chorale variation.
variation, was obligated
obligated to
to the
the secular
secular
variation technique of
variation technique of the
the German suite. suite. The fact fact that
that thethe chorale
chorale took took
the
the place
place ordinarily
ordinarily held held by by a a secular
secular ariaaria oror dance
dance reveals
reveals the the close
close inter-
inter-

actions
actions between the the secular
secular and sacredsacred spheres
spheres in in Protestant
Protestant music. music. BOhm,Bohm,
Pachdbel (Musikalisch~
Pachelbel Sterhensg~dank~n),
(Musifydischc Stcrbensgedanl^n)^ and Buxtehude,
Buxtehude, all
all wrote
wrote
chorale
chorale partitas,
partitas, and Buxtehude even
even went so
so far
far as
as to
to present
present the
the chorale
chorale
in
in form of of a variation
variation suitesuite in in which the the chorale
chorale melody
melody appeared
appeared suc- suc-
cessively
cessively as
as ,allemande, courante, saraband, and gigue,
.allemande, courante, saraband, and gigue, treated each time treated each time

aa DTOe VlU:2
Villa (vol.
(vol. 17).
17), DTB 2:1, 4:1; HAM no,
2:1, 4:1; no. 251.
251.
^GMB
M no. 265.
GMB no. 265. Bach borroWed
borrowed !he theme of
the theme of this fugue for
this fugue for his fugue in
his fugue E in
in E in the
the
Well-Tempered Clavier; ampare
WeB-Tempered Clavier; compare also
also HAM no.
no. 247.
247.
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 267
in the
in the strictly
strictly patterned
patterned figuration
figuration ofof the
the German
German tradition.
tradition. Bohm's
BOhm's con-
con.
tribution toto the
tribution the partita was that
partita was that he
he furnished
furnished the
the chorale
choralewith
withaa multitude
multitude
ofFrench
of agrementswith
Frenchagrfments with which
whichhe
hewas
wasmore
morefamiliar
familiar than
than any
any other
other Ger-
Ger-
manorganist;
man organist; however
howeverhe hedisciplined
disciplined themthem in in typically
typically German
Germanfashion fashionby by
the use
the use of of rigid
rigid ground
ground basses. basses. Also
Also Johann
Johann Kriegcr,
Krieger, Johann Johann Bernhard
Bernhard
Bach, Buttstedt,
Bach, Buttstedt, and and Gottfried
Gottfried Walther
Walther contributed
contributed to to the
the chorale
chorale partita.
partita.
The second
The second type, type, the the chorale
chorale fantasy,
fantasy, flourished
flourished especially
especially in in the
the north
north
German school
German school (Buxtehude,
(Buxtehude, Liibeck, Lubeck, Bruhns,
Bruhns, and and Rcinken),
Reinken). After After Scheldt
Scheidt
it had
it had become
become aa large large rhapsodic
rhapsodic composition
composition of of virtuoso
virtuoso character.
character. Buxtc-
Buxte-
hude's visionary
hude's visionary fantasies
fantasies stand
stand very
very close
close to
to the
the toccata
toccata and
and introduce
introduce only
only
fragments
fragments of of the
the chorale
chorale melody
melody that
that emerge
emerge and
and disappear
disappear amidst
amidst the
the
turbulent activity
turbulent activity of of the
the other
other parts.
parts. Reinken
Reinken stressed
stressed in in his excessively
his excessively long long
fantasies the
fantasies the virtuoso
virtuoso attitude,
attitude, notably
notably in in the
the useuse of of double
double pedalpedal which
which
bespeak at
bespeak at the
the same
same time time the the German
German predilection
predilection for for polyphony.
polyphony.
The third
The third type,
type, the the chorale
chorale fugue,
fugue, waswas at at home
home in in the
the central
central German
German
school and
school and hadhad its its main
main representatives
representatives in in Johann
Johann Christoph
Christoph Bach, Bach, Pachel-
Pachel-
bel,
bel,
and
and Zachow.
Zachow. Here
Here the
the initial
initial phrase
phrase of
of the
the chorale
chorale served
served as
as the
the theme
of a fugue,
of a fugue, after after which
which the
the entire
entire melody
melody was
was either
either introduced
introduced in
in cantus
cantus
firm us fashion
firmus fashion (a (a practice
practice most most characteristic
characteristic for for Pachelbcl)
Pachelbel) or or else
else pre-
pre-
sented phrase
sented phrase by
by phrase
phrase in
in a
a chain
chain of
of fughettas.
fughettas. This type,
type, obviously
obviously de-
de-

rived from
rived from the the chorale
chorale motet, assumed in
motet, assumed the hands of Pachelbc:l
in the Pachelbel a thor-
a thor-

oughly instrumental character. Gottfried Walther endowed it

oughly instrumental character. Gottfried
it with
with hishis

strong late-baroque
strong late-baroque
harmonies
harmonies and
and created
created the
the only
only examples
examples of
of the
the type
type
that
that cancan be be compared
compared with with those
those of Bach. Not unjustly
of Bach. unjustly did Matthc:son
Matthcson
praise Walther
praise Walther as
as "a second Pachelbc:l,
"a second Pachelbel, if
if not
not the
the first
first in
in art."
art."

The
The fourth
fourth type, the chorale prelude, served
type, the chorale prelude,
served in in the
the liturgy
liturgy as as the
the instru-
instru-

mental
mental introduction
introduction for for thethe congregational
congregational chorale singing. singing. While the
While the
first
first three
three types are often loosely referred to
types are often loosely referred
to as
as chorale
chorale preludes,
preludes, the fourth
the fourth

type
type
must
must be
be recognized
recognized as
as the
the chorale
chorale prelude
prelude proper.
proper. It
It served
served the the litur-
litur-

gical function best because itit stated

gical function best because
stated the
the melody
melody in in songlike
songlike manner,
manner, usually
usually
in the soprano
in the soprano so so that
that it
it could
could be
be easily
easily heard
heard and
and remembered.
remembered. Related
Related
in
in its
its technique to the chorale partita the
technique to the chorale partita
the chorale
chorale prelude
prelude can can be be regarded
regarded
as an extension of a single
as an extension of a single chorale chorale variation.
variation. The
The melody
melody in
in either
either plain
plain
or
or ornamented
ornamented form form was was set set inin figurative
figurative harmony
harmony or or inin contrapuntal
contrapuntal
fashion
fashion and and thetheother
other parts
partsmoved
movedagainst
against it it with
with independent
independent rhythms rhythmsand and
motives.
motives. Each Each line line of of the
the chorale
chorale was was usually
usually introduced
introduced by by aa short,
short, often
often

anticipatory, imitation
imitation of
of the other voices.
the other voices. Buxtehude
Buxtehude and and Pachelbe~
Pachelbel, the the
anticipatory,
first
first important masters of the chorale prelude proper, laid
important masters of the chorale prelude proper,
laid the
the ground
ground for for

the future development

the future development of of the
the form
form with
with Bach.
Bach. Buxtehude's
Buxtehude's preludes
preludes arc:
arc

ofofparticular interest becausebecausethey they give

give aa highly
highly personal interpretation of
personal interpretation
of
particular interest
268 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
the
the chorale-a
chorale a trend
trend that
that Bach
Bach led
led to
to consummation.
consummation. Walther evolved
evolved
distinctive
distinctive melodic patterns in
melodic patterns in his
his preludes that served
preludes that served as
as a
a consistendy
consistently
running
running counterpoint
counterpoint to
to the
the melody.
melody.

THE STATE OF PROTESTANT CHURCH MUSIC BEFORE BACH

The late
late baroque period of
baroque period of Protestant
Protestant church music may
church music may be be said
said to to begin
begin
with
with thethe emergence
emergence of of a a new form,form, the the church
church cantata,
cantata, which quickly quickly
assumed
assumed the the leading
leading role role in in vocal
vocal music.
music. The motet motet increasingly
increasingly lost lost

ground
ground as
as an
an independent
independent form
form and
and survived
survived only
only on
on the
the periphery
periphery in
in music
music
for
for special
special occasions,
occasions, weddings,
weddings, funerals,
funerals, etc.etc. In the cantata
In the cantata two traditions
traditions
merged
merged thatthat had
had existed
existed side
side byby side
side inin the middle baroque:
the middle baroque: the the dramatic
dramatic
concertato of
concertato of the
the Schutz
Schiitz tradition
tradition and and the the chorale concertato of
chorale concertato the
of the
Weckmann-Tunder
Wcckmann-Tunder tradition. tradition. What had had formerly
formerly been
been known as
as dialogue,
dialogue,
concertato,
concertato, symphonia
symphonia sacra, sacra, oror simply
simply motet
motet (with
(with instrumental
instrumental accom- accom-
paniment)
paniment) was was assimilated
assimilated into into the
the cantata,
cantata, a a term
term coined
coined by by the
the Hamburg
Hamburg
pastor Neumeister,
pastor Neumeister, a a staunch orthodox and
staunch orthodox and Pietist
Pietist hater.
hater. In In his
his cycles
cycles of of
cantata texts (1700
cantata texts if.)
(1700 fi.) he
he shifted
shifted the
the emphasis
emphasis from
from the
the biblical
biblical words
words to
to
their
their poetic, sententious,
poetic, sententious, or
or edifying interpretation.
edifying interpretation. Whereas the
the concertato
concertato
was based
based essentially
essentially on on scriptural
scriptural words
words the the reform
reform cantata
cantata consisted
consisted of of
freely
freely composed
composed paraphrases
paraphrases that that either
either replaced
replaced the the scriptural
scriptural text text or or
served
served asas poetic
poetic insertions.
insertions. These
These paraphrases
paraphrases have have been
been improperly
improperly called called
"madrigalian." Actually, however,
"madrigalian." Actually, however, they they have
have nothing
nothing to
to do
do with
with madrigal
madrigal
poetry because
poetry because they were admittedly
they were admittedly modeled
modeled afterafter the
the forms
forms of of the
the Italian
Italian

opera
opera and the the secular
secular cantata
cantata which
which gave gave thethe church
church cantata
cantata its its name.
name.
Neumeister
Ncumeister cast cast his
his devout
devout contemplations
contemplations in in form
form of of recitative
recitative and and aria,
aria,
each
each ofof which
which was based based on a a single
single affection.
affection. He described
described his
his reform,
reform,
significandy,
significantly, with
with thethe words:
words: "In "In short,
short, a a cantata
cantata looks
looks like
like a piece from
a piece from an an
opera,
opera, composed
composed of of stylo rccitativo and
stylo recitatitlo and arias."
arias."

The creation
creation of of the
the church
church cantata
cantata after
after the most secular
the most secular of of allall secular
secular
models
models naturally
naturally aroused
aroused the the opposition
opposition of
of the
the Pietists.
Pietists. The clamor
clamor against
against
"operatic" church music
"operatic" church music did did not
not subside until the
subside until end of
the end of the baroque period.
the baroque period.
For the
the Pietists
Pietists thethe cantata
cantata meant
meant an an abominable
abominable secularization, the ulti-
secularization, the ulti-

mate desecration
desecration of of sacred
sacred music.
music. For For thethe orthodox
orthodox Lutherans
Lutherans it it meant
meant
conversely
conversely the the consecration
consecration of of secular
secular music
music since
since they
they did not conceive
did not conceive
the
the sacred
sacred and secularsecular spheres
spheres as
as opposed.
opposed. This
This attitude
attitude explains
explains why why
church
church music in in the
the modern form form flourished
flourished onlyonly in
in centers
centers of
of orthodoxy.
orthodoxy.
A3 the reform movement in
As the in church
church music
music diddid not
not begin before 1700
begin before 1700 it it is
is

clear
dear that the composers
that the composers of of the
the generation
generation before
before BachBach werewere either
either notnot yetyet
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 269
affected by
affected by it, it, or
or came
came to to itit only
only veryvery late.
late. Johann
Johann Christoph
Christoph Bach,Bach, thethe
uncle of Johann Sebastian, entitled his vocal compositions
uncle of Johann Sebastian, entitled his vocal compositions still lamento or stilllamento or
arioso rather
arioso rather than than cantata.
cantata. His
His dramatic
dramatic arioso arioso AchAd dassdats ich
ich Wasters
Wassers genug
genug
hatte isis thoroughly
hdttc thoroughly steeped steeped in in the
the tradition
tradition of of Schiitz's
Schutz's plastic
plastic recitative
recitative
and fully
and fully justifies
justifies the the epithet
epithet "the
"the great
great andand expressive
expressive composer"
composer" that the
that the
chronicle of
chronicle of thethe Bach
Bach family
family bestowed
bestowed upon upon him.him. TheThe "cantatas"
"cantatas" of of Buxte-
Buxte-
hude, the
hude, the visionary
visionary powerpower of of which
which exerted
exerted so so deep
deep anan impression
impression on on Bach,
Bach,
still belong
still belong to to the
the older concertato type.
older conccrtato as
type. They
35
They contain
contain no no recitatives
recitatives oror da-
da-
capo
capo arias,
arias, but
but remarkable
remarkable accompanied
accompanied ariosi
ariosi which
which disclose
disclose Buxtehude's
Buxtehudc's
subjective fervor.
subjective fervor. In In the
the monumental
monumental cantata Wachee auj
cantata Wachet auf he
he utilizes
utilizes the
the
chorale text,
chorale text, but but almost
almost completely
completely disregards
disregards the the melody;
melody; however
however in in
Gott hilf
Gott hill mirmir he he "presents"
"presents" the the chorale Durch Adams Fall
chorale Durch Fall as
as canttls firmtts
cantus firmus
in instrumental
in instrumental unisono unisono against
against which
which the the chorus
chorus "interprets"
"interprets" the the text
text inin
Bachian fashion.
Bachian fashion. This This differentiation
differentiation betweenbetween choralechorale andand figurative
figurative ac- ac-
companiment was
companiment was suggested
suggested by by the
the techniques
techniques of of the
the organ
organ chorale.
chorale. InIn his
his
brilliant
brilliant choral
choral writing
writing Buxtehude
Buxtehude was
was obligated
obligated to
to Carissimi
Carissimi whose in-
in-

fluence is especially noticeable

fluence is especially noticeable in the Latin in the Latin cantatas.
cantatas. In
In other
other cantatas
cantatas he
he
made use
made use of of strophic variation for
strophic variation for solo
solo or chorus, and of
or chorus, of ground basses.
ground basses.
His
His celebrated Abendmusiken composed
celebrated Abendmusi%en composed for
for the
the Christmas
Christmas season,
season, consist
consist

of
of allegorical dialogues of which
allegorical dialogues of
which only only very
very few have come down to to us.
us.
In
In contrast
contrast with
with the
the predominantly
predominantly lyrical, lyrical, if
if not
not subjective,
subjective, cantatas
cantatas they
they
are
are dramatic
dramatic compositions
compositions of of an
an oratorical
oratorical nature.
nature.
Outstanding
Outstanding cantata cantata composers
composers besidesbesides Buxtehude were BOhm, Bohm, Pachel-
Pachel-
bel,
bel, Philipp
Philipp Krieger, Krieger, Kuhnau,
Kuhnau, and and Zachow,
Zachow, and, and, among
among the the direct
direct con-

temporaries
temporaries
of
of Bach, Graupner
Bach, Graupner and
and Telemann.
Telemann. Nearly
Nearly all
all of
of these
these cultivated
cultivated

the
the cantata
cantata per
per omnes
omnes versus
versus in
in which
which the
the various
various stanzas
stanzas of
of the
the chorale
chorale
appeared as a
appeared as a series of series of vocal
vocal variations.
variations. The cantatas
cantatas of
of BOhm
Bohm and Pachd-
Pachel-
bel
bel 38 are
36 are conceived
conceived either
either asas concertato
conccrtato or or asas chorale
chorale variation. That Philipp
variation. That Philipp
Krieger
Krieger
37 was one
8'1' was one of
of the
the first
first composers
composers to
to adopt
adopt the
the reform
reform cantata
cantata is is not
not
surprising because his operas had
surprising because his operas
had prepared
prepared him for for the forms
forms that
that he he
applied
applied
to
to the
the cantata.
cantata. In
In his
his works
works Italian
Italian influence
influence is is particularly strong.
particularly strong.
Kuhnau
Kuhnau 38 38 and Zachow
and Zachow Be 8e more nearly approach the
more nearly approach the cantata cantata of of the
the Bach
type than any of their contemporaries. Kuhnau
type than any of their contemporaries.
Kuhnau began began his career with works
his career with works
in
in concertato
conccrtato style. but in his
style, but in
his later
later years
years thethe Thomas
Thomas cantorcantor wrote
wrote reform
reform

DDT 14, see

DDT 14. sec also
also CE.
85
BI CE.
M DTB 6:1.
BlDTB 6:1.
87 DDT 53154 and
IT DDT 53/54 and DTB DTB 6:1.
6:1. It
It should
should be
be noted
noted that
that in
in the
the latter
latter volume
volume the
the solo
solo
Wie bin is Johann
cantata Wie
cantata bist Du
Du isis CIIoneously
erroneously ascribed to Krieger.
ascribed to Krieger. The
The composer
composer is Johann
Christoph
Christoph Bach.
Bach.
DDT 58
88DDT
II /.59-
58/59.
-DDT
DDT 21/22.
21/22.
270
270 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
cantatas with
cantatas with secco
sccco andand accompagnato
accompagnato recitatives,
recitatives, ariosi,
ariosi, and arias, that
arias, that
give
give a a contemplative
contemplative interpretation
interpretation of of the biblical text.
the biblical text. Kuhnau showed

his strong
his strong sense
sense for
for balanced
balanced formform in in the
the impressive cantata Wit:
impressive cantata schon
Wic schon
leuchtet
leuchtct da dcr Morgenstern.
Morgcnstcrn. It
It opens
opens with
with a
a massive
massive and elaborate
elaborate chorale
chorale
chorus
chorus andand closes
closes with
with a a simple
simple chorale
chorale setting
setting soso that
that aa highly
highly variegated
variegated
structure
structure is
is framed
framed by by means of the chorale-a
of the chorale a device
device that
that became ex- ex-

emplary
emplary for for Bach.
Bach. Kuhnau's St. Passion (1721)
St. Matthew Passion also makes ample
(1721) also ample
use of
use of chorales.
chorales.
Zachow excelled both in
excelled both in chorale
chorale variations
variations and in in reform
reform cantatas.
cantatas. InIn
the
the solo
solo sections
sections of of hishis chorale
chorale variations
variations he he sometimes
sometimes abandoned the the
chorale melody so
chorale melody so as as to
to allow
allow forfor aa free
free musical
musical interpretation
interpretation of the
of the
chorale
chorale text.
text. His reform cantata Das
reform cantata ist aas
Das isl das ewige Leben deserves
ewigc Lcbcn deserves particular
particular
attention
attention because
because it it represents
represents thethe formal
formal and even even the
the inner
inner features
features of the
of the
Bach
Bach cantata.
cantata. The free paraphrase (recitatives
free paraphrase (recitatives and da-capo arias)
da-capo arias) and the
the
biblical text (concertato
biblical text (conccrtato and fugue)
fugue) are
are set
set off
off in
in sharp
sharp relief
relief and the
the whole
whole
40
is
is rounded
rounded off off by
by a a simple
simple chorale
chorale setdng.
setting. Graupner
Graupner '0 and, and, especially,
especially,
Telemann U lean 41
lean in
in their
their cantatas
cantatas toward
toward the style galant
the style gdant which became
became
fashionable
fashionable during during the
the years
years Bach wrote
wrote his
his passions
passions and cantatas
cantatas in
in
Leipzig.
Leipzig.

BACH: THE EARLY PERIOD

The brilliant
brilliant development
development of of instrumental
instrumental and sacred music in
sacred music in the
the late
late

baroque
baroque culminated
culminated in
in the
the works
works of
of Bach,
Bach, the
the greatest genius
greatest genius of
of baroque
baroque
music. Johann
Johann Sebastian
Sebastian Bach (b. (b. March
March :11,1685
21, 1685 inin Eisenach;
Eisenach; d. July 28,
d. July 28,

1750 in
I'l50 Leipzig) was steeped
in Leipzig) steeped inin aa twofold
twofold tradition,
tradition, that
that of
of the
the local musical
local musical

milieu
milieu inin Thuringia,
Thuringia, and that that ofof the
the Bach family
family which made it natural
it natural

for
for him to to uphold staunchly
uphold staunchly the
the highest
highest standards
standards of
of musicianship
musicianship and to to
be
be receptive
receptive to musical
musical influences
influences from abroad.
abroad. Broadly speaking,
Broadly speaking, Bach
Bach
could count all
could count all the
the leading
leading masters
masters of of European music among
European music among his teachers;
his teachers;
he studied their works by
studied their by copying-the
copying the traditional
traditional mode of of "study"
"study" for for aa
musical apprentice.
apprentice. The oldest
oldest ofof the
the Italian
Italian masters
masters that served him
that served him as
as
cwnplc Frescobaldi whose Fiori
example was Frescobaldi Fiori musieali
musifaK Bach copied copied out out inin its
its

entirety.
entirety. It
It seems significant
significant that
that he selected
selected of
of all
all of
of Frescobaldi's
Frescobaldi's works
works
the
the one most closely
closely bound up up with
with the
the (Catholic)
(Catholic) liturgy.
liturgy. The observance
observance
of
of liturgy,
liturgy, whether Catholic
Catholic oror Protestant,
Protestant, obviously
obviously mattered
mattered more
more to him
to him

"* DDT 51/52-

51/52.
41
t1 Telcmann composed twelve (I)
Telemann composed (!) complete
complete cantata cycles for
cantata cycles for the
the liturgical year.
liturgical year,
none 01.
DDDC: which bas
of which has been
been reprinted.
reprinted
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 271
the difference
than the difference in
in denomination.
denoIl1ination. The list
list of
of other
other Italian
Italian masters
masters whom
imitated and copied
Bach imitated copied includes
includes Legrenzi,
Legrenzi, Albinoni,
Albinoni, Corelli, Lotti, Cal-
Corelli, Lotti, Cal-
dara, Vivaldi,
dara, Vivaldi, Marcello,
Marcello, and Bonporti.
Bonporti. The French
French were
were represented
represented byby
D'Anglebert, Couperin,
D'Anglebert, Couperin, Dieupart,
Dieupart, Grigny,
Grigny, Raison,
Raison, and
and Marchand,
Marchand, thethe
Catholic masters
German Catholic masters by
by Froberger
Froberger and
and Kerll,
Kerll, and
and finally
finally the
the Protestant
Protestant
masters by
masters by Reinken,
Reinken, Buxtehude,
Buxtehude, Pachelbel,
Pachelbel, BOhm, Strungk,
Bohm, Strungk, Bruhns,
Bruhns,
Fischer, Handel,
Ferdinand Fischer, Handel, Fasch,
Fasch, Graupner,
Graupner, Telemann,
Telemann, and
and many
many others.
others.
Bach's desire
Bach's to learn
desire to learn from others,
others, his
his unceasing zeal to
unceasing zeal to perfect
perfect himself
himself
even in
even in the
the years
years of
of fullest
fullest maturity,
maturity, is
is well
well documented.
documented. It
It was
was he
he who
made the the determined,
determined, though
though unsuccessful,
unsuccessful, attemptattempt to meet his
to meet his greatest
greatest
contemporary,
contemporary, Handel.
Handel.
learned the
Bach learned the fundamentals
fundamentals of of music
music from
from hishis father,
father, aa town
town musician
musician
in Eisenach.
in After the
Eisenach. After the death
death of of his
his father
father he he received
received instruction
instruction from from his
his
elder brother
elder brother who had learned learned his his craft
craft with
with Pachelbel
Pachelbel and and lived
lived as
as or-
or-
ganist
ganist in
in Ohrdruf.
Ohrdruf .It
It was hercr
here that
that Bach was initiated
initiated into
into the
the German
literature for
literature organ. As boy
for organ. boy soprano
soprano at at the school in
the school in Luneburg
Luneburg he he came
in contact
in contact with
with thethe organists
organists Loewe (a pupil of
(a pupil of SchUtz)
Schutz) and Bohm BOhm (a (a pupil
pupil
of Reinken);; from the
of Reinken) the latter
latter he he learned
learned the the style
style of
of north
north German and
French organ
French organ music.
music. After
After the
the mutation
mutation of of his
his voice Bach journeyed
voice Bach journeyed on foot foot
to Hamburg,
to Hamburg, the the center
center of of the
the flourishing
flourishing opera,opera, to visit the
to visit the organists
organists
Reinken and Vincent Lubeck. We know very
Reinken very little
little about
about this
this "journeyman
"journeyman
period," but
period," but itit seems
seems likely
likely that Bach was interested
that Bach interested more in in deepening
deepening
his organistic
his background
organistic background than
than in
in frittering
frittering away
away his
his time in
in the opera
the opera
house. From Luneburg
house. Luneburg he he also
also visited
visited thethe court
court inin Celle
Celle several times where
several times

he became
he acquainted with
became acquainted with orchestral
orchestral music in French style.
in French style.
In
In the
the creative
creative development
development of of Bach five periods can be
five periods be distinguished
distinguished
during hishis life.
42
that
that roughly
roughly correspond
correspond to to the
the positions
positions he he held
held during life.U Through-
Through-
out
out his
his artistic
artistic career
career Bach remained
remained absorbedabsorbed in his main instrument,
in his instrument, the
organ,
organ, though
though he he was also
also an accomplished
accomplished violinist;
violinist; it it is
is symbolic
symbolic of his his
organistic background
organistic background that
that he served
served in
in his
his first
first two important positions
important positions
as
as organist:
organist: first
first in Arnstadt (1703)
in Arnstadt (1703) and then in in Miihlhausen (1707).(1707). These
positions
positions mark off off the
the first
first period
period in in which the young composer was
young composer
groping
groping for
for a
a personal style.
personal style. It
It was from Arnstadt that
that Bach undertook
the
the famous
famous pilgrimage
pilgrimage on foot
foot to
to Lubeck
Liibcck (1705)
(1705) in
in order to study
study vocal
concer-taro and organ
conccrtato and organ music music with
with its
its best
best representative,
representative, Buxtehude. Bach's
creative
creative imagination
imagination caught
caught fire fire upon contact with the music of the aged
upon contact of the aged
master and
master and so
so deeply stirring
deeply stirring was the
the impression
impression that he long
long overstayed
overstayed
his
his leave
leave to the chagrin
to the chagrin ofo hishis superiors.
superiors. The journey jowney to Buxtehud~
Buxtehudc, which

See Gurlitt.
"**Sce Gurlitt, Bach. 28 If.
Bach,2&fL
 272 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
can
can be
be considered
considered as the last
as the last phase
phase ofof Bach's journeyman period,
Bach's journeyman period, released
released
the
the pent-up
pent-up creative
creative energies
energies thatthat manifest
manifest themselves
themselves in in the
the works of the
of the
early
early period.
period.
As successor
successor toto Georg
Georg AbleAhle in in the
the post
post ofof organist
organist in in Miihlhausen Bach Bach
was drawn
was drawn inevitably
inevitably into
into the
the quarrels
quarrels between
between Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy and Pietism
Pietism in
in
which
which he, he, true
true to
to his personal conviction
his personal conviction and his his family
family tradition,
tradition, sided
sided
with
with thethe orthodox faction even
orthodox faction even against
against the pastor of
the pastor of his
his own church.
church. It It

was thethe only

only course
course for
for him to
to take
take since
since the
the Pietists,
Pietists, opposed
opposed in
in principle
principle
to
to figural
figural music
music inin the
the service,
service, tolerated
tolerated only
only simple
simple devotional
devotional or or sickly
sickly
sentimental songs. Paradoxically
sentimental songs. Paradoxically enough, enough, these
these songs
songs were more often
often
than
than notnot derivatives
derivatives of of shallow
shallow operatic
operatic airs
airs and betrayed
betrayed the very same
the very same
secular
secular influence
influence that the Pietists
that the Pietists attacked
attacked so vehemently in
so vehemently in theory. Bach
theory. Bach
felt
felt too
too uncomfortable
uncomfortable in in Miihlhausen
Miihlhausen to to stay
stay there
there for
for more than
than a year.
a year.
In
In his letter of
his letter of resignation,
resignation, a
a highly significant
highly significant document of
of his
his musical
musical

religious beliefs,
and religious beliefs, hehe stated
stated inin his
his typical
typical blunt
blunt fashion
fashion that
that his
his "final
"final
goal"
goal" was "a "a regulated
regulated church
church music
music inin the
the honor
honor of of God"-regulated,
God" regulated, that that
means: in in accordance
accordance with with thethe precepts
precepts of
of art
art music
music which governed
governed both
both
sacred
sacred and secular
secular music.
music. For For a a composer
composer who conceived conceived music as as "the
"the
reflection and
reflection and foretaste
foretaste of of heavenly
heavenly harmony"
harmony" (W erckmeister) it
(Werckmeister) was no
it was no
sacrilege
sacrilege toto use
use in
in the
the church
church the conccrtato style
the C012CertatO style or
or even
even opera
opera style. Bach
style. Bach
still
still shared
shared thethe old
old Lutheran
Lutheran conviction
conviction thatthat God should should be praised in
be praised in aa
ceaseless
ceaseless effort
effort by
by means of
of the
the most "artificial"
"artificial" music.
music.

The works ofof the

the early
early period
period are
are characterized
characterized by
by excessive
excessive length,
length,
superabundance
superabundance of
of ideas,
ideas, unbridled
unbridled exuberance,
exuberance, and
and inconclusiveness
inconclusiveness with
with
regard
regard to harmony
harmony. Youthful
Youthful effervescence
effervescence manifests itself also
manifests itself also in in
48
extravagant
extravagant flourishes
flourishes '8 of of the
the early
early chorale
chorale accompaniments
accompaniments for for
which Bach was reprimanded
reprimanded by by the
the church superintendent in
church superintendent in Arn-
Arn-
stadt.
stadt.

Three early
early chorale partitas,
partitas, the
the only
only examples
examples that
that Bach
Bach contributed
contributed
to this
this form,
form, treat
treat the
the chorale
chorale in
in strictly
to strictly patterned
patterned figuration
figuration with
with inde-
inde-
pendent counter-motives in
pendent counter-motives in the
the manner of o Pachelbel,
Pachelbel, Buxtehude,
Buxtehudc, and
and
BOhm. They are uncouth in
Bohm, They in their
their harmonies
harmonies except
except for
for the
the partita Sei
partita Sci
gegriisstl
gegriisset /esu
Jesu which suggests by
suggests by the
the more advanced
advanced harmonic
harmonic style in
style in
of its
some of its variations that it
variations that it may have been
may been revised at a
revised at a later date. In
later date. In
view
view of
of Bach's
Bach's observance of
of the
the relation
relation between
between text
text and
and music it is
music it is

"Printed
^Printed inin Spina, Bad
Spitta, Bach m. 400.
400. The book is quoted
ffl, quoted here
is here after the rather faulty
the rather
after faulty
English
English translation.
translation.
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 273
significant that
significant that thethe partitas
partitas contain
contain as as many
many variations
variations as as the
the chorale
chorale had had
stanzas.
stanzas.
The early
The early church
church sonatassonatas forfor harpsichord
harpsichord are are either
either direct
direct adaptations
adaptations
of sonatas
of sonatas from
from Reinken's
Reinken's HortusRortus musicus
musicus or or independent
independent imitations
imitations of of the
the
form. The
form. The playful
playful canzona
canzona themetheme of of the
the sonata
sonata in in D which
which combines
combines the the
cackling of
cackling of aa hen
hen withwith aa cuckoo
cuckoo callcall obviously
obviously stemsstems from
from the the south
south Ger-Ger-
man and
man and Italian
Italian schools.
schools. The delightful
delightful "Capriccio
"Capriccio on on the
the Departure
Departure of of the
the
Beloved Brother,"
Beloved Brother," aa secularsecular complement
complement to to Kuhnau's
Kuhnau's programmatic
programmatic Bibli- Bibli-
cal Histories,
cal Histories, reflects
reflects in in its
its intimacy
intimacy the the family
family incident
incident on on which
which itit is is
based. It
based. It contains
contains severalseveral descriptive
descriptive movements
movements like like "the
"the flattering
flattering of of
the friends,"
the friends," or or aa "general
"general lamento"
lamento" on on aa chaconne
chaconne bass bass (third
(third type),
type),
elaborated with
elaborated with lessless naivete
naivete andand greater
greater plasticity
plasticity than
than waswas customary
customary with with
Kuhnau. The concluding
Kuhnau. concluding fugue fugue on on thethe horn
horn callcall of
of the
the postillion
postillion suffers
suffers
from lack
from lack of of conciseness,
conciseness, but but already
already points
points to to the
the keen
keen humor that that
distinguishes so
distinguishes so many
many of of Bach's
Bach's secular
secular works.
works. The The preludes
preludes and and fugues,
fugues,
toccatas, and
toccatas, and fantasias
fantasias of of the
the early period
early period stand
stand close
close to
to the
the visionary
visionary and
and
erratic style
erratic style of
of Buxtehude.
Buxtehudc. The preludes
preludes and
and toccatas
toccatas are
are hardly dis-
hardly dis-

tinguishable
tinguishable and
and display
display dramatic
dramatic life
life and
and youthful unruliness;
youthful unruliness; the
the fugues
fugues
lack
lack thethe pregnant
pregnant conciseconcise themes
themes and and thethe planned
planned organization
organization of of the
the later
later

works
works though
though the
the rambling counterpoint
rambling counterpoint takes
takes often
often surprising
surprising turns
turns that
that

have
have an an appeal
appeal of
of their
their own.
own. A fugue
fugue and
and prelude
prelude in
in E-flat
E-flat (CE
(CE 36, no.
v.
v. 36, no.
12)
12) which
which presents
presents in
in Froberger's
Froberger's manner a
a theme
theme with
with changing
changing counter-
counter-
subjects
subjects has has passed
passed for for many
many yearsyears asas aa composition
composition of of Bach's
Bach's early'period
early "period
though
though its
its author
author is
is actually
actually his
his distinguished
distinguished forbear
forbear Johann
Johann Christoph.
Christoph.
The
The author
author of of another
another spurious
spurious work
work of
of the
the period,
period, the
the passacaglia in
passacaglia in t1d
(CE
(CE 42,v.
v. 42> no.
no. 15),
15), has
has been
been identified
identified as
as Witt.
Witt. Bach betrays
betrays in
in the
the early
early
keyboard
keyboard works works aa sure sure sense
sense for for virtuoso
virtuoso effects
effects and
and aa lair
flair for
for idiomatic
idiomatic
keyboard
keyboard writing, especially in
writing, especially in such
such a a typically
typically organistic
organistic device
device as as the
the
breaking
breaking of
of the
the scale
scale into
into a
a pattern
pattern of
of alternating
alternating notes
notes that
that lie
lie easy
easy in
in the
hand
hand and and areare particularly
particularly suitable
suitable for the pedal.
for the pedaL Bach did did notnot grow
grow tired
tired ofof
it, not even in later works
it, not even in later works (Ex. 80.)
(EL 80.)
Ex. So.
Ex. 80. Bach:
Bach: Idiomatic
Idiomatic keyboard patterns from
keyboard patterns from fugue
fugue -in g and
in g toccata in
and toccata in C.
C.

'W f P JJJJ)IU !Ji ,WrFt'tCr,iJUJ IJ I

Bach's
Bach's early
early cantatas
cantatas reflect
reflect the
the state of the
state of the church
church cantata around I'1700.
cantata around JOOo
They
They preserve
preserve the
the traits
traits of
of the
the chorale
chorale concertato and contain multipartite
conccrtato and contain multipartite
vocal
vocal and
and instrumental
instrumental ensembles,
ensembles, but but no
no recitatives.
recitatives. Such
Such recitatives
recitatives as
as can
can
be found in
be found in the
the earliest
earliest extant
extant cantata Dcnn au
cantata Denn du wirst
urirst meine
meine Seek
SccU (no.
(no. IS)
15)
274
274 Music in
Music in the the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
are the
are the result
result of of later
later revision.
revision. The grand grand "motetto"
"motetto" Gott Gott ist ist mcin
mein Konig
Konig
(no. 71), composed for the inauguration of a
(no. 71), composed for the inauguration of a new city
city council in Miihl-
council in Miihl-
hausen, is
hausen, is the
the only
only cantata
cantata ever
ever printed
printed during
during Bach's
Bach's lifetime,
lifetime, and this this
honor was
honor was due due notnot toto Bach's
Bach's music,
music, but but to to the
the political
political prestige
prestige of of the
the city
city
council. The cantata
council. cantata opens
opens with
with aa ponderous concertato chorus
ponderous conccrtato chorus with full
with full
orchestral accompaniment
orchestral accompaniment and and emphatically
emphatically repeated repeated invocations "God,
invocations "God,
God, God"
God, God" which which anticipate
anticipate the the opening
opening choruschorus of of the
the St.St.John Passion.
John Passion.
choral writing
The choral writing of of the
the early
early cantatas
cantatas has has aa strong
strong instrumental
instrumental flavor flavor and
and
is crowded
is crowded with with organistic
organistic patterns
patterns and and ornamentation.
ornamentation. In In his
his arias
arias Bach
employs already
employs already the the modulating
modulating quasi-ostinato
quasi-ostinato bass bass withwith characteristic
characteristic
steps which was to become the outstanding means of
steps which was to become the outstanding means
of his
his consistent
consistent musical
musical
organization.
organization. Even
Even at
at this
this early
early stagestage Bach
Bach proved
proved his
his unique
unique ability
ability to
to

seize upon
seize upon the the fundamental
fundamental idea idea of of the
the cantata
cantata text text and to to realize
realize it it
symbolically
symbolically in
in music.
music. In
In Gott
Gott ist
ist mein
mcin Konig
Konig the
the central
central idea
idea is
is that
that of
of old
old
age and
age and youth
youth presented
presented in in metaphorical
metaphorical terms terms as as the
the contrast
contrast between
between
the Old
the Old and and the the New Testament.
Testament. This This contrast
contrast underlies
underlies the the duet
duet concon
chorale in
chorale in canto
canto in in which
which the the tenor
tenor solo solo "I"I am now eighty eighty years
years old"
old"
symbolizes the
symbolizes the Old Testament
Testament while while the the chorale
chorale Ach Gott Gott Du frommcr
trammer
Gott, intoned simultaneously
Gott, intoned simultaneously by by the
the soprano, symbolizes
soprano, symbolizes the
the New Testa-
Testa-
ment. Both
ment. Both aspects
aspects are are reconciled
reconciled in in the
the dignified
dignified choral
choral fuguefugue "Thy"Thy old old
age
age be
be like
like thy youth"
thy youth" which
which stands,
stands, significantly,
significantly, in
in the
the center
center of
of the
the
cantata.
cantata.
A similar
similar interpenetration
interpenetration of of musical
musical and religious
religious ideasideas obtains
obtains in in the
the
Actus tragicus
Actus tragicus or or Gottes
Gottes ZcitZeit (no.(no. 106),
106), thethe most
most mature
mature cantatacantata of the
of the
early period (I707?).
early period (1707?). Written
Written for for a a funeral
funeral service
service it it reflects
reflects in in its
its deeply
deeply
serious
serious and personal
personal tone tone thethe private
private occasion.
occasion. A movingmoving "sonatina"
"sonatina" for for
recorders and gambas
recorders gambas serves
serves as
as introduction.
introduction. Its
Its melody
melody consists
consists of
of typical
typical
"sigh"
"sigh** figures
figures representing
representing mourning
mourning and consolation. consolation. The idea idea ofof this
this

cantata
cantata is is based,
based, too,too, on the the conflict
conflict of of the
the Old and New Covenant. Covenant. The
fugal chorus "It
fugal chorus "It is
is the
the old
old decree"
decree" stands stands herehere forfor the
the inexorable
inexorable law law of of
the
the Old Testament
Testament by by virtue
virtue of
of its
its strict
strict contrapuntal
contrapuntal structure
structure which
which
Bach
Bach always
always used used to to represent
represent ideas ideas of of constraint
constraint and and law.law. Against
Against this this

chorus
chorus thethe recorders
recorders play
play the
the chorale tune
chorale tune Ich Ich hahhob mein
mcin Sad Sack in in tacit
tacit al-
al-

lusion
lusion to to the
the New Testament and a a soprano
soprano solo solo makes this this allusion
allusion
explicit
explicit byby its
its message
message from the gospel. This
the gospel. This ensemble
ensemble is is only one
only one of of many
many
examples
examples of
of Bach's
Bach's symbolic
symbolic methods.
methods. As aa rule,
rule, he
he represented
represented the the con-
con-
trast
trast of
of extra-musical
extra-musical ideas ideas by superimposing
by superimposing different
different musical
musical ideas
ideas in in
counterpoint.
counterpoint. Music was capable capable of of projecting
projecting into into simultaneity
simultaneity what what
language
language could produce only
could produce only in in succession;
succession; only only in in music
music did the abstract
did the abstract
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 275
275
opposition of
opposition of divine
divine lawlaw and
and divine
divine grace
grace become
become aa concrete
concrete reality.
reality.
In the
In the course
course of
of this
this cantata
cantata Bach
Bach introduces
introduces two
two other
other chorales
chorales in in sim-
sim-
ilarly symbolic manner.
ilarly symbolic
manner. TheyThey naturally
naturally complicate
complicate the the structure
structure of of the
the
ensemble. Solo
ensemble. Solo and
and choral
choral sections,
sections, asas yet
yet undivided,
undivided, preserve
preserve thethe old-
old-
fashioned continuity
fashioned continuity ofof the concer/ato. We
the concertato. We dodo not
not find
find in
in the
the early
early cantatas
cantatas
the clearly designed
the clearly designed architecture
architecture of
of his
his later
later works,
works, but
but the
the lack
lack of
of formal
formal
control isis amply
control amply compensated
compensated by by the
the abundance
abundance of of unbridled
unbridled ideasideas that
that
characterize his
characterize his youthful
youthful works.
works.

BACH THE
BACH ORGANIST: WEIMAR
THE ORGANIST: WEIMAR

The second
The second period
period of
of Bach's
Bach's creative
creative career
career comprises
comprises the
the years
years he
he resided
resided
in Weimar
in (1']08-1717), first
Weimar (1708-1717), first as
as court
court organist
organist and
and later
later as
as concert
concert master
master
of the
of the orchestra. It
orchestra. It is the
is the period
period of of his
his great
great organ
organ compositions,
compositions, especially
especially
those not connected
those not connected with
with the
the chorale.
chorale. Bach
Bach showed
showed himself
himself in
in this
this phase
phase
primarily as
primarily
as the
the great
great organist,
organist, as as the
the virtuoso
virtuoso of of his
his chosen
chosen instrument.
instrument.
His fame
His fame as as organist
organist spread
spread fromfrom Weimar all all over
over Germany
Germany and when he he
received
received the
the honorable
honorable offer
offer to
to become
become the
the successor
successor of
of Zachow in
in Halle
Halle he
he
could afford
could afford to
to decline
decline it.
it. Praised
Praised especially
especially for
for his
his marvellous
marvellous performing
performing
ability, his stupendous pedal technique, and his
ability, his stupendous pedal technique,
his art
art ofof registration,
registration, he he was
was
sought after as the expert in
sought after as the expert
in organ
organ building
building and as as the severe adjudicator
adjudicator
of
of newly-built
newly-built
instruments.
instruments. In
In Gottfried
Gottfried Walther he found a worthy worthy col-
col-

league
league
in
in Weimar
Weimar to
to whom he he was bound by by ties
ties of family
family relations
relations and
and
friendship.
friendship.
The
The organ
organ for for which
which Bach Bach composed
composed in in Weimar had been been rebuilt
rebuilt by
by
Compenius.
Compenius.
His
His organs
organs stood
stood midway
midway between the
the north
north German type type
of
of baroque
baroque organ,
organ, brought
brought to to perfection
perfection by by Schnitger,
Schnitger, and and thethe central
central Ger-
Ger-
man type, brought to perfection
man type, brought to perfection by by Silbermann.
Silbermann. The
The sharply
sharply differentiated
differentiated

stops
stops
and
and rugged
rugged mixtures
mixtures of
of the
the Schnitger
Schnitger organ
organ contrasted
contrasted markedly
markedly
with
with thethe somewhat
somewhat more more blending
blending stops stops andand brilliant
brilliant mixtures
mixtures of of the
the

Silbermann
Silbermann organ, organ, but but both
both types
types hadhad aa powerful
powerful and and completely
completely inde-inde-

pendent pedal.
pendent pedal. Only
Only on
on these
these baroque organs
baroque organs do
do the
the works
works of
of Bach
Bach disclose
disclose

their
their true radiance and
true radiance and kaleidoscopic
kaleidoscopic richness.
richness.

After
After the the close
close atmosphere
atmosphere of of Arnstadt
Arnstadt and and Miihlhausen
Muhlhausen the the courtly
courtly
spirit
spirit
in
in Weimar
Weimar was
was like
like aa complete
complete change
change of
of musical
musical climate
climate forfor Bach.
Bach.
The
The Weimar
Weimar court court was,
was, like
like many
many otherother petty courts in
petty courts
in Germany,
Germany, open open
to the stimulating
to the stimulating French French and
and Italian
Italian innovations
innovations in
in secular
secular music.
music. The
The
stream
stream of of compositions
compositions that that began
began to to flow
flow during Weimar
during the Weimar period
the period at-
at-

tests to aa second
tests to second creative
creative encounter
encounter in in Bach's
Bach's life:
life: the
the Italian musk
Italian music in ia
276 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
general, and the concerto style in
general, and the concerto style
in particular.
particular. While
While the the first
first encounter,
encounter, that that
with Buxtehude, had released his
with Buxtehude, had released his creative energies creative energies the
the second
second guided
guided
them into
them into the
the channels
channels of of European
European music.music. It It gave
gave his his music the the decisive
decisive
and final
and final stamp
stamp that
that marks
marks the the second
second period
period as as that
that of of his
his early
early maturity.
maturity.
Like many
Like many other
other great
great German artists
artists Bach
Bach found
found himself
himself only
only by by going
going
through an
through an Italian
Italian phase.
phase.
Bach set
Bach set out
out again
again to to learn,
learn, as as usual,
usual, byby imitation.
imitation. In In aa first
first group
group of of
imitative works
imitative works he he seized
seized withwith enthusiasm
enthusiasm on the the violin
violin concertos
concertos of of Vi-
Vi-
valdi and
valdi and transferred
transferred them them to to the
the organ
organ andand harpsichord.
harpsichord. These arrange- arrange-
ments-another proof
mentsanother proof of the of the German preference
preference for
for keyed
keyed instruments-
draw not
draw not only
only onon Vivaldi
Vivaldi but but also
also onon German composers,
composers, notably notably the the Duke
of Weimar,
of Weimar. Tclemann,
Telemann, and and somesome unidentified
unidentified composers
composers who wrote wrote in in
Vivaldi's style.
Vivaldi's style. They
They are are highly
highly illuminating
illuminating documents
documents of of skilful
skilful adapta-
adapta-
tion in
tion in which
which the the violin
violin figuration
figuration is is either
either literally
literally preserved
preserved or or trans-
trans-
formed to
formed to mechanical
mechanical organ organ patterns.
patterns. While Bach rarely
Bach rarely altered the
altered the
concertos with
concertos with regard
regard to to form,
form, he he supplied
supplied ornaments
ornaments (which (which the the Italians
Italians
did not
did not care
care toto write
write down),
down), fortified
fortified the
the counterpoint,
counterpoint, and even even added
added
middle parts
new middle parts soso convincingly
convincingly that that they
they seem
seem to to belong
belong to to the
the original
original
composition, as
composition, can be
a5 can seen in
be seen the second
in the concerto in
second concerto in G after
after Vivaldi
Vivaldi (op. (op.
7, 2). Walther also
7, 2). Walther
also arranged
arranged concertos
concertos by by Torelli,
Torelli, Albinoni,
Albinoni, Taglietti,
T aglietti, and
others;
others; hishis remarkable
remarkable set set of
of variations
variations on a basso continuo
a basso continue by by Corelli
Corelli as- as-
44
sumes
sumes the importance of
the importance of an independent composition."
independent composition. By
By means of
of
arrangements
arrangements Bach
Bach made himself
himself thoroughly
thoroughly familiar
familiar with
with the
the form and
and
style
style of the concerto
of the concerto and thus gained aa new stylistic
thus gained element which
stylistic element which he he
amalgamated
amalgamated with with hishis German contrapuntal
contrapuntal technique.
technique.
In
In aa second
second group
group of of imitative
imitative works Bach studied studied the the melodic
melodic and and
harmonic
harmonic principles
principles that
that governed
governed the
the construction
construction of
of the
the Italian
Italian themes.
themes.
The monumental conciseness conciseness and the the gestic pathos that
gestic pathos that the themes of
the themes of
Carelli
Corelli and other other Italian
Italian masters
masters attained
attained through
through the the directive
directive force
force of of
tonality cannot be
tonality cannot be found in in Bach's
Bach's early
early themes.
themes. Far superiorsuperior to
to the
the Italians
Italians

in
in contrapuntal
contrapuntal workmanship
workmanship he lacked lacked asas yet
yet melodic
melodic clarity
clarity and balance.
balance.
Bach
Bach overcame this this obstacle
obstacle by borrowing
by borrowing Italian
Italian themes and working
working
them outout independently.
independently. The results results were the the well-known fugues fugues on themes
themes
of Corelli, Legrenzi,
of Carelli, Legrenzi, and Albinoni.Albinoni.u 46
By
By virtue
virtue of of their
their length
length and their their
imaginative contrapuntal
imaginative contrapuntal treatment
treatment these
these imitations
imitations rise
rise actually
actually to
to the
the
level
level ofof compositions
compositions in
in their
their own right.
right. Bach also
also wrote
wrote in
in Weimar aa

"DDT
.. DDT 7.6/27.
26/37, 301
301.
** For Albinoni see
.. Fear Albinoni see Spitta,
Spitta, 0[7.
op. tit.
cit. TIl,
Ill, ~4;
364; the
the Corelli
Corelli theme has been
theme has been borrowed
borrowed
&om
from cp.
P- 3,4.
3> 4-
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 277
variation canzona in dd pursuing
variation canzona in pursuing the
the old-fashioned
oldfashioned style
style of
of Frescobaldi
Frescobaldi or
or
that of
that of his
his German
German follower
follower Froberger,
Froberger, but
but imbuing
imbuing itit with
with the
the modern
modern
tonal idiom.
tonal idiom.
The profound
The effect of
profound effect of Bach's
Bach's creative
creative reaction
reaction to
to Italian
Italian music
music isis clearly
clearly
manifested in
manifested in the
the new thematic
new thematic incisivencss
incisiveness and
and the
the lucidity
lucidity of
of form that
form that
distinguish the
distinguish the instrumental
instrumental music
music ofof the
the Weimar
Weimar period.
period. The
The exuberant
exuberant
wealth of
wealth of ideas
ideas isis now
now disciplined
disciplined by
by Italian
Italian simplicity.
simplicity. The
The mechanically
mechanically
patterned, long-winded, and sequentially spun-out themes of the Buxte-
patterned, long-winded, and sequentially spun-out themes of the Buxte-
hudes and Pachelbels are supplanted by plastic Italianate themes, unified
hudes and Pachelbels are supplanted by plastic Italianate themes, unified
by aa single
by single affection
affection and
and the
the strong
strong centripetal
centripetal force
force of
of tonality
tonality-in short,
in short,
a type
a type of
of theme
theme that
that we are
are apt
apt to call "typically
to call "typically Bachian."
Bachian." The
The comparison
comparison
between the
between the theme
theme ofof the
the multipartite
multipartite prelude
prelude and
and fugue
fugue in in CC (or
(or E)
E)
from the
from early period
the early period and
and that
that ofof the
the fantasy
fantasy and
and fugue
fugue inin cc emphatically
emphatically
demonstrates the
demonstrates the tremendous
tremendous artistic
artistic growth
growth from
from the
the first
first to the second
to the second
period (Ex.
period 81). The second
(Ex. 81). second theme
theme represents
represents with
with its
its characteristic
characteristic di-
di-
Ex. 81.
Ex. Bach:
81. Bach: AIl early
An early and
and aa mature
mature fugue theme.
fugue theme.

,,, JJJJJJll' au; ,JOGn., a PJJJJlolPlg

'~bl'" jlJ J J J IJ_rnJ lijJi J J J IJ Ji jdI
minished
minished seventh
seventh the
the type
type of
of sturdy
sturdy and
and gestic
gestic theme
theme that can be
that can be found
found
in
in the
the organ fugues in
organ fugues in c and f.
c and /, and
and later also in
later also in the
the fugues
fugues of
of the
the Well-
Tempered
Tempered Clavier.
Clavier.
Another
Another type
type retained
retained the
the continuous
continuous motion
motion ofof the
the old-fashioned
old-fashioned themes,
themes,
but instead of rambling on unchecked
but instead of rambling on unchecked it
it was now exquisitely
exquisitely shaped and
shaped
harmonically balanced by
harmonically balanced by aa strong
strong and
and clear
clear harmonic
harmonic foundation.
foundation. These
These
themes
themes show
show how Bach Bach assimilated
assimilated the
the continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony of of the con-
con-

certo
certo style
style
to
to his
his contrapuntal technique.
contrapuntal technique. As an example
example of
of continuo-
continuo-

homophony in
homophony in aa polyphonic
polyphonic setting
setting the
the prelude
prelude and
and fugue in D
fugue in D may
may be
be
quoted, a sparkling virtuoso piece with dashing pedal solos, typical of many
quoted, a sparkling virtuoso piece with dashing pedal solos, typical
of many
organ compositions
organ compositions of
of the
the Weimar
Weimar period.
period. The fugue
fugue theme (Ex.
(Ex. 82),
82),

Ex. 82. Bach:

Ex. 82. Bach: Fugue theme in
Fugue theme D in
in D in concerto
concerto style.
style.
278 Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
which could
which could easily
easily serve
serve as
as a concerto
concerto beginning,
beginning, is is harmonized by by thethe
typical running
typical running
bass
bass in
in concerto style;
concerto style; not
not by
by accident
accident is
is the
the prelude
prelude to
to this
this

particular
particular fugue
fugue designated
designated inin one
one ofof the
the sources
sources as concertato (=
as concer-tato (= "in con-
"in con-
certo").
certo"). The famous toccata
toccata and fugue
fugue in
in d,
d, which has
has been catapulted
catapulted to
to
fame through
through a
a dramatized
dramatized arrangement
arrangement for
for symphony
symphony orchestra,
orchestra, also
also

belongs to
belongs to this
this group.
group. The factfact that
that the
the fugue
fugue dissolves
dissolves at at the
the end in
in fire-
fire-

works ofof rhapsodic

rhapsodic passages
passages isis an
an indication that it
indication that it still
still forms an integral
integral

part of the
part of the toccata.
toccata.

The exact
exact chronology
chronology of of many
many organorgan compositions
compositions has has not yet been es-
yet been es-

tablished
tablished with
with accuracy
accuracy so
so that
that it
it is
is difficult
difficult to
to separate
separate the
the works of
of the
the
second
second period
period from those
those of
of the
the subsequent
subsequent ones.ones. The grand prelude and
grand prelude
fugue
fugue in
in aa goes
goes back,
back, at
at least
least in
in its
its first
first version,
version, toto the
the Weimar period.
period. The
lengthy
lengthy theme of of this
this fugue (Ex. 83)
fugue (Ex. 83) falls
falls into
into two unequal
unequal sections the
sections the

Ez. 83. Bach:

Ex. 83. Bach: Theme of the organ
of the organ fugue
fugue in
in IZ in "realized"
a in "realized" form.

second
second of of which
which carries
carries on the the continuous
continuous motion in in sixteenth notes. In
sixteenth notes. In
spite
spite of
of its
its length
length it
it shows a hitherto
hitherto unprecedented
unprecedented melodic precision
precision and
and
balance resulting
balance resulting from the the interpenetration
interpenetration of melodic and harmonic fac-
of melodic fac-
tors.
tors. Harmonically,
Harmonically, it it is
is no more than than an inspired realization of
inspired realization of the
the
stereotyped
stereotyped formulas
formulas of the concerto
of the concerto style; the first
style; the first section
section isis based
based on thethe
three
three hammerstroke
hammerstroke chords chords I-V-I
I-V-I that
that set
set the
the key,
key, the
the second
second on the
the com-
plete diatonic
plete diatonic circle
circle of
of fifths,
fifths, ingeniously utilized in
ingeniously utilized in the
the further
further course
course ofof
the
the fugue.
fugue. Even the
the concerto
concerto form has
has left
left its
its mark on the the fugue.
fugue. The
toccata, adagio.
toccata, adagio, and fuguefugue in in C correspond
correspond to the three
to the three movements of the
of the

concerto, and this

concerto, this similarity
similarity is is enhanced by the fact
by the fact that the adagio
that the adagio isis aa
highly
highly ornamented aria
aria on a
a rhythmic
rhythmic ostinato
ostinato in
in the
the pedal.
pedal.
In
In the
the organ
organ works of of the
the subsequent
subsequent periods
periods both both the
the Italian
Italian concerto
concerto
style
style and the
the German polyphonic
polyphonic stylestyle are
are inextricably
inextricably interwoven, as
interwoven. as
shown in the great
in the great fantasia
fantasia and fugue fugue in in g. gt composed
composed probably
probably in in
the
the cathen
Cothen period
period for
for Bach's
Bach's visit
visit to
to Hamburg.
Hamburg. The fantasia fantasia brings
brings the
the
rhapsodic
rhapsodic typetype of the north
of the north German toccata toccata to to its
its consummation.
consummation. The
alternation
alternation of of poignant
poignant solo
solo recitatives
recitatives and
and powerful
powerful tutti
tutti chords
chords represents
represents
a further
further adaptation
adaptation of
of the
the concerto
concerto principle
principle to
to the
the organ.
organ. The fuguefugue
theme, universally admired even in
theme, universally in Bach's time, was printed
Bach's time, printed in in an in-
in-

ferior
ferior version
version byby Mattheson who quoted quoted it it probably from memory. With
probably memory.
its plastic shape
its plastic shape and harmonic
harmonic lucidity,
lucidity, which are are no longer
longer Italian
Italian oror
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 279
German but
German but thoroughly
thoroughly Bachian,
Bachian, itit illustrates
illustrates the
the peak
peak of
of thematic
thematic inven-
inven-
tion baroque music altogether. A
in baroque music altogether.
tion in A composition
composition of of equal
equal importance
importance
and perfection
and perfection isis the
the passacaglia in
passacaglia in fashioned after
c, fashioned
c, after Buxtehude's
Buxtehude's cha-cha-
connes and
connes and passacaglias,
passacaglias, and
and based
based part on
in part
in on aa passacaglia
passacaglia theme
theme byby
Raison. The
Raison. The twenty
twenty variations
variations are
are organized
organized in in strictly
stricdy symmetrical
symmetrical
groups, each
groups, each of
of which
which isis unified
unified byby corresponding
corresponding rhythmic
rhythmic patterns.
patterns. The
The
axis of
axis of symmetry
symmetry isis formed
formed byby the
the tenth
tenth and
and eleventh
eleventh variations
variations in in which
which
the bass
the bass theme
theme is is carried
carried in double counterpoint
in double counterpoint to the highest
to the highest voice.
voice. It
It
then returns
then step by
returns step by step
step to
to the
the original
original position.
position. The
The cycle
cycle closes
closes with
with aa
variation for five
variation for five voices
voices and
and isis crowned
crowned by by aa fugue.
fugue. Bach
Bach imbued
imbued thethe
quasi-mathematical permutations of the mechanical patterns
quasi-mathematical permutations of the mechanical patterns which ap- which ap-
pealed so
pealed so strongly
strongly toto baroque
baroque speculation
speculation withwith visionary
visionary life
life and
and elevated
elevated
what was
what was at
at the
the time
time aa mere
mere vehicle
vehicle for
for invention
invention to
to an
an eternal
eternal work
work oof
art.
art.

With regard
With regard to to cantata
cantata composition
composition also, Bach reached
also, Bach reached his his early maturity
early maturity
in Weimar.
in Weimar. It was here
It was here that
that hehe took
took the
the significant
significant stepstep to
to the
the reform
reform
cantata
cantata of Neumeister. Fully
of Neumeister. Fully conscious
conscious of
of the
the secular
secular roots
roots of
of the
the cantata
cantata
Bach
Bach did did notnot hesitate
hesitate toto expand
expand the the traditional
traditional forms
forms of of thethe church
church con- con-
certato by
certato by the
the formal
formal innovations
innovations of of the
the Italian
Italian cantata
cantata andand opera
opera which
make
make theirtheir first
first appearance
appearance in
in the
the cantatas
cantatas composed
composed not
not before
before 1712 and
17I2
not
not later
later than
than 1714.
1714. These
These works
works stand
stand apart
apart from
from the
the cantatas
cantatas of
of all
all other
other
periods
periods by
by virtue
virtue of
of their
their strongly mystical
strongly mystical and
and subjective
subjective tone
tone that
that prevails
prevails
in
in both
both words
words and and music.
music. Struggling
Struggling for for his
his personal
personal stylestyle BachBach went
through
through a a phase
phase of of creative subjectivity in
creative subjectivity in Weimar which which manifested
manifested itself itself

outwardly
outwardly in
in the
the virtuoso
virtuoso attitude
attitude of
of his
his organ
organ music;
music; turned
turned inwardly
inwardly
it took
it took the the form
form of of introspective
introspective mysticism
mysticism and self-centered
self-centered devotion.
devotion.
These traits have often been
These traits have often been explained explained as
as symptoms
symptoms of
of pietistic
pietistic influence
influence

on
on Bach's
Bach's religiosity. Indeed the language of
religiosity. Indeed the language
of Bach's poet Salomon Franck
Bach's poet Salomon Franck

(a follower
(a follower of of Neumeister
Neumeister in in Weimar)
Weimar) makes makes use use of
of pietistic
pietistic phraseology,
phraseology,
but
but it it must
must be remembered that
be remembered that the
the cantata
cantata as as such,
such, being
being figural
figural music,
music,
was diametrically
was diametrically opposed opposed to
to the
the tenets
tenets of
of Pietism.
Pietism. It
It is
is trUe
true that
that the
the re-
re-

ligious and artistic subjectivity

ligious and artistic subjectivity
of Bach
of Bach resembles
resembles externally
externally the
the devotional
devotional

fervor
fervor of of Pietism,
Pietism, butbut they
they could hardly be
could hardly be more
more different
different in in origin
origin and and
purpose.
purpose.
Neumeister,
Neumeister, avowedly,
avowedly, had had conceived
conceived the the cantata
cantata in in analogy
analogy to to aa ser-
ser-

mon. Since it paraphrased

mon. Since it paraphrased the
the topic
topic of
of the
the sermon
sermon in
in art
art poetry
poetry it
it was
was
sung before the sermon, or if there were and after
sung directly were two parts, before
two parts, before and after
directly before the sermon, or if there
280 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
it. The
it. The ideas
ideas presented
presented in in the
the two partsparts of o the
the cantata
cantata were often often so so pro-
pro-
nouncedly divergent
nouncedly divergent that
that their
their inner
inner connection
connection would have
have been
been incom-
incom-
prehensible without the
prehensible without
the sermon.
sermon. This This can can bebe seen
seen in in the
the cantata
cantata len natte
Ich hatte

viel Beftfimmernis (no.

vicl Bekiimmemis (no. 2I)21) which presentspresents in in its
its first
first part the
part the sorrow
sorrow of of
the
the soul,
soul, and
and in
in its
its second
second part
part consolation
consolation and
and confidence
confidence while
while the
the ser-
ser-

mon mediates
mediates between
between the the two
two ideas.
ideas. Old-fashioned
Old-fashioned and modern forms forms
coexist
coexist side
side by side in
by side in this
this cantata.
cantata. It It is
is obviously
obviously a a work of
of transition,
transition, and and
since
since itit can
can be be dated
dated in in I7I4
1714 we know at
at what time
time Bach turned
turned to
to the
the re-
re-

form
form cantata
cantata and and how he he effected
effected the the change.
change. The variegated
variegated structure
structure of
of
the first two
the first two choralchoral ensembles
ensembles are
are obvious
obvious survivals
survivals of
of the
the old
old eoneertato.
concertato.
The
The beginning
beginning of of the
the first
first chorus
chorus withwith its its forceful
forceful reiterations
reiterations "I, "I, I,I, I I had
had
much grief" vividly
grief vividly recalls
recalls the
the beginning
beginning of
of Gott
Goto iSI
ist mein
mcin Konig
Konig but, but,
significantly,
significantly, the the emphasis
emphasis is is now purely purely subjective.
subjective. Mattheson
Mattheson in in hishis
Critiea Musica has
Critica Musica has ridiculed
ridiculed thisthis passage
passage as as an
an example
example of of false
false emphasis,
emphasis,
but
but the
the profoundly personal
profoundly personal fervor
fervor is
is not
not the
the defect
defect but
but the
the virtue
virtue of
of the
the
cantatas
cantatas of of early maturity.
early maturity. The first
first chorus
chorus anticipates
anticipates the
the opposition
opposition of of
ideas that
ideas that underlies
underlies the the cantata
cantata and and gives
gives literally
literally and and figuratively
figuratively the the
'keynote"
"keynote" of
of the
the whole
whole work.
work. Sorrow
Sorrow and
and consolation
consolation are
are set
set off
off in
in sharp
sharp
relief
relief byby means
means of of contrasting
contrasting melodic
melodic material
material and different
different tempi.
tempi. Also Also
the
the second
second chorus
chorus "Why"Why art art thou cast down,"
thou cast down," notable for
notable for its superb
its rhyth-
superb rhyth-
mic
mic flexibility
flexibility and and harmonic
harmonic poignancy,
poignancy, contains contains violent
violent changes
changes in mood,
in mood,
tempo,
tempo, dynamics,
dynamics, and and equally
equally violent
violent solo solo and
and tutti
tutti contrasts.
contrasts. Bach Bach re- re-
served
served thethe modern forms forms for for the
the solo
solo sections
sections of of the
the cantata.
cantata. The first first aria
aria
"Sighing, Weeping'* adopts
"Sighing, Weeping" adopts the the fashionable
fashionable siciliano
siciliano rhythm
rhythm of the opera,
of the opera,
and the
the second
second ariaaria "From my eyes
my eyes salt
salt tears
tears are
are Bowing,"
flowing," memorable
memorable for
for
its
its graphic
graphic violin
violin accompaniment,
accompaniment, is
is a a fully developed
fully developed da-capo da-capo aria
aria with
with
motto
motto beginning.
beginning. UncannyUncanny as as the
the masterly assimilation of
masterly assimilation of these
these formsforms
was, with
was, with Bach it it cannot
cannot compare
compare with with the the assuredness
assuredness with which he
with which he
handled his
handled his recitatives.
recitatives. The very very first
first aceompagnato
accompagnato recitative
recitative is
is replete
replete
with
with thethe keenest
keenest and and mostmost fervent
fervent verbalverbal interpretations.
interpretations. Diminished
Diminished
sevenths in
sevenths in melody
melody and harmony,harmony, sudden sudden outcries,
outcries, and and weirdly twisted
weirdly twisted
melodic
melodic fragments
fragments lend
lend the
the recitative
recitative a
a high-strung intensity
high-strung intensity which
which seems
seems
like
like aa last
last reverberation
reverberation of of Bach's
Bach's youthful
youthful exuberance.
exuberance. The concerted
concerted
dialogue
dialogue between
between the the soul
soul and
and the
the savior
savior "Come my my Jesus,"
Jesus," which
which can can be be
described
described as as aa vocal
vocal trio
trio sonata
sonata on a running bass,
a running bass, isis fashioned
fashioned after after the the
passionate love
passionate love duets
duets of of the
the opera.
opera. The introductory
introductory sinfonia,
sinfonia, a a somber
somber duet duct
between violinviolin and oboe oboe with
with languishing harmonies,
languishing harmonies, also
also shows
shows in its in its

_cady bass
steady bass thethe influence
influence of of Corelli's
Corelli's trio sonata. Of
trio sonata. Of all
all the movements of
the movements of
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 281
the cantata only the penultimate chorus makes use of a chorale; it isis aachorale
the cantata only the penultimate chorus makes use of a chorale; it chorale
prelude
prelude transferred
transferred to
to the
the vocal
vocal medium
medium in
in which
which the
the voices
voices move
move in
in
independent counterpoint
independent counterpoint against against the
the cantus
cantus firmus.
firmus. The
The last
last chorus,
chorus, a a
monumental fugue
monumental fugue with with aa full
full orchestra
orchestra of of three
three trumpets
trumpets (and (and timpani),
timpani),
oboe, and
oboe, and strings,
strings, isis written
written in in the
the broad
broad and and sweeping
sweeping oratoriooratorio stylestyle ofof
Handel which
Handel which rarely
rarely reappears
reappears in in Bach's
Bach's later later works.
works. However,
However, its its theme
theme
and its
and its running
running counterpoint
counterpoint are are indebted
indebted to to the
the archaic
archaic organistic
organistic pat- pat-
terns of
terns of Pachelbel.
Pachelbel.
Yearning
Yearning for for death
death and and profound
profound mysticism
mysticism pervades pervades Komm du au susse
sUsse
T oaesstunae (no.
Todcsstunde (no. 161), perhaps161), perhaps the
the most
most subjective
subjective of
of all
all cantatas
cantatas (text
(text by by
Franck). It
Franck). It opens
opens very very quietly
quietly with
with aa tendertender aria aria for
for alto,
alto, twotwo obbligato
obbligato
Butes, and
flutes, and organ
organ continue.
continuo. In In symbolic
symbolic referencereference to to the
the first
first words
words of of the
the
aria the
aria the organ
organ suddenly
suddenly intones intones the the melody
melody of of the
the death
death chorale Herzlieh
chorale Herzlich
mien vcrlangen.
tut mich
tut tlerlangen. This This chorale
chorale was was aa favorite
favorite with with Bach,
Bach, as as the
the numerous
numerous
settings in the St. Matthew Passion witness.
settings in the St. Matthew Passion witness. The famous accompanied
famous accompanied
recitative and
recitative arioso of
and arioso of the
the cantata
cantata depicts
depicts by by means
means of
of string pizzicato and
string pizzicato and
Bute figures
flute figures the
the tolling
tolling of
of the
the death
death bell
bell which
which the
the alto
alto is
is longing
longing for
for so
so

ardently.
ardently. At At the
the endend thethe chorale
chorale reappears
reappears in in aa fully harmonized setting
fully harmonized setting
with
with a a marvellous
marvellous Bute flute obbligato
obbligato that
that hovers
hovers over
over the
the tune
tune like
like a
a blessed
blessed

spirit
spirit
released
released fromfrom human bondage-a bondagea symbol symbol of of the
the central
central ideaidea of of the
the
cantata.
cantata.
In
In complete
complete contrast
contrast to to the
the subdued
subdued atmosphere
atmosphere of of death
death stands
stands the the bril-
bril-

liant
liant Easter cantata Der
Easter cantata Der Himmellacne
Himmcl lacht (no. 31),
(no. 31), known only
only in
in the
the revised
revised

form
form in in which
which it it has
has come down to to us.
us. It It discloses
discloses Bach'sBach's resourcefulness
resourcefulness

and
and originality
originality in in adapting
adapting the the concerto
concerto style style toto the
the cantata.
cantata. The introduc- introduc-

tory
tory "sonata"
"sonata" for
for an
an exceptionally
exceptionally full
full orchestra
orchestra (three
(three trumpets,
trumpets, timpani,
timpani,
five
five woodwinds,
woodwinds, strings, strings, and
and organ)
organ) is
is actually
actually not
not a
a sonata,
sonata, but
but a
a brilliant
brilliant

tripartite concerto movement

tripartite concerto
movement with with the the typical
typical unison beginning
unison beginning in in all
all

voices.
voices. Such
Such unison
unison passages in his
passages are are comparatively
comparatively rare rare in his works since since they
they
are
are not
not consistent
consistent with with his his wonted
wonted love love for for polyphony,
polyphony, but
but whenever they
they
appear they unmistakably
appear they unmistakably point point to
to the
the influence
influence of
of the
the concerto.
concerto. Also
Also the
tenor
tenor ariaaria "Adam
"Adam must must be be dead
dead within
within me" adheres adheres not not only
only to to the
the con-
con-

certo style
certo style
but
but even
even to
to the
the ritornello
ritornello form
form of
of the
the concerto.
concerto.

In
In view
view of of Bach's
Bach's subjective
subjective attitude
attitude in in Weimar
Weimar it it isis hardly
hardly surprising
surprising
that he
that he favored
favored the free secular
the free secular forms,
forms, best best suited
suited to to individual expression.
individual expression.
It
It is for this
is for this reason
reason that that thethe chorale
chorale figures
figures less less prominently
prominently in in the
the cantatas
cantatas

of
of the
the second
second period
period than
than in
in those
those of
of any
any other.
other. Bach
Bach often
often merely
merely alluded
alluded

to
to the
the chorale,
chorafe, or or even
even abstained
abstained from from it it completely,
completely, as he did,
as he did, for example,
for example,
282 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
in Tritt
in Tritt auf
auf die
die Glaubensbahn
Glaubensbahn (no. 152). He
(no. 152). He combined
combined itit also
also with
with other
other
secular forms;
secular forms; in Nun J(pmm
in Nun k,omm der
der Heiden
Heiden Heiland
Heiland (no. 61), for
(no. 61), for example,
example,
he even
he even imposed
imposed itit on
on the
the French
French overture.
overture.

BACH THE
BACH ~NTOR: COTHEN
THE MENTOR: COT.HEN
'The third
The third period
period in
in Bach's
Bach's life
life coincides
coincides with
with his
his employment
employment atat the
the
court in Cothen
court in (1717-1723) as
COthen (1717-1723) as capellmeister
capdlmeister and
and director
director of
of chamber
chamber
music. This position
music. This position was
was remarkable
remarkable inin several
several respects.
respects. Socially,
Socially, itit meant
meant
for Bach the highest social prestige
for Bach the highest social prestige he
he ever
ever attained,
attained, a
a fact
fact he
he could
could not
not
forget in the subsequent years Leipzig. Artistically, it created a unique
in
forget in the subsequent years in Leipzig. Artistically,
it created a unique

situation for him. The court belonged to the Reformed Church so that his
situation for him. The court belonged to the Reformed Church so that his
official duties
official duties involved
involved neither
neither church
church musicmusic nor nor even
even the the organ.
organ. FarFar re- re-
moved from
moved from his his "final
"final goal,"
goal," a
a regulated
regulated church
church music,
music, Bach
Bach became
became now
a composer
a composer of of secular
secular chamber
chamber and and house
house music.
music. It It was
was in in Cothen
COthen thatthat he he
wrote the
wrote the bulk
bulk of his music
of his music for for clavier
clavier (clavichord
(clavichord and and harpsichord),
harpsichord), and and
chamber
chamber ensembles.
ensembles. The composition of
The composition of church cantatas stopped
church cantatas abruptly.
stopped abruptly.
He devoted
devoted his efforts to
his efforts to instrumental
instrumental music music in in which
which he he set up perfect
set up perfect
models and "guides"
models and "guides** to tyros, to tyros, advanced
advanced students,
students, and music
music lovers.
lovers. The
final
final goal
goal was
was still
still one
one ofof "regulation,"
"regulation," but but it was now aa didactic
it was didactic one,
one, asas is
is

clearly apparent
clearly apparent from
from the
the prefaces
prefaces to
to the
the various
various music-books
music-books for
for members
of
of his
his family,
family, thethe Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier, Clavier, the the Inventions,
Inventions, and the the Orgel-
Orgel-
biichlein.
buchlein. BachBach appears
appears in
in the
the COthen
Cothen period
period as
as the
the great
great mentor who by by
personal example dictates objective standards of
personal example dictates objective standards
of technical
technical craftsmanship.
craftsmanship.
This
This could
could only
only bebe done
done in in the
the "secular,"
"secular," that that isis worldwide,
worldwide, sphere. sphere. The
Clavierour:hkin
Clavicrbuchldn for Friedemann (1720)
for Friedemann (1720) and
and that
that for
for Anna Magdalena
Magdalena
(first version, 1721)
(first version, 1722)
contain
contain in
in rudimentary
rudimentary form and
and unsystematic
unsystematic order order
material for
material for the
the great cycles of keyboard music,
great cycles of keyboard music, notably notably the
the Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered
Clavier,
Clavier, the
the Inventions,
Inventions, and and suites.
suites. None of of these
these didactic
didactic cycles
cycles appeared
appeared
in print
in print during
during Bach's
Bach's lifetime,
lifetime, but but they
they were
were nevertheless
nevertheless widely widely dissem-
dissem-
inated
inated through manuscript
through manuscript copies copies of
of his
his pupils
pupils who felt
felt free
free to
to add
add or
or omit
omit
ornaments.
ornaments. The The superior craftsmanship
superior craftsmanship and
and imagination
imagination of
of Bach the
the
mentor raised
mentor raised these
these models
models far
far above
above the
the level
level of
of similar
similar pedagogical pieces
pedagogical pieces
of the time.
of the time.
The first
The important cycle
first important cycle of of the
the COthen
Cothen period
period is is the
the OrgelbUchlein
Qrgelbuchlein which which
Bach
Bach hadhad already begun
already begun in
in Weimar.
Weimar. Originally
Originally plannedplanned to
to include
include 164
164
chorale
chorale preludes
preludes it contains
it contains only forty-five compositions,
only forty-five compositions, arranged arranged in
in the
the
order
order of
of the
the liturgical year.
liturgical year. Bach's
Bach's aim
aim is
is succinctly
succinctly stated
stated by
by the
the title:
title:

"Guide
"Guide to
. . to the
. the beginning
beginning organist
organist to to work
work out chorale in
out aa chorale in sundry
sundry
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 283
ways, serving
ways, serving also also to to perfect
perfect him him in in the
the pedal-study
pedal-study since since thethe pedal
pedal is is
treated strictly
treated strictly as as an
an obbligato
obbligato voice."
voice." The The chorale
chorale preludes
preludes give give on on the
the
smallest possible
smallest possible scalescale thethe sacrosanct
sacrosanct melody,
melody, nearlynearly always
always stated
stated in in the
the
soprano, to
soprano, to the
the accompaniment
accompaniment oof three three obbligato
obbligato voices
voices which
which weaveweave in- in.
dependent
dependent motives
motives in
in strictest
strictest counterpoint around
counterpoint around it and hardlyit and hardly ever
ever in-
in-

terrupt the flow of the melody

terrupt the flow o the melody by by interludes.
interludes. Bach Bach treated
treated the the chorale
chorale like like
aa single
single variation
variation of of aa partita,
partita, but but with
with aa hitherto
hitherto unknown severity severity of of con-
con-
trapuntal elaboration
trapuntal elaboration which in in itself
itself assured
assured the the proper
proper dignity
dignity of of liturgical
liturgical
music. He invented
music. invented the the rhythmic
rhythmic or or melodic
melodic shape shape of of the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal
figure either
figure either abstractly,
abstractly, as as Scheidt
Scheidt had had done,
done, or or concretely
concretely in in strict
strict con-
con-
formity with
formity with the the affections
affections or or the
the pictorial
pictorial ideasideas of of the
the chorale text. We
chorale text.
know from aa pupil pupil of of Bach
Bach that that hehe admonished
admonished his his students
students to to play
play thethe
chorale "according
chorale "according to to the
the tenor
tenor of of the
the words."
words." Once established,
established, the the figures
figures
governed the
governed the structure
structure of of thethe entire
entire composition
composition regardless
regardless of of whether
whether
they belonged
they belonged to the treasure
to the treasure of of stereotyped
stereotyped figuresfigures or or whether
whether they they werewere
intellectually derived
intellectually derived by by means
means of of metaphorical
metaphorical or or symbolical
symbolical references
references
to motion
to motion or or other
other concepts
concepts in in the
the text.
text. The unique
unique musical
musical intensity
intensity of the
of the
preludes
preludes resulted
resulted from
from the
the interpenetration
interpenetration of
of three
three unifying
unifying factors:
factors:

the unity
the unity of the rhythmic
of the rhythmic figure,figure, thethe unity
unity of of the
the melodic
melodic motive,
motive, and the the
unity of
unity of affection.
affection. Bach Bach gave gave here here inin highly
highly condensed
condensed form form the the essence
essence
of his
of his musical philosophy; he
musical philosophy; reduced to
he reduced to simultaneity
simultaneity the the "presentation"
"presentation"
of the dogma
of the dogma (the (the chorale)
chorale) and its its "interpretation"
"interpretation" (the (the contrapuntal
contrapuntal
setting).
setting). In
In the
the much-quoted
much-quoted chorale
chorale prelude
prelude Durch Adams Fall the
Fall the fall
fall

of
of Adam from the state of
from the state of innocence innocence into
into sin
sin is
is depicted
depicted by by the
the "falling"
"falling*
seventh
seventh in in the
the bass:
bass; since
since it it was a a fall
fall into
into sin
sin and sincesince sinsin was conven-

tionally
tionally represented
represented by by chromaticism,
chromaticism, Bach made the the sevenths
sevenths not not diatonic
diatonic
but
but diminished.
diminished. Not satisfied satisfied with with these
these two references
references Bach introducedintroduced
aa third meaning in
third meaning in the
the chromatically
chromatically winding winding middle part part representing
representing
the
the "snake,"
"snake," another
another symbolsymbol of of sin
sin toto which the the text
text expressly
expressly refers.
refers.

The most
most drastic
drastic symbolical
symbolical or or pictorial
pictorial references
references occur, significantly, in
occur, significantly, in
the
the obbligato
obbligato voice:
voice: the
the pedal. Nobody
pedal. Nobody can
can mistake
mistake the
the forcefully
forcefully rising
rising
fifths
fifths or
or fourths
fourths in in the
the chorale
chorale of of resurrection Erstandcn ist.
resurrection Erstandm ist, or
or the
the pealing
pealing
rhythmic ostinati in
rhythmic ostinati in In dir istIn dir is: Freude
Freudc and Heu:
Htut triumphieret
triumphierct which seem
to
to ring
ring the
the change
change to to the
the exultant
exultant accompaniment
accompaniment of of the
the other parts.
other parts.
Without
Without reference
reference to to thethe words
words and and without
without knowledge
knowledge of of the
the doctrine
doctrine of
figures
figures and
and affections
affections the the true
true meaning,
meaning, or or rather
rather meanings,
meanings, of the chorale
prelude could
prelude could not
not be properly
be properly understood.
understood. Like the
the baroque
baroque emblems
which imposed
which imposed non-pictorial
non-pictorial and and allegorical
allegorical meanings
meanings on pictures,
on pictures* musicmusic

too, was
too, was able
able toto realize
realize extra-musical
extra-musical meaningsmeanings that, that, however intellectually
intellectually
284 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
contrived,
contrived, enhanced
enhanced the the meaning
meaning of of the
the music.
music. They They actUally
actually supplied
supplied
the composer
the composer with with the
the raw
raw material
material (intervals
(intervals and
and rhythms)
rhythms) out out of
of which
which
he
he built
built his
his composition.
composition. AlthoughAlthough these these metaphorical
metaphorical procedures
procedures may may
seem
seem utterly
utterly mechanical
mechanical and and far-fetched
far-fetched today, today, theythey formed
formed an an essential
essential

part
part ofof all
all baroque
baroque arts.arts. They
They werewere common
common property property in in baroque
baroque music,
music,
but
but assumed
assumed vital vital importance
importance with
with Bach
Bach because
because he
he was able
able to
to make them
them
subservient
subservient to to an
an artistic
artistic purpose.
purpose. He forged
forged the
the intellectual
intellectual artifices
artifices into
into
aa self-contained
self-contained work work of of art,
art, but
but without
without them them the the preludes
preludes would not not
have
have taken
taken thethe form
form in in which they they now exist. exist.

On the the other

other hand,
hand, it it should
should not not be be forgotten
forgotten that that the
the pictorial
pictorial and and
emblematic
emblematic references
references gave only
gave only one
one aspect
aspect of
of the
the music.
music. As Bach
Bach said
said him.
him-
self,
self, he
he set
set the
the chorales
chorales in in "sundry
"sundry ways."
ways." The pictorialpictorial "interpretation"
"interpretation"
of
of the chorale was only
the chorale only one
one extreme
extreme which
which had had itsits complement
complement in in another
another
extreme: abstract
extreme: abstract "elaboration"
"elaboration" by by means of of stereotyped
stereotyped figures
figures that
that hadhad
no other
other than
than their
their inherent
inherent musical
musical meaning.
meaning. The danger
danger of
of reading
reading mean-
mean-
ings
ings into
into the
the music
music thatthat Bach
Bach did did not
not have
have in in mind has has not
not always
always beenbeen
avoided, quite understandably
avoided, quite understandably because
because a
a significant
significant part part of
of the
the music
music does
does
call
call for
for metaphorical understanding. It would
metaphorical understanding. It would however be a fatal errorhowever be a fatal error
to apply
to apply the the metaphorical
metaphorical interpretation
interpretation to to all
all ofof his
his compositions.
compositions. The The
origin
origin and meaning meaning of of many
many pictorial
pictorial motives
motives will perhaps never
will perhaps never be be
as
as clear
clear asas they
they are
are in
in certain
certain cantatas
cantatas and
and chorale
chorale preludes;
preludes; but
but even
even when
when
the motives were
the motives were definitely conceived pictorially
definitely conceived pictorially the the idea of abstract
idea of elabo-
abstract elabo-
ration obtained
ration obtained at at the
the same
same time. This can
time. This can be be shown
shown in in aa great
great number
number
of preludes.
of preludes. For example, the
For example, the descending
descending bass bass line
line inin Vom Himmel \am kam
which graphically represents
which graphically represents the the "descent
"descent from from heaven"
heaven" appears
appears in in thethe
course of
course of the
the composition
composition in in inversion
inversion in in complete
complete repudiation
repudiation of of its
its orig-
orig-
meaning. The same
inal meaning.
inal same isis true
true ofof the
the rising
rising intervals
intervals inin Erstanden
Erstanden ist. ist.
This conflict
This conflict of of meanings
meanings was not not illogical
illogical for for Bach
Bach because
because everyevery figure
figure
was as as such
such subject
subject to to the
the doctrine
doctrine of of figures,
figures, whichwhich regarded
regarded inversion
inversion
as one
as one of of its
its most
most important
important devices.
devices.
A comparison
comparison between
between Walther's
Walther's and and Bach's
Bach's preludes
preludes discloses
discloses how high high
Bach towered
Bach towered eveneven above
above the best of
the best of his
his contemporaries.
contemporaries. Walther Walther employs
employs
in Erschimen
in Ersclaimen ist isI dcr
tier herrlich
lam-lick Tag Tag (Ex. 841) aa rhythmic
(Ex. 84a) rhythmic and and melodic
melodic ideaidea
Ex. fl4.a.
Ex. 843. Walther:
Walther: Chorale
Chorale prelude Ersclnenen
prelude Erschienen isI.
fc

X
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 285
that appears
that appears in
in strikingly
strikingly similar
similar fashion
fashion in
in Bach's
Bach's setting
setting of
of the
the same
same
chorale (Ex.
chorale (Ex. 84!))
84b);; however, uses
however, Bach uses it more
it more consistently,
consistently, elaborates
elaborates it
it
Ex.
Ex. 84.b. Bach:
84.b. Bach: Chorale
Chorale prelude
prelude Erschicncn in.
Erschienen ist.
1\

: III - ... "

I""IJ .n :!I: nJ.~ :JU l
~
....c.,r I I..f r IJ r ....

with richer
with richer harmonies,
harmonies, and,
and, moreover,
moreover, presents
presents the
the melody
melody inin canon,
canon, the
the
symbol
symbol of
of constraint,
constraint, in
in reference
reference to
to the
the last
last line
line of
of the
the text
text "he
"he leads
leads his
his

enemies in chains."
enemies in chains."
Only rarely
Only rarely did
did Bach follow
follow in
in the
the Orgelbuchlcin the practice
Orgelhuchlein the practice of
of Bohm
BOhm
and state
and state the
the melody
melody in
in profusely
profusely ornamented form. For
ornamented form. For Bach
Bach ornamenta-
ornamenta-
tion was
tion was another
another method
method of
of subjective interpretation and
subjective interpretation and it
it is
is significant
significant
that he
that he used
used it with
with especially
it especially affective
affective chorale
chorale texts,
texts, such
such as Wenn wir inin
as Wenn
h&:hstcn Noten,
hochstcn Noten, lahr, and 0 Mensch betuein.
alte Jakr,
Das alte hewein. In In the
the latter
latter prelude
prelude
Bach gave
Bach gave the
the ultimate
ultimate that
that was
was possible
possible in
in subjective
subjective affection
affection and orna-
orna-
mental treatment.
mental treatment. The French French agrements
agrcments are are completely
completely spiritualized;
spiritualized;
they are
they are nono longer
longer extraneous
extraneous embellishments
embellishments but but integral parts of
integral parts the
of the

musical structure. The rich

musical structure. harmonization is
rich harmonization is mapped out
mapped out strictly
strictly in
in keep-
keep-
ing with the
ing with the words.
words. The abrupt turn to
abrupt turn chromaticism in
to chromaticism in the bass occurs
the bass occurs
exactly
exactly when the
the text
text refers
refers to
to "sacrifice,"
"sacrifice," and the
the reference
reference to
to "crucifixion"
"crucifixion"
in
in the
the final
final line
line is
is rendered
rendered in in an
an ineffably poignant adagissimo
ineffably poignant adagissimo cadence.
cadence.
All
All these
these features bespeak Bach's
features bespeak Bach's intensely
intensely personal
personal attitude
attitude toward the the
liturgy,
liturgy,
an
an attitude
attitude that
that does
does not
not prevail
prevail in
in the
the later
later series
series ofof chorale
prdudes. In this respect the prdudes of
preludes. In this respect the preludes
of the Orgclbuchlcin are
the Orgelhuchlein unique;
are unique;

they
they are
are in
in fact
feet a
a last
last reflection
reflection of
of the
the subjectivism
subjectivism of
of the
the Weimar period.
period.

The
The clavier
clavier works
works ofof the
the COthen
Cothen period
period show thatthat Bach avoided the
danger
danger of
of succumbing
succumbing to to the
the powerful
powerful Italian
Italian and French influences
influences by
by
assimilating them with his German polyphonic
assimilating them with his polyphonic tradition.
tradition. The fusion
fusion of
of
national
national styles in what became
styles in became thethe unique
unique Bachian style style is
is the most

remarkable
remarkable single
single
factor
factor in
in Bach's
Bach's mature
mature instrumental
instrumental music. Whatever
might formerly
might formerly have
have been
been brilliant
brilliant tinsel
tinsel or
or mere mannerism was trans-
trans-

formed through his superior craftsmanship

formed through his superior craftsmanship into
into pure gold.
pure gold. In the toccatas
toccatas

for
for harpsichord Bach drew with sovereign freedom on such
harpsichord Bach drew with sovereign
such widely
widely diver-
diver-
286
286 Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
gent techniques
gent techniques as as the
the variation
variation ricercar
ricercar andand the the concerto
concerto style.
style. The toccata
toccata
in /-sharp,
in I-sharp, for for example,
example, evolves
evolves itsits fugue
fugue theme
theme from from thethe slow
slow movement by by
a process
a process of of thematic
thematic transformation.
transformation. In In the
the dazzling
dazzling and rhapsodicrhapsodic toc- toc-
catas in
catas in cc and and aa it it is
is essentially
essentially the the influence
influence of of the
the concerto
concerto style style that
that
contributes to
contributes to the
the inexorable
inexorable drive
drive of of the
the music;
music; the the repetitive
repetitive triadic
triadic theme
of the
of the fugue
fugue in in cc would
would actually
actually be be more suitable
suitable for for aa concerto
concerto beginning
beginning
than aa fugue.
than fugue.
The greatgreat cyclecycle of of preludes
preludes and and fugues
fugues that that Bach
Bach combined
combined for for didactic
didactic
purposes
purposes in
in the
the Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier
Clavier (I, 1122)
(1, 1722) givesgives in
in systematic
systematic orderorder
the Ariadne
the Ariadne thread thread through
through all all the
the keys
keys of of the
the circle
circle of
of fifths
fifths which the the
"well-tempered" tuning
"well-tempered" tuning had had made practicable
practicable for for the first time. Bach
the first time.
borrowed the
borrowed the term term "well-tempered"
"well-tempered" directly directly from Werckmeister.
Werckmeister. The
newly
newly attained
attained freedom
freedom to
to modulate
modulate through
through the
the most
most distant keys
distant keys led
led in-
in-
evitably
evitably to
to enharmonic
enharmonic modulations.
modulations. Bach
Bach did
did not
not need
need them in
in the
the
fugues of
fugues of thethe Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier, Clavier) but but he he used
used them in in the
the third
third
English suite
English suite (saraband)
(saraband) and later also
and later also extensively
extensively in in the
the Chromatic Fan- Fan-
tasy. The contention,
tasy. contention, frequently
frequently voiced,
voiced,46 46 that the preludes and fugues
that the preludes and fugues
are thematically
are thematically related related is is unfounded;
unfounded; in in fact,
fact, the
the documentary
documentary evidence evidence
of the
of the Clavierbuchlein
Clavierbuchlein and and other
other preliminary
preliminary sources sources speaks definitely
speaks definitely
against it.
against Such accidental
it. Such accidental similarities
similarities between
between preludeprelude and fugue fugue as as can
can
be observed
be observed in in no.
no. 23 in B are
23 in rare exceptions
are rare exceptions that that confirm
confirm the the rule.
rule.
The immense variety variety of of forms
forms and texturestextures in in the
the cycle
cycle reflects Bach's
reflects Bach's

intention
intention of of supplying
supplying models
models for
for the
the "youth
"youth anxious
anxious to
to learn."
learn." Each
Each
prelude
prelude is unified
is unified by
by consistent
consistent motivic
motivic treatment;
treatment; only only the
the contrasts
contrasts
between the
between the motives themselves create
motives themselves create the the variety
variety of of types.
types. Some of the
of the
prdudes are
preludes are ultimate
ultimate stylizations
stylizations of of dances,
dances, such such as as the
the saraband
saraband (no. (no. 8 8 in
in
e-flat),
r-flat), others
others belong belong to to the
the etude
etude or perpetuum mobile
or perpetuum mobile typetype (no.(no. 2 in in c,
c,

no. 5
no. 5 in
in D),
D), or
or to
to the
the aria
aria type (no.
type (no. 10 in
in e).
.
e) Still
Still others
others belong
belong to
to the
the trans-
trans-
fer
fer type.
type. They They are are patterned
patterned after after distinct
distinct formsforms of of instrumental
instrumental music, music,
such as as the trio trio sonata
sonata (no.(no. 24 in b),
24 in ), the
the toccata
toccata (no. (no. 77 in
in E-flat),
E-flat), thethe inven-
inven-
tion
tion (no.
(no. II
ii in
in I),
/), and even the
the fugue (no. 19 in A).
fugue (no. 19 in A). In the last case
In the last case a a
fugue
fugue with with countersubject
countersubject serves serves exceptionally
exceptionally as as "prelude"
"prelude" to to another
another
fugue.
fugue.
Not in any of
in any of his
his fugues
fugues diddid Bach adhere adhere to to exactly
exactly thethe same
same pattern.
pattern.
He made the the Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier
Clavier the
the inventory
inventory of
of all
all previous
previous typestypes
of
of fugue
fugue with strong strong emphasis
emphasis on the the monothematic
monothematic fugue. fugue. WhileWhile BachBach
"Most has been made of
** Most has of the
the alleged relation by
alleged relation Werker, Bachstudien.
by Werker, Backstudien* He imposes
imposes
on Bach's music a pseudo-mathematical
pseudo-mathematical analysis,
analysis, as
as absurd in its
absurd in its method asas in
in its
its
results. Steglich, S.d,
results. Steglich, although opposed
Back, although opposed toto Werker,
Worker, applies
applies a
a similarly
similarly forced
forced analy.
analy-
sis,
sis, and matters are scarcely
matters are improved by
scarcely improved by aa strange
strange admixture
admixture ofof Nazi
Nazi ideology.
ideology.
 Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 287
did
did notnot invent
invent a singlesingle new type type he he made
made of of the
the fugue
fugue what
what it it stands
stands
for
for today:
today: a a contrapuntal
contrapuntal form form of of the
the highest
highest concentration
concentration in in which
which a a
single
single characteristic
characteristic subjectsubject in in continuous
continuous expansion pervades
expansion pervades thoroughly aa thoroughly
unified
unified whole.
whole. Bach heightenedheightened the the unification
unification of of fugue
fugue writing
writing by by de-de-
riving
riving the
the material
material for
for the
the episodes
episodes either
either from
from the
the second
second part
part of of the
the
fugue
fugue subject
subject itself (no. 16
itself (no. 16 in g), or
in g), or from
from the the counterpoint
counterpoint to to thethe sub-
sub-
ject (no.
ject (no. 12 in in f).
/). That Bach was was fully
fully conscious
conscious of of the
the historical
historical types
types of of
fugues
fugues is
is clearly
clearly evident
evident in
in his
his retrospective
retrospective fugue fugue no.
no. 4
4 in
in c-sharp
r-sharp which
which
brings
brings the the ricercar
ricercar to to consummation.
consummation. He uses here aa typical
uses here typical slow
slow ricercar
ricercar
theme,
theme, introduces
introduces new countersubjects
countersubjects in
in the
the manner
manner Sweelinck and Fro-
of
of Sweelinck and Fro-
berger,
berger, and and finally
finally combines
combines them in in a a climactic
climactic finish.
finish. On the the other
other hand,
hand,
we find
find "modern"
"modern" themes themes with with rich
rich tonal
tonal implications
implications or or even
even modulations
modulations
(no.
(no. 12 in
in f.
/, no.
no. 24
24 in
in b).
3). Also
Also the
the technical
technical treatment
treatment varies
varies from
from the the
strictest
strictest contrapuntal
contrapuntal artifices
artifices (no.
(no. 8
8 in
in e-flat)
*-flat) to
to a
a rhapsodic fugal
rhapsodic fugal style style
(no.
(no. 5 in D).
5 in D). What sets sets Bach's
Bach's fugues
fugues apartapart fromfrom thosethose ofof any
any other
other com-com-
poser is
poser is the
the superb
superb configuration
configuration of of his
his themes
themes which which give give the
the indelible
indelible
stamp
stamp to to each
each work.
work. The themes themes stand
stand firmly
firmly as though hewn from
as though from granite;
granite;
their
their strong
strong and
and characteristic
characteristic shapes
shapes are
are the
the immutable
immutable entities
entities of
of Bach's
Bach's
music.
music. Even his his counterpoints
counterpoints and
and countersubjects
countersubjects participateparticipate in
in the
the per-
per-
sonal
sonal characterization
characterization arid, arid, consequently,
consequently, many many of of Bach's
Bach's countersubjects
countersubjects
have more character
have character than than thethe primary
primary subjects
subjects of of his
his predecessors.
predecessors. The
elevation
elevation of of the
the fugue
fugue to to a a "character
"character piece" embodying aa single
piece" embodying single affection
affection

must
must be be regarded
regarded as
as the
the culmination
culmination of
of the
the form.
form. It
It was
was the
the ultimate
ultimate step
step
in the development
in the development that that could
could be taken
be taken without
without breaking
breaking through the
through the
framework
framework of of baroque
baroque music music altogether.
altogether.
The Inventions. another
The Inventions, another didactic
didactic cyclecycle of of two- and three-part
three-part compo-compo-
sitions,
sitions, have
have been
been designated
designated by by Bach
Bach as
as an
an "honest
"honest guide
guide to
to the
the lovers
lovers

of the
of the clavier"
clavier" (1723)'
(1723). TheyThey are
are arranged
arranged like
like the
the Well-Tempered
Wctt-Tcmpcrcd Clavier
in
in the
the ascending
ascending order order of of keys
keys butbut with
with the the omission
omission of of those
those involving
involving
more than
more than four
four accidentals.
accidentals. While While BachBach probably
probably borrowed
borrowed the the tide
title from

the
the inventions
inventions of of Bonporti
Bonporti the the form
form was completely
completely his Written in
his own. Written in
fugal style
fugal style without
without being fugues
being fugues the
the inventions
inventions represent
represent the
the triumph
triumph of of
obbligato part-writing,
obbligato part-writing, specifically specifically mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the preface.
preface. Bach wanted
to give
to give thethe student
student "a "a strong
strong foretaste
foretaste of of composition"
composition" and teach teach him how
to "play
to "pky neady"
neatly" and and "in "in singing
singing manner."
manner." The technical purpose becomes
technical purpose

especially
especially
clear
clear in
in the
the three-part
three-part sinfonie
sinf onie which
which challenge
challenge the the musicianship
musicianship
and proficiency
and proficiency of
of the
the performer
performer more
more severely
severely than
than a four-
four- or five-part
five-part

fugue does.
fugue does.
The solidification of
The solidification the fugue
of the fugue in in the
the sphere
sphere of of "absolute"
"absolute** music had its its
2 88 Music in
Music the Baroque
in the Baroque Era
Era
complement in
complement
in the
the sphere
sphere of of dance
dance music
music in in the
the ultimate
ultimate stylization
stylization oof the the
keyboard suite. The tides
keyboard suite. The
titles of of the
the so-called
so-<:alled "English"
"English" and "French" suites
and "French" suites

are not
are not only
only not not authentic
authentic but but actually misleading ifif regarded
actually misleading regarded as as clues
clues to to
their style.
their style. In
In both
both sets
sets the
the ties
ties with
with dance
dance music
music proper
proper are
are severed;
severed; only
only
the shells
the shells ofof rhythmic
rhythmic patternspatterns survive,
survive, raised
raised by by means
means of of stylization
stylization into into
the rarefied atmosphere
the rarefied atmosphere of abstract of abstract art
art music.
music. As
As to
to the
the date
date of
of the
the suites
suites

we know
we know only only that that theythey belong
belong to to the
the Cothen
COthen period,
period, but but onon stylistic
stylistic
grounds
grounds
it
it seems
seems certain
certain that
that the
the English
English suites
suites were
were composed
composed first.
first. Far
Far
from being "English"
from being "English" in
in style
style the
the first
first set
set reveals
reveals the
the radical
radical assimilation
assimilation

of the
of the Italian
Italian and and thethe French
French style,style, but
but itit isis significant
significant that,that, at at this
this stage,
stage,
they are kept apart in the different movements.
they are kept apart in the different
movements. The preludes preludes follow Italian
follow Italian

models, especially
models, especially those
those to
to the
the second
second and
and third
third suites
suites in which
in which the the con-
con-
certo grosso
certo grosso andand the the ritornello
ritornello formform is is bodily
bodily transferred
transferred to to the
the harpsichord.
harpsichord.
The other
The other movements
movements betray betray French
French influence:
influence: there there is is more
more thanthan one one
courante in
courante in aa single
single suite;
suite; the the sophisticated
sophisticated rhythmsrhythms of the French courante
of the French courante
type
type
are
are prevalent;
prevalent;
and
and several
several dances
dances appear
appear with doubles,
with separately
doubles, separately
written out
written out with
with aa typically
typically German thoroughnessthoroughness in in the
the useuse of agrem~ts
of agrSmcnts
which no
which no Frenchman
Frenchman would would ever ever have
have applied.
applied. In the the allemande of of the
the
first suite in .A. the "broken
first suite in A the "broken style" style" of
of the
the clavecinists
clavecinists is
is presented
presented in
in its
its most
most
refined
refined form.
form. Bach Bach stillstill adheres
adheres to the arpeggio
to the arpeggio figurefigure of the lute,
of the lute, but but
injects
injects
so
so much
much motivic
motivic treatment
treatment into
into thethe thin
thin texture
texture thatthat itsits free-voiced
free-voiced

effect
effect appears
appears as as though
though it it had
had been
been produced
produced by by an artificial
artificial thinning
thinning out
of a contrapuntal
of a contrapuntal texture
texture in
in complete
complete reversal
reversal of
of the
the original
original procedure.
procedure.
In the "French" suites
In the "French" suites Italian, French, Italian, French, and German styles
styles no longerlonger
stand
stand side
side byby side
side but
but wholly
wholly merge
merge with
with Bach's
Bach's personal
personal style.
style. This fusion
is
is in
in itself
itself internal
internal evidence
evidence for for the
the later
later date
date of of the
the second set. set. Moreover,
Moreover,
the conciseness of
the conciseness of all
all movements
movements bespeaks bespeaks the the economy
economy of of maturity.
maturity. In
their melodic rather
their melodic rather than than motivic
motivic character
character the
the dances
dances of
of the French suites
suites

lean
lean toward
toward the the Italian
Italian style
style and also also thethe fact
fact that
that the
the fast
fast Italian
Italian corrente
corrcntc
occurs
occurs more
more frequently
frequently than
than the
the slower
slower French
French type
type points
points in
in the
the samesame
direction.
direction,

Bach's
Bach's chamber
chamber music
music must
must be regarded as
be regarded as the
the highest
highest manifestation
manifestation of of
the
the COthenCothen period.
period. It
It is
is noteworthy
noteworthy that
that he
he wrote
wrote the
the majority
majority of
of his
his

sonatas
sonatas not not for
for two
two melody
melody instruments
instruments andand continuo
continuo butbut for
for aa single
single
melody instrument (violin,
melody instrument (violin, flute, flute, or
or gamba)
gamba) and
and obbligato harpsichord.
obbligato harpsichord.
ItIt isis indicative
indicative ofof his
his German
German proclivity
proclivity for
for keyed
keyed instruments
instruments that
that Bach
Bach
was
was not not satisfied
satisfied with
with using
using the
the harpsichord
harpsichord merely
merely for
for the
the continuo;
continuo; he he
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 289
made itit aa concerting
made concerting instrument
instrument and and provided
provided the the right
right hand
hand with
with aa fully
fully
independent part
independent part thatthat would
would otherwise
otherwise be be taken
taken by by the
the second
second melody
melody
instrument. His
instrument. His "solo"
"solo" sonatas
sonatas arc are actually
actually trio trio sonatas
sonatas condensed
condensed for for
two instruments,
two instruments, and, and, characteristically,
characteristically, one one of of the
the gamba
gamba sonatassonatas isis
actually only
actually only aa condensation
condensation of of an
an original
original triotrio sonata
sonata forfor twotwo flutes.
flutes. That
That
the sonatas
the sonatas are
are strongly
strongly indebted
indebted to
to concerto
concerto style
style can
can be
be proved
proved not
not only
only
by the
by the concerto
concerto character
character of of the
the themes,
themes, the the frequent
frequent use use ofof da-capo
da-capo and and
ritornello forms,
ritornello forms, but, but, especially,
especially, by by thethe masterly
masterly handlinghandling of of continuo-
continuo-
homophony that
homophony that underlies
underlies even even the the fugal
fugal movements.
movements. While While the the flute
flute
sonatas contain,
sonatas contain, likelike the
the concerto,
concerto, only only three
three movements
movements the the violin
violin sonatas
sonatas
usually follow
usually follow thethe four-movement
four-movement pattern pattern of of the
the church
church sonata.
sonata. TheThe first
first
version of
version of the
the sixth
sixth violin
violin sonata
sonata-there exist altogether
there exist altogether three three versions-
versions-
carries the
carries the da-capo
da-capo principle
principle to to its
its highest
highest point.
point. The first first movement,
movement, in in
itself aa da-capo
itself da-capo form,form, must must be be bodily
bodily repeated
repeated as as aa giant
giant da-capo
da-capo at at the
the
end and
end and thus
thus flanks
flanks threethree slow
slow movements
movements of of pronounced
pronounced lyrical lyrical af-af-
fections.
fections. The manner in which Bach
in which Bach combined combined in
in his
his sonatas
sonatas fugal writing
fugal writing
with concerto
with concerto style
style will
will always
always remain
remain aa marvel.
marvel. Their Their contrapuntal
contrapuntal bril- bril-
liance and
liance and their
their wide
wide range
range of of affections
affections have have no no equal
equal in in the
the entire
entire litera-
litera-
ture of
ture of the
the trio
trio oror solo
solo sonata.
sonata.
The
The most monumental documents
most monumental documents of of polyphonic
polyphonic string string music are with-
are with-
4T
out
out question the six suites for cello solo 41 and the six sonatas for violin
question the six suites for cello solo
and the six sonatas for violin

solo
solo senza continue consisting
senza continuo consisting of of three
three church
church sonatassonatas and three chamber chamber
sonatas.
sonatas. TheirTheir tremendous
tremendous technical technical difficulties,
difficulties, especially
especially the persistent
persistent
use of multiple
use of multiple stops, stops,48 48 are
are not
not just
just virtuoso
virtuoso features
features but are the natural
natural

result of the complexity

result of the complexity of
of his
his musical
musical ideas.
ideas. With his
his desire
desire to
to produce
produce
polyphony
polyphony at
at any
any cost
cost Bach
Bach seems
seems to
to break
break through
through the
the technical
technical limitations
limitations

of
of the instrument. The
the instrument. The suggested
suggested ratherrather than
than realreal polyphony
polyphony on the the violin
violin

recalls
recalls thethe suggestive
suggestive methodsmethods that that Gaultier
Gaultier had used used on on the
the lute,
lute, only
only
that they appear
that they appear here
here raised
raised to
to infinite
infinite power.
power. Bach
Bach relied
relied on
on the
the hearer
hearer

to
to supply the voice-leading that he
supply the voice-leading that
he could
could only only implyimply on on the the violin.
violin.

Mattheson
Mattheson quoted quoted without
without mentioning
mentioning Bach's Bach's name the gigantic
name the gigantic fuguefugue
of
of the
the violin
violin sonata
sonata in in C,C, probably the
the longest
longest of
of all
all of
of Bach's
Bach's fugues,
fugues, and
and
probably
justly praised the fugue in
justly praised the fugue
in aa for
for its
its inspired
inspired ingenuity.
ingenuity. It It is
is most
most revealing
revealing
to compare
to compare the
the various
various fugues
fugues for
for violin
violin with
with the
the organ
organ transcriptions
transcriptions that
that

Bach made at a later time.

Bach made at a later time. They demonstrateThey demonstrate that
that the
the implied polyphony
implied polyphony

"4TThe
The last
last suite
suite was
was written
written forfor VIola
viola pomposa
pomposa or or VI'olollcello
violoncello piccolo.
piccolo,
48The
The theory bow by
theory that
that the
the violinist
violinist could
could instandy
instantly regulate
regulate the
'8 the pressure
pressure of
of the
the bow by
his
his thumb
thumb toto which
which Schweitzer
Schweitzer has has given has been
given wide
wide currency
currency has been questioned,
questioned, appar-
appar-
endy
endy onon good
good evidence,
evidence, by Reckmann, Das
by Beckmann, Das Violillspi~l,
Violinsptel. ItIt seems that in
seems that Bachs time
in Bach's tune
also
also the
the multiple
multiple stops
stops had
had toto be executed in
be executed in arpeggiated
arpeggiatcd form.
form.
290 Music in in the the Baroque
Baroque Era
is
is grounded
grounded on on strict
strict part-writing,
part-writing, fully realized in
fully realized in the
the transcription.
transcription. The
celebrated
celebrated chaconne
chaconne in in d.
d, built
built on a a combination
combination of of the
the first
first and second
second
type
type of
of chaconne
chaconne bass
bass in
in the
the traditional
traditional saraband
saraband rhythm,
rhythm, unfolds
unfolds a
a mag-
mag-
nificent
nificent series
series of of patterned
patterned variations.
variations. As in
in the
the chaconnes
chaconnes of
of Lully
Lully and and
Purcell,
Purcell, the
the sudden
sudden turn
turn to
to the
the opposite
opposite mode at
at the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the
middle part
middle part gathersgathers the
the diversified variations into a grand
diversified variations into a grand tripartite form. tripartite form.
The orchestral
orchestral compositions
compositions of of the
the third
third period
period disclose
disclose how well well Bach
Bach
had
had learned
learned his his lesson
lesson in in Italian
Italian concerto
concerto style.
style. That his
his creative
creative imagina-
imagina-
tion
tion had been been immeasurably
immeasurably enriched enriched by by thethe concerto
concerto clearlyclearly transpires
transpires
in
in the
the chamber
chamber music. music. However,
However, what had lain lain here
here under the the surface
surface
came out out into
into thethe open
open in in the
the solo
solo concertos,
concertos, concerti
concert! grossi,
grossi, and orchestra
orchestra
overtures.
overtures. Of Bach's Bach's numerous violin violin concertos
concertos only only threethree have survived
survived
in
in their
their original
original form:
form: the
the solo
solo concertos
concertos in
in E and a,
a, and the
the double
double con-
con-
certo
certo in in d.d. Almost all all of
of the
the harpsichord
harpsichord concertos
concertos for
for from one
one to
to four
four
instruments. composed probably
instruments, composed probably for for the
the Collegium
Collegium Musicum in in Leipzig,
Leipzig,
are
are arrangements
arrangements of of Bach's
Bach's own or or Vivaldi's
Vivaldi's concertos
concertos for for violin
violin or or other
other
instruments. Only
instruments. Only the the concerto
concerto for for two harpsichords
harpsichords in in C andand twotwo con-
con-
certos for
certos for three harpsichords appear
three harpsichords appear to
to be
be exceptions
exceptions that
that prove
prove the
the rule.
rule.

Bach took took as as hishis model the the modern concerto concerto type type of of Vivaldi
Vivaldi with with
which he he had familiarized
familiarized himselfhimself in in Weimar;
Weimar; however,however, the Italian model
the Italian model
seems no more than
seems than aa mere skeleton skeleton in in view
view of of what Bach Bach made of of it.
it.
In his
In his hands
hands it it became
became aa thoroughly
thoroughly personalpersonal composition,
composition, distinguished
distinguished
by incisive
by incisive themes,
themes, perspicuity
perspicuity of of form,
form, and and profuse
profuse contrapuntal texture.
contrapuntal texture.
admixture of
The admixture of polyphony
polyphony inevitably
inevitably tended
tended to to obscure
obscure the the tutti-solo
tutti-solo
contrast but
contrast but this
this increase
increase in in formal
formal complexity
complexity was counterbalanced
counterbalanced by by
the da-capo
the da-capo form which which transformed
transformed the the diversified
diversified ritornello
ritornello formform into into
a highly
a highly unified
unified tripartite
tripartite structure,
structure, as as can
can bebe seen
seen in in thethe first
first movement
movement
of the
of the violin
violin concerto
concerto in in E and several
several Brandenburg
Brandenburg Concertos. Concertos. The inner inner
complexity of
complexity of the
the concertos
concertos is is also
also reflected
reflected in in the
the occasional
occasional use use ofof thematic
thematic
contrast. The slow
contrast. slow movements are are often
often built,
built, again
again in in imitation
imitation of of Vivaldi,
Vivaldi,
on aa more or or less
less strict
strict ground
ground bass bass which
which supports
supports aa highlyhighly ornamented
ornamented
cantilena of
cantilena of the
the solo
solo instrument.
instrument.
complete interpenctration
The complete interpenetration of of continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony and and contrapuntal
contrapuntal
texture can
texture can be be shown nowhere as as clearly
clearly asas in in the
the six
six Brandenburg
Brandenburg Con- Con-
(I72I) which represent
certos (1721)
certos represent in in their
their exultant
exultant optimism
optimism courtly courtly enter-
enter-
tainment musk
tainment music at at the
the highest
highest level.
level. Their
Their greatly
greatly variegated
variegated instrumental
instrumental
combinations continue
combinations continue the the coloristic
coloristic tradition
tradition of of Venice
Venice and and of of Vivaldi's
Vivaldi's
concertos; however,
concertos; however. the emphasis
the emphasis on instruments is
wind instruments is aa typically
typically Ger-Ger-
heritage of
man heritage of the
the music
music for Stadtpfeifer. Bach
for Stadtpfetfer. calls for
Bach calls for the
the silvery
silvery tone
tone ofof
 Fusion
Fusion o
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 91
the
the clarino
clarino trumpet
trumpet (second
(second concerto),
concerto), recorders
recorders (fourth
(fourth concerto),
concerto), and and
the penetrating violin
the penetrating violinoa piccolo
piccolo (tuned
(tuned aa minor
minor third
third above
above normal
normal pitch)
pitch)
in
in combination
combination withwith horns
horns andand oboes
oboes (first concerto). The fifth concerto
(first concerto). The fifth concerto
coordinates
coordinates thethe flute
flute and
and violin
violin with
with the the harpsichord
harpsichord but but soso distinctly
distinctly
emphasizes
emphasizes the keyboard
the keyboard part that it
part that it must
must be be regarded
regarded as as the
the first
first im-
im-
portant
portant harpsichord
harpsichord concerto
concerto on on record.
record. WithWith their
their marvelously
marvelously balanced
balanced
concerto
concerto themes,
themes, their
their coloristic,
coloristic, yet
yet solid,
solid, counterpoint,
counterpoint, andand their
their rhythmic
rhythmic
exuberance the the Brandenburg Concertos are the most inspired
Brandenburg Concertos are the most inspired and
and complex
complex
concerti grossi of
concerti grossi of the baroque
baroque era.era.

The four
four orchestral
orchestral "overtures"
"overtures" for for strings
strings and
and various
various combinations
combinations
of wind instruments bring bring the
the chamber suite suite to
to perfection.
perfection. Each
Each of
of them
them
opens
opens with a
a grand
grand French overture
overture the
the fugal
fugal sections
sections of
of which
which are
are in-
in-

geniously
geniously modified by
by the
the concerto
concerto principle. They parallel
principle. They parallel the fugal the fugal
concerto
concerto movements of the Brandmbttrg
of the Brandenburg Concertos.
Concertos. In In his
his dances
dances Bach
Bach
presented
presented hishis most buoyant
buoyant affections,
affections, bestbest exemplified
exemplified by by the
the irresistible
irresistible

Badinme
Badinerie for for solo
solo flute
flute and strings
strings ofof thethe second
second suite.
suite. The celebrated
celebrated
Air from the thirdthird suite,
suite, a
a composition
composition of
of deceptive simplicity,
deceptive simplicity, is
is built
built onon
an octave motive in in the
the bass
bass that
that recalls
recalls thethe technique of the organ
technique of the organ pedal. pedal.
That Bach thought
thought very
very highly
highly of of his orchestral and chamber
his orchestral chamber musicmusic cancan
be seen inin the fact
fact that
that he returned
returned to to it
it time
time and
and again during
again during the
the Leipzig
Leipzig
period. In urgent
period. urgent need for for new music in in his
his weekly
weekly cantatas
cantatas hehe rearranged
rearranged
it for
it for other
other media;
media; sometimes he he incorporated
incorporated aa cantata
cantata chorus
chorus into
into the
the
densely
densely woven fabric
fabric of
of the
the music with an ingenuity that defies
music with an ingenuity that defies any attempt any attempt
at description.
at description.

BACH THE CANTOR: LEIPZIG

fourth period
The fourth period of
of Bach's
Bach's artistic
artistic development
development begins
begins with his em-
with his em-
ployment as
ployment as cantor
cantor at
at 5t. Thomas*
St. Thomas' in in Leipzig
Leipzig (1723)
(1723) and
and closes
closes with
with the
the
year of
year of the
the last
last cantatas
cantatas (c. 1745). As
(c. 1745). As early
early as I'J20 he
as 1720 he had
had applied
applied for
for the
the
post
post of
of organist
organist in
in Hamburg
Hamburg at
at the
the church
church where
where Neumeister
Neumeister was
was pastor,
pastor,
but he
but he was
was not
not chosen.
chosen. He was
was not
not the
the first
first choice in Leipzig
choice in Leipzig either.
either. Fasch
Fasch
had not
had not even
even applied
applied for
for the
the position
position though
though he
he had
had been
been asked
asked to
to do
do so;
so;
Telemann and
Telemann and Graupner,
Graupner, both
both famous
famous composers
composers at at the
the time
time and
and former
former
pupils
pupils of
of the
the Thomas
Thomas school,
school, were
were considered
considered first,
first, and
and only
only after
after Telemann
Telemann
had decided
had decided to
to stay
stay in
in Hamburg
Hamburg and and Graupner
Graupner could
could not
not get his dismissal,
get his dismissal,
was Bach
was Bach unanimously
unanimously elected.
elected. Bach was reluctant
Bach was reluctant toto make
make thethe change
change
from aa court
from court musician
musician to to aa cantor,
cantor, because
because hehe did
did not
not relish
relish the
the idea
idea of
of
becoming the
becoming the subordinate of aa municipal
subordinate of municipal council.
council. Petty
Petty quarrels
quarrels with his
with his
292 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
superiors in
superiors in which
which Bach showed himself himself contentious
contentious and irascible irascible embit-
embit-
tered
tered the
the later
later years
years of his life.
of his life.

In
In Leipzig
Leipzig Bach returnedreturned to to his "final goal"
his "final goal" forfor which he had already already
aimed
aimed when he he applied
applied for
for the
the position
position in
in Hamburg.
Hamburg. His official
official duties
duties
as
as cantor
cantor called
called forfor a a cantata
cantata for for every Sunday
every Sunday and feast
feast day
day of
of the
the
liturgical year.
liturgical year. Of the five complete cantata
the five complete cantata cycles he cycles he has
has written
written (c. 300
(c. 300
works)
works) only
only about
about 200 have have beenbeen preserved.
preserved. TheyThey disclose
disclose how Bach, Bach, now
in
in his
his full
full maturity,
maturity, expanded
expanded and and deepened
deepened the the cantata
cantata composition.
composition.
Mature integration
integration of
of old
old and
and new forms
forms characterizes
characterizes the
the cantatas
cantatas of of the
the
fourth
fourth period.
period. It
It must suffice
suffice to
to draw attention
attention to
to one of
of the
the finest
finest ex-
ex-

amples
amples of of the
the type, Herr gche
type, Hcrr gehe nKht
nicht insins Gerich:
Gcricht (no. (no. IOS),
105), composed
composed in the
in the
early
early Leipzig
Leipzig years
years (c. 1725). It
(c. 1725)' It begins
begins withwith a a great
great multipartite
multipartite concertato
conccrtato
chorus
chorus in in which
which the the despair
despair of of the
the sinner
sinner is is depicted
depicted in in somber
somber colors,
colors,
jagged counterpoint,
jagged counterpoint, and poignant
poignant harmonies.
harmonics. In
In the
the famous soprano
soprano aria aria

"We tremble
tremble and stumble" stumble" the the rhythmic
rhythmic patterns
patterns of of the
the accompani-
accompani-
ment vividly
vividly suggest
suggest "trembling";
"trembling"; in in addition,
addition, the the ideaidea that
that the
the sinner
sinner has has
no firm
firm ground
ground under
under his
his feet
feet is
is symbolized
symbolized by by the
the conspicuous
conspicuous absence
absence
of
of the
the continuo,
continue, only only thethe viola
viola furnishes
furnishes a a "shaky
"shaky foundation"
foundation" to to the
the
music. The penultimate
music. penultimate tenor
tenor aria
aria with
with obbligato
obbligato horn which opposes
opposes the the
spiritual
spiritual world to to the
the vanity
vanity of of earthly pleasures is
earthly pleasures is cast
cast inin grand
grand da-capo
da-capo
form.
form. Written in in the
the instrumental
instrumental idiom idiom of the concerto
of the concerto style style itit presents
presents
great
great technical
technical difficulties
difficulties to to the singer. The final
the singer. final chorale,
chorale, a a stanza
stanza of Jem
of Jcsu
dcr du meine
der meinc Seele, recapitulates
Sedc, recapitulates in
in one
one concentrated
concentrated movement the
the idea
idea
that
that underlies
underlies the the whole cantata:
cantata: the the accompaniment
accompaniment starts out with the
starts out with the
trembling
trembling figures
figures of of the
the first
first aria,
aria, but
but they
they gradually
gradually subside,subside, and and the the
instruments
instruments move at at the
the end in in uniform
uniform rhythmrhythm with
with the
the melody-a
melody a
symbol
symbol of
of quiet
quiet and undisturbed
undisturbed faith.
faith.

In the years after 1730

years after 1730 when Bach had only only a a few singers
singers at his dis-
at his dis-

posal-the discipline
posalthe discipline at the school
at the school had noticeably
noticeably deteriorated-he
deteriorated he turned turned
to
to the composition of
the composition of solo
solo cantatas.
cantatas. In In these
these works
works he he allowed
allowed himself
himself
more vocal virtuosity than
vocal virtuosity than in in other
other cantatas
cantatas and, and, naturally,
naturally, favored
favored the
the
secular
secular forms at at the
the expense
expense of
of the
the chorale.
chorale. One of
of the
the outstanding
outstanding ex- ex-
amples
amples of
of the
the solo
solo cantata,
cantata, Ich
Ich will
witt den
den Kreuzstab
Kreuzstab (no. 56), is written
(no. 56), is written for for
bass and aa small
bass orchestra. In
small orchestra. In the
the first
first aria,
aria, fashioned
fashioned after after the
the ritornello
ritornello
form ofof the
the concerto,
concerto, Bach does docs not not forgo
forgo the the pleasure
pleasure of
of representing
representing
the word "cross"
"cross" by by a sharp.
sharp. This pun pun is is intelligible only in
intelligible only in German be- be-
cause "cross"
"cross" and "sharp"
"sharp" are
are identical
identical words only
only in
in this
this language.
language. The
celebrated
celebrated recitative
recitative of of the Kreuzstab cantata
the Kreuzstab cantata narrates
narrates the the parable
parable that that
likens life to a voyage; the
likens life to a voyage; the undulating
undulating motive motive of the bass
of the bass (the waves of
(the waves the
of the
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 293
293
sea) stops
sea) stops exactly
exactly at at the
the point
point where
where the the text
text runs
runs "thus
"thus II leave
leave the the ship,"
ship,"
that is
that is when
when the the voyager
voyager reaches
reaches firm firm ground.
ground. The The restrained
restrained manner manner in in
which Bach
which Bach now now employed
employed highly highly pictorial
pictorial motives
motives bespeaks
bespeaks his his mature
mature
mastery of
mastery of tonal
tonal suggestions.
suggestions. The second second aria aria with
with oboe
oboe obbligato
obbligato isis cast cast
again
again in
in the
the grand da-capo
grand da-capo form
form of
of the
the opera, very frequent
opera, very frequent in
in the
the late
late

works.
works. A simple four-part chorale concludes
simple four-part chorale concludes the cantata. the cantata.
Important as
Important as the
the previously
previously discussed
discussed cantatas
cantatas are,are, they
they take take second
second
place
place beside
beside the
the chorale
chorale cantata
cantata which
which became
became increasingly
increasingly more
more prominent
prominent
in the
in the fourth
fourth period.
period. The more more Bach Bach progressed
progressed in in years,
years, the the more
more he he
tried
tried toto make his
his music
music subservient to the
subservient to the liturgy, theliturgy, the more he
he imbued
the secular
the secular elements
elements of of the
the reform
reform cantata
cantata withwith liturgical
liturgical spirit.
spirit. He ef- ef~
fected this
fected this inner
i1I.ner transformation
transformation by by basing
basing the the entire
entire cantata
cantata text text on on the
the
words of
words of the
the chorale
chorale which
which were were in in themselves
themselves quasi-liturgical.
quasi-liturgical. The first first
stanza now usually
stanza usually tooktook thethe form
form of of aa monumental chorale chorale fantasy,
fantasy. the the
last one
last one thatthat of of aa simple
simple four-part
four-part setting.
setting. The intermediate
intermediate stanzas ofstanzas of
the chorale
the chorale were were either
either retained
retained or paraphrased in
or paraphrased form of
in form of recitative
recitative and
aria. The spiritual
aria. spiritual unity
unity of of the
the cantata
cantata was was thus
thus assured
assured by by both
both text text and
melody
melody of
of the
the chorale.
chorale. The interchange
interchange of
of instrumental
instrumental and
and vocal
vocal media
and the penetration
and the penetration of
of all
all forms
forms with
with the
the substance
substance of
of the
the chorale
chorale melody
melody
are the
are the outstanding
outstanding characteristics
characteristics of of thethe chorale cantata. We find
chorale cantata. find now
chorale
chorale recitatives,
recitatives, chorale
chorale arias, chorale concertos,
arias, chorale concertos, chorale chaconnes,
chorale chaconnes,
chorale
chorale sinfonie,
sinfonie, and the the various
various types
types of
of the
the organ
organ chorale
chorale in
in vocal
vocal form.
form.
Bach
Bach had
had no
no real
real model for
for the
the chorale
chorale cantata;
cantata; he
he evolved
evolved it
it himself with
with
the aid of the Leipzig poet Picander. It
the aid of the Leipzig poet Picander. It is usually regarded is usually regarded as
as the
the archetype
archetype
of
of the
the Bach
Bach cantata,
cantata, butbut itit is
is actually
actually not not typical
typical of
of the
the first
first three
three periods;
periods;
only
only in
in Leipzig,
Leipzig, in
in the
the phase
phase of
of liturgical
liturgical observance,
observance, did it
it become the

main type.
main type.
The
The most most radical
radical realization
realization of of thethe chorale
chorale cantata,
cantata, the well-known
Todesbanden (no. (no. 4),
4), goes
goes back probably
probably to to an earlier
Christ
Christ lag earlier model,
lag in in Todeshanden model,
now
now lost.
lost. Written
Written as as aa variation
variation per per omnes
omncs versus
versus it
it continues
continues the tradition
tradition

of
of the
the chorale conccrtato and
chorale conceriato and thethe organ
organ variation,
variation, but includes
includes also also chorale

arias in concerto
arias in concerto style. style. In
In all
all verses
verses text
text and melody
melody of
of the chorale
chorale are arc

retained. The cumulative effect of contrapuntal

retained. The cumulative effect of contrapuntal virtuosity, virtuosity, abstract
abstract con~
con-
sistency, and concrete pictorialism in
sistency, and concrete pictorialism
in this
this cantata
cantata staggers
staggers the the imagination.
imagination.
Bach
Bach has
has never
never attempted to
to write
write another
another cantata
cantata in this
in this essentially
essentially archaic
archaic
attempted
form.
form.
The
The typical chorale cantata can
typical chorale cantata
can bebe exemplified
exemplified by by Ein
Bin teste Burg (no.
festc Burg (no. 80).
80),
lesu
Jcsu der
dcr du du meine Seelc (no.
mcinc Seele (no. 18). Christ unser Hen- (no.
78), Christ
unscr Hcrr (no. 7),7), and many
and
others.
others. TheThe first
first of
of these,
these, a a revision
revision of of a Weimar cantata, cantata, opens
opens with with On(:
one
294
294
Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
of the
of the magnificent
magnificent chorale
chorale fantasies
fantasies thatthat usually
usually headhead the
the larger
larger works
works of of
the Leipzig
the Leipzig period.
period. Bach Bach symbolized
symbolized the the dogmatic
dogmatic significance
significance of the
of the

chorale by
chorale by stating
stating itit in in strict
strict canon
canon between
between the the highest
highest and and thethe lowest
lowest
instruments.
instruments. These
These canonic
canonic cantus
cantus firm;
firmi enclose
enclose like
like gigantic
gigantic steel
steel braces
braces

a brilliant fugue the

a brilliant fugue the theme theme of
of which
which is
is derived
derived also
also from
from the
the chorale.
chorale. The
The
second great
second great chorus
chorus of of the
the cantata
cantata which
which paints
paints in sweeping
in sweeping manner the
manner the
struggle
struggle
between
between the
the faithful
faithful and
and the
the devil
devil is
is aa monumental
monumental chorale
chorale fan-
fan-

tasy in concerto style. Here is one

tasy in concerto style. Here is
one of of the
the rare
rare occasions
occasions where
where all all voices
voices
sing the chorale
sing the chorale
in
in unison
unison and
and octaves
octaves against
against the
the ceaselessly running
ceaselessly running
counter-motives of
counter-motives of the
the orchestra.
orchestra. The The cantus
cantus firmus stands like
firmus stands like aa firm
firm rock
rock.
of faith
of faith against
against thethe temptations
temptations of of the
the world.
world. The The movement
movement breathes the
breathes the
spirit
spirit
of
of defiance
defiance and
and conjures up a
a grandiose
conjures up grandiose picture picture of
of apoca1.yptic
apocalyptic vision.
vision.

lesu der
Jesu der du
du mcine
meine Seek, composed around
Seele, composed around 1740,1740, exemplifies
exemplifies Bach's
Bach's most
most
mature cantata
mature cantata style. style. The great introductory
great introductory chorus
chorus of
of this
this cantata
cantata is aa
is

chorale chaconne,
chorale chaconne, perhaps
perhaps the the most
most inspired
inspired example
example of the form. Bach
of the form. Bach
combined the
combined the third
third typetype ofof the
the chaconne
chaconne bass bass with
with the
the chorale
chorale in in aa double
double
obbligo
obbligo
and
and though
though neither
neither melody
melody was
was Bach's
Bach's property
property he
he joined
joined them
them
so convincingly
so convincingly as
as if
if they
they had
had been
been conceived
conceived as
as subject
subject and
and countersub-
countersub-
ject. It is hard to
jcct. It is hard
to decide
decide what what should
should be be most
most admired: the the plastic
plastic andand
suggestive gestures of the music, the intensely dramatic recitatives,
suggestive gestures of the music, the intensely
recitatives, the the
sweeping
sweeping concerto
concerto style
style of
of the
the grand da-capo
grand da-capo arias,
arias, or
or the
the wealth of melodic
and
and harmonic
harmonic ideas.
ideas.

The melodic
melodic substance
substance of of the
the chorale
chorale alsoalso pervades
pervades the few but importantimportant
motets
motets (for one chorus or double chorus) of
(for one chorus or double chorus)
of the
the Leipzig period. In
Leipzig period. In the
the

five-voice motet 'em

five-voice motet mcine Freude
Jtsu meine Freudc chorale
chorale verses
verses alternate
alternate with words

from
from thethe epistles
epistles
in
in a
a strictly symmetrical
strictly symmetrical
order.
order. The underlying
underlying idea, idea, the
opposition
opposition
of
of flesh
flesh and
and spirit,
spirit,
is
is most pointedly
pointedly concentrated
concentrated in
in a fugue
fugue that
that

stands in the exact center of the

stands in the exact center of the composition. composition.

Bach's
Bach's choral
choral compositions
compositions reach
reach their absolute peak
their absolute peak inin the
the four
four monu-
monu-
mental
mental works
works of of the
the Leipzig period:
Leipzig period: the
the two
two Passions
Passions according
according toto St.
St.

John
John andand St.
St. Matthew,
Matthew, thethe Magnificat.
Magnificat, andand the Great Mass in
the Great Mass in b-minor.
i-minor.
Bach
Bach began
began thethe composition
composition of the St.John
of the Passion (1723)
St. John Passion (1723) in
in COthen
Cothen and
and
finished it
finished it in
in Leipzig. Its
Its present
present form
form is
is the
the result
result of
of several
several revisions
revisions in
in
Leipzig.
the
the course
course of of which
which the
the great da-capo
great da-capo choruses
choruses at
at the
the beginning
beginning and
and end
end
were
were added.
added. ForFor parts
parts ofof the text Bach
the text Bach relied
relied on
on the
the rather
rather tasteless
tasteless

Oratorio by
Passion Oratorio
Passion by Brockes whichKeiser~
Brockeswhich Keiser,Telemann,
Telemann,Handel,
Handel, and
and Matthe-
Matthe-
soo also
SOD set to
also $(.t music, but
to music, but hehe retained
retained the
the Lutheran text of
Lutheran text the Gospel
of the Gospel for
for
 Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach :l95
295
the
the part
part of
of the
the Evangelist.
Evangelist. That Bach
Bach composed
composed in in great haste we can infer
great haste we can infer
from the
the fact
fact that
that the same music recurs
recurs several
several times
times with
with changed words.
words. changed
The dramatic
dramatic realism and conciseness conciseness of of the
the St.St. John Passion contrasts
John Passion contrasts
conspicuously
conspicuously with the contemplative
contemplative tone
tone and
and epic composure
epic composure of the St.
of the St.
Passion (1729)
Matthew Passion (1729) though
though the latter
the latter does
does not
not lack
lack dramatic
dramatic qualities.
qualities.
A comparison
comparison between the wonderfully wonderfully quiet quiet arioso
arioso for for bass
bass Am Abend Abend
(St.
(St. M.P. no. no. 74)
74) and the restiverestive arioso
arioso Betrachte
Betrachte meine Seele (St.
meine Seele J.P.
(St. JJP. no.
no.
31)
31) gives
gives an idea of the difference difference in in atmosphere
atmosphere though though both
both ariosi
ariosi are
are
similar externally.
externally. In the
the St.
St. Matthew Passion
Passion Bach
Bach emphasized
emphasized the
the scrip-
scrip-
tural
tural words
words by by surrounding
surrounding the the words
words of of Christ
Christ with with a a halo
halo of of string
string
chords and by by entering
entering all all scriptural
scriptural quotations
quotations in in red
red inkink inin thethe fair
fair

copy
copy of the score.
score. The introductory chorus,
introductory chorus, a
a complex
complex chorale
chorale fantasy
fantasy for for
double chorus,
chorus, two orchestras,
orchestras, and continuo,
continuo, intr-oduces
introduces the
the cantus
cantus firmus
firmus
in
in a separate
separate unison chorus of of boy
boy sopranos.
sopranos. In In this
this movement
movement the the organ
organ
prelude of
prelude of Bach's
Bach's late period appears,
late period appears, transferred
transferred to to the
the vocal
vocal medium,
medium, in in
its
its final
final glorification.
glorification. In both Passions the
both Passions the same
same chorales
chorales are used more
are used more
than once,
once, each time time harmonized
harmonized differently
differently in in accordance
accordance with with the the text.
text.
They
They comment on the
the stages
stages of
of the
the action
action and
and appear
appear either
either in
in juxtapo-
juxtapo-
sition
sition or even in in superimposition
superimposition with with the the arias
arias and ariosi.
ariosi. InIn the
the bass
bass aria
aria
teurer Heiland (St.
Mein teurer (St. J.P. no. 60)
JJP. no. 60) twotwo independent
independent and and self-contained
self-contained
compositions, the
compositions, the one aa chorale
chorale setting,
setting, the the other
other aa continue
continuo aria aria forfor bass,
bass,
are sounded together
are together simultaneously.
simultaneously. Only Only Bach Bach couldcould create
create aa com- com-
position of
position of such bewildering
bewildering intensity.
intensity.
Magnificat, the
The Magnificat, the most
most exuberant
exuberant and concise concise of of thethe great
great choral
choral
works, was written
works, written for for the
the Christmas
Christmas Vespers (1723)' It
Vespers (1723). It anticipates
anticipates in in its
its
D-major splendor
D-major splendor and exultation
exultation the the jubilant
jubilant choruses
choruses of of the
the i-minor
h-minor Mass. Mass.
Also the
Also the use
use of
of the
the Gregorian
Gregorian tonus tonus peregrinus
peregrinus as as cantus
cantus firmus points in
firmus points in
the direction
the direction of the latter
of the latter work.
work.
composed his
Bach composed his Great
Great Mass in in &-minor
b-minor for for thethe Catholic
Catholic court court in in
Dresden in in the
the hope
hope of of being
being rewarded
rewarded with with thethe title
title of
of court
court composer,
composer, aa
distinction he
distinction he finally
finally received.
received. He rose rose above
above religious
religious denomination
denomination in in
this work.
this work. The ordinary
ordinary of of the
the Mass
Mass still
still existed
existed in in the
the Protestant
Protestant service,
service,
as Bach's
as Bach's smaller
smaner Masses
Masses prove,prove, butbut thisthis work transcended
transcended in in itsits vast
vast
dimensions any
dimensions any liturgical
liturgical function,
function, be be it it Protestant
Protestant or or Catholic.
Catholic. Neverthe-
Neverthe-
less Bach underlined
less underlined the the dogmatic
dogmatic importance
importance of of certain
certain sections
sections of of the
the
ordinary by
ordinary by using using the
the Gregorian
Gregorian melodies
melodies for
for the
the Credo and the
the Con-
{iteor as
fiteor CQntus firmi
as cantus firmi in in augmentation
augmentation or or canon.
canon. Several
Several movements draw
music from
on music from earlier
earlier cantatas. Crudfixus. for
cantatas. The Crudfixus, for example,
example, has been
har been
borrowed from the
borrowed the vocal
vocal chaconnc
chaconne of of the
the cantata Wrinen Klagen
cantata Wtincn KJagen (no. (no.I2)t12),
296 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
but
but the
the sublime
sublime turn
turn to major by
to major by means of of an augmented
augmented sixth at the
sixth at the final
final

cadence
cadence isis a
a masterly
masterly afterthought
afterthought that
that occurred
occurred to to Bach only
only during
during the the
revision
revision for
for the Mass. The twelve
the Mass. twelve variations
variations on the the ~conne
ch^conne bass
bass (third
(third
type)
type) represent
represent thethe ne plus ultra
ne plus ultra of
of baroque
baroque chaconne
chaconne writing.
writing. In no other
other
chorale
chorale work of
of Bach does
does the
the luxuriant
luxuriant counterpoint
counterpoint reach such heights,
heights,
are
are harmonic
harmonic richness
richness and contrapuntal
contrapuntal density
density so so completely
completely fused
fused to-to-
49
gether. The tortuous
tortuous fugue
fugue theme of
of the
the first Kyrie
first Kyric 48 with its
its infinite
infinite
gether.
harmonic
harmonic and and contrapuntal
contrapuntal possibilities
possibilities sets
sets the
the tone
tone ofof the
the entire
entire work.
In view of
In view of the
the dimensions
dimensions of of the
the work itit should
should notnot surprise
surprise usus that the
that the
grand
grand da-capo
da-capo form prevails
prevails not
not only
only in
in the
the arias
arias and duets,
duets, but even at
but at

times
times in
in the
the choruses.
choruses.

The Christmas
Christmas Oratorio,
Oratorio, frequendy
frequently counted
counted among among the the large-scale
large-scale
works, consists
works, consists of of aa cycle
cycle of of independent
independent cantatas
cantatas for for six
six successive
successive feastfeast

days.
days. It
It is
is pieced together
pieced together almost
almost entirely
entirely of
of secular
secular cantatas
cantatas and thus
thus leads
leads
to the
to the secular
secular works or or serenades,
serenades, composed
composed for for birthdays,
birthdays, weddings,
weddings,
welcomes,
welcomes, and other
other occasions
occasions in
in Weimar,
Weimar, Cothen, and Leipzig.
COthen, Leipzig. It It has
has
often
often been
been regretted
regretted thatthat Bach had no occasionoccasion to to write
write an opera;
opera; the the
closest
closest he ever came to
he ever to it
it are
are the
the secular
secular cantatas
cantatas and not not byby accident
accident are are
many
many of
of them designated
designated as
as dramma per
per musica.
musica. Far from treating
treating them
lightly or
lightly or as as inferior
inferior works Bach created created in his secular
in his secular cantatas
cantatas a a great
great
treasure of dramatic
treasure of dramatic and humorous music, unfortunately
music, unfortunately little little known. For
For
graceful
graceful counterpoint,
counterpoint, dramatic
dramatic characterization,
characterization, and pictorial representa-
pictorial representa-
tion
tion of
of nature
nature theythey challenge
challenge comparison with Handel's
comparison with Handel's works in the same
in the

genre. Only
genre. Only a list
list of
of the
the outstanding examples
outstanding examples can
can be
be given
given here:
here: The
Wedding Cantata,
Wedding Cantata, The Peasant
Peasant Cantata.
Cantata, The Coffee Cantata,
Coffee Cantata, Phoebus
Phoebus
and Pan,
Pan, The Satisfied Aeolus. and Hercules
Satisfied Aeolus, Hercules at at the
the Crossroads.
Crossroads. The last last

four are
arc unsurpassed
unsurpassed masterpieces.
masterpieces. The fact
fact that
that Bach borrowed
borrowed so
so fre-
fre-

quently
quently from his his secular
secular cantatas
cantatas for his church
for his church musicmusic (hardly
(hardly everever thethe
other
other way around)
way around) has
has been explained
explained by by the
the categorical
categorical statement
statement that
that
Bach
Bach could not not help writing in
help writing in sacred
sacred style,
style, that
that hishis secular
secular works were were
"not genuinely
genuinely secular"
secular" (Spitta).
(Spitta). Nothing could be
Nothing could be farther
farther from the the truth.
truth.
Firstly, there were no absolute
Firstly, there absolute criteria
criteria for
for what was sacred sacred and secular
secular
in
in baroque
baroque music,
music, as the constant
as the constant interchange
interchange between
between the the two functions
functions
proves; secondly,
proves; secondly, the reform cantata
cantata was itself
itself derived
derived from aa secular
secular
model;
model; and thirdly, the contrafactum
thirdly, the contrafactum represented
represented so so essential
essential an an element
element

"'49II Compare
Compare the fugue theme c:i.
the fugue o thethe same key
key in
in the WeU-Tcmpcred elmer
the Well-Tempered Cleaner (1,
(I, no.
no.
24).
24).
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 297
297
in baroque
in baroque music because
because basic
basic affections
affections governed
governed music,
music, be itit secular
secular be
or sacred.
or sacred. It
It is
is most revealing
revealing that
that Bach
Bach was
was careful
careful to
to retain
retain the
the basic
basic
affection in
affection in his
his adaptations
adaptations of
of secular
secular music to
music to his
his church
church cantatas;
cantatas; only
only
pressed for
when pressed for time
time did
did he
he disregard
disregard the
the affections
affections with
with the
the inevitable
inevitable
result that the pictorial references of the music
result that the pictorial references of the music became
became completely
completely unin-
unin-
telligible.
telligible.

In the
In the instrumental
instrumental music
music of
of the
the fourth
fourth period
period Bach
Bach reaped
reaped the
the fruits
fruits of
of
his sustained
his sustained efforts
efforts to
to give
give all
all types
types aa degree
degree of
of stylization
stylization that
that carried
carried
to the
them to the peak
peak of
of baroque
baroque characterization.
characterization. What distinguishes
distinguishes the
the later
later
works from the
works the earlier
earlier ones
ones are
are certain
certain traces
traces of
of modernism
modernism that
that modify
modify
the style
the style of
of Bach,
Bach, otherwise
otherwise thoroughly
thoroughly conservative.
conservative. Not
Not only
only docs
does the
the
clavieristic virtuoso
clavieristic virtuoso technique
technique of
of Domenico Scarlatti
Scarlatti come
come into
into prominence,
prominence,
especially the
especially the crossing
crossing of
of hands,
hands, but
but there
there are
are even hints
even hints of
of periodic
periodic phrase
phrase
structure
structure and suggestions
and suggestions of of structural thematic contrast,
structural thematic especially in
contrast, especially in the
the
Partitas
Partitas and thethe "Trinity" prdude in
"Trinity" prelude in E-flat
E-Bat for
for organ.
organ.
publication of
The publication of the
the Clavimibung
Clavierilbung (1731 (I73! ff.)
ff.) confronts
confronts us us with
with the
the
anomaly
anomaly that
that the
the opus
opus I
i of
of a
a composer
composer reveals
reveals him in
in his
his most
most mature
mature
phase. Of the
phase. the four parts of
four parts of the
the collection
collection only
only the
the first, second, and
first, second, and fourth
fourth
belong to
belong the harpsichord:
to the harpsichord: the Partitas, the
the Partitas, the Italian
Italian Concerto
Concerto and and the
the
French Overture (suite
French Overture (suite in
in b),
b), and the
the Goldberg
Goldberg Variations.
Variations* The gigantic
gigantic
Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue,
Chromatic Fantasy Fugue, the the fantasy
fantasy (and
(and fugue)
fugue) in in c, c, and the
the
second part of
second part of the
the Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier
Clavier were
were not
not printed during
printed during Bach's
Bach's
lifetime.
lifetime. In the partitas
In the partitas and the the French
French Overture
Overture thethe process
process of of stylization
stylization
is
is completed:
completed: the
the fact
fact that
that one
one movement is
is entitled
entitled tempo
tempo di
di Minuetta in-
in-

dicates
dicates that
that even
even the
the dance
dance patterns
patterns have
have lost
lost significance.
significance. In
In addition,
addition, we
find
find freely
freely inserted
inserted character
character pieces,
pieces, such
such as Burlesca, Scherzo,
as Burlesca, Scherzo, Echo, Echo, etc.
etc.

The introductory movements

introductory movements cover cover all
all important
important forms from the
the toccata,
toccata,
praeambulum,
praeambulum, French French overture,
overture, and fantasia
fantasia to to the
the Italian
Italian sinfonia.
sinfonia. Bach

alternated
alternated in in his
his courantes
courantes between
between the the French and the the Italian
Italian types,
types,
80
carefully designating
carefully designating
each
each one
one as
as courante
courante or
or corrente
corrente 110 respectively.
respectively.
Stylistically the partitas belong to
Stylistically the partitas belong
to the
the most advanced works that that he ever
wrote.
wrote.
The Goldberg Variations sum up
Goldberg Variations up the
the entire
entire history
history of of baroque
baroque varia-varia-

tion.
tion. Written
Written on on aa chaconne
chaconne bass bass inin saraband
saraband rhythm
rhythm they they areare arranged
arranged

50 The stylistic significance of

10 The stylistic significance of this
this illuminating distinction has not been grasped
illuminating distinction grasped
by
by the
the editors of the
editors of Bach Gesdlsehait
the Ba&h Gesellsckaft edition. Here, and in
edition. Here, in all subsequent editions,
all subsequent editions,
the
the tides of the
tides of the second
second and
and fourth
fourth COUIaJlte have been
courante have been "corrected .. to
"corrected** to J1'f'ente.
wrrentc.
298 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
strictly in the order
strictly in the
order of of two
two free
free variations
variations and and oneone inin canon.
canon. TheThe dazzling
dazzling
variety of formal types (canon, fugue, quodlibet.
variety of formal types (canon, fugue, quodlibet, dances, overture,
dances, overture, trio
trio

sonata, etc.)
sonata, etc.) and
and the the inspired
inspired complexity
complexity of of the
the music
music isis surpassed
surpassed only only byby
the intricate
the intricate clavieristic
clavieristic problems
problems and and coloristic
coloristic devices,
devices, not not commonly
commonly
associated with
associated with Bach's
Bach's music.music. In In the
the Italian
Italian Concerto
Concerto he he adapted
adapted in in bril-
bril-
liant fashion an orchestral
liant fashion an orchestral form
form to
to a
a keyboard instrument;
keyboard instrument; it
it represents
represents
the ultimate
the ultimate realization
realization of of what
what he he hadhad already
already attempted
attempted in in the
the preludes
preludes
the English
to the
to English suites.
suites.
The stirring
The stirring fantasy
fantasy in in cc raises
raises thethe bipartite
bipartite sonata
sonata typetype of of Scarlatti
Scarlatti to to
absolute perfection.
absolute perfection. It
It is
is most
most unfortunate
unfortunate that
that the
the fugue
fugue to
to which
which the
the fan-
fan-

tasy originally served as the prelude has

tasy originally served as the prelude
has come
come down to to us
us only
only in in frag-
frag-
mentary form.
mentary form. The The second
second part part of
of thethe Well-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier (1744)
Clavier (I744) 51 III
collects many
collects many of of the
the late
late and also some
and also some of of the
the early
early works in in systematic
systematic
order. Modern
order. Modern featuresfeatures such such as as the
the free-voiced
free-voiced Scarlatti
Scarlatti stylestyle and the the
monothematic
monothematic sonata
sonata form
form (see
(sec the
the prelude
prelude in
in D.
D, II,
II, no.
no. 5) distinguish the
5) distinguish the
second part from the first
second part from the first part of the part of the collection.
collection. Many fugue
Many fugue themes, themes, e.g. e.g.
the fugue
the fugue in in aa (II,
(II,
no. 20), now attained
no. 20), attained a a measure
measure of individuality charac-
of individuality charac-
teristic
teristic only
only of
of the
the most
most mature
mature Bach
Bach style.
style.
The
The organ
organ music
music of of the
the Leipzig
Leipzig period begins with
period begins with thethe celebrated
celebrated six trio
six trio

sonatas
sonatas
52 which Bach
112 which Bach wrote
wrote for
for his
his son
son Friedemann.
Friedemann. Some movements go
go
back
back toto earlier
earlier works,
works, othersothers served
served in turn as material for later ones.
in turn as material for later ones.

Bach
Bach succeeded
succeeded here here in in combining
combining concerto
concerto form and style style with the the strictest
strictest

polyphonic part-writing.
polyphonic part-writing. By condensing
By condensing the
the trio
trio sonata
sonata to
to a
a solo
solo composition
composition
he made his
he made his most
most significant
significant contribution
contribution to to the
the secular
secular "chamber music" music"
for organ. In
for organ. In the the so-called
so-called "great" prehides
"great" preludes and fugues
fugues in
in C.
C, b.
b, e.
e, and B-
E-
Bat
flat Bach
Bach actually achieved the impossible: he brought
actually achieved the impossible:
he brought two heterogeneous
two heterogeneous
forms,
forms, the
the concerto
concerto and and thethe fugue,
fugue, into into a a higher
higher unity.
unity. In In these
these "concerto
"concerto
fugues"
fugues" the
the da
da capo
capo invades
invades the
the form (see
(see the
the fugue
fugue in
in e),
e), the
the interludes
interludes

assume the
assume the character
character of of solos,
solos, the
the expositions
expositions that that ofof tuttis,
tuttis, and also also inin the
the
preludes
preludes thethe tutti-solo
tutti-solo contrast
contrast comes
comes to
to the
the fore
fore (see
(see the
the preludes
preludes in
in b and
and
E-Bat).
E-flat).

51 Tide, content. and

III order of
Title, content, and order the Wdl-Temperetl
of the Weft-Tempered Cbmer have been
Clavier have been imitated
imitated byby
the organist Weber
the organist Weber whose
whose cycle was once:
cycle was thought to
once thought .have been
to have been the model for
the model for Bach
Bach
(cd.
(ed. by the Nelle
by the Back G~s~/lsc"fZfI.
Neue Bat:It Gescttschajt, 1933). It dates"
1933). It dates, however, from c.
however, from c, 1150
1750 and
and is
is

musically rather weak.

musically rather weak. AnothcI imitation was
Another imitation was A.BC
ABC Mwiall
Musical byby Kirchhoff,
Kirchhoff, aa pupil
pupil
oiPachclbc:L
ofPachelbeL
II. Spitta held
"Spitta with Rust
held with that these
Rust that these sonatas (and also
sonatas (and also the passacaglia in
the passacaglia in c)
c) were
were
written not foe
written Dot the organ.
for the but for
organ, but pedal harpsichord.
for pedal However, the
harpsichord However. the autograph
autograph assigns
assigns
them to
them "two claviers
to "two claviers and pedal/* aa designation
and pedal," designation very common in
very common in Bach's
Bach's organ
organ works.
works.
Moreover.
Moreover, the the fu~
manuscripts ofof the time transmit
the time the sonatas
transmit the sonatas together
together with
with organ
organ
fugues, and
fugues, Bach himself inserted
and Bach' inserted &e\'cral
several slow movements of.
slow movements of the
the IODatas
sonatas into
into organ
organ
CIOUIPOSitions.
compositions. Spitta's
Spitta's contcDtioo
contention that the u::rm
that the clavier dcnotM
term clavier clavichord is
denoted clavichord is cm:JIlCOUL
erroneous.
 Fusion
Fusion of National Styles:
of National Styles: Bach
Bach 299
Also
Also the
the liturgical
liturgical organ
organ music
music of
of the
the Leipzig
Leipzig period
period is
is characterized
characterized
by Bach's impact of
by Bach's attempt
attempt to
to sanctify
sanctify the
the concerto
concerto form.
form. Under
Under the
the impact the
of the
concerto
concerto the chorale preludes gain
chorale preludes gain a a decisively
decisively new aspect. aspect. They
They develop
develop
into
into large
large movements with vastly
vastly extended
extended interludes
interludes in
in which
which the
the chorale
chorale
cantus firmus appears
cantus firmtts appears often
often subordinate
subordinate to
to the free material, worked out
the free material, worked out
independently in concerto style.
independently in concerto style. InIn view
view of of their
their internal
internal and and external
external
"
weight
weight these
these passages
passages are arc onlyonly improperly
improperly described
described as as "interludes:'
"interludes The
The
remarkable
remarkable trio Allein Gott
trio Allein Gott in in der Hah' in
der Hoh' in A liB illustrates
5S
illustrates the the extreme
extreme of of
this
this type:
type: it
it is
is really
really a
a concerto
concerto movement
movement the
the theme
theme of
of which
which anticipates
anticipates
the
the chorale,
chorale, but in which the
in which the chorale
chorale itself
itself is not heard
is not heard before
before the very end,
the very end,
and
and here
here only
only in in fragmentary
fragmentary form. form.
The chorale preludes of
chorale preludes of the
the late
late period
period comprise
comprise the the six
six Schiibler
Schiiblcr chorales,
chorales,
the
the eighteen great preludes
eighteen great preludes that
that Bach revised
revised and
and collected
collected shortly before
shortly before
his
his death,
death, and the
the third
third part
part of
of the
the ClaviriDung.
Clavicrubung. The first
first set, which ap-
set, which ap-
peared also
peared also inin print,
print, contains
contains only only literal
literal transcriptions
transcriptions of of cantata
cantata move-
move-
ments
ments which disclosedisclose thethe stylistic
stylistic affinity between Bach's
affinity between cantata and
Bach's cantata and organ
organ
music.
music. The famous "Eighteen" "Eighteen" transcend
transcend by
by their
their magnitude
magnitude and
and depth
depth
all
all previous
previous types
types of of chorale
chorale prelude.
prelude. We find find here,
here, on on the
the one hand, ex-
one hand, ex-
tensions
tensions of of the
the subjective
subjective type,type, known from from thethe OrgdbiichleiTl,
Qrgclbilchlein, with with intense
intense
pictorial representation
pictorial representation of of the
the various
various stanzas,
stanzas, but, but, on on the
the other hand,
other hand,
chorale
chorale fugues,
fugues, chorale
chorale fantasies,
fantasies, and preludes
preludes in
in concerto
concerto style.
style*
In
In the
the
latter
latter group
group the
the subjective interpretation
subjective interpretation is
is supplanted
supplanted by by a
a dignified
dignified
abstract
abstract elaboration
elaboration to which Bach
to which Bach felt
felt himself
himself more and and more attracted
attracted
toward
toward the the end of of his
his life.
life. The third part of
third part the ClarneruDuTlg
of the Clavierubung is is perhaps
perhaps
the
the most
most impressive
impressive monument of
of Bach's
Bach's strict
strict observance
observance of
of the
the liturgy.
liturgy.
It
It gathers
gathers the
the chorales
chorales of
of the
the Lutheran
Lutheran Catechism
Catechism in
in a
a highly meaningful
highly meaningful
order. In
order. In correspondence
correspondence with with the the Longer
Longer and and Shorter
Shorter Catechism
Catechism each each
chorale
chorale is is presented in in a
a longer
longer and a
a shorter setting, except for
shorter setting, except for the Trinity the Trinity
presented
chorale
chorale which must needs needs appear three times.
appear three times. While the the long
long arrangements
arrangements
belong to
belong to the
the concerto
concerto type type of of prelude,
prelude, the the short
short onesones areare mostly
mostly chorale
chorale
fugues.
fugues. The high
high technical
technical demands of
of the
the preludes
preludes become
become particularly
particularly
obvious
obvious in in the six-voice Aus tiefer
the six-voice ticjer Not which calls
Not which calls forfor an obbligato
obbligato double
double
pedal.
pedal. After
After the
the chorales
chorales follow
follow four
four "duets"
"duets" in
in form
form of
of gigantic
gigantic inven-
inven-
tions
tions to
to be
be played
played during
during the the Communion. The whole whole collection
collection is is framed
framed
at the
at the beginning
beginning and
and end
end by
by the
the grandiose
grandiose "Trinity"
"Trinity" or
or "St
"St. .AJme"
Anne** prelude
prelude
and fugue
fugue in in E-flat
E-flat symbolizing
symbolizing the the trinity
trinity in three Bats
the three
in the fiats of the key
of the key sig-
sig-
nature and
nature and thethe three themes of
three themes of the
the "triple
"triple fugue."
fugue." Consistent
Consistent with with thethe trend
trend

** Compare this
II prelude with
Compare this prelude with the
the arrangement in G of
arrangement in of the-
the same chorale in
same chorale ~
in the
Clavierubung III.
CltluierilbunK III.
3300
00 Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
toward
toward archaism turned in
archaism Bach turned in this
this fugue
fugue to
to the
the tripartite
tripartite ricercar
ricercar of
of the
the
Sweelinck
Sweelinck and Froberger
Frobergcr type
type with progressively
progressively accelerated
accelerated themes.
themes.

BACH,
BACH, THE PAST MASTER
The fifth
fifth and last last period
period of of Bach's
Bach's creative
creative career
career comprises
comprises the the last
last five
five
years
years ofof his
his life.
life. In thisthis phase
phase the the aging
aging master
master withdrew more and more more
from thethe outer
outer world to create in
to create in highest
highest maturity
maturity his his works of of solitude
solitude
and abstraction:
abstraction: the the Canonic
Canonic Variations
Variations for for organ
organ on the
the chorale
chorale Yom
Vom
Himmel hoch, hock, the
the Musical
Musical Offering,
Offering, and the
the Art of
of the
the Fugue.
Fugue. TheseThese
works give
give the
the sum and substancesubstance of of the
the contrapuntal
contrapuntal art art of
of baroque
baroque music.music.
All of
of them penetrate
penetrate into into the
the last
last mysteries
mysteries of of polyphony,
polyphony, all
all of
of them are
are
contrapuntal
contrapuntal variations
variations on a single
single theme,
theme, all
all of
of them summon forms
forms from
from
the past
past but fill
fill them with with the the spirit
spirit of of the
the present.
present. In In their
their conspicuously
conspicuously
retrospective
retrospective attitude
attitude they they show Bach in in the
the light
light inin which his his con-
con-
temporaries
temporaries saw him; him; theythey regarded
regarded him as as aa consummate master master of the
of the
past, past master in
past, a past in thethe literal
literal and figurative
figurative sense.
sense.
In the Canonic Variations
Variations Bach combined the the chorale cantus firmus
chorale cantus firmus in in
archaic manner with with aa set set ofof free voices, bound in
free voices, turn by
in turn by the
the strictest
strictest
of all musical forms,
all musical forms, the the canon.
canon. In In the last variation
the last variation he he even
even introduced
introduced
all four lines
all lines ofof the
the chorale
chorale simultaneously.
simultaneously. The Musical Musical Offering
Offering (1747)(I747)
was occasioned by by Bach's
Bach's visit
visit to
to the
the court
court of of Frederick
Frederick II II in
in Potsdam
Potsdam where where
his son Emanucl
his Emanuel served served as as harpsichordist.
harpsichordist. The king king gave
gave Bach
Bach aa "truly
"truly
royal"
royal" theme to
to improvise on. After
improvise on. After his return his return home Bach worked
Bach worked out the out the
possibilities of
possibilities of the
the subject
subject in in aa cycle
cycle of of self-contained
self-contained contrapuntal
contrapuntal varia- varia-
tions which covers
tions covers the the entire
entire development
development of of ffugal
ugal forms
forms from
from the
the ricer':
ricer-

car-even
car the title
even the title is is an acrostic
acrostic of of thethe word ricercarricercar-to the canonic
to the canonic
fugue. The two extended
fugue. extended ricercars
ricercars that flank the
that flank the cycle
cycle enclose
enclose two two groups
groups
of canons of which the
of canons of first is
the first is restricted
restricted to to canonic
canonic variations
variations upon upon the the
while the
theme while the second
second elaborates
elaborates the the theme itself itself in
in canon.
canon. TheyThey disclose
disclose
supreme mastery
supreme mastery of of thematic
thematic transformation
transformation and and of of such
such artifices
artifices as as can-
can-
crizans motion and mirror
crizans mirror canon.
canon. The grand grand trio trio sonata
sonata which
which forms
forms the the
exact centerpiece
exact centerpiece of of the
the cycle
cycle isis the
the most modern composition composition of of the Musi-
the Musi*
cal Offering
col Offmng,f both both formally
formally and stylistically.
stylistically. The second second movement,
movement, aa
monumental da
monumental da capo
capo in in concerto
concerto style,style, introduces
introduces the the royal
royal theme
theme at at widely
widely
spaced
spaced intervals
intervals in
in very
very much
much the
the same
same manner
manner as
as the
the late
late type
type of
of chorale
chorale
prelude does
prelude does the cantus firmus.
the cantus firmus. This This trio
trio sonata
sonata is by far
is by far the
the best
best example
example
of the
of the form
form that
that BachBach everever wrote.
wrote.
Like many
Like many of of Bach's
Bach's earlier
earlier works
works the Art of
the Art of the
the Fugue also had
Fugue also had aa didactic
didactic
 Fusion
Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 301
purpose.
purpose. It It is
is a
a course
course in in fugue
fugue writing,
writing, designed
designed to to unveil
unveil step by step the
step by step the
infinite contrapuntal possibilities
infinite contrapuntal possibilities inherent
inherent in in aa neutral
neutral subject
subject andand inin the
the
fugal procedure as
fugal procedure as such.
such. By By virtue
virtue of of its
its profoundly artistic
profoundly artistic imagination
imagination
itit has
has become
become the the eternal
eternal monument
monument of of polyphony
polyphony altogether. The cycle
altogether. The cycle
contains
contains eighteen fugues
eighteen fugues and
and canons
canons 54
Ii' in
in roughly
roughly symmetrical order.
symmetrical order.
Since
Since Bach
Bach seems
seems to to have changed
changed the plan of the
the plan of the whole
whole asas hehe progressed
progressed
in
in the
the composition
composition some some details
details ofof the
the order,
order, especially
especially the
the position
position ofof the
the
canons, cannot be
canons, cannot be determined
determined with with certainty.
certainty. Systematically exhausting all
Systematically exhausting all

the
the resources
resources of of fugue writing
fugue writing from
from the
the simplest
simplest to
to the
the most
most complicated
complicated
Bach begins
begins with the thf: simple fugue, then progresses to
.simpl^Jugue^then progresses to the inversion of
thcjinversion the
of _thc
subject,
subk&j the thei countedugue
cQuntcrf ugue (in (in which
which both both subject
subject and
and its
its inversion
inversion are arc
presented),
presented), the fugue, the
the double fugue, the triple
triple fugue,
fugue, the the mirror
mirror fugue,
fugue, and
and ends
ends
with
with thethe quadruple
quadruple fugue. fugue. Even more impressive impressive thanthan hishis formidable
formidable
technical
technical mastery
mastery is
is his
his art
art of
of thematic
thematic transformation;
transformation; he
he extracts
extracts from
from the
the
neutral theme (Ex.
neutral 85a) highly
(Ex. 85a) highly characteristic
characteristic ideas
ideas such
such as
as the
the theme
theme of the
of the
first
first mirror
mirror fugue
fugue (Ex.(Ex. 8s.b).
85)3). The quadruple
quadruple fugue fugue has
has remained
remained a a torso.
torso.

85. Bach:
Ex. 85. the Art
Bach: Themes from the Art of the Fugue.
Fugue.
a

'UJ IJ J J J I tJJUJIf

It breaks
It breaks off
off just
just after
after thethe completion
completion of of the
the third
third part
part inin which
which Bach
Bach in-in-
troduced the
troduced the letters BACH
letters B A C H (B-flat A C B) for
(B-flat ACE) for the
the first
first time
time as
as aa fugue
fugue
subject,
subject, thus
thus giving
giving his
his work
work also
also literally
literally the
the personal
personal stamp
stamp for
for which
which
he had
he had been
been striving
striving allall his
his life. fourth part
life. The fourth part of of the
the fugue
fugue that
that was
was toto
contain
contain the
the combination
combination of
of the
the three
three subjects
subjects with
with the
the fourth
fourth and
and original
original
one death
one death forced
forced him to to leave unfinished.55
leave unfinished. IllS
Stricken with
Stricken with blindness
blindness Bach Bach dictated
dictated to to hishis son-in-law
son-in-law and and pupil
pupil his
his
last composition,
last composition, thethe chorale
chorale prelude
prelude Vor dcincn deine7J Thron.
Thron. For For sentimental
sentimental
reasons this
reasons this organ
organ chorale
chorale has been edited
has been edited as as the
the finale
finale to the Art
to the Art ofof the
the
Fugue with which
Fugue with which it
it has
has nothing
nothing whatsoever
whatsoever to
to do.
do. It
It is
is actually
actually no
no more
more

"There
54 There areare actually
actually twenty
twenty compositions,
compositions, butbut one
one double
double fugue
fugue and
and one ~
one mirror
fugue arc
fugue are merely
merely revisions
revisions or
or arrangements.
arrangements. For the Art
For the of the
Arl of t/Je Fugue and the
Fugue and the Musical
MfUlclll
DOering the
Offering the scholarly
scholarly editions
editions of
of David
David should
should be consulted (Peters
be consulted (Peters and
and.G. Schirmer
G. Schirmer
respectively). The
respectively). The editions
editions ofof the Back. Gescttsckaft
the Bach Gesellscluzft give
give aa distorted
distorted picture of Ac
pICture of the
order. See
order. also Tovey's
Sec also Tovey's edition
edition ofof the An of
the Art of the
lAe Fugue, 1931
FrlglI/!, 1931.
55
III The act that
The fact that the original theme
the original theme does
docs not
not appear
appear inin the
the fugue
fugue has misled Rust
has misled Rust
(the editor
(the of the
editor of the work
work inin the Bach Gesctlschaft),
the Bach Gesellscluzft), Schweitzer,
Schweitzer. and others, to
and others, believe
to believe
that the fugue
that the fugue did
did not
not belong
belong to cycle.
the cycle.
to the
302 Music in in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
than
than aa revision
revision (though
(though aa highly
highly illuminating
illuminating one)
one) ofof the chorale Wenn
the chorale Wcnn
wir
wir inin hochsten Noten from
hochstcn Noten from the Orgelbuchldn. In the
the Orgelhuchlein. the ultimate
ultimate version
version
Bach
Bach retained
retained the
the original
original harmonization,
harmonization, butbut sheared
sheared the
the melody
melody of
of the
the
French
French embellishments
embellishments in in Bohm's manner and inserted,
inserted, in
in keeping
keeping with
with
his
his latest
latest style,
style, extended
extended but
but strictly
strictly thematic
thematic interludes.
interludes. He turned
turned from
from
the
the youthful
youthful subjective
subjective interpretation
interpretation toto an objective
objective presentation
presentation of
of the
the
liturgical
liturgical melody,
melody, a a change
change that
that symbolizes
symbolizes the
the essence
essence ofof his
his artistic
artistic

development.
development

The thoroughly
thoroughly personal
personal character
character that
that distinguishes
distinguishes Bach's
Bach's music
music al-al-

though
though it
it embodies
embodies at
at the
the same time
time the
the typical baroque
typical baroque features
features in their
in their
most powerful
powerful concentration
concentration is is due essentially
essentially toto three
three factors.
factors. The first
first of
of
these
these is
is the
the fusion
fusion of
of national
national styles.
styles. The bestbest that
that the
the German,
German, Italian,
Italian,
and French styles
styles had toto offer
offer appears
appears inin his
his music transformed
transformed to to a
a higher
higher
unity.
unity. The second
second factor
factor is
is his
his almost
almost superhuman
superhuman technical
technical craftsman-
craftsman-
ship.
ship. It
It is
is consistent
consistent with
with baroque psychology in
baroque psychology in general
general that
that technical
technical
constrictions
constrictions stimulated rather than
stimulated rather impeded his
than impeded his creative imagination.
creative imagination.
This is the reason
is the reason why
why hishis allegorical
allegorical and emblematic references, however
emblematic references, however
intellectual they
intellectual they may be, never
may be, never cease
cease to
to be
be music
music and
and serve
serve on thethe contrary
contrary
as vehicles
as vehicles ofof inspiration.
inspiration. So great
great was
was his
his facility
facility in
in bound forms
forms that it
that it is
is
at times difficult
at times to detect
difficult to detect by by ear the presence
ear the presence of of an
an obbligo like canon.
obbligo like canon.
In the
In sixth canon
the sixth canon ofof the
the Goldberg
Goldberg Vanations
Variations (Ex.(Ex. 86)86) Bach
Bach writes
writes his
his

Ex. 86. Bach: Canon from the Goldberg Variations.

L* 2f ""vJ Is xJ J3

voices at the
voices at the distance
distance of
of only
only aa half
half note
note (one
(one of
of the
the most
most difficult
difficult forms
forms
of
of canon), yet
canon), yet they
they move
move as though they
as though they were
were the
the freely
freely conceived
conceived voices
voices
of aa trio
of trio sonata.
sonata. Another
Another aspect of Bach's
aspect of Bach's craftsmanship
craftsmanship isis offered
offered by
by the
the
coundess revisions
countless of his
revisions of his own
own works.
works. The
The various
various states
states ofof cantatas
cantatas or
or
 Fusion of
Fusion of National
National Styles: Bach
Styles: Bach 30 3
303
instrumental works
instrumental works attest
attest to
to his
his critical
critical mind and and his his tenacious
tenacious efforts
efforts atat
self-improvement. Only
self-improvement. Only aa genius
genius likelike himself
himself could
could discover
discover newnew pos-pos-
sibilities in
sibilities in aa composition
composition that that must
must have
have appeared
appeared perfectperfect toto any
any other
other
composer.
composer.
third factor,
The third factor, perhaps
perhaps the the most
most important,
important, is is the
the balance
balance between
between
polyphony and
polyphony and harmony.
harmony. Bach
Bach lived
lived at
at aa time
time when the the declining
declining curve
curve ofof
polyphony and the
polyphony the ascending
ascending curve
curve ofof harmony
harmony intersected,
intersected, where where vertical
vertical
and horizontal
and horizontal forces
forces were
were in in exact
exact equilibrium.
equilibrium. This This interpenctration
interpenetration of of
opposed
opposed forces
forces has
has been
been realized
realized only
only once
once in
in the
the history
history of
of music
music and
and
Bach is
Bach is the
the protagonist
protagonist ofof this
this unique
unique andand propitious
propitious moment.
moment. His His melodies
melodies
have the
have the maximum of of linear
linear energy,
energy, but
but arc
are atat the
the same
same time
time saturated
saturated
with harmonic
with harmonic implications.
implications. His His harmonies
harmonies have have the the vertical
vertical energy
energy of of
logical
logical
chord
chord progressions,
progressions, but
but are
are at
at the
the same
same time
time linear
linear in
in all
all their
their

voices. Hence,
voices. Hence, whenever
whenever Bach Bach writes
writes harmonically
harmonically the the parts
parts also
also move
independently,
independently, and
and whenever
whenever he
he writes
writes polyphonically
polyphonically the
the parts
parts move
also in
also in tonal
tonal harmony.
harmony. The interpenetration
interpenetration of of the
the twotwo concepts
concepts had far- far-
reaching
reaching effects
effects on
on dissonance
dissonance treatment,
treatment, melodic
melodic design,
design, and
and texture.
texture.

Since the
Since the harmonic
harmonic progressions
progressions were were at
at any
any point
point clearly defined, the
clearly defined, the voices
voices
were free
were to clash
free to clash in
in amazing
amazing dissonances.
dissonances. Direct
Direct successions
successions of of dissonances
dissonances
including even
including even simultaneous
simultaneous cross-relations
cross-relations arc are not
not rare
rare in
in Bach's
Bach's music,
music,
as
as can
can bebe seen in the
seen in the first
first three-part invention (Ex.
three-part invention (Ex. 87), to select
87), to select aa very
very
Ex. 87.
Ex. Bach: Excerpt
87. Bach: Excerpt from the first
from the three-part Invention
first three-part Invention or
or Sinfonia.
Sinfonia.

familiar
familiar example.
example. They
They are
are felt,
felt, however,
however, less
less as
as dissonances
dissonances than as
as ac-
ac-

cidental
cidental results
results of
of independent
independent part-writing.
part-writing.
The strict
strict logic
logic of
of Bach's
Bach's chord
chord progressions
progressions always
always entailed
entailed a fast
fast

harmonic rhythm.
harmonic rhythm. His
His harmonic
harmonic vocabulary
vocabulary was essentially
essentially diatonic;
diatonic; Ne-
apolitan and augmented-sixth chords (the only two outstanding
apolitan and augmentcd-sixth chords (the only outstanding chromatic
combinations)
combinations) appear
appear only
only exceptionally
exceptionally at at especially
especially emphatic
emphatic cadences.
cadences.

In
In the
the works
works of the fifth
of the fifth period
period chromaticism
chromaticism became slighdy
slightly more promi-
promi-
nent,
nent, as
as can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the first
first ricercar
ricercar of
of the
the Musical
Musical Offering
Offering or the
the
second triple fugue
second triple fugue of of the
the .Art
Art of
of the
the Fugue
Fugue in
in which the
the B-A-CH-motive
B-A-C-H-motivc

appears in
appears in passing.
passing.
Bach's melodies owe
Bach's melodies owe their
their linear
linear energy
energy to
to the
the consistency
consistency of rhythmic
rhythmic
304 Music in in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era
patterns
patterns thatthat are
are as
as yet
yet free
free from
from the the regularity
regularity of of accent
accent because
because the the
melodic
melodic climaxes
climaxes occur
occur successively
successively in in the
the various
various contrapuntal
contrapuntal voices,
voices, not
not
simultaneously
simultaneously as as they
they do in in music
music dominated
dominated exclusively
exclusively by by harmony.
harmony.
The interva1lic
intervallic structure
structure ofof his
his melodies
melodies is is based
based on the the scale
scale or
or on free
free
interva1lic
intervallic progressions,
progressions, not
not yet
yet as
as strongly
strongly subordinated
subordinated to
to the
the triad
triad as
as
classic
classic themes
themes are.
are. The melodic
melodic succession
succession of of two thirds
thirds was to to Bach just
just
one
one ofof the
the numerous interva1lic
intervallic progressions;
progressions; it it is
is for
for this
this reason
reason that
that non-
non-
triadic
triadic themes
themes appear
appear much more often
often with Bach than with any
any classic
classic

composer.
composer.
The equilibrium
equilibrium between
between polyphony
polyphony and harmony harmony becomes apparent
apparent no- no-
where more clearly
clearly than
than in
in what may may be be called
called his
his "hidden"
"hidden" or or "implied"
"implied"
polyphony.
polyphony. His His melodic
melodic thinking
thinking was so so thoroughly
thoroughly imbued with with polyph-
polyph-
ony
ony that
that he
he could
could not
not help suggesting polyphony
help suggesting polyphony even when he wrote
wrote a a
single
single line.
line. Quite
Quite in
in contrast
contrast with
with classic
classic and romantic
romantic composers
composers who
divided
divided melodies
melodies oror chord
chord progressions
progressions into into several
several lines
lines in
in order
order toto produce
produce
a sham-polyphony,
sham-polyphony, Bach condensed
condensed two independent
independent voices
voices into
into aa single
single
line.
line. The sonatas
sonatas for
for violin
violin and cello
cello solo
solo furnish
furnish astonishing
astonishing examples of
examples of
implied polyphony,
implied polyphony, but
but we find
find it
it also
also time
time and again
again in
in other
other works,
works, forfor
example
example in in the allemande from the
the allcmande the second partita (Ex.
second partita (Ex. 88). In the
88). In the quoted
quoted

Ex. 88. Bach:

Ex. 88. Allemande from
Bach: Attemande from the
the second PflTtita.
second Partita.
_v

example the
example the upper
upper voice
voice is
is reproduced
reproduced inin two
two forms,
forms, first
first as
as the
the single
single line
line
that
that Bach wrote
wrote and then in
then in aa notation
notation that
that realizes
realizes the
the implied
implied interplay
interplay
of
of sequential voices.
two sequential voices. Since
Since both
both the
the upper
upper and
and lower
lower line
line of
of the
the al-
al-

lemande follow
lcmande follow the
the same
same pattern
pattern they
they actually imply
actually imply aa four-part
four-part setting
setting
within aa two-part
within two-part counterpoint.
counterpoint. The polyphonic
polyphonic design
design ofof the
the melody
melody
all the
was all the more effective
effective because
because it it lay
lay under
under the
the surface
surface of
of the
the music
music
and immeasurably enriched its
immeasurably enriched its texture.
texture. This
This isis the
the reason
reason why
why aa thin
thin
texture in
texture in Bach's
Bach's music
music sounds
sounds often
often more
more complex
complex thanthan aa thick
thick texture
texture
does in
does in the
the music
music of
of his
his contemporaries.
contemporaries. EvenEven when
when Bach
Bach wrote
wrote inin the
the style
style
of continuo-homophony,
of continuo-homophony, as as he
he did in his
did in his concertos*
concertos, implied
implied polyphony
polyphony
raised the
raised the solo
solo pan
part far
far above
above aa mere
mere spinning-out
spinning-out of of figurative
figurative harmonies
harmonies
which was
which was thethe rule
rule with
with other
other composers.
composers. Implied
Implied polyphony
polyphony andand the
the
..
c
..E
~
o
 t^s
Johann Sebastian Bach

I
C

rt
1
from a painting by Elias Gottlieb Haussmann

II
George Frederick Handel
 Fusion
Fusion of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Bach
Bach 305
305
fullest
fullest independence
independence of of part-writing appear in
part-writing appear in Bach's
Bach's music
music paradoxically
paradoxically
united
united with
with the
the fullest
fullest dependence
dependence on
on tonal
tonal harmony.
harmony. InIn their
their unique
unique
combination
combination these
these traits
traits bestow
bestow on
on his
his music
music the
the complex
complex intensity that is
intensity that is
the
the secret
secret of
of his
his personal style.
personal style.
 CHAPTER 1'{INE

Coordination
Coordination of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel

THE STATE OF SECULAR VOCAL MUSIC IN GERMANY

BEFORE HANDEL

T
THE
HE GERMAN church
decisive
decisive factors

less
factors in
church cantata
in the
important function
less important function in
cantata and the
the artistic
in the
the music for
artistic development
development
the creative career of
creative career
of
of
for keyboard,
Bach,
Bach,
of the
keyboard, the

the young
have
have a
a
Handel.
young Handel.
the
far
far

They were
They were to Handel merely
to Handel merely part
part and parcel of
and parcel of aa general technical train-
general technical train-
ing
ing that
that he
he later
later applied
applied to
to other
other musical
musical fields.
fields. A survey
survey of
of secular
secular music
music
in
in Germany,
Germany, notably
notably the the opera,
opera, chamber cantata,
cantata, and continuocontinue song, song,
forms
forms thethe appropriate background
appropriate background for
for the
the discussion
discussion of
of the music
the music of of
Handel.
Handel.
Italian opera
The Italian opera exerted
exerted soso potent
potent anan influence
influence on on the
the opera
opera in in Ger-
Ger-
many and Austria
many Austria thatthat attempts
attempts to to establish
establish an opera in
an opera the German
in the
language remained
language remained at at first
first isolated ventures. Italian
isolated ventures. Italian opera
opera left
left its
its mark eveneven
in the
in the theatre;
theatre; several
several ofof the
the German historical
historical tragedies,
tragedies, the the so-called
so-called
Haupt- Staatsaction~, have
Haupt- und Staatsactionen, have turned
turned outout to
to bebe adaptations
adaptations of of Venetian
Venetian
opera
opera libretti.
libretti. The established
established centers
centers of
of Italian
Italian opera
opera in
in Germany
Germany con- con-
tinued to
tinued to flourish
flourish in in the
the late
late baroque
baroque period
period thanks
thanks to to the
the efforts
efforts of of
Italian composers
Italian composers or or German musicians,
musicians, well
well versed
versed in in the
the Italian
Italian idiom.
idiom.
court in
The court in Munich was suppliedsupplied withwith operas
operas by by Steffani,
Steffani, andand later
later byby
his pupil
his pupil Torri;
Torri; in in Hanover we find find Steffani
Steffani andand later
later Handel;
Handel; in in Dres-
Dres-
den Strungk, Lotti, and
Strungk, Lotti, and later
later Hasse;
Hasse; Vienna,
Vienna, thethe main
main center
center of of the
the opera,
opera,
could boast
could boast ofof such
such masters
masters as as Caldara,
Caldara, Conti,
Conti, thethe brothers
brothers Bononcini,
Bononcini, and and
the Austrian
the Austrian Fux.Fm. The operas of Handel and
operas of and Hassc
Hasse were were performed
performed at at
the Austrian
the Austrian court
court together
together with
with many
many others
others by by Italian
Italian composers.
composers.
The operas
operas of of Agostino
Agostino Steffani (1654-1728) set
Steffani (1654-1728) set aa standard
standard as as exemplary
exemplary
and binding in Germany as those of Lully
binding in Germany as those of Lully did in
did in France.
France. Several
Several of of Stef-
Std
ani's operas
faoi's operas abandon the the customary subjects taken
customary subjects taken from
from Roman mythologymythology
J06
306
 Coordination of
Coordination of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 30 7
307
and turn
and turn instead
instead to to German
German history,
history, for for example,
example, Alarico. Since Steffani
Alarica.11 Since Steffani
received his
received his musical
musical education
education in in Germany
Germany (though (though from from Italian
Italian masters)
masters)
it isis not
it not surprising
surprising that that hishis eighteen
eighteen operas,
operas, written
written mostly
mostly for for Hanover,
Hanover,
show the
show the German propensity propensity for for counterpoint
counterpoint and and for
for combining
combining features
features
of the
of the Italian
Italian and and thethe French
French style.
style. They
They are are headed
headed by by Lullian
Lullian overtures,
overtures,
frequently punctuated
frequently punctuated by by trio
trio episodes
episodes and and rounded
rounded off off byby aa minuet
minuet
movement. Use
movement. Use of of the
the ground
ground bass, bass, and
and consistently
consistently contrapuntal
contrapuntal texturetexture
of the
of the duets
duets and trios trios areare highly
highly characteristic
characteristic traitstraits ofof his
his opera
opera music
music
though
though it
it must
must be
be admitted
admitted that
that the
the opera
opera duets
duets cannot
cannot compete
compete in
in elegance
elegance
and inspiration
and inspiration with with his his chamber
chamber duets, duets,22 in in which
which Steffani
Steffani reached
reached his his
greatest stature.
greatest stature. The concise aria forms, the stereotyped
concise aria forms, the stereotyped motto beginnings, motto beginnings,
the quasi-ostinato
the quasi-ostinato patternspatterns in in the
the bass,
bass, and
and thethe instrumental
instrumental obligates
obligatos in in aa
somewhat tentative
somewhat tentative concerto
concerto stylestyle belong
belong to to the
the heritage
heritage of of the
the modern
modern
Venetian opera;
Venetian opera; but,but, on the the other
other hand,
hand, the the comparatively
comparatively numerous numerous
arias
arias with
with continuo
continuo accompaniment
accompaniment indicate
indicate Steffani's
Steffani's conservative
conservative lean.
lean-

ings toward
ings toward the the middle
middle baroque
baroque opera.opera. The predilection
predilection for for wind
wind instru-
instru-
ments in
ments in the
the orchestration,
orchestration, later later also
also shown
shown by by Handel,
Handel, reflects
reflects German
practice whereas the accompanied recitatives with their full
practice whereas the accompanied recitatives with their
orchestral set-
full orchestral set
tings point
tings point toward
toward French
French rather
rather than
than Italian
Italian models.
models. The smooth
smooth co-
co-

ordination
ordination of of national
national styles
styles that
that Steffani
Steffani effected
effected in
in his
his operas
operas was to
to
become aa decisive
become factor in
decisive factor Handel's music.
in Handel's music.
The Italian
Italian operaopera rose
rose to
to perfection
perfection at the
at the Viennese
Viennese court court where Zeno
watched
watched over over thethe inner
inner reform
reform of of the
the opera
opera sma.
seria. The Austrian
Austrian opera sma
opera seria
differed
differed from from the the Italian
Italian in in its
its orchestral
orchestral splendor
splendor and contrapuntal
contrapuntal dig. dig-
nity, recognized
nity, recognized at
at the
the time
time as
as aa Viennese
Viennese specialty.
specialty. This was the
the result
result of
of

the
the historically
historically uniqueunique influence
influence of of the
the oratorio
oratorio on the the opera.
opera. Throughout
Throughout
the
the baroque
baroque period period it
it was the the opera
opera that
that ordinarily
ordinarily served
served as
as model forfor

the
the oratorio.
oratorio. In In Vienna, however,
Vienna, however, the
the luxuriant
luxuriant counterpoint. extensively
counterpoint, extensively
cultivated in
cultivated in the
the oratorio,
oratorio, gained
gained a a firm
firm hold
hold on the the opera
opera style,
style, asas can be

seen in
seen in the
the careful
careful workmanship
workmanship of of the
the choral writing
choral writing and the prominent
the prominent
position
position
of
of the
the chorus,
chorus, paralleled
paralleled only
only in
in the
the works of of Lully
Lully and Purcell.
Purcell.

In
In the
the operas
operas of
of Fux (1660-1741)
(1660-1741) the
the artistic
artistic weight
weight lies
lies on the soloistic
soloistic en
en-

semble,
semble, the
the chorus
chorus for
for four
four or
or five
five voices,
voices, and the
the grand da-capo
grand da-capo aria
aria with
with
obbligato accompaniment. The learned
obbligato accompaniment. learned and conservative
conservative opera opera style
style of
Fux,
Fux, which
which puts puts hishis reputation
reputation as as aa dry.as-dust
dry-as-dust theorist to shame,
theorist to shame, enriches
enriches

the
the accompaniment
accompaniment by
by contrapuntal
contrapuntal devices
devices including
including even fugue
fugue andand
canon.
canon. The single scenes of the operas are
single scenes of the operas
are organized
organized as as large
large rondo struc-
struc-

11 Dn
DTB II :2; see
11:2; also HAM no.
see also no. 244-
244.
*Dn 6:2.
DTB6:2,
308
Music in
Music in thethe Baroque
Baroque Era Era
tures by
tures by means
means of of recurrent
recurrent choral
choral sections,
sections, asas can
can be be seen
seen in in Costanza
Costanza ee
Fortezza,S written
Fortczza* written for for the
the coronation
coronation oof the the Emperor
Emperor in Prague
in (x723).
Prague (1723).
Also Elisa dealing
Also Elisa dealing with with thethe story
story of of Dido
Dido andand Aeneas
Aeneas excels excels in in choral
choral
settings
settings
of
of vast
vast dimensions.
dimensions. Like
Like most
most Germans Fux
Fux was
was partial
partial to ob-
to ob-
bligatos for wind instruments,
bligatos for wind instruments, including
including the
the chalumeaux,
chdumeaux, the
the early
early form
form of
of
the clarinet.
the clarinet The stylistic conservatism
stylistic conservatism
of
of Fux is
is most pronounced
pronounced in
in his
his

overtures; he
overtures; he follows
follows the the old
old Italian
Italian practice
practice instead
instead of of the
the French
French modelmodel
and writes
and writes church
church sonatas
sonatas or or even
even canzonas
canzonas in in aa thick,
thick, unwieldy
unwieldy texture.
texture.
After sporadic
After sporadic attempts
attempts duringduring the the seventeenth
seventeenth centurycentury at at introducing
introducing
opera in
opera in the
the German language
language the
the German opera
opera came to
to full
full flowering
flowering
not before
not before thethe late
late baroque
baroque period.
period. The courts courts ofof Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel
Brunswick-Wolenbiittel
and Weissenfels
and Weissenfels were were centers
centers of of the
the German court court opera.
opera. In Brunswick,
Brunswick,
German operas
German operas became
became famousfamous with with Cousser
Cousser who performed performed his his own
works along
works along with
with those
those of
of Erlebach
Erlebach and Philipp Krieger.
Philipp Krieger. These composers
composers
were, however,
were, however, later later overshadowed
overshadowed by by Schumann,
Schiirmann, the the last
last German com-
poser of baroque opera.
poser of baroque opera. The
court of
court of Weissenfels,
Weissenfels, the the only
only place
place where
the customary
the customary intermixture
intermixture of of Italian
Italian and German arias arias was not not tolerated,
tolerated,
relied primarily
relied primarily on on Philipp
Philipp Krieger's
Krieger's operas
operas in in which simple songs
simple songs pre- pre.
dominated.
dominated.
German opera found vigorous
opera found vigorous support
support alsoalso inin the
the German cities; cities; the
the
opera
opera in
in Leipzig
Leipzig was founded
founded and directed
directed by
by Strungk.
Strungk. The leading
leading and
easily the most influential institution of German opera
easily the most influential institution of
opera was the the public
public opera
opera
house in
house in the
the Hansa city city of
of Hamburg,
Hamburg, founded in
in x678
1678 by by a number of
of
enterprising burghers
enterprising burghers
and senators.
senators. Hamburg,
Hamburg, the
the "Venice on the Elbe,"
Elbe,**
emulated
emulated the the commercial
commercial opera opera in in Venice.
Venice. The opera opera "at "at the
the Goosemarket"
soon
soon attracted
attracted the the most promising
promising composers
composers of of German opera. opera. The es- es-

sentially popular
sentially popular backgroundbackground of
of the
the Hamburg
Hamburg opera opera is
is evident in
in the
choice
choice ofof local
local subjects,
subjects, the the appearance
appearance of of dialect
dialect songs,
songs, and the the rejection
rejection
of castrato singing.
of castrato singing. Market women and dames of
of more than
than questionable
questionable
reputation roles in
reputation sang sang thethe female
female roles in the
the absence
absence of of castrati
castratL The comic

intermezzi of
intermezzi of the
the operas
operas soon
soon aroused
aroused the the ire
ire of
of the
the pious
pious merchants,
merchants, and
for
for aa number of of years
years a
a heated
heated controversy
controversy raged raged in
in which Pietists
Pietists and

orthodox
orthodox Protestants
Protestants clashed
clashed once more, more, this
this time over
over the
the purely
purely worldly
worldly
issue
issue of
of the
the opera. Naturally,
opera. Naturally, the
the Pietists
Pietists took an inimical
inimical attitude
attitude toward
opera;
opera; they
they succeeded in in banning
banning it it for
for a short
short time,
time, but their their opposition
opposition
was ultimately
ultimately overridden.
overridden. The Hamburg Hamburg opera opera flourished
flourished for for sixty
sixty years
years
in
in the
the course
course of of which about about 250 250 works were produced.
produced. The earliest
earliest operas
operas
in Hamburg, still
in Hamburg, still indebted
indebted to to middle baroque
baroque style,
style, rose from humble be.
rose from bc-

SCMA :z.
a SCMA 2, also XVH (voL
DTOe XVII
also DTOc (voL 34"'35).
34-35).
 Coordination of
Coordination of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 309
309
ginnings, such
ginnings, suchas Singspiele and
asSingspiele and school
schooldramas
dramas withwith spoken
spoken dialogue
dialogue which,which,
based
based on
on biblical
biblical subjects,
subjects, were
were performed for the edification
performed for the edification of the Ham- of the Ham-
burg merchants.
burg merchants. Similar
Similar sacred
sacred subjects
subjects werewere presented
presented in Singspiel form
in Singspiel form
by Lohner
by LOhner in in Nuremberg.
Nuremberg. The The Hamburg
Hamburg opera opera was was inaugurated
inaugurated by by the
the
Singspiel
Singspiel Adam
Adam und
und Eva
Eva by
by Theile,
Theile, a
a pupil
pupil of
of Schutz
Schiitz and
and aa respectable
respectable
contrapuntist. After
contrapuntist. After Theile's
Theile's hurried
hurried withdrawal
withdrawal Nikolaus Nikolaus Strungk Strungk and and
4
Johann Wolfgang
Johann Wolfgang Franck, Franck,4 who
who also
also belong to the early
belong to the early period period of
of the
the
Hamburg opera, took
Hamburg opera, took his place. his place.
The period
The period knew
knew onlyonly three
three prominent
prominent composers
composers of of German
German opera: opera:
Johann Sigismund
Johann Sigismund Cousser
Cousser (1660-1727),
(1660-1727), Reinhard
Reinhard Keiser
Kciser (1674-1739),
(1674-1739), and and
Georg
Georg Kaspar Kaspar Schiirmann
Schiirmann (c. 1672-1751).
(c. 1672-1751). All
All of
of these
these were,
were, at
at various
various
times, affiliated
times, affiliated with
with thethe Hamburg
Hamburg opera. opera. Cousser
Cousser (or (or Kusser),
Kusser), aa man of of
restless and
restless and impetuous
impetuous character,
character, had had aa most
most adventurous
adventurous career career which be- be-
gan
gan in
in Paris
Paris where
where he
he learned
learned the
the craft
craft from
from Lully,
Lully, continued
continued in
in Brunswick
Brunswick
and Hamburg
and (1693""95) where he earned
Hamburg (1693-95) earned his his greatest
greatest fame, fame, and ended ended
in Dublin.
in Dublin. Cousscr's
Cousser's operas,
operas, whichwhich are are only
only fragmentarily
fragmentarily preserved, preserved,1I5 dis- dis-
playa
play a motley
motley of
of styles
styles of
of which
which Lully
Lully and
and Steffani
Steffani form
form the
the most notable
notable
single ingredients. His vocal
single ingredients. vocal music
music is is obligated
obligated to to the
the Italian master. We
Italian master.
find
find concise da-capo arias
concise da-capo arias in in Italian bel-canto style,
Italian bel-canto style, sometimes with with 0b-ob-
bligato accompaniment,
bligato accompaniment, and sometimes
sometimes with
with ostinati.
ostinati. On the
the other
other hand,
hand,
airs in
airs in dance
dance rhythm
rhythm and simple simple duets bespeak French influence
duets bespeak influence as as clearly
clearly
as
as strophic
strophic continuo
continue songs
songs do that
that of
of the
the popular
popular German Singspiel. An
Singspiel.
English serenata
English serenata composedcomposed in
in Dublin
Dublin is
is so
so far
far the
the only
only extant
extant example
example of
Cousser's
Cousser's recitative
recitative style. Cousser never succeeded
style. Cousser never
succeeded in in unifying
unifying the the various
various
styles, but his personal influence
styles, but his personal
influence was nevertheless
nevertheless a a stimulating
stimulating one. Under
his
his directorship
directorship the
the Hamburg
Hamburg opera opera rose
rose above
above the
the prevailing
prevailing provincialism
provincialism
since
since he he opened
opened the
the doors
doors to
to the
the Italian
Italian bel
bel canto
canto and the French instru-
instru-

mental style. Cousser's spirited

mental style. Cousser's spirited musicianship musicianship aroused
aroused the
the enthusiasm of his
his

fellow-musicians
fellow-musicians and and Mattheson
Mattheson portrayedportrayed him as the model of the
him as the model of the

Vollkommene Kapellmeister
Vollfammene Kapellmeister (1739)'
(1739). Cousser
Cousser performed
performed Italian, Italian, French,
French,
and
and German
German operas
operas in
in exemplary
exemplary fashion
fashion true
true to
to the
the style
style and
and spirit
spirit of
of the
the
composer,
composer,
as
as Mattheson
Mattheson expressly
expressly states.
states. Both
Both as
as conductor
conductor and
and composer
composer
Cousser
Cousser stimulated
stimulated the the budding talents of
budding talents of Keiser
Reiser and and Schiirmann.
Schurmann.
With Keiser the Hamburg opera
With Reiser the Hamburg opera passed through passed through the
the most
most brilliant
brilliant phase
phase
ofof its
its history.
history.
Lavishly
Lavishly praised
praised by
by his
his contemporaries
contemporaries as
as the
the greatest
greatest opera
opera
composer,
composer, admired
admired by
by both
both Steffani
Steffani and
and Handel,
Handel, Keiser
Reiser still
still commands
commands
today affections. His
today thethe highest respect as a master of lyric and
highest respect as a master of lyric
and dramatic
dramatic affections. His

4See
See Die drey Tackler
Die drey Cecrops in
Tochier Cecrops EL
in EL.
I 1See
Sec the
the arias from Erindo
arias from in EL.
Erin do in GMB no.
also GMB
EL, also no, 250.
250.
33io
IO Music in
in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
extravagant
extravagant conduct conduct duringduring his his affluent
affluent years
years in in Hamburg
Hamburg reflects reflects the the
colorful
colorful conditions
conditions underunder whichwhich the public opera
the public opera flourished
flourished and of which
o which
it became finally
it became finally a a victim.
victim. Keiser
Reiser found
found a a congenial
congenial poet poet of of sure
sure dramatic
dramatic
instinct in
instinct in the
the librettist Feind whose Gedancken
librettist Feind GedancJ^en von der
der Opera (1708)
Opera (1708)
give a well-reasoned
give a well-reasoned account ofaccount of the
the dramaturgy
dramaturgy of
of the
the opera.
opera. In
In this treatise
this treatise

Feind
Feind discussed
discussed the the poetic
poetic form
form of of the
the da<apo
da-capo ariaaria for
for which he he required
required
aa simile
simile or or a a sententious
sententious moral.moral. In In view
view of of the
the later
later development
development of of the
the
opera
opera in
in Hamburg
Hamburg it
it is
is significant
significant that
that he
he deplored
deplored the
the growing popularity
growing popularity
of
of coarsely
coarsely comic
comic characters
characters on on the
the opera
opera stage.
stage.
Of Keiser's alleged II6
Reiser's alleged 116 operas
operas onlyonly about
about two dozen have have come down
to
to us.
us. Like
Like thethe Venetians
Venetians KeiserKeiser interpolated
interpolated songs songs in
in local
local dialect
dialect intointo
his operas,
his operas, in
in this
this case
case songs
songs in
in the
the Low German of
of the
the Hamburg
Hamburg variety. variety.
Beginning
Beginning with with Claudius
Claudius (1703)
(1703) Keiser
Keiser mixed Italian Italian arias
arias and German

ones,
ones, a a fashion
fashion thatthat Feind
Feind continued
continued in in the
the libretti
libretti to Octavia (1705),
to Octavia (1705),
Lucretia, and
Lucretia, Masagniello ,urioso,
and Masagniello furioso, thethe last
last of which deals
of which deals withwith the
the subject
subject
of the Mllette
of the Muette de Ac Portia.
Portici. The score score ofof Octavia
Octavia 86 is is important
important with regard to
with regard to
Handel who incorporated
incorporated sections
sections from it
it into
into his
his own music.
music. Keiser's
Reiser's
Almira (1706)
Almira written in
(1706) was written in direct
direct rivalry
rivalry with
with Handel's
Handel's first first opera
opera by by
the
the same name which proved so
which proved so successful
successful that that Keiser
Reiser feared
feared to to lose his
lose his

supremacy
supremacy on the the Hamburg
Hamburg stage. stage. After
After the the bankruptcy
bankruptcy of the opera
of the opera
under Keiser's
under Reiser's extravagant management
extravagant management the
the composer
composer fled
fled from Hamburg,
Hamburg,
but returned
but returned laterlater to to write
write a a number of of new operas, notably Croesus,
operas, notably Croesus,
L11nganno
L'lnganno fcdele,fedele, and Jodelet.T7
and Jodelet.
A fine
fine flair
flair for palpably popular,
for palpably popular, yet yet artistic,
artistic, musical
musical effects
effects runsruns
through
through all
all of
of Keiser's
Reiser's music.
music. Its
Its earthy simplicity
earthy simplicity may may be
be in
in part
part a
a re-
re-

flection
flection ofof the popular
the popular demands of of the
the audience,
audience, but but it it is
is at
at the
the same
same timetime
aa thoroughly
thoroughly personal
personal characteristic.
characteristic. Although
Although Steffani's
Steffani's concise
concise ariaaria style
style
still
still obtained,
obtained, Keiser's
Reiser's general
general attitude
attitude was
was more
more advanced:
advanced: he
he brought
brought
to the
the German opera opera thethe innovations
innovations of of the
the fully
fully developed
developed ItalianItalian con-con-
certo
certo style
style with
with electrifying
electrifying violin
violin passages
passages in
in unison and running
unison and running basses, basses,
handled by
handled by him in in a
a somewhat angularangular fashion.
fashion. He very very clearly
clearly anticipated
anticipated
the
the "Handelian"
"Handelian" type type of melody in
of melody in which
which a a pregnant
pregnant motive
motive is placed
is placed

upon aa sequentially
upon sequentially running running bass
bass and in
in which
which characteristic
characteristic sudden
sudden halts
halts
and speaking
speaking rests
rests interrupt
interrupt the
the flow
flow of
of the
the as can be
melody, as can be seen in the
melody, seen in the
ritornello from CroesllS
aria ritornello
aria Croesus (Ex.(Ex. 89).
89).
Keiser
Reiser required
required from the the singer
singer Italian
Italian agility
agility in in strongly
strongly rhythmical
rhythmical

6 Supplement
Supplement to the Hadel Gesellscluzft.
the Handel Gcsetlsckaft.
T
t' For the
the first
first two operas
operas sec
see DDT 37-38,
37-38, for the last
for the last one,
one, Eitner
Eitner PAM 18.
18; see
see alon
afcn
HAM no.no, 7D7.
267,
 Coordination
Coordination of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 311
311
coloratura
coloratura passages
passages which betray
betray the
the unmistakable
unmistakable influence
influence of
of the
the violin
violin
idiom.
idiom. Many
Many arias
arias call
call for
for elaborate
elaborate orchestral
orchestral accompaniments,
accompaniments, whichwhich
may
may include
include the
the chalumeattx,
chalumeattx, trumpets,
trumpets, and
and other
other wind
wind instruments.
instruments. The
less
less frequent,
frequent, but
but important,
important, continuo
continue arias
arias are
are generally
generally reserved
reserved for
for songs
songs

89. Keiser:
Ex. !!g.
Ex. Kciser: Ritorne1lo
Ritorndlo from
from Croenu.
Croesus.

::;::;:~I~::~e
in the
in the popular
popular style
style of
of the
the German Sing.rpiel. With their
Singspicl. With their catchy
catchy melodies
melodies
and
and their
their homespun
homespun humor they they became
became the the song
song hits
hits of of the
the day.
day. In In
highly
highly dramatic
dramatic scenes
scenes Keiser
Keiscr preferred
preferred the
the arioso
arioso to
to the
the da-capo aria;
da-capo aria;
but the
but latter form also
the latter also is
is dramatically represented in
dramatically represented in such such excellent
excellent arias
arias

as Goiter
as Cotter ubt Barmherzigk,eit (Gods,
ubt Barmherzigftfit (Gods, have sung by
mercy), sung
have mercy), by Croesus
Croesus when
he is
he is led
led to
to the
the stake.
stake. This
This aria
aria unfolds
unfolds on on a a quivering
quivering bass
bass with quasi-
with quasi-
ostinato
ostinato patterns suggesting
patterns suggesting most
most vividly
vividly the
the affection
affection of
of fear.
fear. The choruses
choruses
are
arc written
written in in the
the grand
grand oratorical
oratorical manner
manner exemplified
exemplified by by the
the opening
opening cho- cho-
rus of Croesus in which the styles
rus of Croesus in which the styles of Kciser of Keiser and
and Handel come amazingly
amazingly
close
close toto each
each other.
other. One of of Keiser's
Reiser's peculiarities
peculiarities is is the
the use
use of
of ensemble
ensemble recita-
recita-

tive,
tive, by
by this
this time
time not
not very frequent
very frequent in
in Italian
Italian opera.
opera. His recitatives
recitatives have
have on
the
the whole
whole a a highly
highly individual
individual tone;
tone; in
in their
their flawless
flawless declamation,
declamation, their
their

rhythmic
rhythmic vitality,
vitality, andand their emphatic, if
their emphatic, if slightly
slightly uncouth,
uncouth, power power they they
are
are often
often reminiscent
reminiscent of of the
the English
English recitative.
recitative.

Although
Although Keiser
Keiser was
was strongly
strongly indebted
indebted to
to Italian
Italian opera
opera style
style its
its features
features

assumed
assumed in in his
his hands
hands a a Germanized
Germanized and personalized form.
and personalized form. Keiser
Keiser was was
too
too independent
independent a
a musician
musician to
to imitate
imitate slavishly.
slavishly. As was customary
customary with
with
every
every German
German composer,
composer, he he retained
retained features
features of the French style,
of the style, especially
especially
the
the Lullian
Lullian overture,
overture, the the concluding
concluding rondeau,
rondeau, the the dance suite,
dance suite, and
and refrain
refrain

sections
sections in in the
the recitative. Yet the
recitative. Yet the trend
trend in in Germany
Germany towardtoward the the Italian
Italian opera
opera
is clearly
is exposed
clearly exposed by
by the
the two
two overtures
overtures to
to Croesus:
Croesus: the
the first
first version
version hashas aa
French overture,
French overture, the
the final
final version
version an
an Italian
Italian sinfonia.
sinfonia.

Mattheson
Matthcson and and thethe indefatigable
indefatigable T demann must
Telemann must be mentioned beside beside

Keiser
Keiser as the last
as the last composers
composers of of the
the Hamburg
Hamburg stage. stage. Telemann who wrote
wrote
about
about forty operas produced
forty operas produced
in
in his
his witty
witty Pimpinone
Pimpinone
8
8 a
a comic opera
opera that
that

anticipates
anticipates
La
La SertJQ
Serva Paarona
Padrona by eight years.
by eight years. Telemann's career
career belongs
belongs
to the
to the declining phase of the Hamburg opera during which coarsely
declining phase of the Hamburg opera during coarsely

IERVL
ERVL
3312
I2 Music in the
Music in the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
comic
comic subjects
subjects prevailed.
prevailed. The oncoming opera
The oncoming opera huDa
bufta superseded
superseded these these
attempts
attempts to to establish
establish a a comic
comic opera
opera in in German.
German.
The importance
The importance of of Keiser
Keiser forfor the
the public
public opera
opera parallels
parallels that
that of of SchUr-
Schiir-
mann
mann forfor the
the German
German courtcourt opera.
opera. With
With Schiirmann
Schiirmann the
the German
German opera
opera
at
at the
the court
court of of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittd
Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel reached reached the the peak
peak of
of its
its devdop-
develop-
ment.
ment. Schiirmann
Schiirmann had learned his
had learned his craft
craft inin Hamburg
Hamburg while while serving
serving as as
singer
singer under
under Cousser.
Cousscr. Although
Although Schiirmann's
Schumann's mdodic melodic invention
invention is is more
more
restrained and less
restrained less in
in the
the popular
popular vein vein than
than that
that of
of Keiser,
Kciser, he he surpasses
surpasses
Keiser
Keiser inin the
the noble
noble finish of his
finish of his arias.
arias. The stylistic
stylistic contrast
contrast between
between the the
two composers corresponds
composers corresponds to
to the
the difference
difference between
between a
a public and a
public and a courtcourt
opera.
opera. Many
Many of of Schiinnann's
Schiirmann's numerous operas operas deal
deal with
with subjects
subjects of of Ger-
Ger-
man history
history as as does,
does, for
for example,
example, Ludovicus
Ludovicus Pius Pius (1'J26):"
(i726). In
9
In Schiirmann's
Schiirmann's
music,
music, too,
too, the
the characteristically
characteristically German mixture mixture of of French
French and and Italian
Italian
styles
styles can
can be
be observed.
observed. While his
his instrUmental
instrumental forms, especially
forms, especially the
the overtures
overtures
and
and the
the ballets,
ballets, point
point toward France, his
toward France, his vocal
vocal music
music leans
leans toward
toward Italy.
Italy.
Schiirmann
Schiirmann is is perhaps
perhaps thethe only
only composer
composer of of German opera opera able
able to to beat
beat
the Italians on their
the Italians their own ground,
ground, namdy
namely in in the
the grand da-capo
grand da-capo aria.
aria. The
The ex-
ex-
pansion
pansion of
of the
the first
first part
part of
of the
the aria
aria into
into two
two distinct
distinct sections
sections recurs
recurs with
with
Schiirmann more regularly regularly thanthan in in any
any of his fdlow
of his composers. In
fellow composers. In his
his
dignified
dignified pathos,
pathos, his his rich
rich harmonic
harmonic resources,
resources, and and his
his solid
solid workmanship
workmanship
he had no rival
he rival except
except Bach.
Bach. In In the
the remarkably
remarkably fine fine aria
aria of
of Judith
Judith in in
Lutlovicus 10
Ludovicus 1*
his melodic
his melodic style
style holds
holds midway
midway betweenbetween Bach's
Bach's melodic
melodic
complexity and Handel's
complexity Handd's broad
broad cantilena. However, his
cantilena. However, his numerous
numerous un- un-
pretentious, songlike
pretentious, songlikc arias
arias foreshadow
foreshadow the
the coming of the style
coming of the style gdant. galant.

In spite
In spite of
of the
the promising
promising strides
strides of
of the
the German opera
opera itit was
was doomed
doomed to to
failure for lack of support from
failure for lack of support from the
the educated
educated middle
middle classes.
classes. Shortly
Shortly
after 1730
after the German opera
1730 the opera houses
houses ceased
ceased to produce operas
to produce operas and
and either
either
closed
closed down or were
or were taken
taken over
over byby Italians.
Italians. The opera
opera in in Germany
Germany be- be-
came again
came again what
what itit had
had been
been in
in the
the beginning:
beginning: aa courtly
courtly importation.
importation. The The
semi-secular oratorios
semi-secular oratorios and
and passions
passions which
which flourished
flourished inin the
the cities, especially
cities, especially
Hamburg,
Hamburg, were
were the
the only
only outlet
outlet for
for dramatic
dramatic music
music of
of high standards.
high standards.
Keiser, Handel,
Kciser, Handel, Telemann,
Tdemann,11 11
and Mattheson
and Mattheson 12 composed works
12 composed works of this
of this
genre, notably
genre, notably a Passion
a Passion Oratorio,
Oratorio, based
based on
on the
the theatrical
theatrical poetry
poetry of of the
the
Hamburg senator
Hamburg senator Brockes.
Brockes. Like
Like Brockes
Brockes himself,
himself, all
all four
four composers
composers dealt
dealt
9
Eitner PAM
Eitner PAM 17;
17; see also the
see also the three books of
three books of arias cd. by
arias cd. Gustav R
by Gustav F. Schmidt.
Sc:hmidt.
18 GMB
18 GMB 110,293.
DO. 293-
"DDT 28; HAM
11. DDT 28; HAM na 2'p.
DO. 272.
"GMB
1. GMS no. -m7.
DO. 267.
 Coordination ofof National
Coordination National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handd 31 3
313
withthe
with thebiblical
biblicalsubjects
subjectsininan
anoperatic
operaticrather
ratherthan
thandevotional
devotionalspirit.
spirit.True
True
tothe
to thenew
newideas
ideasoofenlightenment
enlightenmentBrockes
Brockesandandhis
hiscircle
circleinterpreted the
interpretedthe
passion asas an
passion
an individual
individual tragedy
tragedy that
that could
could bebe told
told inin the
the poet's
poet's own
own
words
words in in aa series
series of
of edifying experiences.
edifying experiences. Thus
Thus deprived
deprived ofof liturgical
liturgical ob-ob-
jectivity
jectivity
the passion
the passion becamebecame suitable
suitable more
more to
to the
the concert
concert hall
hall than
than the
the

church.The
church. Thesemi-secular
semi-secularoratorio
oratoriohad hadaadirect
directbearing
bearing on Handel's ethical
on Handel's ethical

conception
conception
of
of oratorio
oratorio which
which interpreted
interpreted biblical
biblical subjectsasasgreat
subjects greatexamples
examples
of
of eternal
eternal human
human experience.
experience. The
The oratorios
oratorios of
of Te1emann
Telemann form
form the tran-
the tran-
sition from
sition from the
the baroque
baroque to
to the
the period
period of
of enlightenment.
enlightenment. TeIemann
Telemann ap-
ap-
proached the biblical stories
stories in in the
the modern
modern spirit of
of sensibility. The
The
proached the biblical spirit sensibility.

contemplative
contemplative
attitude
attitude toward
toward nature,
nature, then
then newly
newly discovered,
discovered, is clearly
is clearly
manifested in
manifested in his
his oratorio
oratorio Die
Die Tageszeiten
T ageszeiten which
which inin many
many waysways directly
directly
anticipates The Seasons
anticipates The
Seasons by Haydn.
by Haydn.

The secular
The secular cantata
cantata and
and the
the continue
continuo song
song of
of the
the late
late baroque
baroque period
period
were completely
were completely overshadowed
overshadowed by by the
the opera,
opera, as
as the
the numerous
numerous cantatas of
cantatas of
Telemann, Keiser,
Telemann, Reiser, and
and many
many smaller
smaller talents
talents show.
show. Telemann's
Telemann's "mono-
"mono-
drama"
drama" Ino
Ino and Keiser's collection
and Reiser's Gemuths-Ergotzung (1698)
collection Gemuths-Ergotzung deserve
(1698) deserve
special
special
mention
mention as as outstanding
outstanding examples
examples of of the
the secular
secular solo
solo cantata.
cantata. Franck,

equally distinguished as composer of

as composer of opera
opera and sacred music, music, tended
sacred tended to to
equally distinguished
merge the style of his sacred continuo
merge the style of his sacred
continue songs
songs and thatthat of
of his
his opera
opera arias so
arias so

that com-
that they became practically undistinguishable. The most most eminent
eminent com-
they became practically undistinguishable.
poser in the
poser in the
smaller forms
smaller forms was
was Erlebach
Erlebach (1657-1714)
(1657-1714) whose
whose Harmonische
Harmonische
Freude (I. 16r:/J, II. 17IO) 1S must be
18 regarded as
as the
the most
most attractive
attractive col-
col-
Freude (1. 1697, IL 1710) must be regarded
lection
lection of
of continuo
continue songssongs ofof the
the period.
period. Strong
Strong operatic
operatic influence comes to
influence comes to

light not only in in the

the fact
fact that
that Erlebach
Erlebach called
called his
his songs "arias," but also
songs "arias," but also
light not only
in such features as motto beginnings, obbligato accompaniments,
accompaniments, use of
use of
in such features as motto beginnings, obbligato
coloratura, and interpolated arioso the
arioso sections
sections that
that raise
raise certain
certain arias
arias to
to the
coloratura, and interpolated
level of
level of
of small
small cantatas.
cantatas. Erlebach
Erlebach excelled
excelled in the graphic
graphic representation
representation of
in the
affections of gaiety and gravity by purely melodic
affections of gaiety and gravity by purely
melodicmeans,
means, such as rippling
such as rippling
coloraturas U 14 or plaintive sighs (Ex. 90).
coloraturas or plaintive sighs (Ex. 90).
The ofsecular
urban
innumerablecollections
Theinnumerable collectionsof secularsongs
songsforforthe
thehomes
homesof ofthe
theurban

middle
middleclass
classeither
eitheremulated
emulatedthe theopera
operaas asbest
bestthey
theycould
couldor orrelapsed
relapsed intointo

unpretentious songs in a-la-rnode dance rhythms.

in Ma-mode dance rhythms. In
In song
song collections
collections like
like
unpretentious songs
the
theTafelk,onfek,t (Augsburg 1733 ff.) 111 by
Tafellpnfelv (Augsburg 1733 &)
15
Rathgeber,and the Sing,
byRathgeber, and the Sing,Spiel.
Spiel,

11l DDT 4&-47; sec

DDT 46-47; see also HAM
also HAM DO.no.254-
254-
16 See
Seethe coloraturasin
thecoloraturas inGMB DO.
GMB no.262-
262.
11 ERERXIX, alJo
XIX, alsoLiDdncr,
Lindner,Ges&"i&"te
Gcschichtedes
fadndscAnz
dfutschenLietles,
Lsedrs,t811.
1871.
314 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era Era
und Generalbassubungen
und (1734) ie
Generalbassubungen (1734) by Tclemann
16 by Telemann the
the style
style galant began to
galant began to
encroach on baroque
encroach on baroque style
style and
and definitely
definitely triumphed
triumphed in in Sperontes'
Sperontes' famous
famous
collection Die
collection Die Singende
Singende Muse
Muse an an der
der Pleisse (1736 ff.) 1T
Pleisse (1736 in which
11 in which elegant
flE.)
elegant
and trifling
and trifling French
French songs
songs of
of the
the rococo
rococo appear
appear supplied
supplied with
with German
German words.
words.
Ex. 90.
Ex. Erlebach: Aria
go. Erlebach: from Harmonischc
Aria from Harmonische Freude.
Frede.
.,. ~

[-.I )le!-ua Senr. I'-"" -zer

Violins
Violins
~~ tI I .-
I" r r r I r , I' I I

B.C.
B.C.
... 610 8 610 '\ of'

* U
HANDEL: GERMAN APPRENTICE PERIOD

Secular
Secular music in in Germany
Germany was stylistically
stylistically much more closely closely allied
allied

with the
with strands in
the modern strands French and
in French and Italian music
Italian music than
than was sacredsacred
music.
music. This progressive
progressive attitude
attitude prevails
prevails also
also inin the
the works of of Handel,
Handel,
the
the last
last great
great master
master of
of baroque
baroque music
music and the
the exact
exact contemporary
contemporary of of
Bach and Domenico Scarlatti.
Scarlatti. Unlike
Unlike Bach, George
Bach, George Frideric
Frideric Handel
Handel 18 1S

(b. February 23,

(b. February 23, 1685
1685 inin Halle;
Halle; d. April 14.
d. April 14, I759
1759 inin London)
London) came from from aa
family
family indifferent
indifferent to
to music and chose
chose his
his musical
musical career
career against
against the
the wishes
wishes
of
of his
his father,
father, a surgeon
surgeon and barber
barber who wanted his
his son
son to
to become
become aa lawyer.
lawyer.
Handel's musical
musical talent
talent showed itselfitself early
early and
and proved
proved irrepressible.
irrepressible. In In
x6g6.
1696, Handel found in
in Zachow, organist
Zachow, organist at
at the
the Liebfrauenkirche in
Liebfrauenkirche in Halle, Halle,
aa thorough
thorough and congenial
congenial teacher,
teacher, "a
"a man very strong in
very strong in his
his art"
art" to
to whom
Hande~
Handel, according
according toto his
his own admission,
admission, owed very very much.
much. Under Zachow's
Zachow's
guidance
guidance Handel perfected himself on the
perfected himself the keyboard,
keyboard, thethe violin,
violin, and
and the
the
oboe
oboe and received
received a fine
fine grounding
grounding in
in counterpoint_
counterpoint. He became
became especially
especially
proficient
proficient in
in the
the Italian
Italian type
type of
of "double fugue,'* i.e.
"double fugue," i*. fugues
fugues with
with coutlter-
counter-
subjects
subjects which figured prominently in
figured prominendy in his
his much-admired
much-admired improvisations.
improvisations.
10
1$ Reprint
Reprint 1927.
1927.
"DDT
DDT 35-.36.
11 35-36.
This is the Anglicized
18 This is the
18 Anglicized spelling
spelling that
that Handel
Handel adopted.
adopted, his
bis name was spelled
name was spelled origi-
origi-
nail)' Georg Friedrich
nally Georg Fricdrich Handel.
HindeL
 Coordination of
of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 3315
I5
Like
Like BachBach hehe acquired
acquired solid solid craftsmanship through diligent copying of
craftsmanship through diligent copying of
compositions by
compositions by German cantors cantors and ItalianItalian masters.
masters. He copied not only
copied not only
cantatas by
cantatas by Zachow
Zachow but but also
also keyboard
keyboard music music by Froberger, Kerll,
by Frobergcr, Kerll, Strungk, Strungk,
Ebner, Johann
Johann Krieger,
Krieger, Pachelbel,
Pachelbel, and others. others. Significantly, most of these
Significantly, most of these
masters
masters belonged
belonged to
to the
the south German school
school which depended on
which depended on Italian
Italian
style. As
style. As though
though by by a process
a process of natural
of natural selection
selection Handel,
Handel, from from thethe very
very
beginning,
beginning, kept kept allegiance
allegiance to to the
the facile
facile Italian
Italian approach
approach to to counterpoint.
counterpoint.
Although
Although he he learned the ponderousponderous organist's
organist's mannermanner it it hardly suited
hardly suited
him temperamentally,
temperamentally, if
if we can judge
judge by by the
the scant
scant use
use he
he made
made of it in
of it in his
his
later works. It
later It has been claimed
claimed that that the
the young
young Handel visited Berlin and
Handel visited Berlin and
its
its Italian
Italian opera
opera which was flourishingflourishing there with Ariosti,
there with Ariosti, Pistocchi,
Pistocchi, and and
Battista Bononcini. If
Giovanni Battista If this
this visit
visit really
really took
took place,
place,
it
it would
would rep-
rep-
resent
resent Handel's first first contact
contact with Italian Italian opera.
opera. As early early asas 1701
1701 Handel
Handel
met Telemann
Tclemann who,who, like Hande~ was supposed
like Handel,
supposed to to pursue
pursue thethe study
study ofof law,
law,
and from Telemann's autobiography
autobiography we learn that Handel
learn that Handel was regarded
was regarded
as
as important
important even at at this
this early time. At the
early time. the age
age ofof seventeen
seventeen he he attained his
attained his
first musical
first musical position,
position, that
that of organist at
of organist at the cathedral in
the cathedral Halle. Although
in Halle. Although
the
the cathedral belonged to
cathedral belonged to the Reformed Church,
the Reformed Church, the the Lutheran
Lutheran Handel
Handel was was
chosen since
chosen since no "reformed subject" subject" could
could be
be found.
found.
The creative
creative career
career of of Handel falls, like that
falls, like that ofof Bach,
Bach, into
into several periods
several periods
that correspond
that correspond more or less closely
or less closely toto thethe phases
phases of of his
his life.
life. In
In the
the case
case
of Handel we can
of can distinguish
distinguish three three periods
periods whichwhich may may be be named after after the
the
successive stages
successive stages that
that aa guild
guild craftsman traditionally went
craftsman traditionally went through.
through. The
first, the
first, the German apprentice
apprentice period, ended in
period, ended in 1700;
1706; the the second,
second, the the Italian
Italian
journeyman period,
journeyman period, ended
ended in
in 1710;
1710; the
the third,
third, the
the English
English master
master period,
period,
extended from 1711
extended I71I to to 1759.
1759. It It comprised
comprised two distinct, distinct, though
though actually
actually
overlapping, phases:
overlapping, phases: the the opera
opera period (I7II--c. 1737)
period (i7ii-c. which ended
1737) which ended withwith
Handel's physical
Handel's physical breakdown,
breakdown, and and thethe oratorio
oratorio period
period whichwhich began
began as as early
early
as 1720,
as but which was fully
1720, but fully established
established not before 1738.
not before 1738.
Handel's innumerable
Of Handel's innumerable compositions
compositions none none can can bebe definitely
definitely dated
dated toto
the beginning
the beginning of of the
the apprentice
apprentice period period in in Halle.
Halle. Three German arias, arias,19 a
19 a

sonata for
sonata for gamba,
gamba, and the the first
first version
version of Laudate pucri,
of Laudate pueri, later
later revised
revised inin
Italy, may
Italy, may possibly
possibly go go back
back to to his
his student years. A church
student years. church cantata
cantata AchAr:n
Herr, mick
Hcrr, mir:h armcn
armen Sunder
Sunder 20 has been
20 has been ascribed
ascribed to to Handel,
Handel, however
however with- with-
out sufficient
out sufficient proof.
proof. The decisive
decisive event
event of of the
the apprentice
apprentice period
period was Han-
del's resolution
del's resolution to to abandon
abandon the the study
study ofof law
law andand to to move to to Hamburg,
Hamburg, the the
center of
center of German secular
secular musicmusic (1703).
(1703). As violinist
violinist and later later asas harpsi-
harpsi-
18 the CE;
Not included in the
111 Not included in CE; see Seiffert in
sec Sdficrt in Festschrift fur Ulitncron,
FestscArift fur Lilimeron,
* Orranum, I,
so Organum, I, 12.
12.
316 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
chordist
chordist at at the
the Hamburg
Hamburg opera opera Handel
Handel came came in in contact
contact withwith Keiser,
Reiser, justjust
then
then at at the
the zenith
zenith of of his
his fame,
fame, andand with
with the the young
young Mattheson
Mattheson whose whose report
report
in
in the
the Ehrenpforte
Ehrenpjorte is is the
the main
main source
source of of information
information aboutabout Handel's
Handel's life life

during
during this
this period.
period. When
When he
he came
came to
to Hamburg
Hamburg Handel
Handel was
was at
at the
the cross-
cross-
roads
roads ofof his
his musical
musical career.
career. Mattheson's
Mattheson's and and Handel's
Handel's journey
journey to to Liibeck,
Liibeck,
which
which they
they undertook
undertook to to present
present themselves
themselves as as possible
possible successors
successors to to Buxte-
Buxte-
hude's
hude's position, proves
position, proves that
that Handel at
at least
least toyed
toyed with
with the
the idea
idea of
of follow-
follow-
ing
ing the
the German
German organistic
organistic tradition.
tradition. That That Handel
Handel did did not not neglect
neglect the the
organ
organ in in Hamburg
Hamburg we know through through Mattheson,
Mattheson, but but no no organ
organ compo-
compo-
sitions
sitions have survived
survived from from the the period.
period.
Mattheson also
Mattheson also reports
reports that that Handel,
Handel, before before hehe came
came to to Hamburg,
Hamburg, had had
"perfect
"perfect harmony,"
harmony," that that hehe was "stronger
"stronger than than Kuhnau in in counterpoint,
counterpoint,
especially
especially in in extemporized
extemporized counterpoint,
counterpoint, but but knew little little ofof melody."
melody."
Several
Several sonatas
sonatas for for either
either violin
violin or viola da
or viola da gamba
gamba and
and continuo
continue or
or cembalo
cembalo
concertato
concertato 21 21
can
can give
give us
us an
an idea
idea of
of Handel's
Handel's early
early chamber-music style.
chamber-music style.
They
They evince
evince bothboth a a conservative
conservative and and progressive
progressive attitude.
attitude. The mechanically
mechanically
spun
spun sequential
sequential patterns
patterns perpetuate
perpetuate the the conservative
conservative German organistic organistic
routine,
routine, while
while the the obbligato
obbligato accompaniment,
accompaniment, in in itself
itself aa progressive
progressive feature,
feature,
is written
is written in in a modern, if
a modern, if rather
rather stiff,
stiff, concerto
concerto style.
style.
Handel's
Handel's first major contribution
first major contribution to church music
to church music was was his St.John
his St. John Pas-Pas-
sion (1704),
sion (1704), written
written to
to words
words by Postel,
by Postel, the
the celebrated
celebrated librettist
librettist of
of Keiser.
Keiser.
Postel belonged
Postel belonged to the circle
to the circle of Neumeister, Hunold-Menantes,
of Neumeister, Hunold-Menantes, and and Brockes,
Brockes,
all well-known
all well-known for their reform
for their reform of of the
the church
church cantata,
cantata, oratorio,
oratorio, and and passion
passion
after the
after the model
model of the opera
of the opera and and the
the secular
secular cantata.
cantata. It It is
is significant
significant in in view
view
of Handel's
of Handel's oratoriooratorio compositions
compositions that that he,
he, at
at this
this early
early stage,
stage, came
came in in
with this
touch with
touch this movement.
movement. In In the
the St.St. John
John Passion
Passion he he took
took thethe first
first step
step
toward an
toward an oratorical
oratorical work in in which
which the the liturgical
liturgical ties
ties were
were loosened
loosened though
though
not yet
not yet severed.
severed. Postel
Postel wentwent lessless far
far in in the
the elimination
elimination of of scriptural
scriptural words
words
that Hunold-Menantes
that Hunold-Menantes did did inin Keiscr's
Keiser's oratorio
oratorio "The
"The Bloody
Bloody and and Dying
Dying
Jesus" (1704), famous
Jesus" (1704), famous for for its
its revelling
revelling in in bloodcurdling
bloodcurdling and and sensational
sensational
pictures. It
pictures. It is,
is, however,
however, characteristic
characteristic that that there
there are
are no
no chorales
chorales in Handel's
in Handel's
passion. The
passion. The whole
whole isis aa colorful
colorful mixture
mixture of of short
short concertato
concerlato choruses
choruses in in
archaic style,
archaic style, secco
secco andand accompagnato
accompagnato recitatives,
recitatives, ensembles,
ensembles, and and arias
arias in in
opera style.
opera style. There is no trace
There is no trace ofof the
the thorough
thorough cantus-firmus
cantus-firmus elaboration
elaboration that that
distinguishes Zachow's
distinguishes Zachow's church church cantatas. Obviously, itit was
cantatas. Obviously, was now now Reiser's,
Keiser's,
11
11 4B.
CE
CE Seiffert's edition (Brcitkopf) no. and one thus
I12, Seiffert's edition (Breitkopf) no. 21,
48, 112, unpublished
far unpublished
21, and one thus far
sona~ described by
sonata, desaibcd Coopersmith (P~s. International
by Coopersmith (Papers, l"temfllional Congress
Congress of
of Musicology
Musicology
[AMS]. I939. 218).
[AMS], 1939, 218).We
We owe more than ten
owe more than volwnes of unknown or unpublished
tell volumes of unknown or unpublished
music by Handel the painstaking research of Dr. Coopersmith.
music by Handel toto the painstaking research of Dr. Coopersmith.
 Coordination of
Coordination of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 3 17
317
not Zachow's
not Zachow's path
path that
that Handel
Handel was
was following,
following, aa path
path that
that led
led directly
directly
to the
to the opera.
opera.
The self-assured
The self-assured and
and brilliant
brilliant fashion
fashion in
in which
which Handel
Handel established
established him-
him-
self in the
self in the opera
opera leaves
leaves no no doubt
doubt about
about the the true
true nature
nature of of his
his genius.
genius. WithWith
uncanny adaptability
uncanny adaptability he
he deliberately composed
deliberately composed his
his first
first opera
opera in
in Keiser's
Reiser's

style* Although itit does

style. Although does not
not surpass
surpass Reiser,
Keiser, itit makes
makes itit evident
evident whywhy the the older
older
master feared
master feared that
that hishis own
own success
success might
might be be on
on thethe wane.
wane. Of Of the the four
four
operas
operas that
that Handel
Handel wrote
wrote for
for Hamburg
Hamburg only only the
the first,
first, Almira
Almira (1705),
(1705), has has
survived. The
survived. The highly
highly diversified
diversified score
score literally
literally bristles
bristles with
with youthful
youthful ideas.ideas.
The mixture
The mixture of of German
German and and Italian
Italian in in thethe libretto
libretto isis faithfully
faithfully reflected
reflected
in the
in the style
style of
of the
the music.
music. Handel
Handel poured
poured out out aa stream
stream of of Italian
Italian arias
arias with
with
motto beginnings
motto beginnings and and with
with obbligatos
obbligatos in in concerto
concerto style.
style. HeHe turned
turned the the
stereotyped
stereotyped motto
motto to
to thrilling
thrilling musical
musical effect
effect by interrupting
by interrupting the
the voice-part
voice-part
with rushing
with rushing string
string passages
passages that
that seem
seem to to snatch
snatch thethe notes
notes away
away from the the
singer.
singer. Like
Like the
the early
early Bach,
Bach, Handel
Handel did
did not
not treat
treat the
the voice
voice very
very idio-
idio-

matically; at
matically; at this
this time
time he he could
could not not yet
yet "hide
"hide the
the pedant,"
pedant," as as Mattheson
Mattheson
puts it.
puts it. The lack
lack ofof melodic
melodic suppleness
suppleness and
and the
the overemphasis
overemphasis on rhythmic
rhythmic
crispness in Handel's early concerto style imply that he learned it
crispness in Handel's early concerto style imply that he learned
it from aa
German,
German, not not anan Italian master. The German arias
Italian master. arias in Almira are
in Almira not
are not

formally stereotyped
formally stereotyped and breathe
breathe the
the captivating lyricism
captivating lyricism of
of Keiser.
Keiser. Also
in
in Keiser's
Reiser's vein
vein are
are the
the simple
simple street
street songs
songs demonstrating
demonstrating Handel's gift gift for
for

the
the popular. in Almira
popular. Ostinato
Ostinato basses
basses occur
occur in Almira more frequentlyfrequendy than in in the

later
later operas;
operas; often
often the
the ground
ground bass
bass is
is strictly applied
strictly applied only only in
in the
the principal
principal
part of the aria while the middle part develops itit as
part of the aria while the middle part develops
as aa patterned
patterned bass.bass. Except
Except
for
for the
the French
French overture,
overture, the the fairly
fairly numerous
numerous instrumental
instrumental piecespieces lean
lean more

toward
toward the the Italian
Italian than
than the
the French style.style. The modest saraband from the
saraband from
third
third act
act must
must be
be mentioned
mentioned because
because it
it contains
contains the
the essence
essence of one of of
Handel's
Handel's most most famous melodies (Ex.
famous melodies (Ex. 91).
91). It appeared
It appeared in revised form as
in revised form as

Ex.
Ex. gr. Handel: Saraband from Almira.
91. Handel: Saraband from Almira.

Saraband

Ltzscia
Lasciach'io
ch'io pianga in Rinaldo.
pianga in Rinddo.This
This melody
melody established
established aa personal
personal melodic
melodic
type on which Handel fell back time and
type on which Handel fell back time
and again
again but
but which
which remained
remained
essentially unchanged because itit was perfect. In
was perfect. In the
the accompanied
accompanied recita-
recita-
essentially unchanged because
318 Music in
Music in the
the Baroque
Baroque Era
Era
tives
tives and
and ariosi
ariosi Handel rose
rose at
at times
times even
even above
above Keiser.
Reiser. On the whole,
the whole,
Handel
Handel proved
proved by
by his
his first
first opera that
opera that the pupil had
the pupil had learned
learned what he could
could
from
from the
the master
master and that
that in
in order
order toto develop
develop further
further he would have
have to
to
turn
turn to
to the
the European
European center
center of
of the
the opera: Italy.
opera: Italy.

ITALIAN JOURNEYMAN
JOURNEYMAN PERIOD
The stimulus
stimulus Handel receivedreceived during
during his journeyman period
his journeyman period cancan be be
compared
compared with
with Bach's
Bach's creative
creative encounter
encounter with
with Buxtehude.
Buxtehude. However,
However,
whereas Buxtehude's
whereas Buxtehude's musicmusic released
released in in Bach for for the
the first
first time
time decisive
decisive
creative
creative energies,
energies, the
the Italian
Italian experience
experience merelymerely gavegave the the final
final stamp
stamp to to
Handel whose imagination
imagination was already
already vividly
vividly active.
active. What Handel still
still

lacked
lacked was neither
neither contrapuntal
contrapuntal skill skill nor melodic inventiveness,
nor melodic inventiveness, but but thethe
cantabik
cantabik stylestyle of
of the
the melody,
melody, the
the unmistakable
unmistakable idiom
idiom of
of the
the Italian
Italian bel
bel
canto.
canto.
The journeyman
journeyman periodperiod led led Handel through through the the important
important musical
musical
cities
cities ofof Italy:
Italy: Florence,
Florence, Rome, Naples,
Rome, Naples, and Venice.
Venice. It
It brought him in
brought in
touch
touch withwith Alessandro
Alessandro Scarlatti, Pasquini, Corelli, Marcello,
Scarlatti, Pasquini, Corelli, Marcello, Lotti, Lotti. Gas-
Gas-
parini, Steffani.
parini, Steffani, and Domenico Scarlatti.Scarlatti. In In Rome he was drawn into into thethe
exclusive
exclusive circle
circle of
of noblemen,
noblemen, artists.
artists, and musicians,
musicians, gathered
gathered in Ar-
the Ar-
in the
cadia,
cadia, originally
originally a a literary
literary academy
academy for for the
the improvement
improvement of of artistic taste.
artistic taste.

The Arcadians
Arcadians assumed pastoral
pastoral sobriquets
sobriquets and affected
affected to
to live
live in
in an idyllic
idyllic
atmosphere
atmosphere remoteremote from reality.
reality. Handel gainedgained his his entree
entree to to this
this assembly
assembly
of
of the
the most
most brilliant
brilliant spirits
spirits ofof the
the time
time merely
merely by by virtue
virtue of of his recognized
his recognized
talent
talent without becoming aa formal
without becoming formal member of the group.
of the group. In
In these
these refined
refined
surroundings
surroundings Handel became
became familiar
familiar with
with what
what later
later emerged
emerged as as one
one
of
of the
the fundamental
fundamental features
features of of his
his music:
music: thethe idyllic pastoral
idyllic pastoral and
and the
the con-
con-
templation
templation of of nature.
nature. In Art:r.u:lia Handel could
the Arcadia
In the could also
also display
display his marvel
his marvel-
lous
lous talent
talent for
for improvisation
improvisation in in extemporized
extemporized cantatas.
cantatas. The encounterencounter
with Domenico Scarlatti
with Scarlatti inin Rome in in which the the two friends
friends matched
matched forces
forces
on the
the harpsichord
harpsichord and the
the organ
organ was also
also primarily
primarily aa contest
contest of
of improvisa-
improvisa-
tory
tory and instrumental virtuosity. To interpret
instrumental virtuosity. interpret thethe outcome
outcome as as the victory of
the victory of
German over over Italian
Italian music.
music, as as some writers have done,
writers have done, seems
seems unwarranted.
unwarranted,
especially
especially since
since we do not not know what the the contestants
contestants played played andand since
since
neither had as
neither as yet published any keyboard
yet published any keyboard music.
music. If
If we can
can judge
judge from
from the
the
organ
organ music known to
to date
date rom
from the
the period,
period, Handel tried
tried to
to assimilate
assimilate
Italian
Italian features
features and avoided
avoided German characteristics.
characteristics.

arrived in
Once arrived Italy Handel began
in Italy began to to compose
compose furiously.
furiously. He directed
directed
the flood of
the 800d of composition
composition into into four
four channels:
channels: the the secular
secular cantata.
cantata, Catholic
Catholic
 Coordination ofof National
GDordination National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 3 19
319
churchmusic,
church music.the
theoratorio,
oratorio,and
andthe
theopera.
opera.The
Thechamber
chambercantata,
cantata,on
onwhich
which
Handel centered
Handel centered his
his attention,
attention, served him asas proving
served him proving ground.
ground. Here he
Here he
couldexperimentally
could experimentallyexplore
explorethe
thewhole
wholerange
rangeofofhis
hismusic
musicfrom
fromthe
theidyllic
idyllic
to the
to the dramatic
dramatic without
without being
being handicapped
handicapped by by the
the consideration
consideration ofof the
the
popular
popular
demands
demands ofof the
the opera.
opera. The
The majority
majority of
of Handel's
Handel's cantatas,
cantatas, number-
number-
ing more than a hundred, belongs toto the
ing more than a hundred, belongs
the Italian
Italian period;
period; about
about aa quarter
quarter
call for
call for more
more or
or less
less elaborate
elaborate accompaniments,
accompaniments, thethe rest are continuo can-
rest are continuo can-
tatas. They
tatas. They contain
contain some
some of of Handel's
Handel's most most difficult
difficult arias
arias both
both from
from the the
musical and
musical and technical
technical point
point of ofview.
view. Using
Usingthe thecantatas
cantatas of of Alessandro
Alessandro Scar- Scar-
latti as
latti as aa starting
starting point
point Handel
Handel enlarged
enlarged the the dimensions
dimensions and and deepened
deepened
the affective power
the affective power of of his
his models.
models. They
They served
served him
him at
at the
the same
same time as
time as
exercises in
exercises in bel-canto
bel-canto style
style and
and as as vehicles
vehicles to to the complete
the complete mastery
mastery of the
of the

Italian style.
Italian style. Not
Not byby accident
accident did did he,
he, inin later
later years,
years, fall
fall back
back so often on
so often on
material assembled
material assembled in in his
his Italian
Italian period.
period.
The unrestrained
The unrestrained exuberance
exuberance of of the
the youthful
youthful Handel Handel reigns
reigns supreme
supreme in in
the fiery and unruly cantata Lucrezia,
the fiery and unruly cantata Lucrezia, quoted quoted in
in Mattheson's
Matthcson's Generalbast-
Gcnertdbass-

because of
Schule because
Schule of its
its outlandish
outlandish keys keys and its its difficult
difficult continuo
continuo part. part. It It
requires stupendous vocal
requires stupendous
vocal virtuosity
virtuosity though
though itit is is made subservient to aa
subservient to

musical purpose.
musical purpose. Handel
Handel expressed
expressed the the affection
affection of of fury
fury by by means
means of of anan
extraordinary
extraordinary
melodic
melodic line
line showing
showing that
that he
he did
did not
not hesitate
hesitate to write
to write inter-
inter-

vals
vals considered
considered unsingable
unsingable at at the time. The cantata
the time. cantata stands in in the tradition
the tradition

of experimental works, such

of experimental works, such as Scarlatti as Scarlatti and Gasparini
Gasparini exchanged. How-
exchanged. How-
ever, unlike Scarlatti, Handel was
ever, unlike Scarlatti, Handel
was interested
interested in in melodic rather than har-
melodic rather than har-

monic
monic experiments.
experiments.
He bestowed
bestowed even even on the the continuo part part breath-taking
breath-taking
melodic agility, exploiting
melodic agility, exploiting for
for this
this purpose
purpose the
the idiomatic arpeggio
arpeggio style
style ofof

the harpsichord.
the harpsichord. The The cantata
cantata Armida
Armida abbandonata,
abbandonata, notable
notable for
for the
the fact
fact

that
that Bach
Bach took
took aa copy of it, begins with an
copy of it, begins with
an unusual
unusual recitative
recitative senza
senza basso
basso
an
in
in which
which only two violins provide the accompaniment. It contains also an
the accompaniment. It contains also
only two violins provide
impassioned recitative with which
furioso accompaniment,
accompaniment, aa designation designation of which
with fUNOSO of
impassioned recitative
Handel
Handel was
was very
very
fond
fond in
in this
this period.
period. Arresta
Antsta il
8 passo
passo and Apollo ec Dafne
and Apollo Dafnc
are imposing dramatic scenes,
are imposing dramatic scenes, designed designed on
on aa large
large scale.
scale. The
The first
first of
of these
these

utilized sections from Almira,

utilized sections from Almira, and, and, in
in turn,
turn, both
both scenes
scenes repeatedly
repeatedly furnish
furnish

material
materialfor forlater
laterworks.
works.The Thesiciliano
sicilianoariaariain ApolloecDafne
inApollo Dajneisisan anoutstand-
outstand-

ing example of the pastoral idyl which which in in Handel's

Handel's later later works invariably
works invariably
ing example of the pastoral idyl
took the
took the form
form of
of aa siciliano.
siciliano. Arcadian
Arcadian spirit
spirit pervades
pervades also
also the
the cantata
cantata

Handel, mia musa 2222 inin which which the the poetpoet Cardinal
Cardinal Panfili
Panfili extols
Handd, non non puo
extols
pud mia musa
the composer as the "new
the composer as the "new Orpheus."Orpheus." The
The work
work was
was probably
probably extemporized
extemporized

a"See
See Coopersmith, Streatfeiid, Musical
01'. crL 2I9; Example inin Streatfeild. Antiquary :z2
Musical Antiqtlll1'Y
Coopcrsmith, op. at. 219; Example
(I9U),223- Not included in CEo
(1911), 223. Not included in
CE.
320
320 Music in
Music the Baroque
in the Baroque Era Era
by Panfili
by Panfili and
and Handel
Handel at one of
at one of the
the meetings
meetings of
of the
the Arcadia. The chamber
Arcadia. The chamber
cantata Agrippina
cantata surprises by
Agrippina surprises by its firm
its firm delineation
delineation of
of rapidly
rapidly changing
changing
affections. It contains an
affections. It contains an interesting
interesting early
early example
example of of Handel's
Handel's typical
typical
hel-canto style,
bel-canto style, the
the adagio aria Come o0 Dio
adagio aria (Ex. 92).
Dio (Ex. 92). Here
Here aa hymnic
hymnic melody
melody
Ex. 92.
9:2.. Handd: Bd-canto aria from the
the Agrip{1ina.
cantata Agrippina.
Ex.
" I
Handd: Bel-canto aria from cantata
.
ru Co - ~,o Df.o, bra-mo Ia mar te a chi vi.ta eb-be da"Die?
,. I .. - ... ~

.
ViolinS
Violins
,LI

Coat
Adagi.o
- .
Coot.
L...I...I....,j
'-r-- ..
I
of simple
of simple gestic
gestic pathos
pathos slowly
slowly flows
flows forth
forth upon
upon aa steady
steady bass
bass support,
support,
interrupted
interrupted in
in highly
highly characteristic
characteristic fashion
fashion by
by affective
affective halts
halts or
or rests.
rests.

Although
Although this example
this example seems seems clumsy
clumsy compared
compared with with such
such perfect
perfect bel-bel-
canto arias as Cara sposa from
canto arias as Cora sposa from Rinaldo Rinaldo it
it indicates
indicates that
that the
the melodic
melodic type,
type,
which reappears
which reappears time
time andand again
again inin the
the later
later works,
works, waswas now firmlyfirmly rooted
rooted
in Handel's
in Handel's music.
music. These
These deceptively
deceptively simple
simple melodies
melodies drawdraw their
their strength
strength
from
from the
the conjunction
conjunction of
of a
a sustained
sustained melody
melody and
and the
the continuo-homophony
continuo-homophony
of the bass.
of the bass. They
They areare vocal
vocal counterparts
counterparts to to the instrumental concerto
the instrumental concerto style.
style.
Both
Both latelate baroque
baroque bel-canto
bel-canto and
and concerto
concerto style
style are
are based
based on continuo-
continuo-
homophony,
homophony, but but they
they exploit
exploit it it in
in their
their own way: way: thethe instrumental
instrumental style style
by
by the
the fire
fire of
of the
the allegro
allegro passages,
passages, the bel canto
the bel canto by by the
the power
power of of sustained
sustained
notes
notes that
that permit
permit the
the voice
voice toto gather
gather momentum and and toto unfold
unfold its its sensuous
sensuous
sonority.
sonority.
In
In the measure in
the measure in which
which Handel learned learned to to master
master thethe Italian
Italian bel
bd canto
canto
he
he assimilated
assimilated and and developed
developed another
another influence:
influence: the the concerto
concerto grosso.
grosso. He
strove
strove forfor a
a close
close rapprochement
rapprochement between
between concerto
concerto grosso
grosso and
and aria
aria in
in large-
large-
scale
scale compositions
compositions in
in which
which the
the voice
voice not
not merely competed
merely competed with
with the
the obbli-
obbli-

gato instruments,
gato but, in
instruments, but, in addition,
addition, formed
formed a a concertino
concertino withwith them
them while
while the
the
aria ritornello functioned
aria ritornello functioned as as ripieno.
ripieno. The cantata
cantata Delirio
Delirio amoroso
amoroso offers
offers aa
very
very obvious
obvious example
example of
of the
the concerto-grosso
concerto-grosso aria, aria, an
an aria
ark type
type that
that was
was to
to

play
pky an an important
important role
role inin the
the opera
opera andand the
the oratorio.
oratorio.

The pastoral serenata Ad.

pastoral serenata Act, Galatea
Galatea e PoKfemo, composed
e Polifemo, composed in in Naples
Naples
(I?08), brings
(1708), brings us
us to
to the
the larger
larger forms,
forms, the
the oratorio
oratorio and
and the
the opera.
opera. The
serenata
serenata is is chiefly remarkable
remarkable for
for skilful
skilful obbligatos and
and the
the extensive
extensive
chiefly obbligatos
sequential part-writing in
sequential part-writing in the
the duets.
duets. On the the whole,
whole, Handel
Handel turned
turned the the
 Coordination of
Coordination of National
National Styles:
Styles: Handel
Handel 32I
321
German organistic
German organistic routine
routine to
to good
good advantage,
advantage, though
though itit sometimes
sometimes ran
ran
away
away with
with him
him as
as it
it often
often did
did in
in the
the early
early Italian
Italian cantatas.
cantatas. The
The tremendous
tremendous
bass arias
bass arias deserve
deserve special
special attention,
attention, likewise
likewise the
the unbridled
unbridled continuo
continuo parts
parts
which participate
which participate in
in striking
striking manner
manner inin the
the affective
affective characterization
characterization and
and
call for aa virtuoso
call for virtuoso like
like Handel
Handel himself.
himself.

Trionfo del
11 Trionfo
With // del Tempo (1707) and
Tempo (1707) La Resurrezione
and La (1?08) Handel
ResuN"ezione (1708) Handel
his first
made his first contributions
contributions to
to the
the secular
secular and
and sacred
sacred oratorio
oratorio respectively.
respectively.
Since the
Since the opera
opera in
in Rome was was forbidden
forbidden at at the
the time
time by by Papal
Papal decree
decree the
the
oratorio enjoyed
oratorio enjoyed aa great
great vogue
vogue differing
differing from from the the opera
opera onlyonly in in its
its moral
moral
and devout
and devout subjects.
subjects. ItIt is
is therefore
therefore not not surprising
surprising that that certain
certain pieces
pieces from
the ResuN"ezione found
the Resurrezione found theirtheir wayway into into Handel's
Handel's later later operas.
operas. The solos solos
predominate in
predominate in these
these oratorios,
oratorios, and, and, although
although there there areare choruses,
choruses, they they pky
play
a subordinate
a subordinate role role and
and appear
appear in in simple
simple settings
settings at at the
the endend ofof the
the acts
acts as
as
in the
in the opera. Trion/o, an
opera. The Trionfo, an allegorical
allegorical solo solo oratorio
oratorio on on aa moral
moral subject,
subject,
reveals how deeply
reveals deeply Handel entered entered the the spirit'
spirit' ofof the
the concerto
concerto grosso,
grosso, just
just
then all
then the rage
all the rage inin Rome. Obviously,
Obviously, he he swam with with the
the stream
stream of of fashion.
fashion.
His work
His work contains
contains highly
highly developed
developed concerto-grosso
concerto-grosso arias with rich
arias with rich orches-
orches-
tral accompaniments,
tral accompaniments, and an an orchestral
orchestral "sonata"
"sonata" that that would be be more
properly designated
properly designated as as concerto
concerto grosso.grosso. In In this
this "sonata"
"sonata" a a concertino
concertino of of
violins
violins andand oboes alternates with
oboes alternates with the the solo
solo organ.
organ. We have here the earliest
here the earliest

example
example of
of the
the organ concerto,
organ concerto, later
later brought
brought to
to fame in
in England.
England. In
In con-
nection
nection withwith the
the Trion/o
Trionfo the
the anecdote
anecdote has
has been
been told
told that
that Corelli
Corelli failed
failed to
playa
pky a passage
passage of of the
the French
French overture
overture in in the
the appropriate
appropriate fiery fiery and rhythmic
rhythmic
French
French style.
style. Whether true
true or
or not,
not, the
the story
story illustrates
illustrates an 'indubitable
indubitable fact,
fact,

namely
namely that
that Handel
Handel by
by dint
dint of
of his
his German background
background was as
as a matter
matter of
course
course familiar
familiar with the French style
with the French style while while it
it was still
still something
something new and
out
out ofof the
the ordinary
ordinary in
in Italy.
Italy. Handel discarded
discarded the
the French overture and
composed
composed aa concerto
concerto grosso instead,
grosso instead, employing employing in
in it
it the typical
typical formulas
and mannerisms
and mannerisms of Corelliof Corelli to
to such
such a
a degree
degree that
that the
the wh